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Introduction

The case study presented in this paper is about second language acquisition (SLA). The aim is to show how ways in which L1 affects L2 by examining Jojo, a student that studies in the US but is from China. The scope of this case study is to trace English language development and investigate the impact of L1 on L2 while making specific reference to Jojo. Linguistic, social, and psychological factors that contribute to L2 acquisition will be discussed. For this particular research, the basic research tool utilized was oral interview. It is used to obtain information about the stages and processes involved when acquiring the second language.

The case study subject is Jojo. Jojo was born in China and started to learn the Chinese language from an early age. When she reached the age of four, her parents enrolled her in an English class since they had plans to move to America where they hoped their child would get a better education. Although she points out that she has been motivated to earn English by the desire to achieve career dreams, the analysis carried out indicate that no one single factor can be cited as contributing to her success in mastering the language. Rather, her success is as a result of several contributing factors that have been identified in the case study below.

Linguistic Factors Contributing to L2 Acquisition

The ability of a leaner to master the second language is impacted by his or her first language. The acquisition of a second language can be analyzed from linguistic approaches. Linguistics, such as Chomsky, has introduced several theories to describe the acquisition of linguistic competence by learners of a given language. In this section, Jojo’s acquisition of English as her L2 will be analyzed in light of these theories. Some of the factors that will be considered include fossilization, carrying out contractive analysis, analyzing her communicative competence vs. linguistic competence, performance, and competence. These factors positively influenced her acquisition of English language. Grammar and communicative orientation, however, emerged as the most influential factor in this category.

Contrastive Analysis

First, it is evident that Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese is an Asia language while English is Indo-European. Although the two languages do not use the same alphabet, the differences between them are enough to influence both the rate of acquisition and the acquisition itself. As a result, Jojo’s second-language acquisition became both hard and slow. According to Larsen‐Freeman and Strom (1977), differences in pronunciation tend to be common among speakers of English whose native language is Chinese. A person learning English as a foreign language is affected by his or her mother tongue as a result of negative transfers, whereby L1 interferes with the acquisition of L2. During the interview, attention was paid to identify these negative transfers of Chinese that are evident in Jojo and to identify ways in which they have influenced her second language acquisition. Specific focus was given to identify pronunciation problems, grammatical structure, and intonation.

During the interview, it was common to hear Jojo pronounce the word “I think” as “I sink”. It was also difficult for her to say “my mouth” because she ended up saying “my mouse”. Moreover, she could not pronounce the sound /v/ and in all the cases that I identified, she substituted this it for /w/. Consequently, she said “wery” instead of “very”. This contributed to some misunderstanding during our conversation. The pronunciation errors in Jojo’s L2 are as a result of the Chinese negative transfer to the L2. The Chinese language lacks several sounds including /ð/, /θ/ and /v/. Consequently, it becomes extremely difficult for learners of English language with Chinese background to produce them in a conversation as it was the case for Jojo. In particular, the Chinese find it amusing and humiliating to talk while the tongue is exposed. As a result, sounds such as /ð/and /θ/ become very difficult for them to pronounce. To their disadvantage, these sounds are very common in English.

Based on Jojo’s oral language it began evident that she had difficulties in separating long vowels from short ones. For instance, she mixed words such as "come" and "calm" or "fit" and "feet". Although the two vowels are used to imply a different meaning in the English language, all characters in the Chinese language are verbalized at the same rate. Therefore, all syllables have one sound of pronunciation irrespective of their length. Moreover, diphthongs do not exist in Chinese. There was constant mix up of words such as wait and wit, let and late, or say and said. In particular, she comfortably pronounced /ɑ/ though he was unable to pronounce /au/. Consequently, he ended up saying “/hɑ/ (how) is your afternoon?” instead of “/hau/ (how) is your afternoon?”

In some cases, Jojo seemed lost when using certain multi-syllabic words. The failure to put stress or placing it wrongly interfered with the smooth flow of communication during the interview. On the other hand, while it is common to hear most people speak with a rising intonation, Jojo’s spoke calmly. Instead of a rising and emotional cadence, she exhibited a flat one. Although this could be viewed as cold in America, it is the norm in China. These three examples highlight some of the errors that could be identified from Jojo’s oral English language. The findings obtained support the position taken by Yu and Odlin (2015), that the nonnegative transfer of one language impacts the learning of the second language.

Communicative Competence vs. Linguistic Competence

According to Krashen and Terrell (1983), communicative competence is as a result of the exposure that a second language learner experiences, usually, in a setting that is both meaningful and more importantly, natural. Moreover, it entails the grammatical knowledge of a user of a given language with regard to syntax, morphology, and phonology. Moreover, it entails the social knowledge that guides a person in making appropriate utterances. According to Chomsky (2014), linguistic competence enables speakers of a given language to use an unlimited number of sentences. Moreover, it enables them to differentiate grammatical and ungrammatical sentences.

During the interview, it became clear that Jojo’s communicative competence is at an advanced stage. For instance, her sentences were properly structured. Moreover, she knew how to use the English language to effectively articulate issues. She exhibited grammatical knowledge in the use of the language with regard to syntax, morphology, and phonology.

Fossilization

According to Acton (1984), the phenomenon of fossilization in second language acquisition involves the development and retention of a linguistic system by learners that is differs from both L1 and L2. In some cases, the system is referred to as inter-language. The author notes that its construction involves approximating the L2 grammatical language by learners. Therefore, the term also refers to the attribute of falling behind in a given element of a language that one is studying. Usually, the inter-language will evolve into a near approximation of this second language. Ideally, the process should continue until the inter-language becomes the same as the target language.

The feedback that Jojo got from her teachers played a crucial role in helping her compose her second language. Error correction, in particular, helped her to avoid being fossilized into the wrong patterns of grammar. During the first four years of studying in America, Jojo passed through inter-language, a period in which she transitioned from one language and culture to the other (Acton, 1984). She considers this to have presented the best situation for her to learn the English language due to the pressure that she was under. Jojo revealed that she did not feel fossilized when she began learning the English language However, he admits that through her course to master the language, she has come across certain topics or areas that appear harder to her. For instance, she admits that pronunciation has been the hardest area from her due to the absence of some sounds in her L1 that feature prominently in English. Additionally, she notes that the approach of stressing some words in English has been problematic to her since, in Chinese language, people speak plainly without laying stress on any word or syllable.

Performance and competence

According to Chomsky (2014), competence entails understanding the language. On the other hand, performance is the use of the language. Consequently, both performance and competence have to be accessed together. The distinction between the two terms is necessary when studying second language acquisition because it makes possible to separate speech error and lack of information regarding a given language.

Communicative Vs. Grammar-Oriented Language Learning

According to Chomsky (1980), a person that is acquiring a language needs evidence that pertains to it. By listening to English sentences, for example, it becomes possible for him to achieve verb, subject, and object agreement. Chomsky classified such encounters as either positive or negative. On the other hand, communicative-oriented language learning focuses on interaction, whereby the learner interacts with both the instructor and other learners. It involves the study of texts written for the purpose of language learning, and use of the language.

Jojo’s acquisition of the English language was grammar-oriented before she arrived in America and within the first months in the country. As she continued to live in an English-speaking culture, her acquisition became majorly communicative-oriented. She points out that the conversation she had with her English-speaking friends helped to promote her language skills, which she incorporated into her learning. In her view, this was beneficial to her since it made it possible to study other areas. It helped her to improve her ability to speak, write, and read. She also notes that in class, most teachers focused on grammar to enable ESL students to develop the correct grammatical structure. The approach helped to develop this use of English language in a sensible way when communicating with others.

The analysis carried out indicates that several linguistic factors contributed to Jojo’s successful acquisition of English as the second language. Jojo can communicate effectively in both English and Chinese. The major factor that resulted in this success, however, was her grammar and communicative orientation when learning English. Grammar-oriented learning helped her to understand the rules of English language. On the other hand, her conversation with her English-speaking friends helped to promote her language skills, which she incorporated into her learning.

Psychological Factors

The acquisition of language involves a process that requires a person to interact with others. Consequently, psychological factors influence the level of success of learner in acquiring a second language since learners belong to certain groups. In this section, the psychological factors that have influenced Jojo’s acquisition of her second language have been analyzed in detail. They include the critical age, motivation, individual differences and learning styles, acquisition and learning, and innate capacity vs. other forms of intelligence. The critical period was identified as the most influential factor.

Critical Period

The critical period or age for acquisition of the first language refers to the few early years during infancy when children easily acquire a language. During this duration, their brain tends to be elastic and can assume learning functions that are required when learning a new language. According to Larsen‐Freeman and Strom (1977), the critical age for second language acquisitions is the puberty period. According to them, a person learning the second language during the period has the capacity to acquire the right pronunciation of words. Krashen and Terrell (1983) attribute this phenomenon to brain lateralization. To understand Jojo’s second language acquisition, it is important to look at the process of her L1 acquisition since this has an impact on the former one. Her case, however, indicate that although children are better learner, an adult person can still successfully acquire L2.

Jojo started to learn English while she was still in China at the age of 12. This was the period around the critical age given that at this particular age she was in puberty. During this time, however, she was introduced to the basic of English language. It was not until she arrived in the US five years later that she began to learn English in earnest. By this time, she was 17 years old. However, it was not easy for her to learn a new language and she had put in a lot of effort. However, she considers this to be an advantage to her since by that time; she could identify and use those resources that helped her learn English with ease such as language applications. Moreover, at that age, she had become aware of her learning process. Moreover, she had already identified the learning strategies that helped her succeed in learning the language. During the interview, she pointed out that learning English as an adult was advantageous to her given that her learning capacity had greatly improved.

Motivation

Simply put, motivation involves identifying reasons for learning a given second language. Lambert, Hodgson, Gardner, and Fillenbaum (1960) have proposed two main motivations: instrumental and integrative. An instrumentally-motivated second language learner is the one that is not interested in the speakers of the language he is learning. However, he acquires the language for utilitarian reasons. For instance, he may have to learn the language with the main purpose of attaining her career goals. An integratively-motivated learner, in comparison, learns a given language with the intention of becoming more like its speakers.

During the interview, Jojo indicated that her early motivation to learn English was as a result of her desire to achieve career objectives. Consequently, her motivation can be considered as being instrumental and not integrative given that although Jojo has spent several years studying in America, she had little desire to participate in the community in which she studied and to speak English in the manner in which these people spoke. However, Jojo pointed out that this did not stop her from being a committed learner of English as a second language. Apart from being open and inquisitive, she indicated that she approached all learning tasks from an unprejudiced orientation. In the end, she became an acculturated English cultural community member. Eventually, she became a member of a new linguistic community as she developed the mastery of the English language.

Individual Differences and Learning Styles

Generally, it is expected that individual differences regarding things such as the style of learning will impact the acquisition of L2. Saville-Troika (2012) defines learning strategies as the behaviors and techniques that different people adopt as they learn a second language. The author notes that the preferred learning strategies, which are the approach, techniques, and behavior that may be helpful when learning a new language will vary from one person to the other. As a result, different learners exhibit varying levels of success when learning a new language.

From the interview, Jojo hinted that she applies metacognitive strategies, which she has found to be helpful to her over the years. When she first came to America, she had a certain level of proficiency in English, which helped her to reflect on her style of learning. After a few years, she began to compare her output and usage of the language to that of the native speakers that she would interact with. She found that although her language pattern was different, paying attention to and imitating the language usage of other would help her to improve her acquisition of the language. Additionally, she pointed out that whenever reading a text, she attempts to identify ways in which it related with her personal experiences, an approach that had made English learning to be both simple and enjoyable. She also prefers teachers that use various visual aids including images, PowerPoint slides, and video since apart from making it easy for her to understand what is being learned, it also becomes difficult for her to forget it. Therefore, she is a visual learner to some extent. The application of different learning strategies as stated by Saville-Troika (2012) has helped Jojo to successfully acquire English.

Acquisition or Learning

According to Krashen (1981), second language acquisition involves two independent systems. They are “the learned system” and “the acquired system”. While the later system involves a subconscious process, it demands natural communication whereby speakers concentrate on the communicative act. Language acquisition is therefore a process that takes place spontaneously, requiring minimal or no extra efforts. It is what occurs when children learn their first language. In contrast, learning requires time and effort. The learner has to be committed to acquire competence in the second language. It then emerges that while acquisition takes place subconsciously, learning requires that a person be active in the setting where the process takes place including, for example, a classroom.

Jojo learned English and did not simply acquire it since this happened when she was a teenager, aged seventeen. Her acquisition of the language was a product of conscious process and formal instruction that equipped her with conscious knowledge about it. The process required time and effort. Moreover, she has to be active and attentive in the classroom.

Innate Capacity vs. Other Forms of Intelligence

According to Chomsky (1980), the acquisition of a language involves innate or inborn knowledge. In his view, the language faculty encompasses inborn knowledge relating to that has an impact on language rules. During a person’s interaction and experiences of a language that are acquired during childhood, a person develops ne linguistic knowledge. The language faculty of that person determines his linguistic competence.

In Jojo’s case, her exposure to English at a tender age made it possible for her to acquire new linguistic knowledge pertaining to its grammar rules. According to her, it gave her the ability not only to speak but also to understand English at a tender age. Jojo is of the view that her innate capacity to learn the first language partly contributed to her success in learning English as the second language. However, she also believes that this was as supported by her hard work and commitment.

Critical age, motivation, individual differences and learning styles, acquisition and learning, and innate capacity vs. other forms of intelligence are some of the psychological factors that influenced Jojo’s SLA. For instance, she was motivated to learn English to achieve career objectives. On the other hand, acquisition equipped her with conscious knowledge about the L2. However, the major factor that contributed to her successful SLA was the critical age at which she became exposed to English language. Since this took place during her early years of infancy, it was easier for her to acquire a new language since her brain was elastic and could assume the required learning functions.

Social Factors

The acquisition of the second language is influenced by social factors. They include age, gender, and ethnic identity. In many cases, the social structure that impact SLA has been grouped into situational and sociolinguistic factors. The present case focuses solely on social factors that influence the acquisition of English as the second language. They include acculturation, socio-cultural factors, and formal and informal learning. The most influential social factor was formal and informal learning.

Acculturation

Schumann (1978) developed the model of acculturation in which he developed a theory to explain the process involved in the acquisition of the second language. Although his theory was intended for ethnic minorities such as migrant workers, it is applicable to Jojo’s case. The theory states that the acquisition of L2 is influenced by the acculturation process. Schumann (1978) pointed out that the success of a learner is influenced by their ability to orient or align themselves to the language culture of the target L2.

The success of Jojo in learning English as her L2 has been influenced by her orientation to the target English culture. Jojo’s success in learning English as a second language has been influenced by several social or individual factors. To begin with, she has been highly motivated to learn the language due to the desire to attain her career objectives. Since English is a global language, he has seen the need to learn the language to be able to communicate with anyone around the world.

Sociocultural Factors

In sociocultural theories, language learning is considered as a social practice. On the other hand, students are viewed as active participants. The central concepts in most socio-cultural theories focus on factors that include peer interaction, feedback, and self-efficacy. Peer interaction has been identified as one of the factors that facilities learning and acquisition of a second language. Additionally, learning is a social process that is founded on a sociocultural setting. The second factor is interpersonal interaction involving speech. Usually, the process of learning a new language takes place effectively where socially mediated activities are carried out.

In Jojo’s case, the shift from a Chinese culture to the one in which English is predominantly spoken helped to improve her ability to speak the language. Her interaction with native speakers of English helped her to acquire the right pronunciation of words. Over the years, she has broadened her English vocabulary. She attributed her success in L2 to living in an English speaking society.

Formal and Informal Learning

According to Saveil-Troike (2012), the acquisition of L2 requires learners to be exposed to learning, either formal or informal, or both. The author points out that L2 informal learning occurs in naturalistic contexts, such as through interactions with speakers of the language. On the other hand, the informal learning takes place in classrooms. According to Saveil-Troike, the acquisition of the second language involves both settings and circumstances.

During the interview, Jojo said that the process of learning English, in her case, involved both informal and formal settings. The formal learning took place in the classroom where she learned the appropriate use of English. The informal setting, on the other hand, gave her the opportunity to apply what she had learned in the classroom and to learn from other people. Both settings, therefore, played a crucial role in improving her acquisition of L2.

Teacher vs. Textbooks

According to Yang (2008), both textbooks and teachers contribute to the successful acquisition of the second language, a process in which the learner progresses to achieve high competence. Both teachers and textbooks are helpful resources during second language acquisition since they enable students to acquire the necessary information or language. However, exhibit certain disadvantages. For example, they can contain misleading information due to printing errors.

According to Jojo, both teachers and textbooks have contributed to her successful acquisition of English as a second language. When she was living in China, books were particularly helpful. For instance, they helped her to understand subject-verb agreement. When she came to the US; she realized that teachers were even more helpful. In the classroom, for example, they exposed her to a wide range of textbooks that served as class readings. When she perfected her ability to read, Jojo developed a great interest in reading articles and novels, which have helped her to effectively acquire the language.

Level of Success

Among the three categories of influences contributing to Jojo’s second language acquisition, the most influential were linguistic factors, which were followed by the psychological ones. The social factors, on the other hand, emerged as the least prominent in her SLA. They influenced her assimilation and development of linguage skills that helped her achieve competency. On her part, however, Jojo considers that all these factors have impacted her level of success. She recognizes that habit has controlled the choices she makes and in most cases, this takes the direction of the first language. Moreover, she is of the view that her parents, friend, and relatives have had an impact on the development of her communication ability.

Conclusion

The case study focused on Jojo’s SLA. Her first language is Chinese and the second language is English. The main purpose of this analysis was to study her language development and identify factors that have contributed to her success. The factors influencing second language acquisitions were grouped into three categories namely linguistic, psychological, and social. Moreover, the study focused on individual aspects that included motivation, fossilization, and acculturation. Although the finding obtained indicate that no one single factor can be cited as contributing to her successful acquisition of English as the second language, the linguistic factors were found to be the most influential. These factors determined the manner in which Jojo assimilated and developed her linguistic skills when learning English as her L2. With respect to individual factors, the critical age at which she became exposed to the English language contributed to her success in acquiring the language. It made it easier for her to acquire a new language since her brain was elastic and could assume the required learning functions.

SLA CASE STUDY 2

References

Acton, W. (1984). Changing fossilized pronunciation. Tesol Quarterly, 18(1), 71-85, DOI: 10.2307/3586336

Chomsky, N. (1980). Rules and representations. Behavioral and brain sciences, 3(1), 1-15, DOI: DOI: 10.1017/S0140525X00001515