assignment 81
Delp10
PBLchapter8slides1.pdf
Project-based learning How to approach, report, present, and learn from course-long projects
Harm-Jan Steenhuis and Lawrence Rowland
Chapter 8
Projects that contribute to theory
Key part of this type of project:
Contribute something new
A new theoretical insight
Newness does not mean what is
new to you
Newness means what is new in the
literature, i.e. the body of knowledge
To be able to do that requires • A literature review that identifies a gap
• This requires an in-depth comparison of previous and related studies
– What was studied?
– How was it studied?
– What was concluded?
• A great example is if there are existing studies that have conflicts and where these conflicts have not yet been resolved
– The issue of retail stores provides an example: • Indications that traditional retail is declining due to online
• Indications that online companies are opening traditional retail
Typical set-up of a paper or report
• Introduction
Typical set-up of a paper or report
• Introduction
• Literature review
Typical set-up of a paper or report
• Introduction
• Literature review
• Methodology
Typical set-up of a paper or report
• Introduction
• Literature review
• Methodology
• Data or findings
Typical set-up of a paper or report
• Introduction
• Literature review
• Methodology
• Data or findings
• Discussion
Aside from this core
• Introduction
• Literature review
• Methodology
• Data or findings
• Discussion
• Conclusion
Aside from this core
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Literature review
• Methodology
• Data or findings
• Discussion
• Conclusion
Part 0: Determine roughly the research area
Part 1: Formulate the research questions and
write the introduction section
Part 2: Make a graphical presentation of the
conceptual framework and add the literature
review to the draft
Part 3: Determine the best approach to measure
the variables from the conceptual framework and
add the methodology section to the paper
Part 4: Collect the data and conduct analysis.
Add this to the paper and complete the process
Critical thinking
• It is difficult
• It is complex
• It is frustrating
• It is confusing
Note, however, that experienced researchers such as university professors, face similar difficulties when starting a new research project. The difference is that they know what to expect and so it is a less frustrating experience.
The introduction section:
explore
Lure the reader
• Write in an enticing manner
• Show contradiction � makes reader interested
• Justify why your study is important
• Sources can be more popular media etc.
Identify your sources
• Cite and reference in your text
– Allow reader to check
– Avoid plagiarism
The purpose and research
questions
Purpose and research question(s)
• Purpose (real world): to do a study that helps to create more insight that can be used to solve problems or fill a gap in knowledge
• (Central) research question (research world): to state a specific question for which answers are sought – What, Who, Why versus Can – Subdivision
• Be explicit
• Position
Real world
Research world
Problem Solution
This is what we are
interested in
Real world
Research world
Question Answer Method
This is what we typically
have
Real world
Research world
Problem Solution
Question Answer
These are important
“translation” steps
Supporting types of knowledge
(Verschuren and Doorewaard, 2010)
1. Descriptive
2. Exploratory
3. Predictive
4. Evaluative
5. Prescriptive
Subdivision
The ‘bigger’ picture of setting up your project
i.e. making distinctions
Central research question
in your study
Some type of logical argument and discussion
showing the ‘need’ to do a study
Purpose of your study
Some type of logical argument and discussion
that leads from a purpose to a central
question
Research questions
in your study
Some type of logical argument
and discussion that leads from
a central question to a set of
smaller questions. The answers
of those together answer no
more and no less than the
central question
The purpose is normally something like…
Contributing to the international business theory
on global diffusion by developing theory on the
global spread of solar panels
The central research question is still broad for
example: how is demand for solar panels
developing in Africa
The research questions are a set of more focused
questions that are related to how a topic is ‘split’ up.
For example: 1. how is demand for industrial solar
panels developing in Africa?
2. How is demand for consumer solar panels
developing in Africa?
3. What are the technological developments for
electricity storage from solar panels?
The literature review section
critical thinking
TARGET
X X
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
You do NOT want to be
in the bulls-eye (your
studies has already
been done) but right
around the bulls-eye.
You also don’t want to
waste time on studies
that are in the outer
rings.
� These may appear
interesting but will
distract you.
Critical thinking – hunting assumptions
– searching for variables • As a manager you benefit from this because it allows
you to understand the ‘assumptions’ or ‘prerequisites’ of theories.
• For example, lean manufacturing is one of those concepts that have been widely cited and discussed as a way for companies to improve. Many US managers, having heard or read about this Japanese theory/concept have embarked on a drive to make their company more lean. But for many companies this didn’t work at all!
• Could this have been predicted? Well not twenty years ago but you can bet that it can be predicted today.
• Why? � that has to do with understanding the assumptions and prerequisites for lean
Why does lean not always work? • First, lean manufacturing was developed by Toyota in Japan. One of the
key concepts is to eliminate waste and a key for that is to reduce inventories. Inventories just sit around, cost money and don’t add value.
• But, in Japan, Toyota has short supply lines. Suppliers are close to Toyota so if they need something quick, then it is fairly easy to get. So maintaining low inventory represents limited risk for Toyata
• However, if you are located in California and have a supplier in Florida, how easy or fast can you get stuff?
• � it may not be the same, so lean might have risks for a company in Hawaii
• Conceptually, this can be shown as below where the (-) denotes the negative correlation; high supplier proximity relates to low risk
•
Proximity of suppliers Degree of risk when
reducing inventory (lean)
(-)
• Second, inventory just sits around not creating value but it is also a ‘buffer’ for swings in demand.
• So a key characteristic of lean relates to environment stability. If the environment is fairly stable, then the risk of reducing inventory is fairly low. If the environment is dynamic, then the risk of reducing inventory is fairly high.
• Conceptually this can be shown as below where the (-) denotes the negative correlation; high stability relates to low risk
• The initial studies on lean didn’t get to these types of variables but as we learned more, people started seeing that lean didn’t always work and then we gained more understanding of these underlying principles of lean. Toyota may not even have been aware of them, it just worked for Toyota because of the environment it was in.
Degree of
environment stability
Degree of risk when
reducing inventory (lean)
(-)
• But just because it works for one company in one environment doesn’t mean that you can copy it
for a different environment.
• Hospitals are now frequently pursuing lean. Do you want them to pursue lean in areas of
medicine supplies?
• It would be beneficial to a manager to understand these theories before embarking on a
process to move towards lean and this requires
delving into the literature
Finding literature: important ‘trick’ • This is about science � scientific articles
• When you read an article, it might cite earlier work. It can often be a good strategy to go to these earlier works as they relate to your topic.
• Work that is published later can be found through a cited reference search
– If you have a good article you can look for work that has been published after that article and that has cited the article. Chances are that these later published articles are dealing with the same topic
Time
Article Text
References
Article Text
References
Article Text
References
References allow you to
find articles that have
been published
previously
A cited references
search allows you to find
articles that have been
published later and that
have cited the article
Categorizing articles
Example study on innovation
Example studying innovation
Adoption studies
Diffusion studies
Innovation types
Innovation models
Managing innovation
Variables that affect innovation such as firm age
Conceptual framework
• The literature review should lead to a conceptual framework.
– Establishes the variables of the study, and
– How they relate together
Example, study by Rhodes et al. (2016) on:
Critical success factors in relationship
management for services outsourcing
The methodology section
Technical
• The methodology is designed around the variables that came out of the literature review.
• Each variable:
– How defined?
– How measured?
• For instance, company success could be measured by profit
– Where is data collected from
• For instance where does the profit data come from?
• Make sure that there are enough data points so that meaningful conclusions can be drawn.
How to know what is ‘true’
or how the world ‘works’?
Approach to research
How to know what is ‘true’
or how the world ‘works’?
Approach to research
Quantitative (numbers)
How to know what is ‘true’
or how the world ‘works’?
Approach to research
Quantitative (numbers)
Allows use of statistics
How to know what is ‘true’
or how the world ‘works’?
Approach to research
Quantitative (numbers)
Allows use of statistics
Correlations can be determined
How to know what is ‘true’
or how the world ‘works’?
Approach to research
Quantitative (numbers)
Allows use of statistics
Correlations can be determined
But sometimes false sense of objectivity
How to know what is ‘true’
or how the world ‘works’?
Approach to research
Quantitative (numbers)
Allows use of statistics
Correlations can be determined
But sometimes false sense of objectivity
But not causality
How to know what is ‘true’
or how the world ‘works’?
Approach to research
Quantitative (numbers)
Allows use of statistics
Correlations can be determined
But sometimes false sense of objectivity
But not causality
Requires large sample typically superficial
How to know what is ‘true’
or how the world ‘works’?
Approach to research
Quantitative (numbers)
Allows use of statistics
Correlations can be determined
Qualitative (story)
Requires large sample typically superficial
How to know what is ‘true’
or how the world ‘works’?
Approach to research
Quantitative (numbers)
Allows use of statistics
Correlations can be determined
Qualitative (story)
Requires interpretation
Requires large sample typically superficial
How to know what is ‘true’
or how the world ‘works’?
Approach to research
Quantitative (numbers)
Allows use of statistics
Correlations can be determined
Qualitative (story)
Requires interpretation
Requires large sample typically superficial
Causation can be determined
How to know what is ‘true’
or how the world ‘works’?
Approach to research
Quantitative (numbers)
Element of subjectivity
Qualitative (story)
Requires interpretation
Causation can be determined
How to know what is ‘true’
or how the world ‘works’?
Approach to research
Quantitative (numbers)
Element of subjectivity
Qualitative (story)
Requires interpretation
Requires longitudinal study
Causation can be determined
How to know what is ‘true’
or how the world ‘works’?
Approach to research
Quantitative (numbers)
Allows use of statistics
Correlations can be determined
Qualitative (story)
Requires interpretation
Requires large sample typically superficial
Generalization not possible typically in-depth
Causation can be determined
Data
Primary Secondary
Collected by the project team for the specific project purpose
Collected by others for another purpose (but used in the project with another purpose)
• Critical mistake: – People will look for what type of data is available
– The project is thus driven by availability of data, not by the appropriateness of data
• This is one of the biggest mistakes to make in the project – because it has you started off on the wrong foot
– And it is extremely difficult, and most often impossible, to correct
A common misunderstanding
confusing literature with data
The literature review is something
else than the data
• Literature review: is about variables and relationships and how they were measured and what was found
• Data: is what is used in your own study.
• These have different purposes. – Literature review is a discussion about variables
– When you get into your data discussion, you need data but the point of the data is to measure variables and find relationships.
• You typically can’t use data from other academic studies for your study because this typically means what you do is not new
When dealing with the methodology
• Major adjustments are typically needed
• Sometimes frustrating because of the changes and perceived wasted time
– Teams will have read a lot that will end up not being
part of the project, the write-up etc.
• However, it was necessary to read that much to develop your
thinking and broader understanding
• � authors have typically much more information and insight than what you read from an article. It is the tip of the
iceberg.
Correlations https://www.tylervigen.com/spurious-correlations
Interviewing
Data and discussion
Following the path
• The hard part is over
– The team has
• Carefully considered the literature
• Formulated good questions
• Designed a study to collect data
– Now it is a matter of implementing.
• This is often the mentally rewarding phase because at the end of this phase you are an expert
in the research project that you conducted.
– You have the data, you have analyzed it, you know how
it fits into the bigger picture of the topical area.
Newness
• To determine newness, the results have to be
connected back to what was found in the
literature and it has to be explained what is new.
• Repeat main lessons from the literature review
and the identified gap.
• Compare and contrast team’s findings with that
previously reported in the literature (cite &
reference) and explain what new insight was
gained.
Literature review Conceptual framework
Methodology
Actual dataConclusions
Drawing conclusions
Stick to your data
First sentence
Migrating to the Mediterranean in search of a
better lifestyle makes people unhappier than
if they stayed at home,
Next sentence
Dr David Bartram, of the University of Leicester’s Department of
Sociology, said that
migrants from the UK and five other northern European countries
who went to Spain, Portugal, Greece and Cyprus
were less happy than people who stayed behind.
Next sentence
Dr Bartram analysed survey data on 265 migrants from Belgium,
Switzerland, Germany, Netherlands, France and 73 from the UK who
resettled in the Mediterranean countries.
Next sentence
When asked how happy they were on a scale of 0–10,
the migrants scored 7.3 on average,
compared with the average of 7.5 for 56,000 people
studied who remained in the northern countries.
Next sentence
Dr Bartram then analysed the data
to take account of differences between migrants and those who stayed
in terms of age, health, income, education, friends, employment and
religious beliefs,
to make sure these factors did not distort the results.
Next sentence
This confirmed that it was the fact of having migrated
that made the respondent less happy, by about 0.3 of a point on the
ten-point scale on average (3 in 100),
compared with those who stayed behind.
For British migrants the gap was larger, with migrants 0.4 (4 in 100) of a
point less happy than the UK stayers.
Next sentence
‘The key finding from the analysis is that people from northern Europe
who migrated to southern Europe are less happy than the stayers in
northern Europe,’ said Dr Bartram.
Reflection
Learning
