Psych220 Quiz2
a chill guy
passer2e_lectureslides_ch06.pptxResearch Methods Second Edition
CHAPTER 6
Michael W. Passer
RESEARCH METHODS | CONCEPTS AND CONNECTIONS Michael W. Passer | Second Edition
1
CASE STUDIES AND OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
CHAPTER 6
RESEARCH METHODS | CONCEPTS AND CONNECTIONS Michael W. Passer | Second Edition
2
Case Studies (part 1)
What is a case study?
Case study
Refers to an umbrella term for various types of nonexperimental research designs wherein trained observers record ongoing behavior
Is an in-depth analysis of an individual, social unit, event, or other phenomenon
Varies in scope, data collection, analysis, and reporting methodology
Case
Individual person, nonhuman animal, larger unit
Process of collaboration, social unit
3
Case Studies (part 2)
Why conduct case studies?
Flexibility
Unique perspective; detailed
Insight into possible causes of behavior
Contribution to hypothesis-testing and theory building
Source of support for external validity of experimental findings
4
Case Studies (part 3)
TYPES OF CASE STUDIES (Creswell and others)
Qualitative case study examines an individual case in depth, within its real-life context.
Quantitative case study relies primarily on numerical assessments and analysis to describe and understand a case.
Mixed-methods case study relies on qualitative and quantitative data and analyses to explore a case.
5
Case Studies (part 4)
TYPES OF CASE STUDIES BASED ON STUDY PURPOSE AND NUMBER OF CASES EXAMINED (Stake)
Intrinsic case study
A case is examined in depth due to some inherent interest in learning about that particular case.
Instrumental case study
A case is analyzed in depth because it is an example of, or otherwise provides information about, a broader phenomenon.
Collective case study
Each of several cases is studied in depth for the purpose of learning about a broader phenomenon.
6
Case Studies (part 5)
SINGLE-CASE STUDY AND MULTIPLE-CASE STUDY DESIGNS
Single-case study design
One case analyzed in depth.
Multiple-case study design
Two or more cases are analyzed and an in-depth analysis of each case is performed.
7
Case Studies (part 6)
GATHERING AND ANALYZING DATA
Case studies typically include direct observation and questioning.
Observation
Naturalistic observation (qualitative)
Participant observation (qualitative)
Structured observation (quantitative)
Questioning: Qualitative studies
Semi-structured interview
Focus group
Individual interviews
Other types of data
Physiological measures; brain imaging
Psychological assessments
8
Case Studies (part 7)
Psychological case study of locked-in syndrome
Tracey, a patient diagnosed with locked-in syndrome, communicates with people using this board.
She used it to respond to questions posed by psychologists in a case study.
9
Case Studies (part 8)
LIMITATIONS
Case studies’ limitations often center around three issues.
Difficulty of drawing clear causal conclusions
Generalizability of the findings
Potential for observer bias
10
Observational Research (part 1)
What is observational research?
Observational research
Includes different types of nonexperimental studies in which behavior is systematically watched and recorded
Measures behavior of multiple people or nonhuman animals in real time or in reviewing electronic records
May include a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods approach
11
Observational Research (part 2)
Why conduct observational research?
Describing behavior
Examining relations among naturally occurring variables
Exploratory
Hypothesis and theory testing
Suggesting possible causal relational studies that are subsequently examined using controlled laboratory experiments
Establishing generalizability of principles previously discovered in experiments
12
Observational Research (part 3)
TYPES OF OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
Naturalistic observation
Occurs when researchers passively observe behavior in a natural setting
Disguised naturalistic observation
Occurs when individuals are not aware of the observer’s presence
Undisguised naturalistic observation
Occurs when individuals are aware of the observer’s presence
13
Naturalistic Observation in Children’s Museum
No matter whether only the father, only the mother, or both parents were present, boys received substantially more scientific explanations from their parents than girls. (Crowley, K., Callanan, M. A., Tenenbaum, H. R., and Allen, E. (2001). Parents explain more often to boys than to girls during shared scientific thinking. Psychological Science, 12(3), pp. 258–261.)
14
Observational Research (part 4)
Advantages
Examination under “ecologically valid” conditions
Less distortion by observer presence (reactivity)
External validity
Disadvantages
Complexity of behavior
Lack of control over research setting
Difficulties of observing every important behavior
15
Ethical Issues
CONDUCTING OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH OF ANY TYPE ALSO INVOLVES ETHICAL ISSUES.
American Psychological Association (APA) Ethics Code naturalistic observation research without informed consent conditions:
No harm or distress
Protected confidential information
Risk protection if responses become known (APA, 2010a)
1. The study is not expected to cause participants harm or distress;
2. confidential information is protected; and
3. if participants’ responses were to become known, this would not expose them to social, economic, or legal risks (APA, 2010a).
16
Observational Research (part 5)
TYPES OF OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
Participant observation
Observer becomes a part of the group or social setting being studied
Disguised participant observation
Undisguised participant observation
Ethnography
Types
Disguised
Undisguised
17
Observational Research (part 6)
TYPES OF OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
Disguised participant observation
Researchers become part of the group being studied and withhold their observer status from others
Ethical issues involve the influence of researcher presence, deception, and the absence of informed consent. Observer becomes a part of the group or social setting being studied
18
Observational Research (part 7)
TYPES OF OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
Undisguised participant observation
Researchers become part of the group being studied.
Method avoids ethical issues of deception that arise with identity concealment, but participants may still be influenced by knowledge of researcher presence.
Ethnography and other methods are often combined with method.
19
Observational Research (part 8)
TYPES OF OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
Structured observation
Researcher fully or partly configures the setting in which behavior will be observed
Structured setting in variety of locations
Exposure to researcher-created social situation
Specific tasks
Advantages and limitations
Greater efficiency and control
Used in many subfields of psychology
Analogue of real life
20
Structured Observation of Marital Interaction
In married couples, equipment is attached to each partner so that physiological responses can be recorded while the couples are interacting.
Each couple is led into a room, seated, and then asked to talk about two important sources of disagreement in their relationship. While physiological measures are taken, their conversation is video- and audio-recorded. Researchers subsequently analyze these recordings, trying to identify patterns of behavior that predict marital satisfaction or dissatisfaction, and continuation of the relationship versus divorce (Gottman, Coan, Carrere, & Swanson, 1998).
21
Observational Research (part 9)
RECORDING OBSERVATIONS
Narrative records
Provide ongoing description of behavior that is used for later analysis
Used for both qualitative and quantitative analyses
Field notes
Used to record important impressions or instances of behavior; less comprehensive than narrative records
See infographic Figure 6.10 for additional information about ways to record information.
22
Observational Research (part 10)
RECORDING OBSERVATIONS
Behavior coding systems
Involve classifying participants’ responses into mutually exclusive categories
Reactive behaviors
Spontaneous behaviors
Require clear and mutually exclusive coding categories and well-trained observers
See infographic Figure 6.10 for additional information about ways to record information.
23
Observational Research (part 11)
OBSERVER TRAINING AND RELIABILITY
Observer rating and ranking scales
Used to evaluate participants’ behavior or other characteristics
Self-observers
Ratings or rankings are collected by participants themselves
Diaries may also be used
May be considered diary study, questionnaire study, or correlations study rather than research
See infographic Figure 6.10 for additional information about ways to record information.
24
Observational Research (part 12)
OBSERVER TRAINING AND RELIABILITY
Interobserver reliability (interrater reliability)
Represents the degree to which independent observers show agreement in their observations
Requires well-developed coding system and well-trained coders
Uses various calculation statistics
Cohen’s kappa
See infographic Figure 6.10 for additional information about ways to record information.
25
Observational Research (part 13)
SAMPLING BEHAVIOR
Focal sampling
Used to select a particular member (or unit, such as a parent‒infant dyad) who will be observed at any given time
Scan sampling
At preselected times each member of a group is rapidly scanned so that the entire group is observed within a relatively short period
26
Observational Research (part 14)
SAMPLING BEHAVIOR
Situation sampling
Used to establish diverse settings in which behavior is observed, which increases the external validity of the findings as compared to sampling behavior in only one setting
Time sampling
Used to select a representative set of time periods during which observations will occur
27
Observational Research (part 15)
LIMITATIONS OF OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
Problems with drawing causal conclusions
Observer bias; blind bias
Reactivity
Habituation in observational research.
When disguised observation is not possible, observers can reduce reactivity by taking advantage of the principle of habituation.
28
Unobtrusive Measures and Archival Records (part 1)
Degree to which measures are unobtrusive or obtrusive is best conceived as a continuum rather than as an either-or situation.
Unobtrusive measure assesses behavior without making people aware that the behavior is being measured.
Physical trace measures unobtrusively examine traces of behavior that people create or leave behind.
Archival records are previously existing documents or other data produced independently of current research.
29
Unobtrusive Measures and Archival Records (part 2)
Concerns and limitations
All related data and methods must be ethically permissible.
Physical trace measures and archival records may not be available or plausible.
When available, these may present alternate viewpoints about what is actually represented.
Original data collection may not have been unobtrusive.
30
