report

Gender and Sexuality – Part II

SOCY 3720-E01

Global Perspectives on Social Issues

Summer 2019

Part II: Gender Inequality. Women: The Oppressed Majority

Women: The Oppressed Majority

 Women are an oppressed group even though they represent the numerical/demographic majority.

 They can be considered a social minority in this and many other countries around the world especially as

we apply our previous knowledge regarding minority groups.

 In many societies around the world men still ‘dominate’ in different social aspects such as influence,

prestige, and wealth, among others.

 Women are advancing and are setting many positive trends around the world while in specific societies

the change has been slow to violent in different ways.

 We usually hear a modern indicator in phrases that can be seen from both sides of equality and

inequality when we hear “the first woman to do,” “the first woman to become,” or “the only woman” as

we often see nowadays.

 If we reexamine the five properties of a subordinate or minority group we can see that:

 Unequal treatment: Women still, very much, experience unequal treatment. They may not be

segregated but they are still victims of racism, prejudice, stigmatization, and discrimination.

 Distinguishing physical or cultural traits: Through our binary system and many social constructions

of gender, women have physical and cultural characteristics that will distinguish them from the

dominant group (men).

 Involuntary membership: As we can assert, subordinate group membership in this case is involuntary.

 Awareness of subordination: Women are bonding together to fight injustices and discrimination and

Feminism has played a crucial role in raising this awareness while working for political reform as well.

 Endogamy: Depending on the society and their cultural expectations or norms, many women can or

may not be forced to marry. However, many social constructs can place emphasis on family life and

marriage.

 As Barabara Ehrenreich and Arlie Hochschild point out, due to the process of globalization women are

more mobile than ever before in history.

 In many different Western media images we may see successful women at different positions and

celebrating different accomplishments, but we may not hear or see much in relation to a more troubling

flow of female labor and energy through the increasing migration of millions of women from poor

countries to rich ones.

 This can be one of the female undersides of globalization whereby millions of women from poor

countries in the global south migrate to the global north in order to do the work that many affluent

women are no longer able or willing to do.

 “This pattern of female migration reflects what could be called a worldwide gender revolution. In both

rich and poor countries, fewer families can rely solely on a male breadwinner.

 By one recent estimate, women were the sole, primary, or coequal earners in more than half of American

families.” (Ehrenreich & Hochschild, 2002)

 As Parillo (2005) points out, gender inequality takes a horrendous turn in different developing countries

where we find women having lower survival rates, due in part to poverty and discriminatory cultural

values.

 “Shortened life expectancies for females, for example, result from differences in feeding girls and boys,

as well as in the strong preference for sons in some countries. People in different regions can place a low

value on women’s lives, viewing them as ‘disposable property’ even to the point of killing them.”

(Parrillo, 2005)

 Women can also be more vulnerable to both sexism and institutional discrimination. Women can be

subjected to direct sexism like sexist remarks and also plenty of unjust differential treatment because of

institutional policies (Schaefer, 2002).

Sources of Discrimination

 These are some of the major sources of discrimination that women face:

 Political activity  The Workplace  Education  Popular Culture  Family Life  The Military  Violence Against Women  Double Jeopardy: Minority women

Political Activity

 Women in the United States constitute 51 percent of the population and the trend carries over globally.

 43%, “percentage of female citizens 18 and older who reported voting in the U.S. 2014 election. By

comparison, 40.8 percent of their male counterparts reported voting.” (census.gov)

 In 2014, “women comprised 55.2 percent of all U.S. college students (undergraduate and graduate).”

(census.gov)

 In 2016, 72.9 million female voters compared to 63 million male voters (Center for American Women

and Politics, 2017).

 The number of female voters has exceeded the number of male voters in all presidential elections since

1964 (Center for American Women and Politics, 2017).

 In 2018, women constituted 52 percent of the electorate, compared to 48 percent for men

(brookings.edu, 2018).

 In many different ways and in many different societies around the world, sexism has been one of the

most prevalent barriers to women interested in holding office or overall political representation.

 As for our current 116th U.S. Congress as reported through the Center for American Women and

Politics:

 127 women serve in the 116th Congress (about 23.7%). 25 women serve in the Senate and 102 women in

the U.S. House (plus 4 delegates).

 A new record of 47 minority women in the 116th Congress. Plus four U.S. House Delegates (DC, Puerto

Rico, American Samoa, and the Virgin Islands).

 Statewide Elective Executive: In 2018, 86 women serve in statewide elective executive offices across

the country. 14 are minority women. (cawp.rutgers.edu, 2019)

 As food for thought:

 Why is there so much emphasis and importance in a female political candidate holding the top political

position in this country?

 Female political leaders have been and are in power around the world right now, female politicians

currently hold several countries’ presidencies, but there seems to be more emphasis placed on the United

States’ presidential seat. Is this fair?

 Why are we not celebrating these achievements from other parts of the world? Why is it we cannot

declare the ultimate victory for female political figures until a woman is president of this country?

 How come openly sexist and gender-biased cultures such as the ones found in some Hispanic, Asian,

European, Middle Eastern, and African countries have already elected female prime ministers or female

presidents, but we do not hear these facts in many gender conversations in this country?

20th Century Female Political Leaders

 Sirivamo Bandaranaike, Sri Lanka Prime Minister, 1960-1965, 1970-1977, 1994-2000. (World’s 1st female Prime M.)

 Indira Gandhi, India Prime Minister, 1966-77, 1980-1984.

 Golda Meir, Israel Prime Minister, 1969-1974.

 Isabel Peron, Argentina President, 1974-1976 (World’s 1st female President).

 Elisabeth Domitien, Central African Republic Prime Minister, 1975-1976

 Margaret Thatcher, Great Britain Prime Minister, 1979-1990.

 Maria da Lourdes Pintasilgo, Portugal Prime Minister, 1979-1980.

 Lidia Gueiler Tejada, Bolivia Prime Minister, 1979-1980.

 Dame Eugenia Charles, Dominica Prime Minister, 1980-1995.

 Vigdis Finnbogadottir, Iceland President, 1980-96.

 Gro Harlem Brundtland, Norway Prime Minister, 1981, 1986-1989, 1990-1996.

 Soong Ching-Ling, Peoples' Republic of China Honorary President, 1981.

 Milka Planinc, Yugoslavia Federal Prime Minister, 1982-1986.

 Agatha Barbara, Malta President, 1982-1987.

 Maria Liberia-Peters, Netherlands Antilles Prime Minister, 1984-1986, 1988-1993.

 Corazon Aquino, Philippines President, 1986-92.

 Benazir Bhutto, Pakistan Prime Minister, 1988-1990, 1993-1996.

 Kazimiera Danuta Prunskiena, Lithuania Prime Minister, 1990-91.

 Violeta Barios de Chamorro, Nicaragua Prime Minister, 1990-1996.

 Mary Robinson, Ireland President, 1990-1997.

 Ertha Pascal Trouillot, Haiti Interim President, 1990-1991.

 Sabine Bergmann-Pohl, German Democratic Republic President, 1990.

 Aung San Suu Kyi, Myanmar (Burma) Her party won 80% of the seats in a democratic election in 1990, but the military government refused to recognize the results.

She was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991.

 Khaleda Zia, Bangladesh Prime Minister, 1991-1996.

 Edith Cresson, France Prime Minister, 1991-1992.

 Hanna Suchocka, Poland Prime Minister, 1992-1993.

 Kim Campbell, Canada Prime Minister, 1993.

 Sylvie Kinigi, Burundi Prime Minister, 1993-1994.

 Agathe Uwilingivimana, Rwanda Prime Minister, 1993-1994.

 Susanne Camelia-Romer, Netherlands Antilles Prime Minister, 1993, 1998-

 Tansu Ciller, Turkey Prime Minister, 1993-1995.

 Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunge, Sri Lanka Prime Minister, 1994, President, 1994-

 Reneta Indzhova, Bulgaria Interim Prime Minister, 1994-1995.

 Claudette Werleigh, Haiti Prime Minister, 1995-1996.

 Sheikh Hasina Wajed, Bangladesh Prime Minister, 1996-.

 Mary McAleese, Ireland President, 1997-.

 Pamela Gordon, Bermuda Premier, 1997-1998.

 Janet Jagan, Guyana Prime Minister, 1997, President, 1997-1999.

 Jenny Shipley, New Zealand Prime Minister, 1997-1999.

 Ruth Dreifuss, Switzerland President, 1999-2000.

 Jennifer Smith, Bermuda Prime Minister, 1998-.

 Nyam-Osoriyn Tuyaa, Mongolia Acting Prime Minister, July 1999.

 Helen Clark, New Zealand Prime Minister, 1999-.

 Mireya Elisa Moscoso de Arias, Panama President, 1999-.

 Vaira Vike-Freiberga, Latvia President, 1999-.

 Tarja Kaarina Halonen, Finland President, 2000-.

* List compiled by Jone Johnson Lewis (womenshistory.about.com)

Female World Leaders 2019

# Country Leader In office since: Notes 1 Germany Chancellor Angela Merkel Nov. 22, 2005 - Elected 2 Bangladesh Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina Wajed Jan. 6, 2009 - Elected 3 Lithuania President Dalia Grybauskaite Jul. 12, 2009 - Elected (reelected 2014) 4 Norway Prime Minister Erna Solberg Oct. 16, 2013 - Elected 5 Malta President Marie-Louise Coleiro Preca April 4, 2014 Elected 6 Croatia President Kolinda Grabar-Kitarovic Feb. 18, 2015 Elected 7 Namibia P. Minister Saara Kuugongelwa Mar. 21, 2015 Appointed 8 Nepal President Bidhya Devi Bhandari October 29, 2015 Elected 9 The Marshall Islands President Hilda Heine January 28, 2016 Elected 10 Taiwan President Tsai Ing-wen May 20, 2016 Elected 11 Estonia President Kersti Kaljulai October 10, 2016 Elected 12 Myanmar State Counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi April 6, 2016 Elected 13 Switzerland President Doris Leuthard January 1, 2017 Elected 14 Serbia Prime Minister Ana Brnabić June 29, 2017 Elected 15 Singapore President Halimah Yacob September 14, 2017 Elected 16 New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern October 26, 2017 Appointed 17 Iceland Prime Minister Katrín Kakobsdóttir November 30, 2017 Elected 18 Romania Prime Minister Viorica Dancila January 29, 2018 Appointed 19 Trinidad and Tobago President Paula-Mae Weekes March 10, 2018 Elected 20 Ethiopia President Sahle-Work Zewde October 25, 2018 Elected 21 Georgia President Salome Zurabishvili December 16, 2018 Elected

Countries With More Than One Female Leader

Switzerland (5) Five presidents (one president served 2 terms)

Sri Lanka (3) One president, two prime ministers

Haiti (3) One president, two prime ministers

Lithuania (3) One president, two prime ministers

Finland (3) One president, two prime ministers

South Korea (3) One president, two prime ministers

Iceland (3) One president, two prime ministers

Argentina (2) Two presidents

Bangledesh (2) Two prime ministers

Guyana (2) One president, one prime minister

India (2) One president, one prime minister

Ireland (2) Two presidents

Israel (2) One president, one prime minister

Liberia (2) Two presidents

Philippines (2) Two presidents

New Zealand (2) Two prime ministers

São Tomé and Príncipe (2) Two prime ministers

The Workplace

 As Karen Hossfeld explains, “a growing number of historical studies illustrate the interconnections

between patriarchy and capitalism in defining both the daily lives of working women and the nature of

work arrangements in general” (Hossfeld, 1990).

 Hossfeld also explains that “one way in which patriarchal ideology affects workplace culture is through

the ‘gendering’ of workers which can also be referred to as the social construction of masculinity and

femininity on the shop floor” (Hossfeld, 1990).

 “Wage discrimination can be explained in alternative ways. One persuasive theory from the Nobel

laureate Gary Becker, is that men are paid more than women by employers, even though they have no

greater merit and productivity within the job, simply because of prejudice. This prejudice can also easily

place these companies and agencies at competitive disadvantage” (Bhagwati, 2004).

 As previously mentioned, women can also be more vulnerable to both sexism and institutional

discrimination. Women can be subjected to direct sexism like sexist remarks and also plenty of unjust

differential treatment because of institutional policies (Schaefer, 2002).

 “Many efforts have been made to eliminate institutional discrimination as it applies to women.

 In the United States, the 1964 Civil Rights Act and its enforcement arm, the Equal Employment

Opportunity Commission, address cases of sex discrimination. The inclusion of sex bias along with

prejudice based on race, color, creed, and national origin was an unexpected last-minute change in the

provisions of the landmark 1964 act.” (Schaefer, 2002).

 “The lag between the laws and reality in sex discrimination can be seen as this: (1) lack of money, (2)

weak enforcement powers, (3) occasionally weak commitment to using the laws available, and most

important, (4) institutional and structural forces that perpetuate inequality.

 During the 1980s, pay equity, or comparable worth, was a controversial solution presented to alleviate

the second-class status of working women. It directly attempted to secure equal pay when occupational

segregation by gender was particularly pervasive. Pay equity calls for equal pay for different types of

work that are judged to be comparable by measuring such factors as employee knowledge, skills, effort,

responsibility, and working conditions.” (Schaefer, 2002). An average that still exists in the United

States is 71 cents per male dollar, and in other societies around the world, the disparity can be even

greater.

 Another concept included in this source of discrimination is the glass ceiling.

 “It refers to the invisible barrier blocking the promotion of a qualified worker because of gender or

minority membership.” (Schaefer, 2002)

 Despite our current debate over affirmative action, the consensus is that there has been little room at the

top for women and minorities. We can currently find general unstated limits to being promoted within a

company and to the actual number of women and non-Whites welcomed or even tolerated. (Schaefer,

2002).

 When making hiring decisions, some executives can assume that women are not fully committed to the

job and will be “distracted” by family and home. They assume that women are on a mommy track,

referring to “an unofficial career track that companies use for women who want to divide their attention

between work and family” (Schaefer, 2002).

 As Schaefer explains, not only is this assumption false when applied to all women, but it implies that

corporate men are not interested in maintaining a balance between work and family. (Schaefer, 2002).

 Sexual harassment is also a major issue and unjustifiable reality that many women face around the

world.

 “Under evolving legal standards, sexual harassment is recognized as any unwanted and unwelcome

sexual advances that interfere with a person’s ability to perform a job and enjoy the benefits of a job”

(Schaefer, 2002).

 Sexual harassment also adds to prejudice and discrimination against women and regardless where it may

take place, since it is not only limited to the workplace, it still perpetuates a hierarchical view of men

thinking they are or being a higher authority which can add to the devaluing of women and women’s

work. (Schaefer, 2002).

 Another important discriminatory notion is the concept of the feminization of poverty, “or the global

impoverishing of women and their children” (Pettman, 1996).

 “Facing state cuts, falling wages, increasing unemployment and growing poverty, household survival

strategies include more informal economic activity, taking in lodgers, selling homemade goods or food

and providing services on the side, including prostitution” (Pettman, 1996).

 Feminization of poverty “can also be applied to many other nations across the globe, especially those

countries in economic crisis. Poor women share many social characteristics with poor men: low

educational attainment, lack of market-relevant job skills, and residence in economically deteriorating

areas” (Schaefer, 2002).

 The higher rates of poverty among women can be traced to two distinct causes (from a Conflict Theory

perspective): (1) sex discrimination on the job and (2) sexual harassment, both placing women at a clear

disadvantage when seeking vertical social mobility (Schaefer, 2002).

Education

 “The experience of women in education has been similar to their experience in the labor force: a long

history of contribution, but in traditionally defined terms.

 In 1833, Oberlin College became the first institution of higher learning to admit women, two centuries

after the first men’s college began in this country.

 In 1837, Wellesley became the first women’s college, but it would be a mistake to believe that these

early experiments brought about equality for women in education, actually at Oberlin College the

women were forbidden to speak in public.

 Moreover, the early graduates of these schools, despite the emphasis in the curriculum on traditional

roles, became the founders of the feminist movement” (Schaefer 2002).

 In teaching students the values, norms, and expectations of the society, schools in this and many other

countries have treated children as if men’s education is more important than women’s education

(Schaefer, 2002).

 Professors of education Myra and David Sadker have documented sexism in education. Today, we see

remaining indicators and research confirms that boys and girls are treated differently in many schools,

by teachers giving boys more attention (Schaefer, 2002).

 Other researchers have documented sexism “in the books used, the vocational counseling provided, and

even the content of educational television programs. Perhaps the most apparent result of sexist practices

and gender-role conditioning in education is staffing patterns. Administrators and university professors

are predominately male, and public school teachers are predominately female” (Schaefer, 2002).

 As Schaefer explains, “at all levels of schooling, in this country, significant changes occurred with

congressional amendments to the Education Act of 1972 and the Department of Health, Education, and

Welfare guidelines developed in 1974 and 1975. Collectively referred to as Title IX provisions, the

regulations are designed to eliminate sexist practices from almost all school systems.” Schools must

make the following changes or jeopardize the loss of all federal assistance:

1. “Schools must eliminate all sex-segregated classes and extracurricular activities. This means an end to

all-girl home economics and all-boy shop classes, although single-sex hygiene and physical education

classes are permitted.

2. Schools cannot discriminate by sex in admissions or financial aid and cannot inquire into whether an

applicant is married, pregnant, or a parent. Single-sex schools are exempted.

3. Schools must end sexist hiring and promotion practices among faculty members.

4. Although women do not have to be permitted to play on all-men’s athletic teams, schools must provide

more opportunities for women’s sports, intramural and extramural” (Federal Register, 1975).

Popular Culture

 For long religion and popular culture have contributed to many discriminatory and stigmatizing views

against women. These sources have created many different cultural norms and expectations as well as

have affected sexuality and sexual behavior. These sources have dictated many gender expectations and

have subjugated women in many aspects of social life.

 These sources have included sexist and misogynistic ideologies that have been tolerated, perpetuated,

and even reinforced generation after generation.

 Nowadays, many women and men challenge these views and try to change our social constructs and

gender role expectations. As women gain more representative ground and a stronger group voice

activism focuses on extinguishing these ideologies and reaching gender equality in all aspects of life and

society.

 One sociocultural factor to consider are arranged marriages which still happen in most societies around

the world, even here in the United States.

 This practice can come from a socio-cultural expectations where the family unit can impose this practice

on individuals regardless of where they live and which culture they inhabit.

 Religious factors can play a role in this practice in relation to family life expectations.

 This practice, among many others, and these expectations can be considered a source of discrimination

against women and their choices, family life, and even human rights.

 In popular culture, our focus can immediately turn to modern media sources. These same media sources

can easily perpetuate many different stereotypes and continue subjugating women in significant ways.

 From music lyrics, to reality TV shows, to movies and the advertisement industry, to news reports, many

messages are transmitted and they depend on our own socialized stereotypes to understand these

messages. It is up to us to be able to discern these messages and discourage the replication of

discriminatory behavior, or be able to follow those media sources and instances that carry positive

gender messages and examples for us all.

 I invite you to watch this extended trailer for a very interesting and relevant documentary in relation to

women and popular culture. It conveys different important social messages in relation to this very

important aspect of society.

Miss Representation Trailer

(ADULT LANGUAGE INCLUDED)

Family Life

 ““Does your mother work?” “No, she’s a housewife.” This familiar exchange suggests that a woman is

married to both a spouse and a house and that homemaking does not constitute work.

 Our society generally equates work with wages and holds unpaid work in low esteem. Women who do

such work through household chores and volunteer work are given little status in this and other

societies” (Schaefer, 2002).

 More recently, social scientists have also observed the overwhelming burden of the multiple social roles

associated with being a mother and working outside the home.

 Arlie Hochschild (1989) introduces the term second shift which is often used “to describe the double

burden of working outside the home followed by child care and the housework that many women face

and that some men may share equitably” (Schaefer, 2002).

 Abortion:

 An often controversial subject affecting family life around the world has been the call for women to

have more control over their own bodies, especially their reproductive lives, through contraceptive

devices and the increased availability of abortions.

 In the United States, abortion law reform was one of the demands made in 1967, and the controversy is

still palpable despite different court rulings and the passage of laws at every level of government

(Schaefer, 2002).

 Roe v. Wade (Norma McCorvey using the alias ‘Jane Roe’ versus Henry Wade the Dallas County

District Attorney).

 “On January 22, 1973 there was a Supreme Court ruling with a 7-2 majority votes for McCorvey based

on the “right to privacy” in relation to the Fourteenth Amendment “concept of personal liberty” being

broad enough to encompass a woman’s decision to terminate a pregnancy” (Schaefer, 2002).

 After this landmark decision the debate has yet to subdue and many different debates, perspectives,

laws, challenges, morals, groups, activism, and even violence has ensued.

 Many point out that the abortion controversy, in this and many other countries, has turned into a “who is

right?” debate between the different groups, entirely missing the meaning and intention of the word

“choice.”

 Instead of trying to be right about abortions, many social scientists and activists suggest that as members

of different civilized and advanced societies in this world, we should simply respect each other’s

choices.

 If you are against abortions, refrain from practicing one; this is how you exercise your choice and follow

your beliefs regarding this issue.

 If you are in favor of choosing an abortion then educatedly exercise your choice when you feel it is

appropriate.

 Maybe this way we can shed philosophical insight into the phrase, ‘everybody wins’ or this way

everybody can consider themselves victorious while exercising their choice.

The Military

 Related to the military in the sense of armed conflicts and displacement, the World Health Organization

(1997) comments that “armed conflict and uprootedness bring their own distinct forms of violence

against women with them. These can include random acts of sexual assault by both enemy and ‘friendly’

forces, or mass rape as a deliberate strategy of genocide.

 The general breakdown in law and order which occurs during conflict and displacement leads to an

increase in all forms of violence” (WHO, 1997).

 Mass rape, military sexual slavery, forced prostitution, forced ‘marriages,’ forced pregnancies, the

exchange of sex for survival, or in exchange for food, shelter, or ‘protection’ are other forms of violence

resulting from conflict/refugee situations (WHO, 1997).

 In this country, in 2016 the figure for women active duty was about 16% with 206,400 women serving.

These numbers also included 18% representation of the officer corps (cna.org, 2017).

 In the U.S., the first female four-star general was Gen. Ann Dunwoody (awarded in 2008, retired in

2012), then Gen. Janet Wolfenbarger (awarded 2012, retired June 2015) and in July 2014 the Navy

appointed the first ever female four-star admiral; Adm. Michelle Howard.

 On December, 2015 Brig. Gen. Diana Holland became the first female commandant of cadets at the

United States Military Academy (West Point).

 In the U.S. then Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta (2013) assured this country that men and women

would be able to have the same chance to participate in combat.

 After this policy went into effect many critics still point out that women are still being trained through

very different or ‘weaken’ fitness requirements.

 On December 2015, the Pentagon announced that female soldiers would be eligible for all combat roles.

The gender-based restrictions were lifted this past January 2, 2016.

 As reported through the Military Times: “the decision means that female service members will be

allowed to serve in any military job for which they meet the gender-neutral performance standards and

other requirements” (Military Times, 2016).

 Defense Secretary Ash Carter stated that “they will be able to serve as Army Rangers and Green Berets,

Navy SEALs, Marine Corps infantry, Air Force parajumpers and everything else that was previously

open only to men. And even more importantly, our military will be better able to harness the skills and

perspectives that talented women have to offer” (Military Times, 2016).

Violence Against Women

 As the World Health Organization (2017) explains, violence against women and girls is one of the major

health and human rights issues around the world.

 “Global estimates published by WHO indicate that about 1 in 3 (35%) of women worldwide have

experienced either physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence or non-partner sexual violence in

their lifetime.

 Worldwide, almost one third (30%) of women who have been in a relationship report that they have

experienced some form of physical and/or sexual violence by their intimate partner in their lifetime.

 Globally, as many as 38% of murders of women are committed by a male intimate partner.

 Violence can negatively affect women’s physical, mental, sexual, and reproductive health, and may

increase the risk of acquiring HIV in some settings” (who.int, 2017).

 The abuse of women is, in different (legal, political, religious, and cultural) ways, condoned in many

societies around the world. Prosecution and conviction of men who beat or rape women or girls is still

disproportionate to the number of assaults. Violence therefore operates as a means to maintain and

reinforce women’s subordination (WHO, 1997).

 As presented by the United Nations:

 The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, adopted by the United Nations

General Assembly in 1993, defines violence against women as “any act of gender-based violence that

results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women,

including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or

private life.” It encompasses, but is not limited to, “physical, sexual, and psychological violence

occurring in the family, including battering, sexual abuse of female children in the household, dowry

related violence, marital rape, female genital mutilation, and other traditional practices harmful to

women, nonspousal violence and violence related to exploitation; physical, sexual, and psychological

violence occurring within the general community, including rape, sexual abuse, sexual harassment and

intimidation at work, in educational institutions and elsewhere; trafficking in women and forced

prostitution, and physical, sexual, and psychological violence perpetrated or condoned by the state,

wherever it occurs” (UN, 1993).

 Reread this last point and clearly discern how many types of violence and from which sources women

around the world can experience. That is the reason for including this text from this UN Declaration.

This horrendous global reality is simply unjustifiable.

Double Jeopardy: Minority Women

 Jan Jindy Pettman (1996) begins to discuss the issue that “Colonial power made use of certain ideas of

women and sexuality to construct and police both women’s bodies and racialised boundaries. It also set

a racialised hierarchy in world politics, through structural relations of domination, subordination, and

exploitation. ‘Whiteness’ and ‘non-white’ are still significant political identities in the world today.

 The sexual politics of colonisation, and the ‘race’ politics of gender suggest that white women are

ambiguously placed within contemporary constructions of global power, in ways different from white

men, and from ‘other’ women.

 These differences draw attention to the gendered, and racialised, dimensions of international relations

and of political identities.

 Within conventional histories of colonisation, women are largely absent” (Pettman, 1996).

 Tessie Lui (1991) argues that “race is a gendered social category that rests on regulating sexuality and

particularly on controlling the behavior of women” (Lui, 1991).

 “We have seen the historical oppression of women that limits them by tradition and law to specific

roles.

 Many women experience differential treatment not only because of their gender but because of race and

ethnicity as well.

 These citizens face a double jeopardy that of subordinate status twice defined.

 A disproportionate share of this low-status group also is impoverished so that the double jeopardy

becomes a triple jeopardy (gender, minority status, and socioeconomic status or social class).

 The litany of social ills continues for many as we add old age, ill health, disabilities, and the like”

(Schaefer, 2002).

 “Feminists have addressed themselves to the needs of minority women, but the oppression of these

women because of their sex is overshadowed by the subordinate status that both White men and White

women impose on them because of their race and ethnicity.

 In the United States, the question for Latinas, African American women, Asian American women,

American Indian women, and so on appears to be whether they should unify with their brothers against

racism or challenge them for their sexism.

 One of the answers for this dilemma is that society cannot afford to let up on the effort to eradicate both

sexism and racism” (Schaefer, 2002).

 But how minority women should balance these efforts is the other really important question.

Conclusion: Going on from here…

 With 51% percent of the global population, women still represent more than 60 percent of the world’s

impoverished population. Still, women continue to gain ground and press for political reform and

economic rights. However, these demands can be in conflict with many traditional cultural values and

will generate much conflict and efforts to repress women’s goal for access to education, healthcare, and

political influence (Kornblum & Julian, 2012).

 In this and many other countries pay inequity is still a social problem with women earning 20 to 30%

less when compared to male salaries for the same job.

 Globally, violence against women is still an unjustifiable reality and severe social problem, and even

here in the United States about 115,000 women are raped each year, which is also evidence that violence

against women is by no means limited to developing areas of the world (Kornblum & Julian, 2012).

 Even though many people’s expectations have changed and many goals have been achieved and many

positive trends continue in this and other societies, there is much work still left to do. Many people

nowadays do not accept the centuries-old cultural, gender, and social beliefs attached to women, but still

women are unequal to men and are discriminated in this and all other societies.