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Walden University

College of Management and Human Potential

This is to certify that the doctoral dissertation by

Dominick Juliano Jr.

has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects,

and that any and all revisions required by

the review committee have been made.

Review Committee

Dr. James Herndon, Committee Chairperson, Psychology Faculty

Dr. Michelle McCartney, Committee Member, Psychology Faculty

Chief Academic Officer and Provost

Sue Subocz, Ph.D.

Walden University

2024

Abstract

The Role of Mindfulness in Leadership Coaching

Dominick Juliano Jr.

MS, Walden University, 2009

BS, Park University, 2006

Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Industrial/Organizational Psychology

Walden University

February 2024

Abstract

Managers commonly face stressful environments, yet often do not receive adequate

interventions or training to assist them in performing with presence in the moment. This

may lead to declines in performance and even increased employee turnover intention.

Leadership coaches apply a range of approaches reflective of their unique backgrounds,

such as mindfulness, to their work with individuals and management teams. Utilizing the

S-ART framework (self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-transcendence), this

qualitative phenomenological study identified features that mindful leadership coaching

may provide middle and senior managers in the medical and technology industries. Nine

mindful leadership coaches were interviewed to provide insight into features of coaching

programs and its contribution to leadership development. Results indicated that mindful

leadership programs transform leaders through features that promote presence, ranging

from common meditative practices to purpose-designed interventions promoting deeper

awareness and emotional regulation. Future research should focus on the impact a

mindful leadership program can have on work stress and coping behaviors. This study

contributes to practice by providing a resource to address workplace stress and enhance

the development of leadership behavior. Further, this study contributes to theory via an

application of the S-ART framework to leadership development through a mindful

leadership coaching program. Finally, this study highlighted features of mindful coaching

and training such as breath awareness, internal alignment, and external presence through

a variety of practices; providing implications for positive social change at individual as

well as organizational levels.

The Role of Mindfulness in Leadership Coaching

Dominick Juliano Jr.

MS, Walden University, 2009

BS, Park University, 2006

Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Industrial/Organizational Psychology

Walden University

February 2024

Dedication

I dedicate this completed project to my son, Devlin, and to my wife, Erin. Thank

you for your love, support, and encouragement. Life truly began the day I realized this

world was bigger than just me.

Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge the chair of my dissertation, Dr. James Herndon.

From our first meeting in Atlanta, you have provided mentorship and guidance in my

academics all the way through the end of my dissertation. I appreciate your willingness

and efforts to push me to be a better researcher.

I would also like to acknowledge my coaching instructor and committee member,

Dr. Michelle McCartney, who provided the gateway to my dissertation research and kept

me focused on the next goal. Dr. McCartney, I appreciate your extensive knowledge and

your enthusiasm for my research.

Finally, I would like to acknowledge the kindness and hospitality of Stubborn

German Brewing Company and Shorty’s Smokehouse in Waterloo, Illinois. Thank you

for cheering me on throughout the years of this journey, for listening to my random

thoughts when I look up from my computer, and for letting me mooch off your Wifi.

Table of Contents

List of Tables .......................................................................................................................v

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study ....................................................................................1

Background of the Study ...............................................................................................3

Problem Statement .........................................................................................................5

Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................6

Research Questions ........................................................................................................7

Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................7

Nature of Study ..............................................................................................................9

Definition of Key Terms ..............................................................................................10

Assumptions of the Study ............................................................................................11

Scope and Delimitations ..............................................................................................11

Limitations of the Study...............................................................................................12

Significance of the Study .............................................................................................13

Significance to Practice......................................................................................... 13

Significance to Theory .......................................................................................... 13

Significance to Social Change .............................................................................. 14

Summary ......................................................................................................................15

Chapter 2: Literature Review .............................................................................................17

Literature Search Strategy............................................................................................20

Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................21

S-ART Framework................................................................................................ 21

Literature Review.........................................................................................................26

Defining and Conceptualizing Mindfulness ......................................................... 26

Mindfulness Historical Overview ......................................................................... 27

Zen Buddhism ....................................................................................................... 28

Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) ..................................................... 28

Conceptualizing Mindfulness ............................................................................... 29

Recent Findings on Mindfulness .......................................................................... 31

Background of Executive Coaching ..................................................................... 34

Executive Coaching Outcomes ............................................................................. 37

Executive Coaching Females for Professional Development ............................... 48

Managerial Coaching ............................................................................................ 50

Current Literature on Mindfulness in Executive Coaching .................................. 55

Summary ......................................................................................................................62

Chapter 3: Research Method ..............................................................................................64

Research Design and Rationale ...................................................................................64

Role of the Researcher .................................................................................................66

Methodology ................................................................................................................67

Participant Selection Logic ................................................................................... 67

Instrumentation ..................................................................................................... 68

Procedures for Recruitment, Participation, and Data Collection .......................... 69

Data Analysis Plan ................................................................................................ 69

Issues of Trustworthiness .............................................................................................72

iii

Credibility ............................................................................................................. 72

Transferability ....................................................................................................... 72

Dependability ........................................................................................................ 73

Confirmability ....................................................................................................... 73

Ethical Procedures ................................................................................................ 74

Summary ......................................................................................................................76

Chapter 4: Results ..............................................................................................................77

Setting ..........................................................................................................................77

Demographics ..............................................................................................................78

Data Collection ............................................................................................................78

Data Analysis ...............................................................................................................80

Evidence of Trustworthiness........................................................................................84

Credibility ............................................................................................................. 84

Transferability ....................................................................................................... 84

Dependability ........................................................................................................ 85

Confirmability ....................................................................................................... 85

Results ..........................................................................................................................86

Theme 1: Self-Awareness ..................................................................................... 86

Theme 2: Self-Regulation ..................................................................................... 97

Theme 3: Self-Transcendence ............................................................................. 111

Summary ....................................................................................................................124

Chapter 5: Discussion ......................................................................................................126

Interpretation of the Findings.....................................................................................127

Theme 1: Self-Awareness ................................................................................... 128

Theme 2: Self-Regulation ................................................................................... 132

Theme 3: Self-Transcendence ............................................................................. 136

Limitations of the Study.............................................................................................141

Recommendations for Future Research .....................................................................142

Implications for Change .............................................................................................144

Implications to Practice....................................................................................... 144

Implications to Theory ........................................................................................ 145

Implications for Social Change ........................................................................... 145

Conclusion .................................................................................................................146

References ........................................................................................................................148

Appendix A: Screening Script .........................................................................................175

Appendix B: Interviewing Protocol .................................................................................176

List of Tables

Table 1. Codes, Themes, and Subthemes ......................................................................... 81

Table 2. Final Themes/Subthemes With Structural Elements .......................................... 83

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study

In recent years, the utilization of professional coaching services by managers and

leaders, often termed executive coaching, has become a popular choice for leadership

development. According to the International Coaching Federation (ICF), in 2019, the

annual expenditures companies invested into professional coaching worldwide was

estimated at $2.9 billion, with executive and management clients as principal

beneficiaries (ICF, 2020). To improve leadership potential, executive coaching programs

are designed to assist the ongoing development of leaders as they handle issues, such as

employee morale, restructures, and a variety of other major transitions facing

organizations (Passmore & Lai, 2019). Accompanying this increased interest in coaching,

practitioners and scholars alike have debated the best manner to conceptualize, define,

and provide a measure of coaching skills; how effective the practice is; and how it should

best be implemented. Over the past 3 decades, researchers have begun to explore the

benefits of integrating mindfulness concepts and applications into the workplace, and the

findings have coincided with a growth in the number of published papers exploring both

the science and the practice of mindfulness (Passmore, 2019).

Despite these trends in the realm of workplace development, there is a lack of

formal research on the role of mindfulness as it applies to executive coaching. The effects

of globalization and technological innovation in recent years has revealed a necessity to

adopt new job skills; has increased the pressures of work quality and productivity; and

caused tighter time constraints, which have been observed systematically (Gonzalez-

Palau & Medrano, 2022). The impact of the “be the best of the best” work culture has

introduced high levels stress and fatigue, which often lead to increases of employee

absenteeism and turnover (Kerdpitak & Jermsittiparsert, 2020). As a result, work stress

phenomena have rapidly expanded, representing a significant health risk factor to

employees and affecting the organization as well (Morera et al., 2019). Therefore, it is

imperative that organizational development professionals employ strategies designed to

protect workers’ health and meet the needs of the company (Passmore, 2019; Vella &

McIver, 2018). Individuals who maintain a presence in the moment experience reduced

risks of burnout and employee turnover (Kemper et al., 2015; Kersemaekers et al., 2018;

Rupprecht et al., 2019). However, there is little to no evidence of the lived experiences of

executive coachees who engage in mindfulness practices.

The results of this study have the potential to provide positive social change for

both coaching clients and executive coaches. Coachees will have additional tools to assist

them in improving their communication skills, reducing the risk of workplace burnout,

managing stress, and facilitating an improvement in the quality of organizational

interactions. The coaching profession may grow due to a deeper understanding of the

evidence-based mindfulness techniques, which could positively affect the overall quality

of leadership coaching.

In this chapter, I discuss the background of leadership coaching and the

integration of mindfulness as a tool for leadership development. The problem of

managers not receiving adequate coaching interventions to foster professional

development and interpersonal communication is described. Mindful coaching

interventions assist managers in making decisions from a locus of present-moment

awareness, a lack of which can be detrimental to the integrity of an organization, as is

discussed in the problem statement. I also provide an explanation of the purpose of this

study. The conceptual foundation for this study was based on the concepts of self-

awareness, self-regulation, and self-transcendence (S-ART) comprising the S-ART

framework, which I used to explain the self-processing and neurological mechanisms

underlying mindfulness in executive coaching clients. Next, the study’s design, scope,

and limitations are discussed. I conclude the chapter by describing the significance of the

study and its contribution to scholarly research.

Background of the Study

Two distinct yet analogous approaches to mindfulness in relation to executive

coaching are mindfulness approaches, such as meditative and regulatory practice, and

activities designed to objectively observe one’s personal perspective. The first,

commonly referred to as an integrated meditative approach to mindfulness, is derived

from contemplative, cultural and philosophical traditions found in

the Upanishads of Hindu philosophy and involves the cultivation of a moment-to-

moment, nonjudgmental awareness of one’s personal and present experience (Gupta,

2021). The second approach, heavily influenced by the work of Dr. Jon Kabat-Zinn, is

derived from Western scientific literature and can be accurately described as a mindset of

openness to a unique perspective in which the individual actively constructs their own

categories and distinctions (Langer, 1989). This socio-cognitive approach to mindfulness

differs from the former meditative approach because it often includes the external,

material, and social context of individual participants (Baer, 2003).

Jonathan Passmore’s (2017) research into mindfulness in organizations indicates

the use of mindfulness as a tool is promising, and strong evidence for improvements in

personal well-being have been documented over the past 30 years. However, Kabat-Zinn

(2006) indicated more research work is required to better understand the role mindfulness

can play in individual performance, team climate, and wider organizational performance.

Davis and Bjornberg (2015) and Marianetti and Passmore (2012) discussed the

importance of mindfulness to positive psychology as well as industrial/organizational

psychology theory and practice. Mindfulness can be integrated into the workplace as a

tool for improving personal and organizational well-being (Bedham & King 2021;

Schwartz, 2018).

Scholars have discussed the connection between mindfulness and executive

attention, observing there is a marked relationship between higher trait mindfulness and

lower instances of interference in accuracy as well as reaction time in executive attention

(Lin et al., 2019; Smart & Segalowitz, 2017). Researchers have concluded that

mindfulness meditation facilitates emotional regulation and attention self-regulation

(Kabat-Zinn, 2019), and mindfulness-based interventions utilized by coaches assist in

clients obtaining and maintaining a formal presence in the moment. Other studies

suggested clients implementing practices of mindfulness may address the potential

physiological effects of stress by exploring a conscious evaluation of stimuli and grading

their personal reaction to them, giving consideration that negative stimuli might not

always be considered impactive (Arredondo et al., 2017; Heckenberg et al., 2018).

Problem Statement

Through an exhaustive literature review, I determined that a research gap exists

between the pressure and demands of executive professionals and empirical evidence of

successful coaching interventions that facilitate greater presence in the moment. This gap

leaves management personnel and the organizations they lead vulnerable to poor decision

making, declines in performance, and even increased employee turnover intention.

Previous studies have observed mindfulness as a successful health intervention; however,

there is less evidence within the literature regarding the application of mindfulness as a

workplace intervention through professional coaching. As presented in Chapter 2,

scholars have reported the potential implications of mindfulness-based practices on

organizational leadership development (Wibowo & Paramita, 2022).

Shelly and Zaidman (2021) opined that investigation into the various ways in

which mindfulness interventions are integrated into coaching interventions (e.g., raising

questions, breathing techniques, the empty chair technique), and the outcomes of such

methods in terms of the perceived outcomes of the process as described by the coaches

may shed light on this gap. Schwartz (2018) suggested the role of the applied

psychologist and coach practitioner in using mindfulness to enhance resilience remains

worthy of greater examination. Furthermore, Passmore (2019) found that while results are

promising for its use as a tool and strong evidence exists for improvements in well-being,

more research work is needed to better understand the role mindfulness can play in

individual performance, team climate, and wider organizational performance.

Historically, researchers have indicated the benefits of secular mindfulness-based

interventions (MBIs) to include contributions to health management and general self-

development, including psychological maturation and other competencies associated with

leader effectiveness (Shelly & Zaidman, 2021; Spence & Cavanagh, 2019; Vonderlin et

al., 2021). To date, executive professionals are increasingly exploring the use of

mindfulness meditation and other MBIs; however, MBIs in a coaching context have

presently received negligible attention in leadership development literature, and this

leaves a division between theory and practice that includes the lack of understanding of

leaders’ developmental experiences with MBIs. Therefore, I conducted this study to

expand the scholarly understanding of how leadership coaches observe the practice of

MBIs in their clients’ development as leaders.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to investigate what

features that professional mindfulness-based coaching interventions may provide to

executive leaders. An additional purpose of this study was to identify and examine

mindfulness intervention techniques considered best practices (i.e., presence exercises,

meditation sessions, and breathing techniques). I obtained thick descriptions and ascribed

meanings pertaining to mindfulness experiences through interviews with nine mindful

leadership coaches. The participants’ interview data were then transformed into meaning

units and textured thematic details were adapted into structures.

MBIs have been shown to potentially enhance leadership ability for individuals

(Shelly & Zaidman, 2021); however, little qualitative research has explored the perceived

outcomes of executive coaching clients using MBIs from the perspectives of the coaches.

A qualitative approach was necessary to explore the coaches’ experiences of using MBIs.

Further insight into how executive coaches perceive the outcomes of MBIs may provide

direction and guidance for organizations and leaders regarding developmental practices

that support leadership effectiveness.

Research Questions

Three research questions guided this study:

RQ1: How does engaging in mindfulness-based leadership coaching contribute to

a client’s personal self-awareness of words and actions as a leader in an

organization?

RQ2: How does engaging in mindfulness-based leadership coaching contribute to

the regulation of personal emotions within leaders of an organization?

RQ3: How does engaging in mindfulness-based leadership coaching contribute to

the personal self-transcendence of leaders in an organization?

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual foundations for this study were MBIs, leadership coaching, and

the S-ART framework. MBIs may influence leadership coaching outcomes by improving

the coachee’s ability to pay attention to their sensations, feelings, thoughts, and

environment in the here-and-now with an attitude of acceptance. Researchers and

practitioners have suggested that mindfulness-related changes in attention processes may

modify habitual reactivity in the context of negative self-beliefs (Aesbach et al., 2021).

MBIs have been shown to provide benefits, such as lowering stress, decreasing

depression, and strengthening interpersonal relationships (Passmore, 2019).

The next conceptual foundation, executive coaching, is a valuable leadership tool

to organizations that can help to build emotional stability, facilitate organizational

development, and transform presence and self-awareness. According to Boysen (2018),

effective coaching should be considered a transformational process where the coach is the

catalyst, and the recipient gains and improves awareness around solutions, answers, and

shifts that assist them in achieving goals and reaching a state of thriving. Executive

coaching can provide a much-needed opportunity for leaders to increase their self-

awareness and reflect on leadership skills and behaviors (Gyllensten et al., 2020).

The third conceptual foundation, the S-ART model, developed by Vago and

Silbersweig (2012), provides an empirical framework to clarify how mindfulness may

contribute to regulated emotions and stabilization of the mind as well as assist in the

improvement of overall health and well-being. The S-ART model focuses on two specific

mindfulness approaches: focused-attention concentration practice and open-monitoring

receptive practice. According to the S-ART framework, mindfulness aids in individuals’

development of self-awareness, behavior management, and doing things for the benefit of

other people. Vago and Silbersweig created the S-ART framework with six factors that

sustain mindfulness, and these factors are “intention and motivation, attention regulation,

emotion regulation, memory extinction and reconsolidation, prosociality, and non-

attachment and de-centering” (p. 15). The S-ART framework was instrumental in guiding

the development of the open-ended interview questions of this study.

Nature of Study

The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore features that professional

mindfulness-based coaching interventions may provide to executive leaders. The

researcher’s worldview, philosophical lens, beliefs, and experiences shape the interpretive

framework of the study in qualitative inquiry (Creswell, 2013). For this qualitative study,

I chose descriptive, transcendental phenomenology as the research design. One of the

strengths of qualitative research is its ability to explain processes and patterns of human

behavior, such as experiences, attitudes, and behaviors, which can be difficult to

accurately capture quantitatively (Mohajan, 2018). A qualitative approach allows

participants themselves to explain how, why, or what they were thinking, feeling, and

experiencing at a certain time or during an event of interest. According to Giorgi (2009),

transcendental phenomenology is an appropriate descriptive method to qualitatively

interpret and understand ascribed meanings of lived experiences, and I applied it to the

implementations of mindfulness in the current study.

In this qualitative study, I conducted in-depth, semistructured interviews to gather

data from a sample of leadership coaches who regularly provide mindfulness-based

coaching interventions to upper management personnel and organizational leaders.

Utilizing an inductive data analysis approach, themes were grouped and analyzed to

provide a thick description of the role of mindfulness in executive coaching.

Definition of Key Terms

Executive coaching: A structured, short- to medium-term relationship between

two individuals, one of whom is aiming for professional development indexed by

improvement in work performance (Joullié et al., 2022).

Leader development: The improvement in effectiveness of leaders and

organizational success (Day et al., 2021).

Mindfulness: Clear comprehension aligned with purpose to help individuals see

more clearly, respond more effectively to what life throws at them, and ultimately make

wiser choices (Shapiro, 2020).

MBIs: Practices developed to cultivate a mindfulness state. These practices can be

formal (such as Satya breath awareness exercises, walking meditation, and body scan

awareness) or informal (e.g., active listening and independence of outcome) in nature

(Zhang, et al., 2021).

Self-awareness: A range of components that can be developed through focus,

evaluation, and feedback and provide individuals with an awareness of their internal state

(e.g., emotions, cognitions, physiological responses) that drives their behaviors (e.g.,

beliefs, values and motivations) and an awareness of how this can impact and influence

others (Carden et al., 2022).

Self-regulation: To create insights and awareness of one’s own condition,

limitations, and possibilities, and give direction to one’s own life on all domains

(Scholten et al., 2023).

Self-transcendence: The phenomenon of experiencing oneself as expanding both

backward and forward in time; a feeling of connectedness to all of humanity, the earth,

and the cosmos; and a turn toward existential concerns, such as the meaning of life and

future death (Reischer et al., 2020).

Assumptions of the Study

I made assumptions about the coaches’ basic knowledge of mindfulness, the

potential of mindfulness, and the use of mindfulness as a coaching intervention. Another

assumption in this study was that the participants possessed a desire to improve a client’s

emotional self-regulation through self-awareness. Additionally, it was assumed that

executive coaches participating in the study wanted to improve the performance of their

leadership coaching clients. I also assumed that the S-ART framework was an appropriate

framework to explore self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-transcendence of

mindfulness in executive coaching for this study.

Scope and Delimitations

The scope of this study involved executive coaches with clients in leadership

positions who may experience varying levels of mindfulness. I conducted a descriptive,

transcendental, phenomenological examination of coaches providing mindfulness-based

coaching interventions. The findings of this study were generalized to the extent that the

sample was a representation of the population. Coaches of entry-level workers, line

supervisors, and nonmanagerial technical experts were not included as participants

because their professional responsibilities differ from executive leaders.

Limitations of the Study

There were few limitations to this study because it was conducted on a volunteer

basis and sought to report the experiences, perceptions, and reactions of coaches who

provide mindfulness-based coaching interventions. However, one limitation I identified

was that all coaching is not equal, and thus the delivery of MBIs may vary from one

coach to the next. Coaches feature a variety of styles, fits, and approaches to mindfulness.

Another potential limitation was that this study was restricted to the United States,

which places minor limits on generalization of the results. In qualitative research,

findings are not necessarily generalizable to samples or populations outside the research

sample frame. However, the findings may be applicable by presenting information for

future research and furthering data regarding mindfulness in leadership coaching.

A potential limitation to the study is internal validity, which was mitigated by

using member checking (i.e., verifying data supplied with participant) to validate the data

collected. Member checking, or respondent validation, is often utilized in qualitative

investigations and ensures accuracy (Birt et al., 2016). Another limitation was potential

researcher bias, which refers to individual perceptions or opinions that could impact

findings (see Allan, 2020). To mitigate this potential bias, I used basic journaling,

including the documentation of my perceptions, opinions, and possible biases that may

have impacted the research findings (see Marshall & Rossman, 2011).

Significance of the Study

Significance to Practice

A more implicit understanding of how executive coachees experience MBIs in

their development as leaders can provide insight and guidance for both individual leaders

and organizational practices. As outlined in Chapter 2, researchers have shown the

beneficial effects of mindfulness practices on leadership development, including

workplace resilience (Schwartz, 2018), open communication (Van Den Assem &

Passmore, 2022), and an improvement in self-awareness and engagement (Sutton &

Crobach, 2022). Spence and Cavanagh (2019) highlighted that MBIs can be implemented

in a variety of ways, and mindfulness meditation, attention training, and mindful

creativity all show improvement in presence to the moment and goal attainment.

The findings of this study may be beneficial for all populations but are

particularly significant for leaders of organizations because executive coaching is

becoming a more common practice in corporate culture. Furthermore, the findings are

significant to the burgeoning realm of leadership development theory and may offer

options to leaders not previously considered but found grounded in empirical evidence.

Significance to Theory

This research is significant to theory because it addresses an identified gap in the

literature by expanding the understanding of how managers who engage in mindfulness-

based coaching interventions grow and develop as leaders. Despite noted growth in

literature, there is scant evidence regarding the association between leadership coaching

and MBIs. The information that is available is mostly centered around the reduction of

stress and development of positive mental well-being via Kabat-Zinn’s (1993)

Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program or the development of

mindfulness-based practices, such as those outlined in Passmore’s (2019) Mindfulness in

Organizations. There is little empirical evidence describing the lived experiences of

executive professionals who engage in mindfulness-based coaching interventions.

As highlighted by Van Den Assem and Passmore (2022), research on the

variations and levels of mindful coaching practice and personal mindfulness practice

should be undertaken, including outcomes from the use of mindfulness in coaching

contexts and consideration of how leaders determine if MBIs are useful or beneficial for

them. In this study, I expanded on the literature in the field of industrial/organizational

psychology regarding the outcomes of MBIs among executive coaches. Furthermore, the

results of this study can provide insight into the use of mindfulness techniques as a

method for professional development, assisting executive leaders with a decrease in

burnout, clearer presence in the moment, and greater goal attainment (see Spence &

Cavanagh, 2019).

Significance to Social Change

This study has potential implications for social change at the individual leader

level as well as the organization and the leadership coach levels. A greater understanding

of mindfulness coaching practices could provide developments in personal awareness

(Shelly & Zaidman, 2021), more substance in interpersonal interactions, and an

improvement in leadership performance (Spence & Cavanagh, 2019). Although metric

returns on investment for coaching are often difficult to measure (Athanasopoulou &

Dopson, 2018), other demonstrable variables, such as employee performance metrics,

self-reported stress levels, and employee satisfaction, may result (Passmore & Velez,

2015).

Studies have suggested that participation in a professionally developed coaching

program provides benefits not only directly to leaders but to the overall organization as

well (Zuñiga-Collazos et al., 2020). As senior managers develop their leadership

capabilities through MBIs, it may result in a positive, social, communicative culture for

all employees and their managers (Schwartz, 2018; Zang et al., 2022). This can assist

leaders in enhancing their organizations by facilitating a clear and present to the moment

focus on fulfilling the organization’s vision, mission, and strategic goals.

Summary

Executive coaching has recently become a popular option to address issues

impeding leadership development. According to Pandolfi (2020), executive coaching is

constantly undergoing development, and coaches apply a range of approaches reflective

of their diverse backgrounds to their work with executives and management teams. The

problem is that many executives are not fully present to the moment when responding to

emerging challenges of the 21st-century global environment (Rupprecht et al., 2019).

Current approaches to leadership development fall short of providing training and

coaching interventions supportive of mindful action and an embodied response to

workplace stressors. The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to

investigate features that professional mindfulness-based coaching interventions may

provide to executive leaders. An additional purpose of this study was to identify and

examine mindfulness intervention techniques considered best practices (i.e., presence

exercises, meditation sessions, and breathing techniques). This research has implications

for positive social change in that a better understanding of how leaders experience MBIs

in their development as leaders may provide direction for both leaders and organizations

on developmental practices supporting enhanced capacities.

In this chapter, I provided background information on executive coaching and

mindfulness-based practices. The problem of this study was discussed along with the

purpose and nature. An overview of the conceptual foundations was provided as well as

the research questions developed to guide the study. I also described the

phenomenological design, scope, and limitations. The chapter concluded with a

discussion of the significance of this study and its contribution to scholarly work. In

Chapter 2, I will explore the literature supporting this study.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Executive coaching is becoming common in the workplace as its practice develops

a more formal role through wider application. Effective coaching should be considered a

transformational process where the coach is the catalyst and the recipient gains and

improves awareness around solutions, answers, and shifts that may assist them in

achieving goals and to reach a state of thriving (Boysen, 2018). Major companies, such as

IBM and Motorola, routinely offer coaching as a component of their executive

development resources and programs (Feldman & Lankau, 2015).

Many consider the evolution of executive coaching somewhat synonymous with

that of other professional services, such as mentors, counselors, and consultants

(Passmore & Lai, 2019). According to the Chartered Institute of Personnel and

Development (CIPD), professional coaching is now considered one of the most reported

learning and development methods that professionals have utilized in the last 12 months

by 44% of surveyed organizations (CIPD, 2020). In fact, the annual expenditures

companies invested into professional coaching worldwide was estimated to be $2.9

billion in 2019, with executive and management clients as principal beneficiaries (ICF,

2020).

The field of executive coaching is in a constant state of development, and as such,

coaches apply a range of emerging approaches, reflective of their diverse backgrounds, to

their work with executives and management teams (Pandolfi, 2020). The relationship

between cognition, emotion, and behavior is the essence of psychology, and some might

even suggest that mindfulness makes similar links between these three aspects of what it

is to be human (Passmore, 2018). Despite its growing popularity, no formal definition of

a MBI seems to exist or can be formally agreed upon, often resulting in the concept

becoming conflated with many common interpretations (Aesbach et al., 2021). However,

scholars have often referred to mindfulness as attention paid to individual experiences as

they arise, moment-by-moment, and in a manner that is open, nonjudgmental,

nonreactive, and with an attitude accepting of situations as they are (Kabat-Zinn, 2006).

Scholars observing mindfulness within the coaching field is unsurprising, especially with

a growing interest in mindfulness practices emerging in the workplace (Badham &

Graduate, 2021).

Although the historic concept of mindfulness dates back thousands of years to Zen

Buddhist origins, professionals in the management arena might have only recently heard

of mindfulness because the term has taken on a somewhat pop culture phenomenon

(Passmore, 2019). Concepts of mindfulness as a tool for well-being and goal attainment

has also gained some discussion amongst scholars (Spence & Cavanagh, 2019) but its

usefulness in leadership coaching has not yet been studied. Supporters of mindfulness

contend its practice offers deep benefits within the person and the organization, often

assisting professionals in aligning personal values with their goals, with mindfulness

offered as a “master key” to assist in unlocking potential (Bedham & King, 2021;

Carleton et al., 2018; Passmore 2019). However, critics of mindfulness in the workplace

have viewed the concept as a passing trend or even “mystical woo-woo” derived from

outdated practice (Baer et al., 2019; Goldhagen et al., 2015; Purser, 2019; Whitehead et

al., 2019). Despite a developing empirical base, scholars (Bedham & King, 2021; Shelly

& Zaidman, 2021; Van Den Assam & Passmore, 2021) agreed that literature is scant, and

a need exists to broaden the understanding of practices of mindfulness in executive

coaching.

The application of specific practices and concepts of mindfulness to executive

coaching and an understanding of its wider implications on organizations remains largely

unexplored. Various researchers have reported that mindfulness can be used to reduce the

effects of stress and increase emotional stability, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and

empathy as well as have a positive impact on prosocial behavior (Roberts et al., 2017;

Shelly & Zaidman, 2021; Spence & Cavanaugh, 2019). Other researchers have linked

mindfulness to mental well-being, suggesting that programs, such as Kabat-Zinn’s (1993)

MBSR, may help to improve employees’ psychological functioning. However, few

conclusions have been drawn about the effects of specific mindfulness-based programs

for transferability to different groups and/or under specific conditions (Janssen et al.,

2018). The purpose of the current study was to examine the role of mindfulness in

executive coaching through the observed outcomes of client interventions. An additional

purpose of this study was to identify best mindfulness executive coaching practices to

contribute to the growing body of knowledge.

The subsequent literature review begins with a discussion of the conceptual

foundation used to ground this study as well as the concepts of mindfulness and executive

coaching. I also provide the findings of several studies explaining the relationship

between mindfulness, executive coaching, and the S-ART model.

Literature Search Strategy

I began this literature review with a comprehensive search of library databases

accessible through the Walden University Library. Electronic data searches were first

conducted to classify and locate articles relating to various features that contain the

phenomena of mindfulness and executive coaching. In addition to searching for the terms

mindfulness and executive coaching, I also searched the terms of burnout, stress,

personality traits, leadership development, organizational change, resilience,

conscientiousness, and well-being as well as for any articles that related to the

relationship between mindfulness and coaching.

Initially, my searches were set for a publication period of 2017 to 2022 to locate

recent relevant studies. I also gathered more material from additional libraries, primarily

using psychological and educational databases, including psychINFO, psychARTICLES,

Academic Search Complete, SAGE Premier, Expanded Academics (using the search

terms of mindfulness techniques and coaching, leadership development and mindfulness,

mindfulness and manager skills, mindfulness and resilience, mindfulness and executive

coaching, and stress and resilience and conscientiousness), ProQuest Central (using the

search terms of mindfulness and executive coaching), Thoreau Multi-Databases (using the

search terms of mindfulness techniques and coaching, leadership development and

mindfulness, mindfulness and manager skills, mindfulness and resilience, mindfulness

and executive coaching, and stress and resilience and conscientiousness), and Google

Scholar (using the search terms of mindfulness techniques and coaching, leadership

development and mindfulness, mindfulness and manager skills, mindfulness and

resilience, mindfulness and executive coaching, and stress and resilience and

conscientiousness).

Conceptual Framework

Three components composed the conceptual framework of this study: the concept

of mindfulness, the concept of executive coaching, and the S-ART framework as defined

by Vago and Silbersweig (2012).

S-ART Framework

The S-ART model, developed by Vago and Silbersweig (2012), is a framework of

self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-transcendence, illustrating a method for

becoming aware of the conditions that cause (and remove) distortions or biases.

According to (Vago & Sibersweig, 2012, para. 3), mindfulness is described as

“systematic mental training that develops meta-awareness (self-awareness), an ability to

effectively modulate one's behavior (self-regulation), and a positive relationship between

self and other that transcends self-focused needs and increases prosocial characteristics

(self-transcendence).” The S-ART model was developed by synthesizing the Eastern (i.e.,

Buddhist) traditional approaches and Western (i.e., contemporary) mindfulness models

with the purpose of explaining the self-processing and neurological mechanisms that

underly mindfulness.

With the framework, Vago and Silbersweig (2012) attempted to provide a unified

understanding of the mechanisms through which mindfulness functions by

operationalizing the concept in two ways: (a) as a broadly defined method for developing

a multidimensional skill set that ultimately leads to a reduction in self-processing biases

and creates a sustainable healthy mind, and (b) a continuous discriminative attentional

capacity that is referred to as “mindful awareness,” a skill amongst a set of other skills

developed through specific meditation practices. Scholars observing mindfulness-based

practices have noted improvements in the ability to be aware of personal experiences as

they genuinely are with objectivity and without biases and personal interpretations

(Minzlaff, 2019; Shelly & Zaidman, 2021; Van Dem Assem & Passmore, 2022). The

core practices of the S-ART framework consist of focused attention and open monitoring

(Tolbaños-Roche & Menon, 2021). Kabat-Zinn (2006) described these actions as

mindfulness meditation. Other researchers have noted mindful actions contribute to

emotional regulation through breath control (Passmore, 2017), their use of language, and

the way they describe their reality (Shelly & Zaidman, 2021).

Self-Awareness

Benefits to leadership development through self-awareness have been observed

by Beena et al. (2021) and include the embodiment of authentic leadership behaviors by

focusing interventions on interpersonal triggers in addition to individual triggers.

According to the researchers, assessments designed to identify self‐awareness triggers

may lead to deeper self‐examination and personal self‐awareness. Furthermore, these

self-awareness triggers were identified as valuable resources to develop training

programs for conflict management and ethical decision making. Self-awareness is

considered paramount for effective leadership and is recognized as a cornerstone of

authentic, servant, empowering, resonant, and transformational leadership styles

(Amundsen & Martinsen, 2014; Boyatzis, 2008; Friedman et al., 2021).

Leaders who improve their self-awareness can elevate their effectiveness as well.

Gotowski (2020) observed that psychological pitfalls are associated with leader strengths

through inner dynamics. According to Gotowski, excessive application of positive

attributes can result in them negatively affecting leadership effectiveness. An elevated

self-awareness of overused strengths was found to minimize the associated negative

impact on communication and interpersonal relations. In another study, Da Fonseca et al.

(2022) conducted semistructured interviews with executives who had experienced

working for a manager who displayed low self-awareness and found that managers who

have low self-awareness exhibit toxic and destructive leadership behaviors, which often

resulted in decreased employee engagement and even instances of employee retaliation.

Self-Regulation

Some benefits to leadership development through emotional regulation observed

by Terrence and Conelly (2019) include the modification of personal situations and

cognitive reappraisal, which proved to be positively associated with performance. In

addition, emotional suppression was found to be negatively related to performance, and

attentional deployment was not found to be related. Suppression was found to affect

performance in leadership tasks regardless of gender, trait affectivity, and empathy. The

authors suggested specific emotion regulation strategies may be more applicable to some

leaders than others, and the regulation strategy (or lack thereof) utilized by a leader may

stimulate or even obstruct their efficacy.

Wibowo et al. (2022) examined the impact of mindful and empathetic leadership

on resilience with self-regulation as the mediating variable. The researchers concluded

self-regulation can mediate relationships amongst mindful leadership/empathetic

leadership and turnover intention/resilience. Leadership development is often a

systematic and exhaustive process that can be optimized by integrating an intentional

system of emotional regulation. Similarly, Collins et al. (2021) concluded that leaders

who exhibit anger and impulsive behavior are less likely to be viewed by their

organization members as an ethical leader. Additionally, this high trait anger and

impulsiveness may negatively affect a leader’s perspective of their personal ability to

engage in organizational change.

Self-Transcendence

The most significant benefit to leadership development through self-

transcendence is the expansion of a leader’s personal desire to provide service to others.

According to Barton and Hart (2023), self-transcendence values capture the extent to

which individuals care for the well-being of those to which they may have a direct

responsibility and indirect influence. Reed (1991) described self-transcendence as an

expansion of introspective boundaries inwardly, outwardly, and temporally. Reed (2008)

developed self-transcendence theory to provide a framework for medical care providers

and leaders by promoting a focus of well-being amid life-altering events. In the self-

transcendence theory, Reed postulated that self-transcendence is an organic stage of

development individuals must reach to feel fulfilled in life and obtain a sense of purpose.

Researchers have often theorized about self-transcendence as an ideal at the upper

stages of human development and that it may not only be principally valuable but that it

also provides interpretations for individual meaning and happiness (Maslow, 1971).

Davis (2020) sought to determine how members view leaders possessing qualities of self-

transcendence and servant-leadership behavior. The author found that members

conceptualize self-transcendence in leaders as those who refrain from satisfying their

own personal interests and instead favoring openness to uncertainty and the needs of

others. In another examination of the impact of self-transcendence across seven studies,

Huang and Yang (2023) observed that both self-transcendence and self-enhancement are

necessary for personal meaning and happiness; however, perceptions of personal

meaning were found to be more self-transcendent than perceptions of happiness.

According to the S-ART model, six neurocognitive mechanisms underlie the

process of mindfulness that can contribute to enhancing the three S-ART abilities,

reducing self-biases, and bringing balance to a healthy mind: motivation and intention,

attention regulation, emotion regulation, extinction and reconsolidation, prosociality, and

nonattachment and de-centering. In the current study, I used these neurocognitive

mechanisms to guide the open-ended interview questions. Thematic analysis of the data

provided insight to the lived experiences of clients receiving mindfulness-based executive

coaching interventions. The S-ART framework also provided a foundation to the research

questions of this study as a mechanism for exploration of the concept of mindfulness in a

leadership coaching context. Additionally, the S-ART framework provided an operational

definition of mindfulness with which to examine its role in executive coaching and the

lived experiences of clients who receive it as an intervention. Currently, no known studies

exist applying the S-ART framework to observe features of mindfulness-based executive

coaching.

Literature Review

Defining and Conceptualizing Mindfulness

For this qualitative study, used the concept of mindfulness to support the

conceptual framework. Few can agree on a formal and historic definition of mindfulness,

although a broad view firmly established since the 13th century can be examined, which

goes beyond narrow disciplinary definitions that are currently on offer. The Oxford

English Dictionary (OED) defines mindfulness as “the state or quality of taking thought

or care of; heedful of; keeping remembrance of” (OED, 1979, p. 1801). Marlatt and

Kristeller (1999) define mindfulness as “bringing one's complete attention to the present

experience on a moment-to-moment basis.” Brown and Ryan (2003, p. 822), posit

“mindfulness can be considered an enhanced attention to and awareness of current

experience or present reality.”

According to Cavanagh and Spence (2013), defining mindfulness is no simple

matter, as it can be used to denote a system of beliefs (philosophies), habitual

predispositions (traits), a deliberate process (practices), or even resulting cognitive

phenomena (states). Kabat-Zinn (2012) defines mindfulness using three significant

words: intention, attention, and attitude – an individual’s approach to the purpose of their

thoughts. According to Kabat-Zinn, individuals who gain access to mindfulness and can

utilize its tools consistently may become more intentional about their thoughts. The

various definitions of mindfulness in the literature note that the focus of mindfulness is

not on proposed outcomes but more appropriately focused on the processes of being, of

awareness, attention, the present, and of a state of mind. Consequently, this action may

enable self-reflection to occur (Van Dem Assem & Passmore, 2022). To distinguish it

from reflection, Evans et al. (2009, p. 379) saw mindfulness as “a form of present

centered, nonjudgmental, and nonreactive awareness.”

Despite ambiguous perspectives published on the concept of mindfulness,

researchers continue to assert that a clear and agreed upon coach-practitioner definition of

mindfulness has not been reached (Nilsson & Kazemi, 2016; Schwartz, 2018; Spence,

2019; Trowbridge & Mische Lawson, 2016). Few studies have explored the development

and benefits of mindfulness in practice by coaches for themselves or their clients

(Passmore, 2017). With respect to this position, it is often difficult to determine which

definitions of mindfulness coaches and other practitioners have utilized, to what degree or

effect they use it in practice, or even if they have independently developed their own

concepts of mindfulness through the practice of it. Even though mindfulness can be quite

difficult to define, it assists in keeping coaches connected with whatever is real in the

moment for them or their clients (Van Dem Assem & Passmore, 2022). According to the

researchers, additional research should be undertaken to include clients’ own views on

the use of mindfulness in various coaching contexts and consider how they determine it is

useful or beneficial for them. Literature has identified a need for further research on

issues and conditions that relate to definitions as well as the measurement of mindfulness

(Spence & Cavanaugh, 2019).

Mindfulness Historical Overview

The origins of Mindfulness arguably date back thousands of years into recorded

history. The documented roots of the concept typically fall into one of two prominent

categories, as it holds notoriety in diverse fields (Passmore, 2019). The first, based on a

2500-year old historical model, is rooted in Buddhist practices and scientific observation,

and the second, a 32-year old contemporary model. The model is heavily influenced by

Jon Kabat- Zinn’s Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) course, an adaptation of

specific Buddhist techniques intended for general stress reduction (Kabat-Zinn,1990).

Zen Buddhism

Buddhist meditation is deeply rooted from within a 2,600-year-old philosophical

doctrine facilitating Sakyamuni Buddha throughout India (Lomas, et al., 2017; Marx &

Jones, 2017; Shonin, et al., 2014; Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012). According to Shonin et al.

(2014), many contemporary mental health exercises often appear similar to forms of

Buddhist meditation known as concentrative meditation, insight meditation, and

mindfulness meditation. Meditative practices place an emphasis on improving personal

awareness of their breath, their thoughts, and their bodily processes. Nhất Hạnh (1987)

suggested that mindfulness is a vital part of the regulation of the breath to remain calm

during adverse situations.

Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)

Much of the existing literature regarding mindfulness originates most notably,

from the pioneering work in the late 1970s of Jon Kabat-Zinn in behavioral medicine

(Kabat-Zinn, 1982), with his introduction of mindfulness-based stress reduction

interventions. The MBSR is described as a therapeutic and clinical application of

mindfulness-based practices designed for the treatment of many psychological and

physiological problems. Interest in the MBSR program has grown exponentially among

scholars and professionals over the last 30 years (Williams & Kabat-Zinn, 2011), and is

now considered the most widely instructed secular form of mindfulness practice in

academic medical centers and clinics throughout North America and Europe (Davidson &

Begley, 2012).

Although mindfulness is often associated with meditation, mindfulness as a

concept provides much more than just a meditation technique. Fundamentally,

mindfulness can be viewed as a way of being. It can be viewed as a way for people to

inhabit their bodies, their minds, and their moment-by-moment experience with openness

and receptivity. Mindfulness is a deep state of awareness developed through knowing and

experiencing life as it arises and passes away in each moment (Baer, 2014). Mindfulness

can be conceived as an acknowledgment of reality that is devoid of judgment – a state in

which one’s feelings are received, accepted, and dealt with on an equivalent basis (Marx

& Jones, 2017; Napoli, 2004; Nhất Hạnh,1987; Pierotti & Remer, 2017). Although much

of mindfulness research has focused on patient benefits, research suggests that

mindfulness interventions may be particularly useful for health care professionals and

therapists as a means of managing stress as well as promoting self-care (Irving et al.,

2009; Shapiro & Carlson, 2009).

Conceptualizing Mindfulness

One perspective proposes mindfulness is comprised of three core elements:

intention, attention, and attitude (Shapiro & Carlson, 2009). Intention is a focus on

knowing why we do what we are doing: it defines our aim, our vision, and our aspiration.

Attention involves individuals being fully to the present moment, instead of allowing

individual attention to become preoccupied with the past or future. Attitude refers to the

manner of thinking, feeling, or behaving, reflective of a state of mind or disposition.

These three elements do not manifest separately – but are interwoven, each informing and

cultivating the others. According to the authors, mindfulness is a moment-to-moment

process. In another perspective, according to Grossman & Van Dam (2011), mindfulness

can be described as (a) A temporary state of non-judgmental, non-reactive, present-

centered attention and awareness that is cultivated during meditation practice. Next, it is

(b) An enduring trait that can be described as a dispositional pattern of cognition,

emotion, or behavioral tendency; (c) A meditation practice; (d) An intervention. The

researchers conclude that dispositional mindfulness can be measured by at least eight

self-report scales that are often uncorrelated with each other (Grossman and Van Dam,

2011).

Recently, both researchers and practitioners have applied mindfulness practices

and interventions into business settings to reduce burnout and to improve focus,

performance, and employee well-being (Altizer, 2017). However, most investigations

into mindfulness have not been based on standardized or validated empirical research or

outcome studies within the context of its use in a coaching environment (Grant, 2013;

Virgili, 2013). Passmore and Amit’s (2017, p. 5) concept of “mindful awareness” helps

connect mindfulness through attention to reflection through the observation: “Mindful

awareness is a way of being, as much as mindfulness is a chosen way of life.”

Recent Findings on Mindfulness

Researchers have sought to determine which aspects of mindfulness-based

practices (MBP) are perceived to be helpful and which are not. How mindfulness is

integrated in private and work life, and what ways participating in an MBP is perceived to

affect physicians’ well-being as well as their private and work life. Aeschbach et al.,

(2021) determined that a tailored MBP can enable resident physicians to integrate

mindfulness into their daily life, including work at the hospital, increase perceived self-

care, and contribute to their well-being. Resident physicians reported perceiving a

positive impact of the MBP on their interactions with patients, confirming previous

literature supporting the mediating effects of self-awareness and mindfulness (Richards et

al., 2010). Similar to meditation in practice, researchers note that mindfulness practices

have shown efficacy for reducing subjective distress and future research should

investigate this tailored MBP for resident physicians by comparing it to standard

Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) outcomes (Kabat-Zinn,1990).

Although within a historic context mindfulness-based programs (MBPs) initially

appear to be beneficial, researchers sought to determine the potential for harm. A study

conducted by Baer et al., (2019) suggests that participants with severe psychological

symptoms, comorbid conditions, and other such vulnerabilities (psychosis, trauma

history, suicide risk) may benefit from MBPs in standard or adapted forms, and that some

may show more benefit from MBPs than participants without such vulnerabilities. The

sparse reviews that include data on adverse events and serious adverse events in

evidence-based MBPs report that they have occurred in zero to 10.6% of participants, are

no more common in MBPs than comparison conditions (Kuyken et al., 2016; Wong et al.,

2018), and are not attributable to the MBP, or are not clinically significant (Banks et al.,

2015). Nevertheless, the potential for harm clearly occurs, and similar harm might arise in

evidence-based MBPs, despite adaptations for contemporary mainstream contexts. The

presence of structural and psychoeducational mindfulness data supports a need for further

investigation.

In a study conducted by Janssen et al. (2018), it was determined that the most

prominent outcomes observed from mindfulness-based interventions (MBSR, MBCT)

were a reduction in levels of emotional exhaustion (a dimension of burnout), stress,

psychological distress, depression, anxiety, and occupational stress. Further,

improvements were found in terms of mindfulness, personal accomplishment (a

dimension of burnout), (occupational) self-compassion, quality of sleep, and relaxation.

The researchers suggest future qualitative studies to thoroughly investigate key aspects of

mindfulness training programs and to examine factors that lead to successful long-term as

well as short-term implementation in an organization.

A study of leaders’ trait mindfulness concluded that it was indirectly related to

transformational leadership through leaders’ positive affect and leadership self-efficacy

beliefs, (Carleton et al., 2018). According to the authors, individual self-efficacy beliefs

are critical to the motivation to lead, (Chan & Drasgow, 2001) as well as to the

effectiveness of individual leadership styles or techniques (Ng, Ang, & Chan, 2008).

Grounded within the Mindfulness-to-Meaning theory (Garland et al., 2015), research

conducted by Li et al., (2022) explored the internal relationship between trait mindfulness

and life satisfaction from the perspectives of cognition (core self-evaluation) and emotion

(positive affect and negative affect). Results suggest that core self-evaluation and positive

and negative affect were the mediators in the relationship. Furthermore, the researchers

concluded that “core self-evaluation-positive affect” and “core self-evaluation-negative

affect” were two mediating chain paths between trait mindfulness and life satisfaction

(Diener et al., 2018).

To create a unified framework for understanding the mechanisms by which

mindfulness functions, Vago and Silbersweig (2012) operationalized the concept in two

ways. First, as a method for developing a multidimensional skillset that contributes to a

reduction in self processing biases and creates a sustainable healthy mind. The second, a

continuous discriminative attentional capacity referred to as “mindful awareness,” a set of

skills developed through specific meditative practices. The S-ART framework includes

six component supportive mechanisms underlying the practice and cultivation of

mindfulness as a state and trait: (1) intention and motivation; (2) attention regulation; (3)

emotion regulation; (4) memory extinction and reconsolidation; (5) pro-sociality; (6) non-

attachment and de-centering.

Future directions of mindfulness awareness in the professional as well as personal

landscape includes mobile applications (apps), digital psychological interventions, and

experimental installations to facilitate scientific study. Often, these might include those

built for a different purpose than mindfulness training, but nonetheless relate to

components of S-ART as well as other models of mindfulness, which present valuable

interventions for improving individual mindfulness (Shamekhi & Bickmore, 2015). A

review of mindfulness-based applications conducted by Schultchen et al., (2021)

evaluated apps from the European Apple App and the Google Play stores. The authors

determined that despite a saturation of apps endorsing concepts of mindfulness, the

overall quality of applications currently available is low, in terms of usefulness and ease

of use. Most were found to lack verification of effectiveness and many posed privacy

protection as well as security risks.

The previously discussed studies have provided a foundation for mindfulness and

its benefits for organizations and leaders. These studies have shown the positive impact of

mindfulness-based programs and interventions. The current study may add to the

literature by using the S-ART model as a basis to investigate features of mindfulness in

executive coaching.

Background of Executive Coaching

Early references to coaching in the workplace date back to 1937 as cited by

multiple research papers over the past two decades (Grant, 2001). In a journalist’s report

by C.B Gordy, the Detroit editor of Factory Management and Maintenance, it was written

‘whereas supervisors found it advisable in the early years to coach employees in the

importance of spoiled work and cost reduction, it is now found the older men voluntarily

assume this task in training the younger employees’ (Gordy, 1937, p.83). Executive

coaching can trace its roots back to a time when management consultants commonly

utilized Edgar Schein’s (1969) “process consulting” methodology to facilitate individuals

and organizations. Employees were assigned a mentor (often a senior member), to assist

with the career development of the mentee, and those experiencing difficulties at work

would consult with an employee counsellor.

Parallel to the emergence of the humanistic movement in the 1960s, professional

coaching began to gain traction within the workplace. Management literature captured the

essence of how coaching could be utilized to develop performance and began to appear

more in training and management journals. Prior to the 1970s, the term Executive

Coaching wasn’t widely utilized but the concepts of counseling alongside consulting

became common in the corporate domain (Passmore & Lai, 2019). Companies often

recruited external counselling executives so managers could utilize one-on-one sessions

with them. This early coaching approach was referred to as 1:1 consulting and followed

much of the same structure as the client/therapist relationship in terms of contracting,

goals, delivery, and ethics (Pandolfi, 2020).

For many, this early concept of coaching was viewed as a sounding-board for top

executives to process their work experiences (Schein, 1999). While the development of

coaching has been transformed from a ‘business model or ‘service’ (Briner, 2012)

towards a more scientific rooted profession, more rigorous research is required to inform

future practice. By many accounts, the evolution of executive coaching has become

somewhat synonymous with that of other professional services such as mentors,

counselors, and consultants (Passmore & Lai, 2019).

What many consider “modern” coaching psychology (CP) emerged in the early

2000s, around the same time as positive psychology began to rise in empirical data

(Adams, 2016). In a recent survey, researchers indicate that coaching is now one of the

most commonly reported learning and development methods professionals have utilized

in the last 12 months by 44% of surveyed organizations (CIPD, 2020). Atad and Grant

(2021), describe coaching psychology as a ‘grassroots’ movement, led by founders of the

Coaching Psychology Unit at the University of Sydney and the Special Interest Group in

Coaching Psychology in the British Psychological Society (BPS). The BPS includes

psychologists such as Stephen Palmer, Jonathan Passmore, and Alison Whybrow, who

are considered experts in the realm of executive coaching. Recent developments in

technology, combined with an emerging momentum in research, will move professional

coaching services from a ‘cottage industry’ towards a fully mechanized process,

enhancing accessibility, consistency and reducing cost (Passmore & Evans-Krimme,

2021).

A single unified definition of coaching has been a persistent debate within both

coaching practice and research, across literature from practitioner’s guides to academic

texts (Brock, 2012; Passmore & Theeboom, 2016). Perspectives and individual emphasis

varies, reflecting the orientation and focus of different writers (e.g. Whitmore, 1992;

Grant & Palmer, 2002; Passmore & Fillery-Travis, 2011). Grant (2011) argues a succinct

definition would aid in the development of evidence-based practices, such as coach

training and education. The International Coach Federation (ICF) encourages coaches to

provide the nature of their coaching practice and interventions during the contracting

phase with clients, to ensure they understand the process and what the client can expect

(ICF, 2017). Stokes & Jolly (2018) write there is little value in distinguishing between

executive and leadership coaching, particularly where executive coaching takes place in

leadership development program or setting. According to Stern (2004), “executive

coaching provides positive support, feedback, and advice on an individual or group basis

to improve personal effectiveness in the business setting, many a time focusing on

behavioral changes through psychometrics or 360-degree feedback for example.”

Executive Coaching Outcomes

Researchers have sought to determine what outcomes executive coaching

provides, and in recent years, this has been mirrored by growing literature examining the

simple question: “is it worth it?” According to the International Coaching Federation

(ICF), annual expenditures companies invest into professional coaching worldwide was

estimated at $2.9 billion in 2019, with executive and management clients as principal

beneficiaries (ICF, 2020). The results of a metanalysis conducted by Athanasopoulou and

Dopson (2018) suggests that efforts to evaluate coaching Return on Investment (ROI) is

made largely in vain, as financial investment is not an accurate measure of the benefits

executive coaching provides. The authors’ implications for coaching outcome studies call

for the use of control groups, randomized experiments and rigorous statistical analysis

(e.g. Ladegard & Gjerde, 2014; Moen & Federici, 2012b; Grant et al., 2010) which

provide robust proof that coaching is not only effective, (De Haan & Duckworth, 2013)

but represents a scientific, evidence-based research approach from which the existing

body of knowledge can greatly benefit (Griffiths & Campbell, 2008).

Scholarly literature has explored “how to” effectively coach executives (Allen et

al., 2011; Gentry et al., 2013), but research exploring “the benefits” that are created by

effective executive coaching appear underreported. To better understand factors that

determine workplace coaching effectiveness, Bozer, & Jones (2018) performed a meta-

analytic investigation, the results of which positioned coachee self-efficacy as a key

psychological variable in executive coaching. The authors note that higher self-efficacy

often indicates coachees are more likely to set more challenging goals. Further,

associations demonstrated by Bandura (1986) between self-efficacy, challenging goals,

greater application of attention and efforts in the face of challenges to goals (Judge &

Bono, 2001; Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998) provide a basis for why high individual self-

efficacy is an antecedent to successful coaching outcomes. Future research should

explore whether conceptualizing goal orientation in alternative frameworks such as the

four-factor framework proposed by Elliot and McGregor (2001) offer additional insights

into understanding the importance of goal orientation and coaching outcomes.

To determine outcomes of individual coaching, the attribute of self-efficacy was

considered and explored. Through an examination of recent meta-analyses, reviews and

articles, Pandolfi (2020) conducted a systematic database search, selecting peer-reviewed

articles published globally between 2009 and 2019. Qualitative evidence emerging from

the review of literature suggests coaches should monitor and support building general and

task-specific self-efficacy over time, which is positively associated with executive

coaching outcomes. The researchers suggest a collaborative project between coaching

practitioners, academics, and client organizations would be useful to future research by

integrating the best available evidence and theory, to harmonize concepts, and the

operationalization of key constructs and causal relationships.

Longenecker and McCartney (2020) provide a set of benefit trends that individual

executives, boards of directors and organizations should consider in the development of

their senior leaders through coaching. These benefits include improved executive focus,

better alignment of key leadership behaviors, candid and ongoing feedback,

accountability for appropriate leader behaviors, improved emotional intelligence and ego

control and personal support and encouragement, among others. The researchers

encourage organizations to evaluate their view and approach to executive coaching and

identify specific leaders that might be in need of assistance in developing their leadership

potential.

An examination of executive coaching outcomes in a field setting was conducted

by De Haan et al., (2019) who developed a near-randomized controlled trial study,

theorizing those aspects common to all coaching approaches are the main active

ingredients, mediated by the working alliance (WAI) as the single-best predicting

common aspect. Results of the data analysis confirmed the impact of “common factors”

on coaching effectiveness (CE). The researchers discovered strong indications that the

coaching relationship WAI as rated by both the coach and coachee correlates with coach-

and coachee-rated CE to a considerable degree. This confirms work that was done by

Baron and Morin (2009), Boyce et al. (2010), De Haan et al. (2013, 2016) and others as

summarized in Grabmann et al. (2019). The researchers suggest that in future studies,

more time points, including follow-up measurements, are provided so that the long-term

predictive value of the active ingredients can be assessed.

According to Grailey et al. (2022) an admission to the effects of workplace stress

can be viewed as taboo amongst managers in high-demand positions, who may perceive

it as weakness. Rook et al. (2019) introduced an interpretative protocol to gauge senior

executive stress, to flag potential stress issues as well as areas to be addressed in coaching

or by health professionals. The researchers conclude that the protocol introduced utilizes

a psychodynamic lens for gauging stress, permitting stress indicators to be detected by

both coach and coachee, even if there is a possible lack of self-awareness, and in the face

of self-deception or impression management. Future studies utilizing the Stress APGAR

protocol, may identify a person’s defenses and coping behaviors, which bear influence on

the trajectory of the stress experience. Further, the protocol may also be used by

experienced professionals in a noncoaching context, to determine if there are concerns, in

terms of the person’s health and functioning.

Nair & Bhaduri (2020) observed coaching to be beneficial in identifying personal

and organization sources of stress with a view to managing it by developing self-mastery.

The authors determined interventions adding value included: training on well-being and

mindfulness, positive psychology, life coaching, supporting leaders with personal

advisory, and remaining grounded on the self-coaching perspectives. Future research

might focus on interventions that can add value, including training on well-being and

mindfulness, positive psychology, life coaching, supporting leaders with personal

advisory, making leaders coach back thereby staying grounded on the self-coaching

perspectives.

Organizations utilizing workplace coaching over the last 40 years has risen

dramatically (ICF, 2016) as many organizations recognize the potential benefits of

workplace coaching, but little recognition has been given to factors that influence this

benefit. To develop a greater understanding about the occupational and practice

determinants of effective workplace coaching, Jones et al., (2018) examined the

associations of two coaching practice factors (coaching format and external vs internal

coaching provision), and coachees’ job complexity with perceived outcomes from

coaching. The results of the study indicate that external coaches and blended format

coaching were most strongly associated with work well-being outcomes, contrary to

previous meta-analytic findings suggesting that internal coaches are more effective than

external coaches at improving coaching effectiveness (Jones et al., 2016). An

examination of interaction effects indicated that coaching provided by external coaches

was more strongly associated with outcomes for individuals working in the most complex

job roles. An increase in coaching contact time could further explain the impact of

blended format coaching on affective outcomes. Future research should seek to address

this issue by measuring not only the frequency and duration of official coaching sessions

but also the degree of unofficial, additional contact and support provided by the coach.

Additionally, future research should seek a specific exploration of the role that autonomy

of coach selection plays in the effectiveness of coaching.

A qualitative study conducted by Bertrand (2019) sought to determine if

executive coaching is an effective strategy to prepare deans swiftly and ably for the

unique requirements of the position, as well as to equip them with and/or improve

transformational leadership skills. The results were favorable towards coaching and

showed associations in transformational leadership to be strongest in the component of

intellectual stimulation. Increases in confidence for the coaching client are often a key

incidental outcome of the coaching process. Future research is suggested to determine if a

multiple-theoretical approach for measuring the effectiveness of executive coaching

might be best to encapsulate the full measure of leadership capacity. Using

multiperspective IPA (Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis), Kilpatrick (2022)

explored experiences of challenges to confidence for senior leaders during leadership

transition, and how coaching supports leaders with confidence at this transition point.

Three key findings were presented: a framework of the experiences of confidence and

loss of confidence across four interconnected areas; the role of the organization in the

confidence of leaders; and how executive coaching can support confidence at this

transition point. The study focused on a small sample and, although there may be

temptation to generalize the findings, Kilpatrick aimed for theoretical transferability

rather than generalizability (Smith et al., 2009). Future research should investigate the

importance of the relationship between authenticity and confidence; vulnerability and

confidence (including safe space created in coaching); and clarity in coaching and

confidence.

Military organizations frequently emphasize professional development. The

nature and the impact of leadership coaching programs are a key component of a leader

development course for the United States Air Force that began in 2018. To examine the

development of instructors as coaches, Hinck (2022) utilized a range of coaching

literature and the employment of a multiphased qualitative approach to both understand

as well as evolve an emergent leadership coaching program in the USAF. The results of

the study identified seven foundational components that should be used for a coaching

program in the leadership development of instructors and six elements that the training

program should be comprised of. Future research should examine in more detail how

coaching is evolving across the military services. According to Eastman, (2019), key

components of coaching education programs highlight the relationship that exists

between coach and client, the trust shared between coach and client, how improvements

in confidence imbues trust, and how the identity of a coach impacts the development of

the client.

Researchers have noted leaders and managers face unprecedented challenges

during unexpected catastrophes, and crises management remains a key skill (Tourish,

2020). To investigate how the COVID-19 pandemic initially affected organizational

managers, as seen from the executive coaches’ perspective, Terblanche (2022) conducted

an interpretivist study of executive coaches from the USA, UK, Australia and South

Africa during the initial stages of the pandemic. Results of the study indicated the

following: crisis management theory (Lalonde & Roux-Dufort, 2012) is extended by

suggesting greater priority should be applied to managers’ personal well-being and by the

addition of coaching as a new intervention to assist in the development of crisis

management skills. Coaching efficacy theory (Feltz et al., 1999) is extended through the

implication that executive coaching can foster certain crisis management skills and that

benefits of coaching in non-crisis times are also relevant during a crisis. The researchers

concluded that the lived experience of managers who received coaching during the onset

and through the experience of the pandemic contributes to future crisis management

planning. Research conducted on organizations facing instability give evidence that as an

approach, coaching may be efficient in enhancing the well-being and performance of

managers and teams during crisis’ such as the pandemic (Jarosz, 2021).

Another source of crisis arises during mergers and acquisitions (M&A). Thomas

and Passmore (2021) explored opportunities and identified certain risks for introducing

coaching to facilitate M&A transactions based on constructivist grounded theory.

Evidence and analysis supported the view that most M&A failures can be traced to two

primary areas: challenges to leadership, and cultural fit. The literature and the

interviewees consistently referred to culture as a key variable to drive the success of

mergers & acquisitions, and trust as an imperative for the coaching environment

(Weintraub & Hunt, 2015). The research suggests a need for a long-term study

populating a sufficient size of mergers and acquisitions samples that applied a coaching

framework throughout the entire process and compare it to M&A transactions occurring

without the support of coaching.

A study to evaluate the longitudinal outcomes of executive coaching was

conducted by McInerney et al. (2021). The research offers evidence of individual positive

effects persisting after the end of executive coaching interventions. These effects involve

changed behavior, strengthened sense of self, increased developmental readiness,

improved self-reflective skills, insight, and manager/leader identity formation. The

authors suggest that the persistence of the effects of well-being over time and by gender,

for coached managers warrants further investigation.

Researchers have noted executive coaching is an effective way to prepare clients

for broader roles, but what about professionals in academia? Bertrand (2021) conducted

an exploratory, qualitative study to determine if executive coaching is an effective

strategy to prepare deans quickly and effectively for the unique requirements of the

position, as well as to equip them with and/or improve transformational leadership skills.

Results showed that through the coaching process, deans attested to becoming more self-

aware, open-minded, humble, and compassionate. Additionally, deans described

improvements in empathetic behavior, their self-awareness and self-care. Another factor

observed to affect executive coaching lies within the culture that organizations exist. The

description of a coaching culture by Boysen et al., (2021) was found to foster employees

into the belief they can perform their best work. Positive communication practices

facilitated through coaching were found to influence employees in feeling listened to,

their input is valued, and they understand their role in supporting the organization.

Coaching and mentoring are observed to be crucial to effective leader-employee relations

which help to build trust, support, and partnership. The findings of Boysen align with

Landsberg’s (2009) notion of the Skill-Will Matrix as leaders can coach both skill and

will development. Future research can expand on the tools and processes that can

promote a coaching culture that is embedded at all levels of the organization.

Considered one of the most thorough studies on the impact of executive coaching

(Boysen et al., 2021; Halliwell et al., 2021; Mukherjee & Sivaraman, 2022; Nyfoudi et

al., 2022), Smither et al. (2003), examined the effects of executive coaching on

multisource feedback over time. Managers who worked with an executive coach were

more likely to set specific (rather than vague) goals and to solicit ideas for improvement

from their supervisors than those who did not. Managers who worked with an executive

coach improved more than other managers in terms of direct report and supervisor ratings

over time. The authors write that future research might examine if the effects of coaching

are a reflection of the coach’s particular style. In addition, research should investigate

how the background of executive coaches (e.g., counseling psychology, organization

development) might affect the coaching process or even outcomes of coaching. Executive

coaches with specific backgrounds (e.g., counseling psychology) might be better suited

for some situations (e.g., helping a senior manager overcome an aggressive or demeaning

interpersonal style) but not for others (e.g., helping a senior manager integrate

organizational cultures during a merger or acquisition).

In view of the challenges for research on the future of coaching, Boyatzis et al.

(2022) identified and presented 22 specific research needs for the coming years, clustered

within four themes. The following themes were presented: What are the desired outcomes

of coaching? Client (coachee) satisfaction with their relationship with the coach and the

process resulting from coaching (de Haan et al., 2019, de Haan et al., 2020). What

processes and mechanisms of coaching are most effective and when? For example,

coaching with compassion may leverage Intentional Change Theory (Boyatzis et al.,

2019). What are the competencies of coaches that help clients change? A good definition

of a competency is: “a set of functionally related skills (i.e., behaviors) organized around

an underlying intent that produces effective performance” (Boyatzis, 1982, 2018).

Under what conditions does coaching work with distinct groups of clients? This

question focuses on how the “context” of a coaching experience and progress affects the

efficacy and outcomes (Van Nieuwerburgh et al., 2020). According to the researchers,

future exploration should focus on coaching approaches as well as examine the diversity

of coaches. Further, research on which competencies may be more effective with

different desired outcomes, different coaching processes or approaches, and different

cultures in which the coaching occurs.

Among the observations made by Boyatzis et al. (2022), the desired outcomes of

coaching were of particular interest to the study being proposed. The desired outcomes

according to the literature include the following:

• Satisfaction with coaching relationship and with the results from the process

(de Haan et al., 2019, de Haan et al., 2020).

• Client’s intent and expectations for goals set during coaching (Grant, 2012;

Spence et al., 2008).

• An improved sense of well-being (Spence & Grant, 2007).

• More substantial and coherent vision of ideal future results from coaching

(Mosteo et al., 2016).

• Improvements to health such as quality of life measures, pain management, a

focus on health, and potential behavior change (Sforzo et al., 2019; Wolever

et al., 2013).

According to the research, numerous coaching outcomes have not been

investigated or sufficiently studied. Self-change may be an important coaching outcome

in behavior change as well as change in self-awareness, self-access, self-regulation, self-

insight, self-congruence, and self-reflection (Diller et al., 2021a, 2021b).

Executive Coaching Females for Professional Development

According to literature, there is evidence that women and men experience the

development of a leader identity differently (Bonneywell, 2017; Debebe, 2011; Ely et al.,

2011), reflecting the possibility that leadership may still be defined by masculine norms

and frame. In observation of this, coaching as a mechanism for leadership development

for female leaders has received wider attention over recent years, (Kets de Vries et al.,

2016; Skinner, 2014). For example, Lackritz et al. (2019) suggests that executive

coaching may provide unique advantages among development programs designed

specifically for the purpose of assisting women in appropriating leadership roles. Gray et

al., (2019) conducted a qualitative study on a predominantly coaching-based development

program designed to enhance career opportunities for female leaders within a complex

multi-national organization. The results of the study indicate that executive coaching

females for professional development, both individual and group, can generate a

powerful effect on the promotion of reflection, self-confidence, and focus. Group

coaching, in particular, was found to assist female clients in the generation of positive

group dynamics by creating a shared-issue atmosphere. Further research was suggested in

the area of gendered organizations and leadership as well as career development, utilizing

a combination of coaching and sponsorship for both female and male leaders.

Although neither personal nor group coaching appears to provide a distinct

advantage over the other, a combination of personal and group formatted coaching may

provide a unique experience. Bonneywell and Gannon (2021) investigated the

deployment of a combined program of executive and group coaching to support female

leader development in a multinational organization. Results indicate the social nature of

group coaching is particularly highlighted as supportive to female leaders in their

personal choices and recognition of others’ struggles and choices. The complementarity

and synergistic nature of simultaneous coaching interventions on female executives, their

teams, the organization, and beyond suggests executive coaching can not only enhance

professional development but be an enabler of social change as well. This study identifies

the coaching experience as a social process (Shoukry & Cox, 2018) and specifically

discusses the powerful interplay between the two types of coaching from individual to

group and back again. The authors conclude additional research exploring coaching as a

social process, specifically in relation to social capital, as well as the use of simultaneous

individual and group coaching of different populations and across different organizational

settings would be beneficial.

To address physician burnout among a high-risk group of female junior faculty,

researchers sought to determine the effectiveness of executive coaching in decreasing

feelings of burnout and improving intent to stay at an academic medical center.

Alexander et al. (2020) conducted a study on female faculty members who received

individual and/or group coaching interventions over a six-month period. 100% of the

respondents claimed a reduction in feelings of burnout and an intent to remain at the

institution. More than three-quarters of the participants felt coaching had a “very

positive” impact on their feelings of burnout, and more than half reported coaching as

having a “very positive” impact on their intent to remain. All participants reported feeling

“very likely” to recommend executive coaching to their colleagues. This study suggests

that executive coaching in early-career females can have a significant positive impact on

both feelings of burnout and intention to stay. The researchers suggest larger studies

should be conducted, to quantitate the impact of coaching on the prevention of burnout

and reduction of its symptoms.

Managerial Coaching

The concept of managers incorporating coaching skills into their interactions with

team members was first proposed in 1958 (Brock, 2008; Evered & Selman, 1989; Mace

& Mahler, 1958). Managerial coaching differs from other related concepts such as

mentoring, feedback, and counseling. However, there is little agreement as to how

managerial coaching can best be defined, how it can be measured, or what value it may

add (Dahling, et al., 2016). Managerial coaching is often depicted as a ‘watered down’ or

limited version of executive coaching, with the basic premise being that external coaches

have superior skills to managers-as-coach (Anderson, 2013; Carter, 2005; Fatien & Otter,

2015). On the other hand, managerial coaching can be viewed as an ongoing process of

activities carried out by a supervisor to improve an employee’s performance and assist

the employee in attaining their potential. Demand for managers to demonstrate a

‘coaching style’ has been rising for the last decade (Beattie et al., 2014; Ellingeret al.,

2016).

To conceptualize, define, and measure the use of coaching skills by managers and

leaders, how effective it is, and how it should be used, Digirolamo and Tkach (2019)

conducted a mixed-methods study utilizing interviews and surveys, with results

indicating coaching skills are best conceptualized by managers and leaders as a style of

participative management or leadership. The authors constructed a scale called the

Manager and Leader Coaching Composite (MLCC) from a group of team-member survey

items. The scale was correlated with a validated measure that suggests the use of

coaching skills by managers and leaders is related to higher team-member engagement,

better working relationships, and reduced intention to quit (Ellinger et al., 2003). Future

studies should explore the differences between managers and leaders who use coaching

skills, those who do not, and professional coaches as a means to confirm the claims of

this research. Additionally, the 9-item MLCC scale presented should be further validated

to establish a better measure of coaching.

There are few reliable and valid coaching scales designed for the business setting.

McLean et al. 2005 developed a four-dimension framework of managerial coaching

designed to identify developmental needs. The proposed framework consists of four

major components: manager as coach, people working with the manager, task needs to be

accomplished, and the working environment. According to the authors, effective

coaching can be identified through the interrelations among these components.

The increase in popularity of managerial coaching can be attributed to several

changes taking place in organizations over the past few years, such as the gradual shift to

flatter organizational structures, pressure to lower training costs, and the desire for better

performance not only from senior executives, but from employees across all levels of the

organization hierarchy (Dahling et al., 2016). In terms of identifying managerial

candidates who are most likely to coach, Carvalho et al. (2022) determined that

organizations should seek to hire incrementally-oriented managers as well as those

possessing strong interpersonal skills. For organizations located in high power-distance

societies, an attempt should be made to identify managers who are genuinely interested in

helping others grow (i.e., servant leaders). Organizations can optimize the creative

performance of employees through managerial coaching practices that serve to inform

and empower them and increase their engagement in the creative process (Zheng, et

al., 2022). According to Heslin et al., (2006), managerial coaching involves three

activities that enhance employee performance: guidance, facilitation, and inspiration.

The survival of an organization depends largely on an ability to adapt to changes

that develop at their own pace and are based on evolving dynamics. A clear example of

this has been seen during the Covid-19 pandemic, where organizations faced wide-scale

uncertainty and internal conflict, which can have a negative impact on employee

motivation. Motivated individuals are found to invest more effort in their work than those

who are unmotivated (Radojević, et al., 2020). Researchers noted that during a crisis such

as the Covid pandemic, employees are relatively well motivated to engage with the

support of managerial coaching based on coaching skills that facilitate communication

between employees and managers (Stanković, & Radojević, 2022). The research

observes that certain aspects of motivation for training and learning in the workplace

should be studied more in the future and aligned with possible emergencies. Being

prepared for emergencies brings a better position to recover and continue operations

should disaster or disease strike.

Coaching and feedback practiced by managers and immediate superiors in an

organization may influence employees’ behaviors towards more positive ones. According

to Mohamad et al., 2020, this is most effective when employees develop confidence in

their ability to perform assigned tasks. Findings of a study conducted by Ahmad et al.

(2021) highlight that the relationship between managerial coaching behavior and

managerial coaching process is able to influence employees’ behavior. In another study, a

thematic analysis of 580 responses to a survey examining the practice of managerial

coaching through Appelbaum et al.’s (2000) Ability Motivation Opportunity framework

revealed that managers regularly coached their own employees and were motivated by

outcomes that they achieved through coaching. Furthermore, managerial coaching often

results in employees becoming more innovative and achieve an improved readiness for

change (McCarthy & Milner, 2019).

To examine the effect of managerial coaching on performance and investigate the

mediating effect of psychological capital on the employee population, Novitasari (2021),

distributed questionnaires to manufacturing companies in Tangerang, Indonesia. Utilizing

an instrument adapted by Ellinger et al. (2003), results showed that the relationship

between managerial coaching and performance is significantly mediated by

psychological capital. During managerial coaching interventions, organization

management can use various coaching techniques (such as listening, asking questions,

and providing feedback) to communicate desired organizational outcomes to employees.

In a similar study, to determine the influence of managerial coaching on organizational

performance (OP), Zuñiga-Collazos et al. (2020) measured OP through internal, rational,

and human relations models. Through the lens of the internal model, the variable with the

greatest impact to OP was the efficiency of internal operating processes. In the Rational

model, the item with the greatest impact was the profitability of the organization, and in

the Human Relations model, the highest-qualified factor was employee satisfaction and

motivation.

How does managerial coaching affect the well-being of subordinates in the

workplace when traditionality is a factor? Through a self-categorization perspective,

Zhao and Liu (2020) hypothesized managerial coaching affects subordinates' workplace

wellbeing through perceived insider status, and that Chinese traditionality moderates this

indirect effect. Results of the study indicate that (a) managerial coaching was positively

related to subordinates' workplace well-being; (b) perceived insider status mediated the

linkage between managerial coaching and subordinates' workplace well-being; and (c)

Chinese traditionality moderates the indirect relationship between managerial coaching

and subordinates' workplace wellbeing via perceived insider status, such that the indirect

effect was stronger for subordinates with low rather than high Chinese traditionality.

Future research could examine other possible mediators, to link managerial coaching with

subordinates' workplace well-being. Considering perceived insider status was only one

dimension of belonging, and the authors expect further research could explore the other

two dimensions (e.g., organizational identification and psychological ownership; Stamper

& Masterson, 2002) as mediators, to uncover how managerial coaching influences

subordinates' workplace well-being.

The previously discussed studies have provided a foundation for executive

coaching and its benefits for organizations and leaders. These studies have shown the

positive impact of executive coaching through a diverse array of applications. The current

study will add to the literature by using a standard instrument to measure mindfulness-

based coaching interventions, the S-ART model, to investigate the effects of mindfulness

on executive coaching.

Current Literature on Mindfulness in Executive Coaching

Although researchers and practitioners have linked mindfulness and organizations

over the past 10 years, little empirical data linking coaching and mindfulness exist. Noted

exceptions comprise studies by Spence et al. (2008), as well as by Collard and Walsh

(2008), which conclude that sensory awareness mindfulness training in coaching reduced

levels of self-reported stress and supported the attainment of pre-determined health goals.

To explore mindfulness within organizations, researcher Jonathan Passmore conducted an

empirical review of mindfulness in organizations to document its usefulness as an

intervention. The results of the literature investigation concluded that while there has

been considerable inquiry of health outcomes, organizational mindfulness research is still

in an infant state despite wider-scale applications becoming more prevalent. The review

calls for greater research into organizational mindfulness interventions through

collaborations between organizations and consultants (Passmore, 2019).

Bedham and King (2021) noted the study of mindfulness in the workplace has the

potential to make a significant contribution to a broader agenda through understanding

it’s mechanisms at work. According to researchers, the variability and ambiguity that

surrounds what mindfulness stands for, allows for ‘interpretive flexibility’ when it is

implemented into practice (Cook, 2016; Islam et al., 2017). According to researchers,

mindfulness may manifest when coaches utilize managerial and instrumental forms of

mindfulness as a form of ‘personal awakening’ to introduce extensive considerations and

changes. This awakening utilizes four orientations (Individual Wisdom, Collective

Wisdom, Individual Mindfulness, Collective Mindfulness) to capture observations,

concerns and programs in a form that stimulates and supports further dialogue and

empirical development (Williams & Kabat-Zinn, 2011).

The integration of mindfulness – the attention paid by an individual to

experiences as they arise, moment by moment, and in a manner that is non-judgmental,

non-reactive, open, and accepting – into executive coaching is gaining wider attention as

mindfulness is incorporated into the workplace (Atad & Grant, 2021; Badham &

Graduate, 2021; Bartlett et al., 2018). Mindfulness in coaching psychology focuses on a

wide array of subjects from training and development, to managing stress at work,

coaching and mentoring members of staff, managing sickness absence, team

development, and dealing with conflict at work. In an empirical review conducted by

Schwartz (2018), the ways in which mindfulness inputs facilitate the development of

resilience in managing issues arising in working life was investigated. The results suggest

that the popularity of mindfulness in the workplace has been fueled by publications,

government guidelines which recommend its use, media attention and widespread

dissemination in workshops and teaching, both structured and of an ad hoc nature. Future

research should focus on the role of the practitioner in using mindfulness to enhance

resilience.

Some of the most commonly used mindfulness-based programs are workplace

modifications of psychological-therapeutic meditation-based programs such as MBSR,

Mindfulness-Based Compassion Therapy (MBCT) and Acceptance and Commitment

Therapy (ACT). These programs primarily utilize a blend of ‘focused attention’ and

‘open awareness’ meditation and practices, while providing varied amounts of attention

to compassionate ‘loving-kindness’ meditations and practices (Eby et al., 2019; Jamieson

& Tuckey, 2017; Kreplin et.al., 2018; Valk et al., 2017). Hougaard and Carter (2018)

equate the ‘Mind of the Leader’ with a combination of ‘mindfulness’, ‘selflessness’ and

‘compassion’ (referred to as the ‘MSC’ model). Meanwhile, researchers like Sinclair

(2016), advocates a more skeptical approach to ‘leading mindfully.’ Sinclair’s coaching,

education and MBA programs provide a combination of reflexivity and experiential

learning while giving deeper consideration to the identities of contemporary leaders, the

purposes of leadership, and the mechanisms these are currently constructed and limited

by embedded power relations in organizations (Bedham & King, 2019).

A definition of Buddhist mindfulness includes the view of embodiment as an

interaction between the mind, body, and external world (Stanley, 2013). Embodiment

theory (Barsalou, 2007) considers cognitive processes as grounded within sensory and

motor experiences, and bodily experiences have a direct effect on the mind. Khoury et al.

(2017) suggests that embodied mindfulness is a primary change mechanism underlying

the effectiveness of mindfulness-based coaching and psychotherapeutic interventions.

Through psychometric validation, movement research, and other empirical studies, Attan

et al. (2018) provided evidence for the psychometric validity of an assessment called

Focus Energy Balance Indicator (FEBI), which shows that specific physical, emotional,

cognitive, and behavioral characteristics factor into a framework for embodied coaching.

The FEBI framework is a coaching tool designed to link self-awareness and self-

regulation by working with movement and physical practices that are correlated with

desired outcomes. Ideally, future research would establish the most efficient means and

timelines for transforming states into enduring traits. Further, studies should investigate

the effects of these patterns on our social circuitry in relationships or on teams.

Approaches to mindfulness in executive coaching have largely remained narrowly

focused on perspectives drawn from Eastern contemplative traditions, rather than the

broader field of psychological science. Spence and Cavanaugh (2019) examined the

efficacy of three different approaches to mindfulness training based on how mindfulness

facilitates the processing of information. An Eastern contemplative perspective -

meditation (Kemp, 2017), a cognitive-attentional perspective - attention training (Langer,

2016), and a socio-cognitive perspective - mindful creativity (Wells & Matthews, 1994).

The research findings indicate all forms of mindfulness training were associated with

significant increases in mindfulness. Each approach showed a different pattern of

improvements on mental health and wellbeing variables. Of particular interest for

coaching, all forms of mindfulness training produced pre-post increases in goal

attainment, even though goals progression was not a feature of any mindfulness-based

program. Future deconstruction studies should investigate the particular differential

effects of each of different approaches to mindfulness. Secondly, further studies might

seek to identify whether the addition of mindfulness interventions to existing coaching

interventions may enhance outcomes.

Another study conducted by Minzlaff, (2019) integrates motivational interviewing

and mindfulness with cognitive behavioral coaching. The integrative coaching model

brings together strategies and techniques drawn from three evidence-based interventions

– cognitive behavioral coaching (Passmore, 2007), motivational interviewing – MI

(Anstiss & Passmore, 2013; Harakas, 2013), and mindfulness (Cavanagh & Spence,

2013). The integrative coaching model resulting from this study highlights the

importance of considering and addressing three factors that can influence the outcome of

coaching: (a) the effect of cognition on enhancing goal attainment, (b) the match between

the client’s readiness level and their stage of change, and (c) the emotional stress and/or

mental distractions that a client may be experiencing in the workplace. The authors

established that research in MI and mindfulness as they apply to coaching (Cavanagh &

Spence, 2013; Passmore & Whybrow, 2007) has just begun and therefore requires future

empirical work to assess these effects.

Herda et al. (2019) sought to observe the effects of supervisor coaching and

workplace mindfulness on audit quality-threatening behavior (such as premature sign-off)

among staff auditors. To measure workplace mindfulness, the authors adapted six items

from the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (Brown and Ryan 2003). The results of the

study highlight the importance of workplace mindfulness in task-specific environments

and suggest supervisor coaching to be a practical technique to elicit workplace

mindfulness among staff-level auditors. According to the authors, studies investigating

whether and how senior leadership processes may work in conjunction with on-site

supervisory coaching to reduce audit quality-threatening behavior among staff warrants

future research.

Empirical evidence regarding mindfulness and its impact on emotional reactivity,

behaviors, and wellness in consulting and coaching has seen an increase in recent years

as mindfulness practices make their way from the clinical setting to the workplace.

Altizer et al. (2021) evaluated what relationships exist between two personality

assessments - the Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI; Hogan & Hogan, 2007) and Hogan

Development Survey (HDS; Hogan Assessment Systems, 2014; Hogan & Hogan, 2009)

and two measures of mindfulness - the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ;

Baer et al., 2006) and the Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown &

Ryan, 2003; Carlson & Brown, 2005). Results of the study indicate that clients lower in

HPI Adjustment and higher in HDS Moving Away behaviors may more effectively

manage their response to stressful situations through mindfulness-based practices over

time. Clients higher in HPI Adjustment and in HDS Moving Against may not need to

manage their stress response as much as they need to increase awareness of themselves

and the impact their behaviors may have on others. Over time, mindfulness practices

have the potential to impact personality-driven behaviors, but this remains to be seen in

an appropriately designed study specifically within an organizational context. Additional

research to evaluate if the adoption of mindfulness practices reduces the frequency or

severity of observed personality-driven derailing behaviors in the workplace would also

be beneficial.

Roberts et al. (2017) suggests that mindfulness-based training can modify

personality traits, including Emotional Stability, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, and

empathy, and can have a positive impact on prosocial behavior. Similarly, Passmore

(2017) notes that mindfulness, and mindful coaching are continuing the wider ‘Cognitive

Behavioral’ tradition, alongside approaches like Acceptance and Commitment Coaching

(Anstiss & Blonna, 2015) and Compassionate Mind Coaching, (Anstiss & Gilbert, 2015)

as a third-wave cognitive behavioral approach.

Shelly and Zaidman (2021) conducted a study to inculcate preliminary

understandings regarding perceived outcomes of coaching processes incorporating Satya

mindfulness techniques, as well as to assess the perceived outcomes of mindfulness-

based coaching interventions across different points of time. The results of the study

display benefits of mindfulness-based coaching for individuals across various points of

time, and its implications for client well-being and performance at work. Positive results

from coaching were realized within the first few sessions and continued to have an

impact two years after the coaching intervention concluded. Satya coaches applied a

number of methodologies for developing self-awareness, including mirroring, reflection,

and inquiry. One can assume that at least some of the outcomes were initiated by this

combination of methodologies (see Hall et al., 1999; Wasylyshyn, 2003). Future research

should investigate the various ways in which mindfulness techniques are integrated with

other coaching techniques (e.g., raising questions), and the outcomes of such

combinations in terms of the perceived benefits of the process as described by the

coachees. Future research may not only extend the number of trainees, but should also

incorporate the voice, experiences, and opinions of the coaches as well.

Findings of previously reviewed literature have consecutively contributed to a

clearly defined question: “How do coaches use mindfulness in their practice and how do

they determine it is useful or beneficial?” In an effort to provide an answer to this

question, Van Den Assem and Passmore (2022) conducted a study to explore the

meaning of mindfulness for experienced coaching practitioners in a practice context.

Utilizing an interpretivist and constructivist approach, the in-depth interview method, and

interpretative phenomenological analysis to analyze data, the authors determined that

mindfulness was regarded by coaches as useful or beneficial in their coaching practice.

According to the study, mindfulness played a significant role in informing and

influencing practice, anchoring coaches in the present, or simply asking clients to pause

and notice what is going on with them in their body, and in the moment to become more

present and aware. It is suggested that future research reflect on both the descriptive as

well as prescriptive elements of mindfulness research, and to embrace these contributions

in terms of applying or integrating them into their own practice.

Summary

Prior studies of the multidisciplined nature of executive coaching poise it as

somewhat synonymous with that of other professional services such as mentors,

counselors, and consultants (Passmore & Lai, 2019). Previous articles have explored

mindfulness, often citing its deep benefits within leaders and organizations, assisting

professionals in aligning personal values with their professional goals, maintaining

attention in the present, and obtaining an objective state of mind (Bedham & King, 2021;

Carleton et al., 2018; Van Dem Assem & Passmore, 2022). Researchers have called for

future studies investigating the benefits of executive coaching through a variety of

approaches, techniques, and interventions (Boyatzis et al., 2022; Passmore, 2019; Spence

& Cavanagh, 2019). However, very little research has examined executive coaching from

the framework of mindfulness interventions, and no known studies exist investigating the

role of mindfulness in executive coaching utilizing Vago & Silbersweig’s (2012) S-ART

framework.

In this chapter, I reviewed the literature relating to the proposed study to examine

features and potential experiences of a mindfulness-based coaching program. The review

began with discussing the conceptual foundations that shaped this study, beginning with

the S-ART framework. Then, the other variables of this study, Mindfulness and

Executive coaching were examined to establish a narrow focus on the existing literature.

The next chapter provides details about the methodology in which this study was carried

out.

Chapter 3: Research Method

The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to investigate

features that professional mindfulness-based coaching interventions may provide to

executive leaders. An additional purpose of this study was to identify and examine

mindfulness intervention techniques considered best practice (i.e., presence exercises,

meditation sessions, and breathing techniques). In this chapter, I present the research

design and my rationale for choosing it. Additionally, in this chapter, I describe the role

of the researcher and methodology, including the participant population, sampling

strategy, and participant selection criteria. This chapter also includes explanations of the

procedures for recruiting participants, data collection instrument, how I collected and

analyzed the data, and issues regarding trustworthiness and ethics.

Research Design and Rationale

The central concept for this inquiry was leader development. Leader development

was viewed as “the expansion of personal capacity for effectiveness in leadership roles

and processes" (McCauley et al., 2010, p. 2). The central phenomenon of inquiry was

mindfulness-based coaching interventions. Scholars often refer to mindfulness as the

attention paid to individual experiences as they arise, moment-by-moment, and in a

manner considered open, nonjudgmental, nonreactive, and with an acceptance of

situations as they are (Kabat-Zinn, 2006). The primary data collection method used to

answer this inquiry was open-ended interviewing. Open-ended interviewing was most

appropriate for this study because I sought to understand the perceptions and lived

experiences of leadership coaches who regularly provide mindful leadership coaching

interventions from their point of view and through their own words (see Patton, 2015;

Rubin & Rubin, 2011).

In this study, I used qualitative phenomenological inquiry to explore observed

features of mindfulness-based coaching interventions and its use in their development as

leaders. Phenomenology refers to both a qualitative research design and the 20th century

philosophical movement from which it arose. As a research design, phenomenology

refers to an investigation into the meaning of first-person experience or subjective

consciousness (Patton, 2015). The fundamental question within phenomenological

inquiry is “What is the meaning, structure, and essence of the lived experience of this

phenomenon for this person or group of people?” (Patton, 2002, p. 104). Thus, the

researcher constructs a description of the essence of select experience humans encounter

(Moustakas, 1994). A phenomenological approach was appropriate for this project

because it most effectively fulfills the research purpose to deepen the understanding of

the subjective experience of leaders who regularly engage in mindfulness-based practices

(see Moustakas, 1994).

Basic qualitative studies focus on identifying the views of participants and

understanding their experiences regarding the circumstances connected to the

phenomenon of a study (Merriam & Tisdell (2016). I did not choose a basic qualitative

design because this study was not guided by an explicit or established set of philosophic

assumptions in the form of one of the known or more established qualitative

methodologies. Caelli et al. (2003) suggested this can mean either that generic studies

may blend established methodological approaches to create something new or that the

researcher claims no formal methodological framework at all.

I did not select a case study for my research design because I did not seek to

analyze a bounded situation that occurs over time through comprehensive, in-depth data

collection from one or more groups (see Patton, 2015). While case studies can be

designed to provide a bounded explanation of single cases or phenomena, often they are

intended to provide theoretical insight into the features of a broader population

(Seawright & Gerring, 2014). Although both basic qualitative and case study approaches

could have been used in this study, I chose a phenomenological inquiry because this

approach provided the clearest methodology to investigate the observed features that

mindfulness-based coaching interventions at least twice a month provide to clients during

their leadership development.

Role of the Researcher

As the researcher of this qualitative study, I fulfilled the role of interviewer by

engaging in open-ended interviews with select participants. Open-ended interviewing was

the most appropriate option for data collection because I sought insight into features of

mindfulness-based coaching interventions that organizational leaders experience (see

Rubin & Rubin, 2011). Moustakas (1994) observed that within qualitative,

phenomenological inquisition, researchers should show personal interest in what it is they

seek to understand and an intimate connection with the phenomenon. Therefore, I

acknowledge having a personal interest in and personal experience with both leader

development and mindfulness-based exercises. This research did not take place in my

work environment, and there were no other conflicts of interest or power differentials.

Methodology

Participant Selection Logic

The sample population for this qualitative study consisted of adults who served as

executive coaches to organizational leaders (i.e., middle and senior managers in medical

and technology industries). Participants had to have provided regular (i.e., twice a month)

mindfulness-based coaching interventions, such as meditation and active listening

exercises, to their clients for at least 3 months. The sampling strategy for this

phenomenological inquiry included participants who met predefined criteria (see Patton,

2015). To ensure proper implementation of participant selection and recruitment process,

I prescreened the participants using the screening tool located in Appendix A.

Once I received approval from the Walden University Institutional Review Board

(IRB), I contacted several executive coaching businesses that offered MBIs to introduce

my study and request their assistance in recruiting participants. I also posted a

recruitment announcement on several mindfulness-oriented professional groups on

LinkedIn and sent out recruitment messages using the personal messaging feature of

LinkedIn. From this pool, several individuals emailed and messaged me back to indicate

their interest. I contacted these potential participants by email to introduce the study via a

participant invitation letter. In this introductory email, I screened participants utilizing a

screening script (Appendix A) to confirm they met the inclusion criteria and briefly

reviewed the research purpose, research protocols and processes, and my expectations as

the researcher. Potential participants were also encouraged to ask questions to clarify

understanding of their role, their rights, and my responsibilities as a researcher.

From this pool of screened participants, I selected an initial sample of individuals

who met the inclusion criteria. Upon selection of the study participants, a follow-up email

was sent to each participant to coordinate the next steps. In qualitative phenomenological

research, sample sizes can vary considerably, and sample size is deemed sufficient when

data saturation is reached and additional interviews or focus groups do not result in the

identification of any new concepts (Sargeant, 2012). Interpretative phenomenological

inquiries frequently draw on the accounts of a small number of people, with six being

suggested as a preferable (Reid et al., 2005). My initial hope was to have anywhere

between eight and 12 participants.

Instrumentation

The data collection instrument utilized for this qualitative inquiry was a video-

recorded, in-depth, semistructured interview guided by the study research questions.

Interviews were conducted via Zoom, which provided a transcript option for video and

audio recordings. Having the interviews transcribed in this way provided me with the

greatest chance to achieve an accurate, thick description of participants’ lived

experiences. Participants’ responses to the interview protocol provided sufficient data to

answer the central research question; however, the use of emergent opportunities to pose

appropriate follow-up questions further illuminated leaders’ experiences of mindfulness-

based coaching interventions on their development as leaders.

Procedures for Recruitment, Participation, and Data Collection

To recruit participants, I contacted several mindfulness-based leadership coaching

businesses to introduce my study and request assistance. A recruitment announcement

was also posted on several mindfulness-oriented professional groups on LinkedIn, and I

utilized my personal network through word-of-mouth recruiting. Responses to my request

for participation were greeted with a brief message and a general overview of the study, a

participant invitation letter, and a screening script (Appendix A). After an initial

introduction and the screening of potential participants, I then scheduled interviews with

participants who met the eligibility requirements.

Prior to conducting interviews, I secured informed consent from eligible

participants via email in accordance with the American Psychological Association (APA)

and the Walden University IRB. Following the interviewing protocol (Appendix B), I

interviewed each participant via Zoom at a mutually agreeable time conducive to

respectful interviewing and audio/visual recording of the interview. Interviews lasted

approximately 30 minutes to 1 hour, were considered confidential, and were safeguarded

by me, the researcher, in accordance with APA and IRB guidelines for ethical research.

At the completion of the interview process and transcription of data, I sent each

participant a thank you email along with a transcript of their interview and a request for

verification of the transcript for accuracy.

Data Analysis Plan

The interview questions for this study were designed to illuminate the central

research question. I utilized interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) to analyze the

phenomenological data collected because it combines psychological, interpretative, and

idiographic elements (see Gill, 2014). According to the author, IPA studies do not test

theories but are often relevant to the development of theories. Data analysis of IPA

studies is considered bottom-up, which means researchers generate codes from the data

rather than using a preexisting theory to identify codes applied to the data. According to

Eatough & Smith (2017), there are seven steps to IPA analysis:

1. The developers of IPA suggest that researchers return to interview data during

data analysis as needed and focus on meanings throughout the process of

analysis (Smith & Osborn, 2008). Utilizing a framework of seven steps to IPA

data analysis, I interpreted the insight provided by study participants by hand-

coding higher order qualities found across connections utilizing Microsoft

Word and a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. Microsoft Word is a word processor

program and Excel is a spreadsheet editor. The seven steps to IPA data

analysis are: Reading and re-reading involved immersion into the data to

generate a thick textural (i.e., “what” they experienced) description and

structural description (i.e., “how” they experienced) from interview

transcripts. This was performed while listening to the recording of the

interview to check the transcription for accuracy and listening for nuances,

emotion, and any other insights that might not have been noted previously.

2. Initial noting consists of free association and exploration of the data content

without censorship. I generated a composite description of leaders’

experiences with mindfulness-based coaching interventions that integrated

textural and structural descriptions. This was done on a per transcript basis

and was coded using margin notes.

3. Developing emergent themes positioned focus on specific chunks of the

interview transcript and an analysis of my notes to formulate initial themes.

Codes that were developed through initial noting in the previous step were

then analyzed and like codes were clustered together.

4. Searching for connections across emergent themes involved abstracting and

integrating themes by utilizing Microsoft Word and Excel software to assist

with initial theming conventions.

5. Moving to the next case involved maintaining an open-minded observation of

the individuality of each case as I moved to the next.

6. Looking for patterns across cases consisted of identifying patterns of shared

higher order qualities across cases, taking note of idiosyncratic instances, and

then hand coding them within a Microsoft Word document to remain as close

to the data as possible.

7. Taking interpretations to deeper levels provided a deeper analysis of the data

through the utilization of metaphors, temporal referents, and by importing

other perspectives and theories.

To mitigate potential limitations identified in Chapter 1, several steps were taken

to ensure validity. One limitation was potential researcher bias, which referred to

individual perceptions or opinions that could impact findings (Allan, 2020). For this

purpose, I utilized basic journaling with the aim of improving the reliability of research

and identifying potential bias. Journaling can provide a continuous documentation of

researchers' personal perceptions, opinions, and possible biases that may impact research

findings (Marshall & Rossman, 2011). While writing the results of this study, these notes

clarified researcher understanding of participant responses in the study.

A potential limitation at this stage involved issues with internal reliability. For

this, I utilized member checking through transcription verification and reflexivity to

explore the credibility of my results. I shared the transcription of each interview with the

participant and requested that they verify the contents actively reflect their views,

feelings, and experiences. Member checking or respondent validation is often utilized in

qualitative investigations and ensures accuracy (Birt et al., 2016).

Issues of Trustworthiness

Credibility

According to Moustakas (1994), “In accordance with phenomenological

principles, scientific investigation is valid when knowledge sought is arrived at through

descriptions that make possible an understanding of the meanings and essences of

experience” (p. 84). I addressed credibility or internal validity by strictly following the

IPA method of data analysis for phenomenological research. In addition, I utilized

member transcription verification and reflexivity.

Transferability

External validity or reliability, often referred to as transferability, is an important

principle in data collection as well as reporting the findings. Van Manen (2023) cautions

phenomenology does not allow for empirical generalizations, the production of law-like

statements, or the establishment of functional relationships. To promote consistent results

of the study, I kept circumstances surrounding the interviews as informal as possible to

reduce any influence of external factors that could introduce undesirable variations within

the results (such as stress).

Dependability

Cattell, Eber, and Tatsuoka (1970) describe dependability as a correlation

between two administrations of the same test when the lapse of time is insufficient for

changes to occur To ensure dependability, I adhered to Walden University’s standards

and guidelines for quality. In addition, I engaged with my dissertation committee and

incorporated all recommendations and suggestions, particularly regarding any potential

issues of trustworthiness and ethical procedures.

Confirmability

For confirmability, the IPA method honors the concept of bracketing

(suspending one’s preconceived notions about a select phenomenon), which is

fundamental to phenomenological research (Priest, 2002). This fundamental element is

inherently reflexive, thereby fulfilling the standard of confirmability (Hamill, 2010).

Thus, confirmability in a qualitative study requires the elimination of researcher bias and

subjectivity, and the ability for emerging data to be corroborated (Ravitch & Carl, 2016).

To mitigate potential bias, participant responses were checked against the transcripts of

the interview to assure accuracy. Further, emerging themes were cross-checked after the

creation of a matrix of participants’ spoken words to avoid bias.

Ethical Procedures

In observance of the ethical principles of respect for persons, beneficence, and

justice (Walden University, 2010), adherence to the American Psychological Association

(APA) code of ethics (APA, 2017) was applied throughout this study. This was in

accordance with APA General Principles E, A, and D respectively. Prior to engaging in

any data collection, I secured Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval #06-27-23-

0069540 in accordance with APA ethical standard 8.01. I presented recruitment material

to potential participants by inviting them to participate in a voluntary interview-based

research project exploring mindfulness-based coaching interventions and leader

development.

The recruitment material included an explanation of the research purposes,

including the purpose of fulfilling the requirements of my doctoral dissertation.

Furthermore, the recruitment material included a link to my public LinkedIn professional

profile. When following up with potential research participants, I sent them a participant

invitation letter, and the informed-consent in accordance with APA ethical standard 8.02

and U.S. Federal Regulation 45 CFR 46.116. The research overview contained an

invitation to participate in the voluntary study and material providing an outline on the

procedures.

I conducted a screening script (see Appendix A) to identify potential participants

and a review on all pertinent details covered in the overview packet with each

interviewee. Prior to their initial interview session, participants were provided an

opportunity to ask me any clarifying questions. Throughout the entire research process,

all participants were treated with respect and dignity in compliance with Walden

University IRB standards and APA ethical principle E. No vulnerable populations, as

defined by the IRB standards, were used in this research. Each research participant

received and replied to an informed-consent email with a form that adheres to Walden

University IRB standards and APA ethical principle 8.02.

The consent form included my contact information with telephone and e-mail

information. I reviewed the consent form with the participant, prior to the full-interview

session and ensured all required documentation was in good order. Participants had the

opportunity to review the transcribed interviews intended for publication, at which time

they were given the opportunity to clarify or correct the interview data. Furthermore,

participants had the opportunity to withdraw material from their interview transcript in

accordance with APA ethical standard 8.08.

To protect the confidentiality of participants, I did not include full names on the

transcripts. All transcripts were safeguarded in my possession, and the transcription files

were located on an encrypted and password protected computer hard drive in accordance

with APA ethical standard 6.02. Digital audio files in my possession were safeguarded

and password protected in accordance with APA ethical standard 4.03. Consent forms as

well as participant-information sheets will remain in a locked storage container for 5

years, after which time they will be destroyed in accordance with APA ethical standard

6.02.

Summary

The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to investigate

features that professional mindfulness-based coaching interventions may provide to

executive leaders. The qualitative phenomenological-research paradigm was the

optimum research design to explore subjective features of the phenomenon under

investigation (Giorgi, 2009; Moustakas, 1994). As described, the participant population

was comprised of executive coaches who provide a regular (once every 2 weeks)

mindfulness-based coaching program.

The role of the researcher for this qualitative phenomenological study was that of

a non-biased interviewer. The primary recruitment strategy was through correspondence

with several professional mindfulness-based executive coaching organizations, and

through targeted outreach with mindfulness-oriented coaching professionals and groups

on LinkedIn. The data collection instrument was an in-depth, semi-structured interview

and the data-analysis method was an interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA), as it

combines psychological, interpretative, and idiographic elements (Gill, 2014). In the next

chapter, Chapter 4, I will present the qualitative results and evidence of trustworthiness.

Chapter 4: Results

The aim of this qualitative phenomenological inquiry was to investigate features

that professional mindfulness-based coaching interventions exhibit and offer to manager-

leaders. I interviewed mindful leadership coaches who possessed 3 or more months of

experience incorporating mindfulness interventions in their coaching practice. Three

research questions guided this study:

RQ1: How does engaging in mindfulness-based leadership coaching contribute to

a client’s personal self-awareness of words and actions as a leader in an

organization?

RQ2: How does engaging in mindfulness-based leadership coaching contribute to

the regulation of personal emotions within leaders of an organization?

RQ3: How does engaging in mindfulness-based leadership coaching contribute to

the personal self-transcendence of leaders in an organization?

A conception of mindfulness as a framework to facilitate personal awareness, emotional

regulation, and transcendence beyond self-interests was reflected in the participants’

interview responses.

In this chapter, I present the study setting, demographics of participants, and the

procedures of the study. The processes for data collection and analysis are described

before the verification of trustworthiness is discussed and the study results are presented.

Setting

The participants had provided mindful leadership coaching, executive coaching

with mindfulness training, or mindfulness-based coaching interventions to middle and

senior manager leaders for at least 3 months in the United States. I recruited participants

through social media and networking websites. Each participant provided me with a time

and date convenient for them to be interviewed, and all interviews were conducted in one

sitting. During the data collection period, I used Zoom to interview participants because

of the ease of use of the platform and its recording capabilities. There were no personal or

organizational conditions that influenced participants or their experience at the time of

the study that influenced the interpretation of the study results.

Demographics

Out of the nine participants, eight were men and one was a woman. All

participants were 35 years old or older: Three participants were between the ages of 30 to

39, three were between the ages of 40 to 49, one was between the ages of 50 to 59, and

two were between the ages of 60 to 69. All possessed at least 3 months experience

coaching U.S. leaders while incorporating mindfulness interventions. All participants

reported at least 3 years of experience with mindful practice, with one having between 32

and 72 months, and five participants having between 73 months and 3 years of

experience. Three participants reported greater than 10 years of experience with

mindfulness practice. See Table 1 for gender, age, and years of experience.

Data Collection

Upon gaining approval to conduct the study from the Walden University IRB, I

began recruiting participants through LinkedIn and Facebook. I created a document to

keep track of people I contacted, the manner I contacted them (e.g., instant message,

email, website contact), and when and what their response was to identify possible

participants. I then sent out 10 initial invitations to several mindful-coaching Facebook

groups and received zero responses the first week. During the second week, I focused on

recruiting participants from LinkedIn and personally featured websites, which yielded far

better results. An initial 20 potential participants were contacted the second week, and I

repeated the process a third week with another 23 potential participants. A total of 43

invitations were sent via LinkedIn and personal messages through coaching websites over

a period of 21 days, with 10 potential participants contacting me back to participate in the

study. Participants were then emailed the study consent form, to which they emailed back

the words, “I consent,” to provide their consent to participate in the study. I collected and

filed nine consent emails, and one participant stopped responding to my communication,

so they were omitted from the study, which brought my total participants to nine, a

number I estimated would still allow me to reach data saturation. This process of

recruiting and interviewing took about 5 weeks in total, which was less time than

originally anticipated.

After the participants’ consent was received, each participant and I agreed upon a

date to conduct their interview. All participants of the study were interviewed via Zoom,

and each interview lasted approximately 30 to 60 minutes. I used Zoom to audio record

all nine interviews; however, a cassette-recording device was also present as a backup in

case any technical difficulties were encountered while using Zoom. I interviewed each

participant in a quiet room in my home so that others could not hear our conversation and

encouraged participants to do the same.

Before the interviews, each participant spent a brief time sharing their age, length

of time providing mindful leadership services, and how long they had been familiar with

mindful practice. Next, participants answered the interview questions, including probes

following each question. I gave each participant an opportunity at the end of the

interview to add any further insights they thought would be helpful. No variations were

made to the data collection procedures outlined in Chapter 3, and no unusual

circumstances were encountered.

Data Analysis

I utilized the IPA method to move inductively from significant statements to three

main themes representing the research questions, each of which featured four subthemes

and one additional theme to identify best practices. After conducting nine interviews, I

transcribed the recordings using Microsoft Word to create an interview document on

which to note words and phrases conveyed by participants. The transcripts were read and

re-read several times to immerse myself in the data. Throughout the analysis, colors were

utilized to highlight words and phrases that occurred frequently or were of significant

value to identify codes. I wrote notes regarding pertinent content in the margin of the

transcripts to facilitate the process of identifying emerging themes. Then, the identified

codes and phrases were transferred to a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet to examine the

frequency of the phrases and experiences shared by the participants to determine

similarities and differences in the topics discussed. Table 1 displays the codes, themes,

and subthemes from data analysis.

Table 1

Codes, Themes, and Subthemes

Codes Themes and subthemes

Research Question 1: Walking their talk,

core values, curiosity, interest,

development, alignment, discovery,

internally, meditation, awareness,

engagement, behaviors, relationship,

improvement, integrity, self-discovery,

values, mindful listening, present moment,

future self, presence, showing up, internal

roles, consciousness, presence, meaning,

body scan, journaling, empathy, non-

reactive.

Theme 1: Self-awareness

Subtheme 1a: Values identification

Subtheme 1b: Self-evaluation

Subtheme 1c: Presence

Subtheme 1d: Relationship development

Subtheme 1e: Best practices

Research Question 2: Cognitive

reinterpretation, empathetic listening,

capacity, expectation, normalize, support,

challenge, family relationship, positive

change, emotion, manage, behavior,

conscious alignment, comfort zone, stretch

zone, values, engagement, open-minded,

meditation, body awareness, somatic,

communication, active listening, mindful

listening, present in the moment, roles,

well-being, thoughts, getting in touch with

themselves, capability, label emotions,

breath work, awareness, reflection, non-

reactivity, self-control, emotions,

relationships, reframing emotions, mindful

listening, self-management, emotion

regulation, impulse control.

Research Question 3: Identity, limitations,

change, goals, contemplation, meditation,

family, cognitive empathy, something

greater, deep understanding, self,

development, relationships, volunteer,

behaviors, service, permission, growth,

empathy, role model, clarity, reflection,

non-profit, career change, introspection,

servant leadership, consciousness, team

dynamic-2, awareness, leadership, empathy,

compassion.

Theme 2: Self-regulation

Subtheme 2a: Emotion management

Subtheme 2b: Nonreactivity

Subtheme 2c: Meditative practices

Subtheme 2d: Conscious alignment

Subtheme 2e: Best practices

Theme 3: Self-transcendence

Subtheme 3a: Servant leadership

Subtheme 3b: Reflection

Subtheme 3c: Team dynamic

Subtheme 3d: Cognitive empathy

Subtheme 3e: Best practices

Once the Excel spreadsheet was populated, I assessed my codes and emerging

themes to determine if I had reached data saturation. According to Hennik and Kaiser

(2022), saturation occurs at a point in data collection that no additional issues or insights

are identified and data become repetitious and redundant, and an adequate sample size

has been reached. To assess saturation, I utilized code frequency counts, which involved

counting codes in successive transcripts until the frequency of new codes diminished,

signaling data saturation was reached (see Coenen et al., 2012; Francis et al., 2010;

Morse et al., 2014). This study consisted of a relatively homogenous population;

therefore, many of the codes focused on similar approaches to and observations of

mindfulness in the context of leadership coaching, and I determined I reached data

saturation at nine participants.

Metaphors and temporal referents were reviewed to deepen the analysis, and

patterns of shared higher order qualities across cases were noted. After further analyzing

the data analysis matrix within Microsoft Excel, I mapped out four subthemes related to

the central theme and one subtheme identifying best practices coaches commonly use. No

discrepant cases were identified; therefore, none were included in the demographic

summary or data analysis. Finally, I generated textural and structural descriptions were

generated for each of the 12 subthemes (see Table 2).

Table 2

Final Themes/Subthemes With Structural Elements

Themes/subthemes Structural elements

Self-awareness

Values identification Cost benefit analysis of making a change. Identifying who they want to

be. Reflecting on internal standards. Identifying leadership strategy and

leadership ability.

Self-evaluation Walking their talk. Assessing desired leadership engagement vs.

feedback. Identify gaps between what they say their values are and

what they're doing. Observe the impact of emotions and thoughts on

behavior.

Presence Capacity to simultaneously hold multiple perspectives. Awareness of

environment, stimuli, and response.

Relationship development Integrating empathetic listening processes. Exploring and

understanding the impacts of leader behaviors. Impacts on interpersonal

relationships. How we show up in the world to others. Empathetic

communication.

Self-regulation

Emotion management Emotional responses leading to intersubjectivity. Open-mindedness to

incremental stress. Getting in touch with your inner self. Pause to

examine emotions.

Nonreactivity Mental and emotional state modulates behavior. Communicating

objectively and without judgement. Regulated emotions. Independence

from outcomes and impacts. Shifting from reaction to response.

Meditative practices Contemplation as an object of awareness. Observing mental, emotional,

and physical processes. Engaging in deliberate and consistent practice.

Formal meditation to informal practices. Breath control. Reframing

existential point of view to a physiological one.

Conscious alignment Differentiating expectations from capacities. Alignment among

movement, decisions, and intentions. Personal accountability aligns

actions with values. Awareness of impacts aligned to goal. Personal

reflection. Harmonizing personal relationships.

Self-transcendence

Servant leadership Desire to provide service to others. Passion for volunteer opportunities.

Deeper exploration of purpose and values. Present moment

observation. Identifying motivators.

Reflection Developing higher level of consciousness. Effective relationship

development. Empathetic communication and leadership. Be the leader

you wish you had. Awareness of desire to serve.

Team dynamic Development of empathy and compassion in the workplace. Assuming

a role of service. Trust and psychological safety.

Cognitive empathy Empathetic listening process. Leading by example. Compassionate

listening and communication. Understanding alternate perspectives.

Evidence of Trustworthiness

To increase the study’s trustworthiness, I forwarded each participant their

interview transcript and requested that they review their transcript for accuracy. In

addition, when probing participants, I considered other views, perspectives, and potential

themes to avoid assumptions about a participant’s spoken words (see Merriam & Tisdell,

2016). To increase the trustworthiness of the study, I also addressed credibility,

transferability, dependability, and confirmability.

Credibility

Credibility was reinforced by making sure each participant understood the consent

form and inclusion criteria. After the interviews were conducted, I sent each participant

their interview transcript and asked if there was anything that they would like to change

or add. The participants were asked to request any changes to their transcript within 7

days, but all nine participants agreed their transcripts were accurate. An iterative review

of the transcripts and my review of notes and several listening sessions of the interview

recordings provided triangulation of the data, which also helped me to avoid bias.

According to Patton (2015), researchers have the responsibility to minimize bias and

cross-check and authenticate all data collected.

Transferability

I reinforced transferability by preparing a detailed description of the data analysis

process to provide the reader with a step-by-step approach, applicable in a wider context

(see Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Furthermore, I provided a clear description of the study’s

setting to illuminate how the study proceeded and described how the recorded Zoom

interviews were conducted. To explain the significance of the investigation, I described

how emerging themes were determined (see Saldaña, 2016).

Dependability

In an effort to increase dependability, I confirmed all data with participants by

providing them with a copy of the interview transcripts so they could verify the

transcripts’ accuracy. Additionally, I incorporated reflexivity to make certain that the

collected data and research questions aligned with the purpose of the study and the

procedures detailed in Chapter 3. This process assisted with triangulation of the data and

ensured the accuracy of the data collected. All data were examined, the study

instrumentation was outlined, and the research questions were answered to ensure the

study could be replicated.

Confirmability

I ensured confirmability by keeping a record of the interview and data analysis

processes while acknowledging my own internal biases. One bias I self-identified was

having knowledge of mindfulness practices in a therapeutic setting, and to reduce this

bias, I constructed the interview questions in a manner designed to seek participants’

observations so that the information would represent their own perspective apart from

mine. I also requested that participants check their interview responses to confirm the

accuracy of their transcripts. Emergent themes were cross-checked by constructing a

matrix of participants’ spoken words.

Results

In this section, I present the results of the study as themes and subthemes that

emerged from the data analysis. Themes were constructed using the central focus of each

of the following research questions, and subthemes were depicted using excerpts from

interview responses. To maintain the confidentiality of the mindful leadership coaches, I

referred to participants by number (i.e., P1–P9).

Theme 1: Self-Awareness

I developed the first research question to focus on self-awareness, the first

concept of the S-ART framework, which is comprised of a series of components that can

be cultivated through focus, evaluation, and feedback. Participants shared that self-

awareness was paramount to their clients’ mindfulness state through a variety of

statements and anecdotes. The five subthemes that emerged related to Theme 1 are:

• Subtheme 1a: Values identification.

• Subtheme 1b: Self-evaluation.

• Subtheme 1c: Presence.

• Subtheme 1d: Relationship development.

• Subtheme 1e: Best practices

Subtheme 1a: Values Identification

During interviews, mindful leadership coaches frequently mentioned clients

identifying their internal values such as core values as well as desired leadership traits.

These ranged from interventions developed to highlight how their current values do not

align to those they desire, as well as developing an appreciation for the values they do

align with. Four of the nine leadership coaches interviewed made specific references to

the importance of a client identifying their core values and an awareness of the alignment

between those values and their current actions. What follows are some specific examples

quoted from interviews.

P1: The first, uh engagement is simple awareness. As you put it, you know, as

you were saying, awareness. So just taking that as an object of their awareness is

the first step. And then comes the more difficult part, which is engaging in the

cost benefit analysis of making a change, a behavioral change, a leadership

change. And that's often the confounding element. So, when someone says that

simple awareness is itself curative, I don't believe that. I think that's totally false.

You know, mindfulness is not a panacea. Uh, it's really the beginning of

something, not the end. So, the first step really is mindful awareness of what's

happening and then you face the choice of the dilemma because you have to

understand both sides. You know, why am I not walking my talk? Well, there's a

cost.

P2: The first phase is when they look inward, and they start realizing more and

more who they are. What serves them well? What doesn't serve them well then

there is, like, a phase of, like questioning like. Who am I? What parts of myself do

I need to improve or do I want to keep or do I want to change? And then

naturally, I think it's an organic process that with the evolution of the personal

development aspect of the practice of mindful leadership. There is an organic

process in which all of that starts showing in the way they make decisions in the

way they create culture in the way they do business. Like, what their priorities are

in terms of business and the way they develop professional relationships. The

things that matter to them internally start to show in the way they run their

companies.

P6: One of the things that I try to do as a first step is get clients to reflect on their

internal standards and we’ll, you know, translate that as values, but to be clear

about them and what I call you know, align with them. To know whether there's a

gap between what they say their values are and what they're actually doing. Yeah,

I think there is absolutely that effect. And I see clients working on that a lot. And

sometimes that means clients will leave their current employer because they

realize there's too much of a gap between what they value and what the current

employer is doing. So, it's one way to show up, but it also just shows up in how

people are more intentional in their work.

P9: You know, it really depends on how much the client takes on. How much

mindfulness practice do they actually do? Because the more you do it, the subtler

it gets, and the more you can actually relate what you're experiencing to your life,

including your strategy, strategies, and leadership ability. So, it’s a client choice

to engage in it and then the client choice as to how much, how long they want to

engage in it in terms of their actual practice. You know, their values might change

over time. The more practice they do. When I say practice, I mean. Sitting

meditation practice. So that might change because they might start to see things a

little differently. I mean for example, I was coaching somebody right before we

had this conversation. We're in the process of changing their standards. Because

her assumption is well, I need to work harder than my team. So, her standards

were “I have to work really hard,” and now we're in the process of undercutting

her standards or changing her standards.

Subtheme 1b: Self-Evaluation

Another topic frequently mentioned during the interviews of mindful leadership

coaches involved a coachee’s evaluation of themselves. These evaluations might range

from their perceived effectiveness in leadership activities to topics they may have not

considered prior to engaging in mindfulness interventions, such as an applied

management of their emotions. Coaches frequently discussed concepts such as “checking

in” with themselves through interventions such as the body-scan and other meditative

practices. Five of the nine leadership coaches that were interviewed specifically referred

to coaching clients engaging in self-evaluation. What follows are some examples quoted

from interviews.

P1: “So, something has to bother them and they have to be curious about it. Then

during the sessions, that curiosity translates into inter-subjectivity.”

P3: Assessments that I use provide both quantitative and qualitative data. To

literally measure the frequency of a leader’s engagement in about 30 different

leadership behaviors. That assessment is produced by the leadership challenge,

which is one of the curricula that I am a certified master. To be able to facilitate

and deliver. It's called the LPI or leadership Practices, Inventory 360.

P5: Well, first and foremost, you mentioned it's not necessarily who they are, but

who they want to be, but to me it really starts with figuring out who you are first.

So to me, the most basic effect that mindfulness has is to. Sort of getting in touch

with yourselves on a deeper level to be more aware of your own emotions, of your

own feelings. I mean, we have lots of blind spots. We don't know stuff or we don't

see stuff about ourselves. That's also one of the, I think, powers of coaching.

Having that outside perspective, someone who's holding up the mirror. They

realize it has an impact or positive impact on their overall well-being. I mean,

they were not coming to me because they wanted to increase their well-being or

because they wanted to feel better. But it's a side effect that has definitely

happened many times. People tell me I'm a bit more relaxed. I can take it, not just

reacting blindly to emotions. Being able to control your or to observe your

emotions and your thoughts, and having that small pause, that mindful pause. To

decide, OK, how do I react to this? Or to decide OK, I'm not reacting to this,

maybe I'll just keep listening. I think that's something that has I've heard several

times.

P7: Yeah. So, one of the things that I do in my executive coaching sessions is I

actually bring the coach team or my partner in coaching into the present moment

with themself. And bring them into the present moment with a future self.

P8: Figuring out what somebody's values are because most people don't know

how to bring meaning in their life, they don't know what's important for them.

They don't know what their values are, and I use techniques to help people

actually bring clarity to what's important. To use their self-awareness to really

come to a point where they understand. But these are the things that are important

in my life and then from there help them to make their life more meaningful.

Create strategies, whether that's at work or at home to make the life more

meaningful, because that's what the research really says right, you can. You can

definitely increase your well-being if you can bring meaning in your life, but you

have to know what's important for you.

Subtheme 1c: Presence

Although less frequently mentioned during interviews conducted for this study,

mindful leadership coaches indicated a coachee’s “presence” influencing their self-

awareness. According to the leadership coaches, concepts such as increasing personal

capacity to understand multiple perspectives as well as deepening internal awareness

provide clients with improvements to personal and leadership presence. Two of the nine

leadership coaches that were interviewed mentioned client presence having an impact on

their self-awareness. What follows are some examples quoted from interviews.

P1: So, there are some aspects of coaching when you know, cuz we're talking

about personal awareness here as opposed to, you know, any kind of professional

strategy or tactics, so in terms of their personal awareness and how it affects their

professional strategy and tactics, I would say there are those lessons from you

know, the concrete operational stage of 7 and up. Until you know, they meet with

a coach. So those lessons are often brought into the coaching engagement and

kind of recalibrated. But then there is another entire range of personal awareness

which is not about things that have happened before, but about capacities that

have yet to be developed. So, there's a big difference between recalibrating that

which one has learned. Since the age of seven and that which could be possible if

one were to continue. To grow and develop and by develop, I specifically mean to

grow into their own next stage of development, which I mean for purposes of our

interview, we can define, as you know, an increasing capacity to simultaneously

hold more and more perspectives.

P2: There are different levels in which this awareness happens, like the most

superficial one would be awareness of my environment, awareness of where I am

here now. Another like the internal level would be awareness. My personal

experience as I am navigating this moment and we've talked about this too

already, like aware awareness on my mind and my mental processes, my

emotional responses, my, my physical experience. There is a third level of

awareness that can be developed and worked which is like. We call it deep

awareness.

Subtheme 1d: Relationship Development

Another subtheme frequently mentioned during interview questions focusing on

self-awareness was relationship development. This included not only the interpersonal

relationships encountered at the workplace but even relationships with friends and family.

Further, leadership coaches discussed the impacts of incorporating empathetic behaviors

such active listening and non-judgmental engagement. Seven of the nine leadership

coaches that were interviewed mentioned their clients’ engagement with mindful

leadership coaching involved developments in their self-awareness, which in turn

impacted their professional and personal relationships. What follows are some examples

quoted from interviews.

P1: So, I have seen an impact to the scope of their identity, increasing first to, you

know, not only being identified. Their codes of conduct or their, you know, their

institution, but also with the people in the institution. So that's one of the first

things that happens because leaders are often, you know, pretty consistently they

kind of are the culture of an institution and so. By using the empathic listening

process, that very naturally gets them to grow in their identity in the sense of like,

you know, becoming identified with ever wider groups of humans.

P3: What I’ve heard in the client's own words anecdotally, would be the impact of

their relationships beyond the workplace and with their relationships, whether

that's at home with their spouse or partner or with their children or within their

community. Because leadership is a relationship. And that relationship begins

with one with that leader’s self. When you start exploring and understanding your

leader-self better than that strengthens your relationship with yourself, and then

the positive effects of that relationship extend beyond and so it really becomes

ripples of change and positive impact beyond the workplace. You know that we

call it personal awareness or personal exploration. But as we know the lines are

becoming much more blurred. Between work and life or workplace and home,

and what affects one domain affects another domain, and that can be positively or

negatively. So, when someone is doing development on themselves at home, it's

likely that that will have an impact on work and vice versa.

P4: “I mean it's increases in you know, improvements in the happiness, peace,

love, joy, meaning fulfillment. And family relationships. Feeling awareness of

their body.”

P6: “Our official goal in leadership coaching is to help the person at work. People

realize it helps them at home and their relationships with their spouses and kids.”

P7: Yeah, this happens all the time and it's really refreshing and energizing for me

to hear. So, I have clients that say I hired you because I know you built and sold a

company and you're great at sales and marketing and we need to get better at that.

I didn't realize that as we worked together that my friends and family and

employees would start saying things like, wow, you seem so present and centered

and calm. And so, they'll say I didn't expect that my way of showing up in the

world would change enough that people would comment. I would also say while

we don't do marriage counseling in our sessions that my primary relationship is

improving dramatically, and my spouse is saying that I'm being more loving. So

those are common things that happen, I think almost with every coaching client.

Invariably, they report that the amount of self-limiting thoughts that typically

come up are dramatically reduced. They report that the amount of time spent in

thinking that generates stress and anxiety and worry that those are that's all

reduced.

P8: I think mostly. It's the impact of empathy. I think a lot of leaders are still

walking the hard leadership skill path. Where they preach that emotion should

stay at home. And I think the day they realized that bringing empathy into

leadership can make a tremendous difference in creating a very different

workplace, creating a more humanized workplace. That allows for psychological

safety and trust and all that good stuff. I think I've seen. I've seen a lot of leaders

where that that was a big eye opener for them.

P9: One situation where a guy came back and said, you know, my relationship

with my wife has gotten a lot better. So sure, I mean. This isn't about. Mindful

leadership coaching isn't just about the work, it's about your life. That's when you

lead yourself.

Subtheme 1e: Best Practices

An additional goal of this study was to identify mindful interventions that mindful

leadership coaches consider “best practices.” During interview questions that focused on

self-awareness, a variety of techniques were discussed, with the most common being

mediation-based practices, but also a variety of active-participant interventions were

mentioned as well. Seven of the nine leadership coaches that were interviewed discussed

techniques they commonly refer to in their practice. Most of the practices mentioned are

common to a variety of mindful-based frameworks and programs such as guided

meditation, active (mindful) listening, and body awareness exercises. Several unique

interventions were mentioned, such as values sharing exercises, reverse roleplay, and

presence exercises were specifically designed or adapted by the coach through education

and practice. What follows are some examples quoted from interviews.

P2: We use fundamental meditation techniques to help them develop the

mindfulness skills that then help them become more present in their activities, in

the experience. That they are going through, but also more present in how they are

experiencing internally. All of those activities which activate their inner

leadership or their ability to respond consciously to whatever is happening in the

moment.

P3: Yes, the first being the engagement of a values identification and alignment

exercise. It is a hands-on activity that is facilitated, but it is very much through

the exploration of that individual's values and then the discussion. Of to what

degree their activities, their actions, their appointments, their priorities are

incongruence with their profiles, their professed values.

P4: “Formal meditation practice to informal practice. You know, during sessions

you know I open each, inviting clients to notice you know their body throughout

the meeting time and beyond exercise. Personal awareness of the workplace and

different breath work exercises.”

P5: And so, mindfulness, I think mindfulness practice, which can be meditative

practices. They can help, I found to really listen, to actively listen in a sense that

taking yourself out of the equation and just listening to what's coming in. Don't

judge, don't categorize, or put labels on it. Just what is coming in and I think

that's. So, are there activities? Yes, practicing mindful or active listening is one.

P6: Mindful listening would be one. Instead of thinking of the next thing you

want to say, you can let your mind settle and go deeper into the person. Values

should be another. You know what? During that reflective exercise and values

and then sharing your values with a team member.

P8: “I do journaling. I do body awareness. I do focus attention practices. I do open

awareness practices. Anything that allows them to bring awareness to their

thoughts, to their feelings, to their body, to their environment.”

P9: Well, I mean, there's two best practices in my view. One is they have to have

a regular meditation practice. So I mean, I like to say 5 days out of 7, but seven

days out of. Even better, and it it has to be, it has to be, you know, at least 15

minutes and preferably more. Because otherwise we're not going to get anywhere.

Theme 2: Self-Regulation

The second research question features a focus on self-regulation, the second

concept of the S-ART framework, and is referred to as creating cognizance and deeper

understanding of one’s own condition, limitations, and possibilities, and to contribute

oversight of one’s own life at all levels. Participants related that self-regulation is

essential to a mindfulness state in a variety of statements and anecdotes discussed. The

five subthemes that emerged related to Theme 2 are:

• Subtheme 2a: Emotion management

• Subtheme 2b: Nonreactivity

• Subtheme 2c: Meditative practices

• Subtheme 2d: Conscious alignment

• Subtheme 2e: Best practice

Subtheme 2a: Emotion Management

In discussions during interviews, coaches frequently mentioned a coachees’

ability to manage their emotions. Five of the nine leadership coaches interviewed made

specific references to the development of emotion management through mindful

practices. Examples include labeling emotions, breath work, and meditative

interventions. Further, several coaches indicated during their interviews that the level of

dedication and perseverance to the mindful leadership coaching program is highly

indicative of the potential outcomes that clients can expect. What follows are some

specific examples quoted from interviews.

P2: “In your emotional responses to become acquainted with the way sometimes

you know we process something intellectually and how that mental state has an

emotional reflection on your body. And through those techniques, we become

more emotionally intelligent.”

P3: So, it really depends on that client having an open mind about things they

perhaps haven't considered. Maybe meditation is one of them. Maybe. Movement

or exercise or some type of physical activity is another one. So I think their

ability to regulate themselves personally is highly dependent upon to the degree to

which they're willing to engage in deliberate practice, whether that's in one area or

that's multiple areas that they're choosing to develop and utilize for their

regulation.

P5: There, this alignment happens, but how does it happen? Yeah, but it would

come back to probably what I said before in that it has this effect of they're

getting more in touch with themselves, you know, and out of that. That that.

That's what. Eventually allows them to be or to align their or to align with their.

Desired leadership behavior. If someone is really uncomfortable speaking in front

of people, maybe there's also another way to, well, you could do one on ones you

don't need to be the type of boss that just stands in front of the whole office and

announces something. If you feel really uncomfortable, you still need to get this

out and announced. Why don't you just get a small group together if you feel

more comfortable? Talking to three or four people at the same time. So, you know

this way it sounds like we're always trying to avoid the issue they have, but it was

in fact finding some practical short term solution while the client was working on,

you know, the ability to eventually be able to stand in front of everyone or to

deliver bad news more comfortably.

P8: They should, if they feel an emotion coming up, the first thing they should do

is stop and take a breath. Because they need that space between stimulus and

response. If they want to start navigating an emotion. So, I teach them, for

example, STUMP, which is a very easy framework. There's a couple of others as

well. Where you say if an emotion comes up, you're in an argument and you can

feel. Now my chest is getting hot, then my hands are tingling. You just stop. You

stop and you take a nice deep breath, which will give you enough time to notice

what's actually going on. And then you can choose a response.

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P9: So, in English, the assumption is I am my emotion. And that, you know, and

so my emotion is actually in control rather than I'm in control. The emotions in

charge of me and then, however, I, you know, relate to anger. For example, do I

repress it? Do I? Act out. Do I reach for a cigarette? You know what? What is?

What is it that I do?

Subtheme 2b: Nonreactivity

During interview questions examining client self-regulation through mindfulness

interventions, mindful leadership coaches frequently mentioned the power of developing

non-reactivity. Five of the nine leadership coaches interviewed referenced non-reactivity

incorporated into self-regulation through mindful practices. Commonly discussed topics

included the importance of incorporating emotion management as well as impulse

control. What follows are some specific examples quoted from interviews.

P2: Intellectually, my clients are nice people, and they want the best for

everything, you know, and they have very good intentions. But then in practice,

you know, sometimes we get, so to speak, kidnapped by our emotions and our

mental patterns, emotional patterns that bring our experience to places of

difficulty, sometimes even toxicity. We want to be kind and we want to be

compassionate. And we want to treat people kindly. I think that almost inherently,

like humans, we tend to want the best for everybody. But then sometimes you

know when we are unable to be aware of our mental state and our emotional state,

those two modulate our behavior in ways that we don't agree. When clients

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engage in mindful leadership coaching, they are more able to align their behavior

with their true self.

P4: Communication is the biggest one. Just learning how to communicate their

truths in an objective, not judgmental way, which is really effective. You know,

most people run around with this anxiety that I was talking about. When really,

what they mean is I'm feeling. I'm feeling, I'm feeling, you know. Yeah. And so

that learning that you know, they come into more integrity with themselves and

then you know, often times those things that they're seeking from before, start to

happen. Flow, and all that kind of fun stuff.

P7: Right in every way they align. So emotional regulation. If I'm fully well-

regulated and I'm not triggered, I'm not reactive. I am unable to have a small gap

between stimulus and response. I am able to interface with the other humans in

my life, in the business context. A business to be healthy and growing and

employees that enjoy working in that company and with me and that they deliver

the results to enable all of this to work. If I'm unregulated, I'm producing negative

externalities that I have to then correct later. A negative externality here simply is

that they quit because I was an *******. Pardon my French. Therefore, I've got to

hire their replacement, which on average costs about $15,000. So now my profits

are down. So, if I'm emotionally regulated, the turmoil that I produce in the

company is dramatically reduced.

P8: I think quite often emotion regulation, you know, if an emotion comes up, it

could be a perceived threat. For example, our limbic system of the brain will send

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a signal to our prefrontal cortex. It helps us in interpreting that danger, whatever it

is, and then sends the signal back down, and if that connection works well, then

that's great. The connection between our limbic system up to the prefrontal cortex

is much stronger than the other way round. That's why we have amygdala hijacks

and all kinds of good stuff. But I sort of tried to explain them in very easy words

that you know, you're not the only one in the world who has an amygdala hijack.

You're not the only one in the world. That has difficulties in regulating their

emotions. And its mindfulness that helps you to increase the bandwidth. The

communication becomes 2 main parts of the brain and gives you the ability to

pause before you respond. And it's understanding that is what you want to learn

here. What you want to learn here is to shift from reacting to a situation to

responding in a situation. Not being driven by compulsion, but by choice.

P9: Regulation is the key. So, you start with. You have to become self-aware and

mindfulness in a sense is all about self-awareness. You start to become aware of

when you're feeling an emotion, what the emotion is, when you're when you're

feeling an impulse. Not giving in to the impulse and all of that takes place on the

cushion. You know then. You go from self-awareness to self regulation or self

management. Your traditional emotional intelligence categories. And self

management is the is the jackpot, right? Because you actually know how you feel,

and then you can not allow the emotion to be in charge. You make a decision as

how you want to react in any given situation. For example, one little saying is

don't get angry. Get curious. So, when you notice when anger arises, you could

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think of that and rather then do what you habitually do with anger, you can say,

OK, well, tell me a little bit more about the mistake you just made. What

happened? And then you can you know, process that. So self-regulation is

mindful leadership in my view.

Subtheme 2c: Meditative Practices

During interview questions examining mindfulness interventions and client self-

regulation, meditative practices were frequently discussed by mindful leadership coaches.

Seven of the nine leadership coaches interviewed mentioned the value of meditative

practices when discussing self-regulation through mindful coaching interventions. Topics

discussed included guided meditation as well as meditative practices which include

breath work, body scans, and situational reframing. What follows are some specific

examples quoted from interviews.

P1: Contemplation and meditation help you take as an object of your awareness.

Almost everything in your existence. But getting to this, you know what in

computers you might call the firmware, so I think meditation and contemplation

are outstanding at helping you take all of your software as an object of your

awareness. But I'm not sure if it takes your firmware as an object of your

awareness, and that's the distinction I make with my clients. Because, you know,

mindfulness is literally in the name of my business and. So sometimes they will

ask me about this distinction.

P2: Activities that clients engage in are mindfulness meditation techniques that

help them increase their ability to be present, both externally with their

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environment or what's happening around them and also internally. With their

mental processes, emotional processes, physical processes as they are navigating

any particular moment, and gaining that awareness helps them. Influence their

experience, optimize their experience and then consciously choose how to

respond. And before any given situation.

P3: So, it really depends on that client having an open mind about things they

perhaps haven't considered. Maybe meditation is one of them. Maybe mindful

movement or exercises or some type of physical activity is another one. So, I

think their ability to regulate themselves personally is highly dependent upon to

the degree to which they're willing to engage in deliberate practice, whether that's

in one area or that's multiple areas that they're choosing to develop and utilize for

their regulation.

P4: “Formal meditation practice to informal practice. You know, during sessions

you know, I open each, by inviting clients to notice you know, their body

throughout the meeting time and beyond exercise.”

P5: It’s so hard because when we listen, what automatically happens is we start

formulating questions. I mean sort of replies in our heads. So, we're not, we're not

listening 100 percent, 50% of our energy is used to process the information to

think about how does this relate to us, we form opinions. And so, mindfulness, I

think mindfulness practice, which can be meditative practices, they help (self

regulation).

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P7: A form of meditation that you basically just follow your breath. There's no

mantra, there's no, there's nothing else besides sitting and following your breath

and what it results in is creating a small gap between stimulus and internal

response to stimulus. So essentially, we're removing triggers. A trigger is

essentially stimulus and automatic response, and so with that practice someone

can come into a meeting and say look revenue looks like it's down 20% next

quarter instead of immediately. What the **** is going on? I can't believe you.

There's a, just a even if it's a split second, a pause. Emotion doesn't necessarily

arise right away, especially trigger-related emotion, and they can have a more

thoughtful and kind and considerate response.

P9: So, with meditation practice, the mechanics are that something might come up

where I'm get, I get angry. There's nothing I can do about it. Right? I'm just sitting

here. So, the more I do this, the more I start to recognize I'm not the emotion. And

then because I'm not the emotion, then I can say well, actually I'm feeling this

emotion. In my body. So, reframing. An existential point of view to sort of more

of a physiological point of view. I've got this emotion, emotions, or body

sensations, plus a story. So, I can actually not be attached to the story, I can just

feel how I feel and then I can decide what to do.

Subtheme 2d: Conscious Alignment

During interview questions examining mindful leadership coaching and client

self-regulation, conscious alignment was frequently discussed by mindful leadership

coaches. Seven of the nine leadership coaches interviewed mentioned conscious

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alignment in their clients’ self-regulation through mindful coaching interventions. Some

of the topics discussed by coaches included a focus on the difference between their

desired outcomes and the outcomes they are currently experiencing, as well as what is

required to bring the two closer to synchronicity. Other topics mentioned interventions to

increase capacity for emotional regulation. What follows are some specific examples

quoted from interviews.

P1: The alignment depends on improving their capacity for emotional regulation.

And this is most often seen. The leaders’ expectations of performance from their

teams. So, a lot of leaders have to go through a process where they recognize that

their ideas about what an individual or a team is capable of are falling far short of

what those actual capacities are. And so, they have to both alter their expectations,

but also figure out a way to help that person or that team.

P2: Keeping an eye on how my movement, how my decisions, how my intentions

every day are aligned for a higher good like kind of like an altruistic intention like

this is not just about survival. This is not just about myself. This is not just about

making money, but how is this business a vehicle for the greater good?

P3: Back to our values, that is an area where it can be incredibly useful in

emotional regulation. One of my values, for example, is well-being. And so, if I

use well-being as a constant reminder to regulate my emotions, then it becomes

I'm holding myself more accountable, because I am believing that it's important to

align my actions with my values. Then, I need to support through my actions the

values that I profess.

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P6: And we do this in the 360, right, get feedback so people can be aware of how

their impact is not what they wanted. So being more mindful allows us to be more

aware of our goals, and what we want and through coaching, we can become

more aware of our actual impact and then we can try to align those better.

Well, there's certainly more reflection. Which is good, I'll encourage that. So, the

other behavior here is just to stop the action, not just in the moment. As you

mentioned, you take that breath, but also to make time could be taking a walk,

could be sitting at the desk to reflect on how things are going during the week,

and essentially that's what coaching is. Often is this process of public reflection.

We sit with another person, reflect on what we've done this past week or two, and

so people I find through coaching start doing that more themselves.

P7: I have one client that stopped drinking alcohol entirely after many years of

daily alcohol consumption. I won't, yeah, I won't say they were alcoholic because

I don't know, and that's not my role to. To pathologize them or to make that

designation the way it came about was after eight months of every call that we

did, they ultimately were referenced in some way, and we had a lot of wine or,

you know, you know, my husband loves margaritas, and I don't like margaritas. I

just reflect that I said, you know, I've heard alcohol mentioned in every

conversation we've ever had, and that's not typical. What's going on with that?

P8: Yeah, because you have people, you know, once they start putting all of this

together, you know increased self-awareness, the ability to navigate emotions, and

the use of empathy. Some of them come back to you and say, you know I became

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a better person at home. Because some people have never used those skills before.

They often become a better leader. They have employees who are more trusting.

They create better relationships and yeah, it's. It goes outside of the workplace it

becomes a human skill that they learn. I had several times people telling me that it

helped them a lot. It helped them in dealing with emotions in their private life as

well. It helped them in their relationships. It helped them in dealing with crisis,

especially during the (Coronavirus) pandemic.]

P9: A lot of economics is based on, you know, the person. My clients may not

know where they want to go. They just know that they've been asked to get a

coach, so then we have to start from scratch.

Subtheme 2e: Best Practices

An additional goal of this study was to identify interventions that mindful

leadership coaches consider “best practices.” During interview questions that focused on

self-regulation, a variety of techniques were discussed, with the most common being

meditation-based practices, but several other interventions were mentioned as well. Six of

the leadership coaches that were interviewed discussed techniques they utilize regularly

in their practice. Commonly discussed interventions included techniques such as guided

meditation, body reflection and Somatic awareness. Further, several unique interventions

were mentioned, such as leaves on a stream, labeling emotions, emotion reframing, and

the STUMP framework were specifically designed or adapted by the coach through

education and practice. What follows are some examples quoted from interviews.

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P2: There are different types of exercises or tools, techniques that we use, we go

back again to meditation. There are certain meditation techniques that are

specifically designed to become present in your emotional responses to become

acquainted with the way sometimes you know, we process something

intellectually, and how that mental state has an emotional reflection on your body.

And through those techniques, we become more emotionally intelligent. There are

other techniques that are designed to help you manage the experience that I'm

going through. Say I'm frustrated or I'm angry or I'm scared. And feel guilty. And

I ask is this the experience that I'm having at this moment? Then what do I do

with that? There are certain other techniques, especially one that I call emotional

processing tool, which helps me navigate that experience and process the

emotions so that it doesn't take over my behavior and then I can choose. How do I

want to respond? After I have processed and I have come back to a place of, like,

more centered balanced experience, I can then respond.

P3: Mindful Meditation is an example of an activity depending on again it's very

much, it depends because it depends on the preferences of the individual client.

You know, if they are comfortable with reflective journaling, that might be an

activity that I introduce them to or encourage their continued practice in. It might

be mindful movement. If they are a yoga practitioner or are curious about putting

some type of meditative movement into their practice, it might be encouraging

that. So definitely, all of those options are available.

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P4: You know, they've got all this anxiety that they're feeling in their body that

they're trying to unskillfully relieve by saying all the things on their list. And I

just interrupt them and ask them to tell me what they're feeling in their body.

There's a lot of somatic exercise and it's, you know, it's, they'll name that just like

them bringing awareness to that, like, letting go and just shifting. Yeah. Like,

bringing awareness to their suffering.

P5: There is, for example, there is one exercise that's called “leaves on a stream”

that's out of acts, which you may be familiar with. It's for acceptance and

commitment therapy. So it’s about observing your thoughts, and you imagine it's

how guided meditation, and how mindfulness practice. You imagine you're

standing on the side of a river, and you observe your thoughts and any thought

that comes up you are asked to put it on a leaf and let it float down the river and

every thought that comes up, you just take that thought. You put it on a leaf, you

let it float down the river and watch it as it goes. And that's just one, you know,

method obviously to create some distance between yourself and your thoughts,

and I find it very. I find this helpful because there is this mistaken belief, or most

people, including myself, often we often mistake our thoughts for the truth.

Whatever we think we think. Oh, this is true, and we don't realize it's just a

thought. whether it's true or not, or if it's something else.

P6: So, one of the top 100 for me is labeling emotions, meaning just naming them.

So, an exercise would be throughout the week to notice what you're feeling and

give it a name. When we label our emotions, we get power over them. We get

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more awareness of them. We turn our attention to what we're feeling and then

give it a name. The other one would be just to take a breath. You mentioned

before dominating, you know, taking a breath. Get out of our heads, into our

bodies and to notice what our bodies are experiencing, what we may be feeling

emotionally, so we get more awareness when we take that moment to stop and

breathe.

P9: Reframing an existential point of view to sort of more of a physiological point

of view. I've got this emotion, emotions or body sensations plus a story. So I can

actually just feel how I feel and then I can decide what to do so the first activity is

reframing.

Theme 3: Self-Transcendence

The third research question was developed to focus on self-transcendence, the

third concept of the S-ART framework. Self-transcendence is the transpiration of

experiencing oneself connecting on a deeper level to all of humanity, the earth, and the

cosmos; as well as a turn toward existential concerns such as personal purpose and the

meaning of life. This hints at the possibility that integrating values focused on collective

well-being may be an effective means to improve an individual’s own well-being.

Participants shared that self-transcendence was paramount to a mindfulness state in a

variety of statements and anecdotes. The five subthemes that emerged related to Theme 3

are:

• Subtheme 3a: Servant leadership

• Subtheme 3b: Reflection

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• Subtheme 3c: Team dynamic

• Subtheme 3d: Cognitive 3mpathy

• Subtheme 3e: Best practices

Subtheme 3a: Servant Leadership

In discussions during interviews, mindful leadership coaches frequently

mentioned servant leadership when discussing observations they made of their clients,

after engaging in mindful leadership coaching. Six of the nine leadership coaches

interviewed made specific references to servant leadership emerging from the behavior of

their mindful leadership coaching clients. Topics referencing servant leadership in the

interviews largely discussed the development of awareness of the psychological self

within clients. Other topics included exploration into personal leadership values and

purpose, as well as opportunities for selfless service such as volunteerism. What follows

are some specific examples quoted from interviews.

P2: An impact that mindful leadership coaching has had on my clients is the

desire to provide service to others. Like I think this is all part of that ability to

connect internally as an intimate personal experience with something greater than

themselves, overcoming what is being psychologically called the ego or the

psychological self, which is just a part of our experience like the person being

able to connect with something a little bit greater. Like the part of myself that

connects me with everything else with everything that exists. From that

perspective of totality. When they have a glimpse of that experience of totality,

that something changes even when you are back in your egoic self or personal

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psychological self. But you have a deeper understanding of our shared humanity

or our shared, like kind of like. It makes it more obvious you know that whatever

you're doing to yourself, you're doing to others, and whatever you're doing to

others, you're doing to yourself.

P3: This is definitely an area where you know if a client has realized certain gifts

and talents that they might feel are being under-utilized in the workplace. Or that

they do have a passion or calling for something different from what they're doing

in their day-to-day to be able to play to those strengths and better utilize those

talents might be in a volunteer capacity. Certainly, if they're not in a position to

you know, just quit their job and start looking for a different job, they might still

be able to leverage some of their time and talents in an area through volunteerism.

Which would definitely be in the service to others.

P4: No, it's been massive. I hosted an event a couple weeks ago with my teacher

and we had over 80 CEO's, VC's, all kinds of different leaders from around the

world and she, you know, she was a Buddhist nun for over a decade and worked a

long time as a psychotherapist and the whole you know, focus of the event was

exactly this, you know service. And there was a lot around climate change and so

on. We had someone real time in the middle of the event. She makes, I believe,

around a half million a year announced to the group that she realized, like in this

meeting, that her purpose and calling in life was to focus on climate change and

committed to changing her career to that, like right then.

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P6: Probably. I would say less so. But I mean, there's a couple of people I can

think of where they have explored their interest in nonprofit organizations and

nonprofit work because as we talk about purpose and values, they get clear that

that's really what they want to do with their lives. So yes, it does happen.

P7: I sat down with a client who had already made all the money he'll ever need in

the history of the world, and he just unconsciously started a new business and was

going after the same hamster wheel experience that we all go on as entrepreneurs,

and as he unloaded this monologue after about 6 minutes, he was done, and I

looked at him. And I said, who ******* cares? I said it like that. And he looked at

me. He goes ah. Not even me. ****, I have to get out of this. It's not worth doing.

I have to really be in service to the world now. All right, I'm going to talk to the

board. I'll hire a CEO. I'll get out of it. He got out of it, went on to raise almost a

billion dollars for what is now a very famous company that you would know. That

is doing work that is meant to solve generational issues for the next hundred, 300

years, it will impact humanity. So sometimes my role, or I would say any, given

great coaches role is to see very clearly in the present moment. So that's what the

mindfulness part of this is what is going on with this person, deliver exactly the

right words so they can see the full picture.

P9: Well, I mean when you say things that they didn't expect, I mean over the

course of the program we will, you know, we’ll talk about these kinds of things,

what to expect. Like you know what? What's your, what's your motivation?

What? You know, what are your values? What do you want to do? If you practice

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mindfulness. Then you're going to be more likely to want to provide service, in

my view.

Subtheme 3b: Reflection

In discussions during interviews, mindful leadership coaches frequently observed

clients engaged in personal reflection after participating in mindful leadership coaching.

Seven of the nine leadership coaches interviewed made reference to clients engaging in

personal and professional reflection during and after mindful leadership coaching

interventions. Other topics discussed included facilitating a connection to something

greater as well as modeling client behavior to reflect the leader that clients wished they

had. In other instances, leadership coaches also discussed meditative practices that

promote personal reflection such as examining themselves through an objective and non-

judgmental lens. What follows are some specific examples quoted from interviews.

P2: I think uh, there is a progression. And the more they practice and the more

they grow or develop like, a higher level of consciousness that helps them with

that perspective. You know, of self and of self-transcendence, the more they get it,

you know like. Who I am? In a holistic way. The only thing meaningful is to use

my business to serve others, and I think there's not, like, any other development. I

think it's just a deepening of that understanding that deepens their desire to use

their business to contribute to a more healthy and balanced community.

P3: In this area, my belief is that a leader has to, like I mentioned earlier, develop

that relationship with themselves before they can effectively develop relationships

with others. So, kind of moving along the spectrum would be, you know I am

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aware of my own self, and my leadership. Bright spots and blind spots as it might

be, and once that acknowledgement and certain action items have been

implemented, then it would move more into developing those effective

relationships with others. And that may be any volunteer capacities that might be

in you know, professional roles. That might be in, you know, their family.

P4: It goes a little bit beyond just the personal experience, but this has to do more

with the client, and we could say a spiritual component of the practice. Like

connecting in a simple way. Connecting with something greater than themselves

or the vital energy that activates all life forms, so to speak. Like some people call

it the universe, some people call it God. Some people call it life.

P5: It's yeah, it comes back to empathy, but in the sense that’s what we do, and I

think that's probably lifted from Simon Sinek, who said be the leader you wish

you had. So, think back to when you were in that position or maybe you know,

most people have some experience with a terrible boss. The terrible manager and

you know, now you're in that position. And so, it's your choice. Do you want to

act the same way that your boss that you hated 10 years ago acted?

P6: They (clients) reflect on their own values is something that they want to do.

And so, it's reoriented. So, it probably is that people do more service, but it's

certainly that I can speak more directly to what I observe, which is that they're

more aware of their desire to serve and how they enjoy that.

P7: Now is the time. So that's mindfulness in a nutshell. Now. Now is the time to

be doing the thing that we can start to into it is what we're here to do or what we

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would prefer to do or what really the universe is trying to do through us at highest

level of consciousness that I mentioned. And it starts becoming really

uncomfortable not to address it. Not to address this thing that I'm feeling. Called

to do. So that can catalyze an internal change in someone that isn't able to be

catalyzed any other way. It is that memento Mori thing that can cause shifts faster

than anything else and cause permanent change in the activities of someone's life

faster than anything else.

P8: Right. They do this. They have the awareness, it’s great. They say I love it. I

change the way I lead, but I'm not going to tell people that I've started to practice

mindfulness or whatever. But you have others who are going to turn around and

say this is amazing. And I want more of that. And I want you to help me coaching

my team. I have some friends that might be interested. I think there are there.

There is an opportunity where this can get scaled by a leader who has experienced

the difference it can make.

Subtheme 3c: Team Dynamic

While not mentioned in relation to self-transcendence as often, mindful leadership

coaches discussed observations they made about clients’ developments in team dynamics

after participating in mindful leadership coaching. Three of the nine leadership coaches

interviewed referenced team dynamics when discussing clients who engage in mindful

leadership coaching interventions. Topics discussed included empathetic processes, trust

and psychological safety, and promoting a mindful work environment. What follows are

some specific examples quoted from interviews.

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P5: Well, empathy, I think is one important thing. It allows people to be more

empathetic, which I know some people that I or clients I work with have struggled

with a bit. And once they were able to develop more empathy with that, I think

came also that sense that it's not just me versus the others. We're sort of all in this

together and to be able to zoom out and to see the whole thing as, hey, I'm just

part of it and we're all connected and if I help you know someone else, I help

everyone. I also help me. It sort of comes back to me.

P7: I'm gonna sit in the role of. In that specific part of me that feels queen like and

when I am sitting in the queen like role, I can see that I must serve all of the

people. I can now start to shape my business, that it's not just a direct-to-consumer

coffee company that serves coffee drinkers. It's literally working on the benefit of

the entire planet so that humans and animals and plants can have a thriving

climate. That's a big shift. So, the activity is to sit in these different cells in order

to see what is required of them.

P8: Yeah, because it (mindful leadership coaching) has a lot of side effects. I

mean, a leader who has high self-awareness and knows how to navigate his or her

emotions and brings empathy and compassion into the workplace. All of a

sudden, that whole team dynamic will change. And their teams, he or she will be

able to develop more trust within the team. They can develop the psychological

safety they need for people to actually speak up and try out new things, and all of

a sudden, there are new ideas coming out of the team. They're becoming more

agile; they've become more innovative. Because they can actually try out new

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things. So there's a whole lot of effects this can have on performance at work and

not just the performance of the coachee but their teams. And they can bring this

into the workplace and create better teams with more inclusion, with more

belonging. That's sort of the nice side benefit of it.

Subtheme 3d: Cognitive Empathy

During study interviews, mindful leadership coaches discussed observations about

clients’ developments in cognitive empathy after participating in mindful leadership

coaching. Cognitive empathy is described as an ability to understand another's

perspective or mental state. Five of the nine leadership coaches interviewed referenced

cognitive empathy when discussing observations made about clients who engage in

mindful leadership coaching interventions. Topics mentioned during interviews included

empathetic listening processes, improvements to awareness of self and others, and

selfless service. What follows are some specific examples quoted from interviews.

P1: Because of my background in psychology and psychotherapy, I can sort of

faithfully talk about this. So, for them, I will take a different approach and I will

actually use a kind of Cognitive Empathy program. So, they still get the

perspective taking and they have a different kind of empathic listening process,

one that's more about cognitive empathy. And so, the impact will be a little bit

less warm and fuzzy. For people at home and people at work. but. they will, for

example, change their incentive programs. And that, to me, is a big win for

someone.

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P3: I have been working with the President of a bank who was a very self-

described had demonstrated lots of narcissistic behaviors, pretty alpha oriented

type A. Some of the classic behaviors that we associate with some of those

classifications. And sense engaging in some of his own exploration of

mindfulness and mindful awareness and mindful lead. Work he has now opened

and made mindfulness courses available to all of his employees for free. It's paid

for by the bank, and so I am leading a cohort of 20 bank employees through a

four-week mindfulness course. That was an area that I had never considered that,

you know, these leaders find it so effective for themselves that they then want to

share it with their employees or individuals, that they. That that they serve in

different capacities and so that's been just really a wonderful way of keeping you

know, for him paying it forward certainly and making this available to all of their

employees without their them having to pay for it, but also, he is leading by

example.

P4: “It's yeah, it always comes back to you know that. The empathy part. How

would you want to be treated? Put yourself in the other person's shoes or position

being able to do that.”

P8: It is the awareness that there is a different way of leading out there than what

many of them have done before. And the moment they realized that, and they

have the courage to try it out. Yeah, it's, it's, it's you unlock their potential, really.

Its awareness is the biggest one. And I always say with awareness, you have to be

careful what you're asking for because awareness can be painful as well. You can

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become aware not only of the good things, but the bad things in the world as well.

But I think it's that awareness that changes people.

P9: So, this is about empathy and compassion, right. I had a client who I went

down a long path with, and he finally said oh, I see the problem is that I lack

empathy. You know at that point, he started to listen to people and he started to

actually understand that they were you know, had their own lives and that it

wasn’t about him. So, service could be service in the firm, service to your team

service. Outside the firm, volunteering, it could be anything. So, you know it's all

about the context and all about the personality. You know who are you? So, how

can you give back? How can you know? How can it be kinder? How can you help

people to realize their own potential. Or that service too? And so, once you. Once

you start to develop empathy and compassion, which is you know, an outgrowth

of meditation practice.

Subtheme 3e: Best Practices

An additional goal of this study was to identify interventions that mindful

leadership coaches consider “best practices.” Five of the nine leadership coaches that

were interviewed discussed techniques they utilize regularly in their practice. During

interview questions that focused on self-transcendence through mindful interventions, a

variety of common techniques were discussed. Aside from mindful leadership coaches

insisting on a consistent and habitual meditation practice, these techniques are designed

to connect clients with a higher state of “self.” Examples include integration of goal

attainment behaviors, as well as a deeper awareness of the psychological self through a

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cognitive and affective approach. Several unique interventions were mentioned, such as

360 psychometrics to raise internal awareness, identification of talents and deeper passion

for leadership - most notably through volunteer opportunities, as well as kindness

practices; were specifically designed or adapted by the coach through education and

practice. What follows are some examples quoted from interviews.

P1: So, the client identifies a goal. A professional goal that is both important but

also elusive, and then I guide them through the identification of behaviors that

they are currently engaged in, that take them away from that goal. And then, we

together identify all of the yucky feelings that are associated with actually doing

those behaviors, the behaviors that attempt to make the goal happen, and then we

take those yucky behaviors and we surface a competing commitment. Because

yucky feelings are often taking us in the opposite direction. So, you create the

competing commitments that help them. Well, together we create competing

commitments that we hypothesize help them not feel those bad feelings. So, this

is the pleasure principle. Embedded in this process, you know you seek pleasure

and avoid pain. Painful feelings are the first things that we ever learn to avoid. As

soon as we're born. So, once you have the competing commitments, then you

identify something called a big assumption. And the big assumption. Is the

terrible catastrophe that happens when the person does not abide by the competing

commitment. From there, the work is to discover whether or not the big

assumption is true. And in fact, to find ways to disconfirm it.

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P2: Yes, I think the beauty of this is that the mindfulness practice or discipline or

method is the same like, the same exercises that help you become aware of your

psychological self. And your emotions and your body are the same techniques

that will also help you transcend those identifications and reconnect you with your

higher self or the fundamental self or your essential self. So, in a way the same

activities, same types of meditations, and also during our interview I have talked a

lot about meditation, but there is also exercises, attention exercises that we

practice that are not meditation, right, that are what we would call active practice

or active meditation like things that we do in our everyday life. When we are

writing an e-mail in a meeting, having a phone call or like, going about our day,

you know. Exercises. Mindfulness exercises that apply in the present moment and

not when I'm retreated, you know.

P4: You know, before you can find your self, you have to find a healthy sense of

self. And so that's, for many of my clients, that's the beginning of our practice and

even the ones where there's like more of this orientation towards like what we

might call selfishness, there's still going to be. Especially even more so with them

is a part of them that they're depriving, and that's why they have all this, like kind

of selfish energy. And so, in teaching them how to love and care for themselves

and, like meet those needs, then I believe it's the natural human response to help

others.

P6: Well, to be specific, I mean I think the activities are the standard coaching

activities of listening, you know reflecting back to clients, what they're saying,

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doing an assessment, 360 psychometrics to raise awareness, all those things again

raise the. The opportunity and the potential people have to be leaders, so people in

coaching start to see WOW, I can do this. And so leadership for many technically

oriented people who have been promoted because they're effective at getting stuff

done or financially, you know.

P9: You develop empathy and compassion. Empathy and compassion. Yeah, so

the activities are, I mean could be kindness practice for example. It could be just

like me practice. It could be anything that helps them realize that everybody

suffers just like they do. You know people think they're the only one who suffers.

And when they start to recognize that's not true, then they're more likely to want

to serve.

Summary

In Chapter 4, I reported the results of the study results, in which participants

indicate mindful leadership interventions feature a variety of techniques and

methodologies that can enhance the self-awareness, self-regulation and self-

transcendence of coaching clients. In addition, participants detailed mindful leadership

coaching interventions they considered best practices. All nine participants shared insight

that mindful practice is recognized as a contemporary and evolving discipline, and the

interview results are consistent with the growing body of research literature, which I will

address in the next and final chapter. In Chapter 5, I elucidate the findings of this

phenomenological exploration and discuss limitations encountered in this study. Finally, I

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present recommendations for future study as well as discuss the implications for positive

social change.

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Chapter 5: Discussion

The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to investigate

features that professional mindfulness-based coaching interventions may provide to

executive leaders. An additional purpose of this study was to determine and illustrate

mindfulness intervention techniques considered best practices (e.g., presence exercises,

meditative sessions, and breathing techniques). I collected data by asking open-ended

interview questions of nine mindful leadership coaches who had 3 or more months of

experience incorporating mindful leadership interventions in their professional practice.

These leadership coaches commonly worked with middle and senior managers and C-

suite executives in the medical and technology industries.

Data analysis resulted in three main themes aligned with the S-ART framework

and the research questions, and from each main theme, I identified four subthemes:

Theme 1: Self-awareness with Subtheme 1a: Values identification, Subtheme 1b: Self-

evaluation, Subtheme 1c: Presence, and Subtheme 1d: Relationship development; Theme

2: Self-regulation with Subtheme 2a: Emotion management, Subtheme 2b: Nonreactivity,

Subtheme 2c: Meditative practices, and Subtheme 2d: Conscious alignment; and Theme

3: Self-transcendence, Subtheme 3a: Servant leadership, Subtheme 3b: Reflection,

Subtheme 3c: Team dynamic, and Subtheme 3d: Cognitive empathy. Each main theme

included an additional subtheme e related to best practices. In this chapter, I present my

interpretation of the findings in view of the conceptual framework and the literature

review as well as discuss the limitations of the study, provide my recommendations, and

describe the implications before ending the study with a conclusion.

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Interpretation of the Findings

In this section, I demonstrate how the current study findings illustrate features and

other observations of mindful leadership coaching. Furthermore, this investigation

confirmed current research, such as Passmore’s (2019) study, regarding mindful

interventions in terms of their effect, applications to a variety of populations, theoretical

mechanisms, and practical implications, similar to investigations. According to Passmore,

MBIs contribute to improvements in mental and physical health, cognitive and affective

factors, and even interpersonal outcomes.

I utilized two lenses to interpret the findings of the study: the literature review and

the conceptual framework. This interpretation section is arranged by the three principal

themes identified in the S-ART model for mechanisms of mindfulness (Vago &

Silbersweig, 2012) followed by five subthemes. The three research questions that guided

this study were:

RQ1: How does engaging in mindfulness-based leadership coaching contribute to

a client’s personal self-awareness of words and actions as a leader in an

organization?

RQ2: How does engaging in mindfulness-based leadership coaching contribute to

the regulation of personal emotions within leaders of an organization?

RQ3: How does engaging in mindfulness-based leadership coaching contribute to

the personal self-transcendence of leaders in an organization?

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Theme 1: Self-Awareness

Theme 1 reflected participants’ observations of client self-awareness after they

engaged in mindful leadership coaching. The participants contend that the coaching

intervention programs were beneficial in the development of clients’ self-awareness. For

example, one participant shared that mindful interventions were vital in allowing leaders

to reflect on their alignment to their personal standards. Similarly, another coach shared

that mindful practices provide a foundation for clients to identify performance shortfalls

and develop more effective leadership behaviors.

Theme 1: Interpretation of the Findings in Light of the Literature Review

Self-awareness, often viewed as vital for effective leadership, is recognized as a

foundation of authentic, servant, empowering, resonant, and transformational leadership

styles (Amundsen & Martinsen, 2014; Boyatzis, 2008; Friedman et al., 2021). Studies

have shown that mindful leadership coaches can augment their client’s leader self-

awareness by focusing attention on both interpersonal and personal triggers, which can

influence clients to pursue interpersonal congruence and an embodiment of authentic

leadership behaviors (Beena et al., 2021). Furthermore, self-awareness imparts an

individual with awareness of their internal state (i.e., emotions, cognitions, physiological

responses) that drives their behaviors (i.e., beliefs, values, and motivations) and an

awareness of how this shapes and transforms others (Carden et al., 2022).

All participants shared that, as mindful coaches, one of the most basic and

fundamental practices was for them to guide their clients to a clearer state of self-

awareness, the first main theme. The subthemes of values identification, self-evaluation,

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presence, and relationship development were similar in nature to the observations of

Verhaeghen and Aikman (2019) in that MBIs could aid in identifying mechanical habits

and automatic patterns of reactivity as well as an improvement to their awareness of

momentary states of body and mind. Examples of similar conclusions can be seen in the

work of Da Fonseca et al. (2022) who found that managers presenting low self-awareness

are more likely to exhibit toxic and destructive leadership behaviors, which often result in

decreased employee engagement and increased employee retaliation. Similarly,

Gyllensten et al. (2020) observed that executive coaching can provide an opportunity for

leaders to improve their self-awareness and reflect on leadership skills and behaviors.

Theme 1: Interpretation of the Findings in Light of the Conceptual Framework

As reported by Boysen (2018), effective coaching should be observed as a

transformational process in which the coach is the catalyst and the client obtains and

develops awareness around formulae, answers, and shifts that contribute to them in

achieving goals and achieving a state of thriving. Four of the nine participants in the

current study shared that mindful coaching interventions were supportive of the first

subtheme of values identification through clients identifying their personal values, their

desired values, and an awareness of differences between the two. Initially, mindfulness

and presence may surface from externally identified motivators; however, according to

Schuman-Olivier et al., (2020) the motivations for maintaining desired behavior change

exist on a continuum from extrinsic to introjected, identified, internalized, and most

optimally, intrinsic.

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The participants share that mindful coaching interventions often influenced their

clients to participate in the second subtheme of self-evaluation. Five of the nine

leadership coaches that were interviewed specifically referred to coaching clients

engaging in self-evaluation and evaluative practices. According to Desbordes (2019), On

a theoretical level, modern models often propose that mindful training can impact self-

related processes. Self-related processing applies to the complex construct of self as

investigated across various disciplines, such as cognitive science, neuroscience, modern

psychology (which includes clinical and behavioral psychology), and Western and

Eastern philosophy (Verhaeghen, 2019). Arredondo et al. (2017) and Heckenberg et al.

(2018) suggested that clients who incorporate practices of mindfulness can address

impending physiological effects of stress by investigating a conscious evaluation of

stimuli and evaluating responses to them while providing consideration that negative

stimuli may not always be viewed as impactive.

Individuals who maintain the third subtheme, presence, in the moment of

experience reduced risks like burnout and employee turnover (seee Kemper et al., 2015;

Kersemaekers et al., 2018; Rupprecht et al., 2019). Two of the nine participants in the

current study mentioned client presence impacting their self-awareness, making it one of

the least discussed topics in this study. A central element of Eastern philosophy and

associated paradigms of modern psychology emphasizes the importance of existing in the

present moment and remaining fully aware of what is currently taking place, without

dwelling upon the past or overemphasizing the future (Purser and Milillo, 2015). This

does not suggest an extemporaneous approach to present-moment awareness but rather a

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focus on one’s current experiences and engagements in space and time (rather than future

projections or past ruminations) to aid in relieving suffering and promoting satisfaction

(Oh, 2022).

Mindful coaching interventions often contribute to qualities like lower stress,

decreased depression, and reinforced interpersonal relationships (Passmore, 2019). The

fourth subtheme to the main theme of self-awareness was relationship development,

which focuses on the interpersonal and personal relationships of clients in the workplace.

Seven of the nine participants mentioned their clients’ engagement with mindful

leadership coaching involved developments in their self-awareness, which in turn

impacted their professional and personal relationships. According to Sutton et al. (2015),

Self-awareness is described as a higher-level concept that includes the extent that people

are consciously aware of their interactions or relationships as well as their internal states.

This present study’s findings relative to the relationship between mindfulness and

leadership coaching feature a variety of frameworks and strategies coaches used to assist

their clients with obtaining a more mindful state through self-awareness. Seven of the

nine participants discussed techniques they commonly refer to in their practice. In

addition to meditative practices, the techniques ranged from values identification and

alignment exercises to active (i.e., mindful) listening and body awareness exercises.

Executive coaching theory often draws upon a variety of disciplines, including cognitive

and humanistic psychology, adult learning and development, and even organizational

development theories. A great deal of attention in coaching literature is focused on the

methods and the impact of coaching, but it is also important to note that, as a human

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development practice, coaching engagements can impact participants developmentally

and transformatively (Campone, 2015).

Theme 2: Self-Regulation

Theme 2 reflected participants’ observations of client self-regulation after they

engaged in mindful leadership coaching. The participants explained that mindful

leadership coaching intervention programs were beneficial in the development of self-

regulation in a variety of ways. For example, one participant shared that mindful breath

exercises can be as simple as intentionally stopping all activity to take a breath and notice

sensations and emotions before resuming activity. Another executive coach related that

management of personal emotions is highly dependent upon the degree to which the

leaders are willing to engage in deliberate mindful practice, whether that is in one area or

in multiple areas that they are choosing to develop. As a whole, participants seemed to

agree that efforts to develop in one area, such as emotional regulation, seems to lead to

other developments as well, such as a conscious alignment to positive leadership

behaviors.

Theme 2: Interpretation of the Findings in Light of the Literature Review

Studies have shown that the regulation of emotions by senior managers and

executives are positively impacted by the support of a leadership coach (Stanković and

Radojević, 2022). Some benefits to leadership development through emotional regulation

observed by Terrence and Conelly (2019) included the modification of personal

situations and cognitive reappraisal, which proved to be positively associated with

performance. Participants in the present study described features of mindful leadership

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coaching as impactful to their clients’ ability to implement tactics to process information

while delaying an otherwise immediate response. Similarly, Collins et al. (2021)

concluded that leaders who exhibit anger and impulsive behavior are less likely to be

viewed by their organization members as an ethical leader. Additionally, this high trait

anger and impulsiveness may negatively affect the leader’s perspective of their personal

ability to engage in organizational change.

The current study participants each expressed a strong impression that, as

professional coaches, an important goal is to guide their client toward an optimal state of

self-regulation, the second main theme. The subthemes of emotion management,

nonreactivity, meditative practices, and conscious alignment were similar in nature to the

observations of Kabat-Zinn (2019) who concluded that MBIs can assist with clients

obtaining and maintaining a formal presence in the moment. Arredondo et al. (2017) and

Heckenberg et al. (2018) suggested that clients who implement practices of mindfulness

may impact the physiological effects of stress by investigating a conscious analysis of

stimuli and assessing potential reaction to them, allowing a consideration that negative

stimuli may not always be considered impactive.

Theme 2: Interpretation of the Findings in Light of the Conceptual Framework

MBIs have been shown to positively impact aspects of psychopathology, such as

cognitive biases, affective dysregulation, and interpersonal effectiveness (Goldberg,

2022). The first subtheme, emotion management, focuses on how a client is managing

their emotions. Five of the nine participants in the current study made specific references

to the development of emotion management through mindful practices. Present literature

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correlating mindfulness programs (primarily MBSR and mindfulness-based cognitive

therapy) with active control conditions suggested that MBIs are beneficial in addressing a

broad range of adversities (Zhang et al., 2021). According to Hoffman (2013), such

adversities can include clinical disorders and symptoms, such as anxiety, depression, and

stress as well as medical and well-being adversities, such as chronic pain, quality of life,

and even psychological or emotional distress.

The primary theoretical premise behind MBIs is that, by practicing mindfulness

(e.g., through activities such as breath work, meditation, and other mindfulness

exercises), leadership coachees may become less reactive to unpleasant phenomena from

within and more reflective, which may lead to positive psychological outcomes (Kabat-

Zinn et al., 1992). The second subtheme, nonreactivity, put simply, is the ability of clients

to not let their emotions control them. Five of the nine participants referenced that

nonreactivity was incorporated into self-regulation through mindful practices.

Mindfulness concepts and principles are often introduced to assist individuals in

recognizing deteriorating moods and emotions without immediately judging or reacting

to the phenomena (Kropp & Sedlmeier, 2019).

Current literature suggests that the third subtheme, meditative practices, can

facilitate emotional regulation in addition to attention self-regulation (see Kabat-Zinn,

2019). As such, MBIs utilized by coaches assist in clients obtaining and maintaining a

formal presence in the moment. Seven of the nine participants mentioned the value of

meditative practices when discussing self-regulation through mindful coaching

interventions. Inspired by Eastern spiritual traditions and surfacing recently across

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Western cultures, meditation is often a collective term that encompasses numerous

traditional and contemporary practices. Irrespective of this notable variety, however,

meditative practices all share an overall purpose to self-regulate the body and mind,

which can impact mental events by stimulating a specific attentional set (Becattini &

Ciaunica, 2023).

The fourth subtheme, conscious alignment, focuses on leaders tailoring their

mindset and actions toward their desired state of being. A study conducted by

Longenecker and McCartney (2020) provides better alignment of key leadership

behaviors that individual executives, boards of directors and organizations can consider

in the development of their senior leaders through professional coaching. Seven of the

nine leadership coaches interviewed mentioned conscious alignment in their clients’ self-

regulation through mindful coaching interventions. According to Morosanova (2021),

conscious self-regulation is considered a reflexive means of setting personal goals and

objectives as well as managing their achievement. Essential to this approach, the

multidimensional architecture of self-regulation prescribes its general development,

which, in turn, provides a resource for individuals, predicting potential success as well as

contributing to engagement and psychological well-being.

Effective coaching is predicated on a proficiency in core coaching skills as well as

the use of tools and techniques that orchestrate coaching engagement, relationships, and

outcomes. The fifth subtheme, best practices examine interventions that participants feel

produce the most positive and consistent results. A coach practicing with a limited toolkit

of developmental frameworks and a narrow grasp on organizational dynamics can only

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deliver so much value (Van Den Assem & Passmore, 2022). Six of the nine leadership

coaches discussed concepts and techniques they commonly refer to in their practice

during interview questions examining the second concept of the S-ART framework, self-

regulation. These activities ranged from situational reframing and emotion management

exercises to non-reactive exploration and meditation practices. Thus, operating within a

model (such as mindful leadership) can encourage and enable coaches to rise “beyond the

rote application of models or techniques in order to practice with greater artistry and to

devise novel, bespoke solutions for the needs of individual clients” (Kovacs & Corrie,

2017, p. 5).

Theme 3: Self-Transcendence

Theme 3 reflected participant leadership coach observations of client self-

transcendence after engaging in a mindful leadership coaching program. Through sharing

various experiences with clients and excerpts from coaching sessions, participants

explained that mindful leadership coaching intervention programs were beneficial in the

emergence of self-transcendence. For example, one participant explained that mindful

exercises incorporating empathy and compassion have changed not only clients, but

positively impacted their teams as well, encouraging innovation and psychological safety.

Another leadership coach related that the emergence of self-transcendent behaviors is

often related to leaders maturing from self-serving interests and values to a commitment

to the interests of others through the progression of a mindful leadership program.

Similarly, research by Kasser (2016), amongst others has concluded that intrinsic and

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“self-transcendent” values are associated with an enhanced well-being, compared to

materialistic or “self-serving” values.

Theme 3: Interpretation of the Findings in Light of the Literature Review

Wong et al. (2020, p. 1) observed that self-transcendence, the third theme of this

study, can provide insight to our understanding of how leaders fundamentally shift their

motivators and focus from self-serving interests to a pursuit of “something greater than

oneself.” Self-transcendence can be described by researchers as an experience spanning

across numerous hierarchies where “the subjective sense of oneself as an isolated entity

can temporarily fade into an experience of unity with other people or one’s surroundings,

involving the dissolution of boundaries between the sense of self and ‘other’ (Yaden et

al., 2017, p. 1).” A study conducted by Reed (2018) suggests that self-transcendence is a

perspective that arises through “developmentally maturing experiences,” which mirrors

observations made by mindful leadership coaches and discussed in interviews.

Participants shared that, as mindful coaches, the emergence of self-transcendence

in their clients can be observed as a higher level of self-consciousness that helps them

connect with others, the more they grow and develop with mindful practice. The

subthemes (servant leadership, reflection, team dynamic, and cognitive empathy) are

similar in nature to the insights of Abraham Maslow toward the concept of self-

transcendence, which developed from his work on self-actualization and “peak

experiences” shared by individuals. Maslow (1968) defined self-actualization in four

parts: “the actualization of our talents, capacities, and potential; which in turn enabled a

fulfillment of what we may perceive as our “mission” or vocation; which in turn involves

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a deeper understanding of our own nature; and creates a trend in which we move towards

personal integration and unity.”

During interviews, several participants described their clients moving their careers

in profoundly different directions after engaging in mindful leadership coaching, then

they were when they began. For instance, several CEOs and executives left their

successful corporate careers (and paychecks) in pursuit of leadership in non-profit

organizations and other places because they felt their talents could best be applied

through a genuine belief in something greater than themselves. These observations were

similar to Maslow’s (1971) conclusion that self-transcendence may involve a “profound

sense of absorption, sense of loss in time, giving up the past and the future, and a

narrowing of consciousness into present time and work.”

Theme 3: Interpretation of the Findings in Light of the Conceptual Framework

The first subtheme to emerge from interview questions related to self-

transcendence, servant leadership, takes place when a leader assumes a role of service to

their coworkers and organization. According to Greenleaf, who first made mention of

servant-leadership, it “begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve

first. Then a conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead” (Greenleaf, 1970, p. 13). Six

of the nine leadership coaches interviewed made specific references to servant leadership

emerging from the behavior of their mindful leadership coaching clients. One dimension

of a servant-leader is his or her sense of intuition to develop a strong bond and trust in the

people they serve. Participants shared that mindful coaching clients often discussed a

deeper understanding of shared humanity and the desire to contribute to that shared

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humanity. Similarly, research conducted by Davis (2020), concluded that the attitude of

service is fundamental to leadership. The author writes that an implicit sense of empathy

and a tolerance for imperfection in others is also important in a servant-leader.

The second subtheme, reflection can connect desired principles and strategies to

actual performance through a series of introspective evaluations and re-evaluations.

Diverse representations of mindfulness in the literature attribute the focus of mindfulness

less on proposed outcomes, but more appropriately motivated by the processes of being,

of awareness, attention, the present, and of a state of mind. Consequently, this action may

enable self-reflection to occur (Van Dem Assem & Passmore, 2022). Seven of the nine

leadership coaches interviewed referenced clients engaging in personal and professional

reflection during and after mindful leadership coaching interventions. Ong et al., (2023)

proposed that individual work reflection permits individuals a better understanding of

their team's needs, and as a result, will perform higher levels of task-, relational-, and

change-oriented leadership behaviors as well as become more effective leaders within

their teams. The results of their study indicate that “individual work reflection shapes

leadership behaviors and effectiveness via understanding the team's needs, beyond a wide

range of related constructs (e.g., feedback seeking, mindfulness, and rumination), as well

as commonly studied predictors of leadership behaviors.”

While not mentioned in relation to self-transcendence as often, three of the

mindful leadership coaches discussed observations they made about client developments

in the third subtheme, team dynamics, after they participated in mindful leadership

coaching. According to literature, high-stress environments, like high-risk organizations,

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dictate that collective actions are necessary for anticipating potential threats and quickly

containing threats (mindful organizing), which requires a high degree of participatory

communication from everyone in the organization, from the top levels of management to

those on the front- line (Ford, 2018; Renecle et al., 2020; Vogus & Rerup, 2017).

The fourth subtheme that emerged during interviews with mindful leadership

coaches, cognitive empathy, is the ability for people to empathize with the perspective of

another person. Five of the nine leadership coaches interviewed referenced cognitive

empathy when discussing observations made about the self-transcendence of clients who

engage in mindful leadership coaching interventions. Empathetic leaders can assess

situations, emotions, motives, and perspectives of another; they can see through a

different person’s eyes, influence group interactions and social change, and inspire

selfless service (Hoffman, 2000). This essentially allows leaders to cognitively engage in

interactions and handle situations with an idea of how another person is viewing them

and being affected by outcomes (Eklund & Meranius, 2021).

The fifth subtheme, best practices explores interventions identified by participant

coaches who feel are impactful the most. Contemporary research within the field often

concludes that mindfulness is a concept more complex than a singular construct. Much of

this has been an examination into why mindfulness interventions lead to such a wide

spectrum of positive outcomes (Verhaeghen, 2019). Five of the nine leadership coaches

discussed concepts and techniques they commonly refer to in their practice during

interview questions examining the third concept of the S-ART framework, self-

transcendence. These interventions ranged from the immunity to change method and

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kindness practices to modeling leader behavior after retrospectively desirable traits. This

proposed mechanism of mindfulness practice contributes to increased self-transcendence,

which implies increased decentering, a deeper awareness of interdependence between self

and others, and higher compassion (Vago & Silbersweig, 2012).

Limitations of the Study

This study presented few limitations. The sample size of nine participants limited

immediate transferability to other leadership coaching contexts outside of the medical

and technology fields this study was based on. However, the thickness of the data may

improve possible transfer to other settings. Other limitations of the study included

researcher bias, the abstract nature of mindful coaching interventions, and demographics

of participants. Researcher bias was an identified limitation because I have previous

experience with a mindful cognitive behavioral therapy program; to reduce this bias, I

avoided discussing previous experiences in the program at length. Furthermore, I

attempted to provide an open mind to mindful practices I may be familiar with, focusing

solely on the experiences of participants and apart from my own.

The participants of the study were selected via a professional networking website

(LinkedIn), and personal websites featured by coaches, so this data may or may not be

representative of a wider sample of mindful leadership coaches not affiliated with

networking websites and not featuring their own private websites. Further, participants

were leadership coaches from the United States who incorporate MBIs and training into

their practice, and these features may vary outside the US. Further, this use of

mindfulness-based interventions is an abstract concept applied to the wider foundation of

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a leadership coach’s practice according to their education and experience, which can vary

from one coach to another. Some coaches seemed to focus a majority of their services

around MBIs while others viewed mindfulness as a separate framework to draw

identified coaching resources from on an as-needed basis.

The sample for this study was randomly selected, however it may still contain

demographic bias. The study sample was comprised of eight males and one female

participant who were age 30 and above, and of various ethnic and educational

backgrounds. Gender bias may have impacted the findings, as male coach responses

could have differed from what the female coach shared. Finally, this study was focused in

the United States. Although several of the coaches possessed international executive

coaching experience, it was noted that cultural differences can play a significant role in

determining preferences in styles of leadership coaching, and this study focused on

coaching experiences that were obtained within the US.

Recommendations for Future Research

The institution of mindfulness-based coaching interventions for leadership

development is in its infancy, and as such, many opportunities remain for further research

that explores mindfulness interventions in a professional manager-leader development

context. After performing and reflecting upon this qualitative phenomenological study,

several recommendations surfaced. Participants in this study possessed differing

perspectives and definitions of mindfulness, from an embodiment that embraces elements

of eastern philosophy, to a more secular and physiological approach. For example, one

coach focused more on internal balance and harmonization of his clients through selfless

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acts and servant leadership, while another coach focused more on the positive impacts of

developments within a leader’s interpersonal behavior. Future research could examine

how these variances among approaches to mindfulness may influence leadership

coaching outcomes across a broader spectrum of applications.

I also recommend deeper exploration into the impacts that mindful leadership

coaching may have upon negative stress-coping behaviors within leaders. One of the

themes to emerge from this study was a conscious alignment to internal self-control.

During interviews, several participants indicated that mindful leadership coaching often

led to their clients scaling back on the use of alcohol, engaging in dangerous behaviors

(narcotics, solicitation, etc.), and other coping mechanisms in response to stress. A

longitudinal quantitative study could examine the impact of organization stress on

leaders’ coping behaviors, moderated by the effects of a mindful leadership coaching

program.

One limitation of this study was a potential demographic bias in techniques and

perspective, as there were eight male participants and one female. Further research

analyzing how the features of mindful leadership coaching programs provided by female

leadership coaches to female coaching clients may differ from male coaches providing

coaching to other males. The results could then be compared to the coaching approaches

utilized when there is a difference in sex between coach and coachee to determine the

most effective mindful coaching dynamic in each situation. An investigation into these

differences and similarities may shed light toward a firmer understanding of effective

coach-client relationships in a mindful leadership coaching context.

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Implications for Change

The findings of this study have implications for positive social change at the

practice, theoretical, and social change levels. The scope of this study involved executive

coaches with clients in leadership positions providing leadership coaching and

development through a program featuring mindful interventions. As outlined in Chapter

2, researchers have indicated potential outcomes of mindfulness practices on leadership

development such as lower stress and greater workplace resilience (Schwartz, 2018).

Implications to Practice

This study contributed to practice by providing a resource that professional

coaches, leaders, and organizations interested in exploring mindful leadership coaching

interventions may reference. On an individual level, coaches are at the forefront of

educating others about the potential benefits of engaging in a mindful-based coaching

program, and the features these programs may provide to individual clients as well as the

organizations they serve. However, as identified in chapter 2, there appeared to be limited

research organizations may reference when exploring mindful coaching in the context of

leadership development.

The results of this study suggest mindful leadership coaches transform their

clients through a mixture of practices, some focused on the alignment of current client

behaviors to desired goal execution (focused attention). While others focused upon

increasing a client’s ability to process internal emotions such as stress, anger, and anxiety

by the incorporation of internal awareness and breath control exercises (open

monitoring). All nine of the executive coaches interviewed agreed that the daily practice

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of meditation contributed to deeper levels of self-awareness and emotional regulation

within their clients, contributing to presence and authentic responses.

Implications to Theory

This study contributed to the literature by highlighting an application of the S-

ART framework to leadership development through a mindful executive coaching

program. Originally developed by Vago and Silbersweig (2012), the S-ART framework

of self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-transcendence (S-ART), illustrates the self-

processing and neurological mechanisms that cause (and remove) distortions or biases

through the pursuit of a state of mindfulness. According to Tolbaños-Roche and Menon

(2021) the core practices of the S-ART framework consist of focused attention and open

monitoring which closely mirrors the results of interviews featured in this study. This not

only validates the framework but lends credibility to future study examining the

relationship between the framework and mindful leadership coaching and training

programs in the workplace.

Implications for Social Change

Implications for social change were found at individual leaders as well as

organizational and coach levels. This study highlighted features of mindful coaching and

training such as breath awareness, internal alignment, and external presence through a

variety of practices designed to develop better leaders. Further, interviews identified that

incorporating mindful practices at the leader level sometimes led to organization-wide

incorporation of the program. Finally, this study provides a basis for mindful leadership

146

coaches to reference when considering what techniques other mindful coaches are

utilizing, offering them a greater opportunity to design and expand their own practice.

Conclusion

The present research study examined the role of mindfulness in executive

coaching and what features the leadership development program incorporates and offers.

This research gap was identified after reviewing current literature and identifying a lack

of academic exploration into studies identifying what mindful leadership coaches feel

they offer to their clients. Through the analysis of interviews, this qualitative

phenomenological study determined that mindful leadership programs fundamentally

transform leaders through the development of a personal commitment to presence and

awareness interventions. This was largely illustrated by similar perspectives shared by

coaches who have observed the way features of these coaching programs contribute to

leadership development within their clients.

Despite minor limitations, this study’s data provides valuable insight into the way

that mindful leadership coaching is applied to leaders. The framework of S-ART and its

role in exploring the mechanisms of mindfulness contributed to a firmer understanding of

the necessary features of a mindful leadership coaching program to encourage a state of

mindfulness and a better leader. Future research should focus on the impacts a mindful

leadership program can have on work stress and coping behaviors. Although mindful

leadership coaching programs have been shown as beneficial regarding leadership and

organization development, additional research is necessary to gain a clearer

147

understanding; and ways to implement mindful leadership coaching more effectively as a

leadership development tool remain in progress.

148

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Appendix A: Screening Script

The following questions are designed to screen potential participants for my study to

ensure participants meet the criteria. If any question is answered with a no, the individual

will not participate in the study.

1. Do you currently reside in the United States?

2. Are you an adult who has provided mindful leadership coaching to organizational

leaders in the medical or technology industry in the for at least three months?

3. Do you provide a regular (twice a month) mindfulness leadership coaching

interventions such as meditation and active listening exercises?

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Appendix B: Interviewing Protocol

The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study is to explore features that

mindfulness-based interventions may provide leadership development through

professional coaching. An additional purpose of this study is to identify and examine

common mindfulness interventions and techniques currently in use by leadership coaches

(ie: presence exercises, meditation sessions, and breathing techniques) and to identify

best practices.

Qualitative research depends heavily upon providing verbal data, and the

communication between researcher and participants play a role in achieving thick, rich

descriptions of a phenomenon (Giorgi, 2009). The questions listed here are based on the

self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-transcendence (S-ART) framework developed by

Vago & Silbersweig (2012), and will be utilized as a guide (to allow for flexibility), in

this semi-structured interview. Active listening and interviewing techniques, as described

in Ivey et al. (2010), will be utilized to clarify participants’ descriptions and further

elaborate details.

The interview will begin with basic open-ended demographic questions to

develop rapport and to establish basic information about participants. Next, intentional

and semi-structured interview questions that are designed to build rapport and a flowing

exchange between interviewer and interviewee (Ivey et al., 2010) will be introduced.

Finally, probing questions designed to dig deeper will also be asked. These will assist the

interviewee if they are having a hard time describing their thoughts or if he or she seems

177

stuck. Observational notes will be kept throughout the interview describing affect,

posture, gestures, and any emotional expressions that may occur in response to the

corresponding questions.

Warm-Up Questions: These questions are not designed to collect any demographic

information, but to provide me with a context for their coaching experience and to make

them comfortable.

1. How long have you been engaged in leadership coaching? How about with

mindfulness coaching?

2. What has been your most prominent experience with mindfulness-based

leadership coaching?

Interview Questions:

Self-Awareness

a. How do you see your clients’ strategies and leadership activity align to

their internal standards, after having engaging in mindful leadership

coaching?

b. Are there specific activities your clients engage in during mindfulness-

based leadership coaching that you believe significantly impact your

client’s personal awareness at the workplace?

178

c. Are there any other changes in your client’s personal awareness affecting

their leadership potential that has occurred since providing mindful

leadership coaching?

Self-Regulation

a. What are some activities you engage in with your executive coaching

clients you feel impact their ability maintain control over their emotions?

b. What are ways a coachee’s emotional regulation aligns with desired

leadership behavior (thoughts, feelings, and responses), when clients

engage in mindful leadership coaching?

c. Have you noted any other developments in personal regulation that

impacts a client’s ability as a leader since they began engaging in mindful

leadership coaching?

Self-Transcendence

a. How would you describe the impact that mindful leadership coaching has

had on your client’s personal desire to provide service to others in a

leadership capacity?

b. Were there any activities you engaged in during your mindful executive

coaching you feel influenced your client’s desire to serve others in a

leadership capacity?

179

c. After providing mindful leadership coaching, have you noted any other

developments in your client’s desire to provide service to others as a

leader?

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