Religion 2

The way of Jesus

In the important central section of Mark, from 8: 26 to 10: 52, the evangelist

concentrates on the true nature of discipleship. In several passages the

disciples are rebuked by Jesus, but in each case the reason for the apparent

sternness of Jesus is clear. The disciples—and the listener—are being

taught the full implications of what it means to be a follower of Jesus. The

main point is stressed repeatedly: to be a disciple of Jesus involves being

prepared to go the way of Jesus, and that means the way of humility,

rejection, and suffering—the way of the Cross. The repetition of ho hodos,

‘the way’, and the associated themes would have made a powerful impact

on the listeners to whom this gospel was read aloud.

In this part of Mark’s story Jesus journeys inexorably towards Jerusalem.

On the way Jesus explains to his disciples three times that ‘The Son of man

must suffer many things, and be rejected by the elders and the chief priests

and the scribes, and be killed, and after three days rise again’ (8: 33). The

evangelist underlines the importance of this turning point in his story with

the comment, ‘And he said this plainly.’ Almost identical words are used in

predictions of the forthcoming death and resurrection of Jesus at 9: 31 and

10: 33–4. Since in each case the immediate context is important, we shall

discuss all three passages briefly.

The journey to Jerusalem (which is a partly artificial framework for this

section of the gospel) begins at 8: 27 where Jesus is ‘on the way’ to the

villages of Caesarea Philippi. Jesus asks the disciples, ‘Who do people say

that I am?’ and they answered him, ‘John the Baptist; and others, Elijah;

and still others, one of the prophets.’ These answers are obviously incor-

rect, so when Jesus asks the disciples for their own opinion and Peter

replies, ‘You are the Messiah–Christ’, the listener assumes that Peter’s

answer has correctly disclosed the identity of Jesus. While Peter is not told,

as he is in Matthew’s account of this incident (16: 17), that this insight has

been revealed to him by God, in Mark Peter’s response is not repudiated by

Jesus, even though he is firmly rebuked in the verses which follow.

Jesus rounds on Peter, ‘Get behind me Satan! For you are setting your

mind not on divine things but on human things’ (8: 33). Peter is rebuked

not because of his acknowledgement that Jesus is the Messiah–Christ but

because of his unwillingness to accept that the way of Jesus involves suffer-

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ing, rejection, and death. Jesus then explains that true discipleship involves

accepting the demanding way of Jesus: ‘If any want to become my follow-

ers, let them deny themselves and take up their cross and follow me. For

those who want to save their life will lose it: and those who lose their life

for my sake, and for the sake of the gospel, will save it’ (8: 34b–35). Since

there is no immediate threat to the disciples, these words seem to be

addressed to followers of Jesus in the evangelist’s day who face persecution

which may even include martyrdom. The passage as a whole teaches that

the way of Jesus reverses completely any suggestion that his Messiahship is

to be understood as that of a triumphant military leader. This understand-

ing of Messiahship is found in Psalms of Solomon 17–18, written about a

century earlier; it was probably still held by some Jews at the time of Jesus,

but not by all.

The second forceful exposition of the way of Jesus, the so-called Passion

prediction at 9: 33, is also not understood by the disciples. Once again there

follows further important teaching on the nature of true discipleship. When

Jesus was ‘in the house’ (the place where several important disclosures are

made in Mark) he asks the disciples, ‘What were you arguing about on the

way?’. They are reduced to silence because they had been discussing with

one another who was the greatest. As in the teaching which follows the first

Passion prediction, the disciples’ values are called into question: ‘Whoever

wants to be first must be last of all and servant of all’ (9: 35).

The same pattern emerges with the third reference Jesus makes ‘on the

road, going up to Jerusalem’ to the impending crisis (10: 32–3). This is

followed by the request of James and John: ‘Grant us to sit, one at your

right hand and one at your left, in your glory.’ Their misguided ambition

embarrassed the later evangelists: Luke omits the whole incident even

though he is following Mark at this point, and in Matthew it is the mother

of James and John who is shown to be over-ambitious by pleading on their

behalf (Matt. 20: 20). In Mark (and also in Matthew) Jesus explains that

true disciples are called to follow his way and to accept the cup (of suffer-

ing) that he is about to drink and the baptism (of suffering) with which he

is about to be baptized (10: 38–40). The point made at 9: 35 is repeated:

‘Whoever wishes to become great among you must be your servant, and

whoever wishes to be first among you must be slave of all’ (10: 43b–44).

These three passages make the same points in different ways. Threefold

repetition underlines their importance for Mark’s story. The way of Jesus is

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not the expected path of triumph and glory; for Jesus Messiahship involves

the way to Jerusalem. This teaching causes consternation among the dis-

ciples, but they are called to follow the same way of self-denial and suffer-

ing. Their apparently naive misunderstanding allows Mark to use the

teaching of Jesus to set out even more fully the nature of true discipleship.

This section of the gospel reaches its climax with a powerful exposition of

the significance of the death of Jesus: ‘For the Son of man also came not to

be served but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many’ (10: 45).

Although parallels have been drawn several times between the way of

Jesus—and the way his followers are called to follow, here there is a clear

distinction. Disciples may well suffer rejection and even death, but only the

death of Jesus is a ‘ransom for many’. This saying alerts the reader to the

deeper significance of the events which are about to be narrated. The final

outcome of the story has already been anticipated in the threefold

reference to the ultimate vindication of Jesus: ‘after three days he will rise’

(8: 31; 9: 31; 10: 34).

Confrontation with Jewish leaders

The final section of the gospel opens with the familiar accounts of the

‘triumphal’ entry of Jesus into Jerusalem and his ‘cleansing’ of the temple

(11: 1–19). The latter (which will be discussed on pp. 284–6) provides an

impressive example of the evangelist’s narrative technique. Two separate

incidents are interwoven in the following way; they are clearly intended to

interpret one another:

a. Jesus ‘inspects’ the Temple and departs (v. 11).

b. Jesus ‘inspects’ the fig tree and curses it (vv. 12–14).

A. Jesus ‘cleanses’ the Temple (vv. 15–19).

B. The disciples discover that the fig tree has withered (vv. 20–3).

Like the fig tree, the temple is shown to be barren and is rejected. A solemn

but rather enigmatic saying follows: ‘Truly I tell you, if you say to this

mountain, ‘Be taken up and thrown into the sea’, and if you do not doubt

in your heart, but believe what you say will come to pass, it will be done for

you’ (11: 23).

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The mountain which is about to be moved is the mountain of the

temple. In the new era which Mark believes is dawning, the temple is

rejected and its imminent destruction is expected. At the beginning of

chapter 13 a similar point is made even more forcefully: not one stone of

the temple will be left upon another.

In the incidents which follow the ‘cleansing’ of the temple, the confron-

tation of Jesus with Jewish leaders is set out even more starkly. Jesus is

involved in a series of disputes with several groups of Jewish leaders (11:

27 to 12: 40). These incidents pave the way for the arrest, trial, and

crucifixion of Jesus. They develop a theme for which the reader has been

prepared in the opening chapters.

In the first set of controversy stories from 2: 1 to 3: 6, it becomes clear

that the unconventional teaching and actions of Jesus will eventually lead

to his downfall. A time will come when Jesus (the bridegroom) will be

taken away from the disciples (2: 20). The sayings which follow stress that

the new order (the coming of Jesus) cannot easily be merged with the old

(from Mark’s perspective, Judaism), just as new (unshrunk) cloth cannot

be used to patch an old garment and new wine cannot be put into old

wineskins (2: 21–2). This section ends on a dramatic and sombre note: ‘The

Pharisees went out, and immediately held counsel with the Herodians

against him, how to destroy him’ (3: 6).

The ‘cleansing’ of the temple leads to a similar plot to destroy Jesus, this

time on the part of the chief priests and scribes (11: 18). John the Baptist’s

challenge to Herod Antipas (the Jewish ruler of Galilee on behalf of the

Romans) leads eventually to his beheading. From this rather bizarre inci-

dent the reader learns what is likely to happen to those who challenge the

conduct of the authorities. John’s fate anticipates the fate of Jesus: John’s

disciples take away his body and place it in a tomb (6: 29).

As the story unfolds, controversy with various groups of religious lead-

ers (the groups are not sharply distinguished by the evangelist) becomes

more intense. In chapter 7 the disciples are criticized for their rejection of

Pharisaic teaching concerning handwashing as an act of purification

before meals. The disciples, as well as Jesus, are portrayed here (as they

are also in 9: 14) as in dispute with the religious leaders of Judaism.

Jesus’ strong rejection of Pharisaic teaching on purity is underlined

by the evangelist in an aside to the reader: ‘Thus he declared all foods

clean’ (7: 19b).

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The debates and disputes between Jesus and the religious leaders which

are set in Jerusalem in chapters 11 and 12 form the climax of a theme which

gradually becomes more prominent. Mark uses this material in order to

explain why Jesus was put to death and also in order to distance his own

Christian community from contemporary Judaism.

The same point is made in many of the accounts of exorcisms and

healings, incidents which probably seem to modern readers to be quite

unrelated to the disputes of Jesus (and Mark) with the Jewish leaders.

Many of the individuals in Mark’s drama were very much on the margins

of contemporary Jewish society: those possessed by unclean spirits (1: 23–6

and several other passages and summaries); a leper (1: 40–5); tax collectors

and sinners (2: 15–17); the physically handicapped (e.g. 2: 1–12 and 3: 1–6); a

man who lived in a ritually unclean place, among the tombs (5: 1–20); a

woman whose haemorrhage rendered her unclean (5: 24–34). These groups

were all widely regarded as ‘outsiders’ and several were considered to be

religiously impure. Yet Mark portrays Jesus as ignoring conventional

attitudes.

A further related theme is developed both by hints and by explicit

statements. The evangelist stresses that Jesus moves beyond the geo-

graphical boundaries of Israel and accepts the faith of some Gentiles. In

the summary in 3: 7–8, the crowds who flock to Jesus come not only

from various areas in Israel, but also from Idumaea, Transjordan, and

the territories of the coastal cities of Tyre and Sidon. The presence of the

pigs in the story of the Gerasene demoniac (5: 1–20) and the reference to

the Decapolis confirm its setting in non-Jewish territory. Jesus himself

visits the region of Tyre and Sidon and is approached by a Greek woman, ‘a

Syrophoenician by birth’ (7: 26), whose plea for assistance is eventually

accepted. The incident which follows is set in the Decapolis and implies

that the deaf man who is healed is a Gentile.

In the final chapters the dispute between Jesus and Jewish leaders

reaches its climax at the same time as the evangelist stresses that the Chris-

tian message is ‘for all nations’ (13: 10 and 14: 9). Both themes are juxta-

posed in two verses which form the dramatic climax of Mark’s whole story.

In Mark’s view the Jewish leaders are primarily responsible for the death of

Jesus. They have rejected Jesus and he has rejected them. Yet in stark

contrast, as Jesus ‘breathes his last’ a Gentile soldier confesses that he is

God’s Son (15: 39). In the preceding verse the evangelist notes that at the

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moment Jesus died the veil of the temple was torn in two, from top to

bottom, thus symbolizing that access to God’s presence is now open to

non-Jews.

The final outcome

The ending of Mark’s story puzzled his first readers and still teases readers

today. In most early reliable manuscripts the women who discover the

empty tomb flee, ‘for trembling and astonishment had come upon them;

and they said nothing to any one, for they were afraid’ (16: 8). Some later

scribes seem to have felt that it was inappropriate for the gospel to end on

this enigmatic note—without even an account of an appearance of the

risen Jesus. Various traditions, now usually printed in footnotes in modern

translations, were added, some early in the second century.

A number of modern scholars have claimed that the last page of Mark’s

story must have been lost, since the evangelist could hardly have ended

with the words ‘for they were afraid’. While this solution of the puzzle is

certainly possible, it is more probable that Mark intended to end on this

note of awe and astonishment.

As we have seen, Mark emphasizes three times that after three days Jesus

will rise (8: 31; 9: 31; 10: 34). The reader is prepared for the eventual out-

come of the story in a further important passage immediately after the Last

Supper. Jesus informs the disciples that though they will shortly all desert

him and be scattered, they will be reunited with him: ‘But after I am raised

up, I will go before you to Galilee’ (14: 28). Although the close relationship

between Jesus and the disciples is about to be broken (in spite of their

protestations to the contrary), it will be restored.

Following the discovery of the empty tomb the women are told by the

messenger to tell the disciples and Peter that Jesus is going before them to

Galilee. ‘There you will see him, as he told you’ (16: 7). The promise given

by Jesus shortly before his arrest is about to be fulfilled. There is nothing

more to be said. For the attentive reader the outcome of the story is clear,

even though there is no explicit account of an appearance of Jesus and no

formal commissioning of the disciples as in the resurrection traditions in

the other three gospels.

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The origin and purpose of Mark

Although there is now general agreement that Mark was the first gospel to

be written, the date and place of its composition are still uncertain. If

Matthew and Luke are seen as expansions and partial reinterpretations of

Mark, then Mark must have been written perhaps a decade or so before the

later gospels. But as we shall see in the chapters on Matthew and Luke that

follow, these gospels can be dated only very tentatively at about ad 85.

There is one verse in Mark which may provide a clue. At 13: 14 there is a

guarded reference to the ‘desolating sacrilege’ which was about to be set up

‘where it ought not to be’. This is often taken as a dark hint (perhaps with

hindsight) that the Jerusalem temple was about to be defiled by Roman

soldiers. If so, then the gospel may have been written just before or just after

the siege and fall of Jerusalem in ad 70. A number of other verses in chapter

13 refer to impending horrors; there is plenty of historical evidence which

confirms that the years 68 and 69 were particularly turbulent, so the gospel

may have been written at this time. If it was written much later, so the

argument runs, then it is probable that the destruction of the temple would

have been referred to more explicitly. A date just before or just after ad 70

is now widely accepted: it is difficult to choose between the two options.

This conclusion is supported by the comments of Irenaeus (c. ad 180)

about the origin of our earliest gospel: ‘Peter and Paul proclaimed the

Gospel in Rome. After their death, Mark, the disciple and interpreter of

Peter, transmitted his preaching to us in written form’ (Adv. Haer. 3.1.1).

Peter almost certainly died during Nero’s intense persecution of Chris-

tians in Rome in ad 64/5. So according to Irenaeus, Mark’s gospel cannot

have been written before this date. There is an alternative, slightly later,

tradition which states that Mark was written during the lifetime of Peter.

This sounds like an attempt to link Mark and Peter even more closely than

the earlier tradition does. So Irenaeus, who admits that there was a gap

between the death of Peter and the writing of Mark’s gospel, is more likely

to be correct.

The place of the composition of Mark is even more uncertain. At the

end of the second century Clement of Alexandria believed that Mark was

written in Rome. This tradition is still accepted by many scholars today

who appeal to Mark’s use of a handful of Latin loan-words and turns of

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phrase, and also to verses which seem to suggest that the gospel was written

at a clear geographical distance from Palestine. But on any reckoning the

evidence is slender: several other locations have been proposed, including

Antioch (or somewhere else in Syria) and Alexandria in Egypt.

We have referred to the author by his traditional name, Mark, but who

was he? In his history of the early church completed about ad 323 Eusebius

of Caesarea refers to the views of Papias, bishop of Hierapolis in Asia

Minor (who may have written 200 years earlier), on the origin of Mark.

And this is what the Elder said, ‘Mark, who became Peter’s interpreter, wrote

accurately, but not in order, as many of the things said and done by the Lord as

he had noted. For he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterwards, as

I said, he followed Peter, who adapted his teaching to the needs (of his hearers)

but not as a complete work of the Lord’s sayings. So Mark made no mistake in

writing some things just as he had noted them. For he was careful of one thing,

to leave nothing he had heard out and to say nothing falsely. (Church History 3.

39. 15)

Papias is citing an even older tradition, from the Elder. These words have

been pored over many times. The precise nuance of several phrases is not

entirely clear. Are the references to Mark’s accuracy, carefulness, and hon-

esty conventional rhetorical terms used to underline the general reliability

of a writing, or are they to be taken literally? A decision is difficult.

Mark himself is not portrayed as an eyewitness: he is Peter’s ‘inter-

preter’. While this may mean ‘translator’ (from Peter’s Aramaic into

Greek), it probably refers to Mark’s role as the person who transmitted and

explained Peter’s teaching. Perhaps the most interesting comment is that

Mark wrote ‘not in order’. While this may mean ‘not in chronological

order’, it is more probably a rhetorical term which refers to Mark’s lack of

literary artistry. If this is the case, then Papias was mistaken. For recent

studies have shown that Mark’s gospel is not an unsophisticated anthology

of Jesus traditions, but a work of considerable literary skill and theological

subtlety.

How much weight should be given to these intriguing comments? My

own view is that while they cannot be taken at face value, they do give us

some insights into the origin of Mark’s gospel. The reference to Mark as

the author is surely an authentic tradition. The Mark named by Papias is

probably the John Mark mentioned in Acts as an associate of Paul (12: 12,

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25; 15: 37–9). John Mark was not a prominent leader in the early church; he

was neither a disciple of Jesus nor an apostle. So why was his name chosen

if there were not good grounds for naming him as the author of a gospel?

According to Papias, in his teaching Peter did not set out a full record of

the actions and teaching of Jesus; he adapted the traditions to meet the

needs of his hearers. At this point Papias partially anticipates some of the

insights of modern scholarship: traditions about Jesus were shaped or

redacted by the evangelists (and their predecessors) to meet the needs of

specific groups of Christians.

Why was this gospel written? Many scholars have assumed that Mark

is writing to one community of Christians, and have tried to reconstruct

the make-up of the Marcan community and propose a quite specific his-

torical or theological setting. For two reasons this general approach is

implausible. It overlooks the genre of the gospel: Mark is not a letter like

Paul’s, addressed to one community with specific problems, but a bios, a

biography. And this approach is usually able to make reasonable sense of

only one or two of the many interrelated strands which the evangelist

develops.

Richard Bauckham (1998) has taken these points even further and

argued that Mark (and the other evangelists) was writing for Christians at

large. He quite rightly insists that communication between Christian

groups in different parts of the eastern Mediterranean was not difficult:

Christian leaders such as Paul, Peter, and their co-workers travelled widely.

On the other hand, if Mark circulated very widely and very rapidly, why

did it survive even though it was used extensively by Matthew and Luke? It

seems likely that individual gospels circulated in certain restricted geo-

graphical areas. Mark’s gospel includes several cryptic references which

suggest that the author and the first recipients were known to one another.

For example, the reference to the young man who ran away naked at the

arrest of Jesus (14: 51–2) and the reference to Simon of Cyrene as ‘the father

of Alexander and Rufus’ (15: 21). These references were deleted by Matthew

and Luke, presumably because they were meaningless to readers in the

communities for which they wrote.

So it seems preferable to assume that the evangelists wrote to groups of

house-churches in close contact with one another. Since no more than

about fifty people could meet in an individual house-church, the gospels

were probably not written for a single community, but for a cluster of

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communities in a given geographical area. This is strongly suggested by

the fact that Mark’s purposes are many. He sets out in dramatic form the

story of Jesus so that it will be meaningful for faltering and hard-pressed

Christians in his own day.

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