Teacher Turnover Rate in Rapides Parish

COMMUNICATION SKILLS

by

Jane Doe

A Paper-in-Lieu of Thesis

Submitted to the Graduate School of Northwestern State University of Louisiana

In partial fulfillment of requirements for the Master of Arts in Adult Learning and Development Degree

November 2020

AN ANALYSIS AND RESEARCH BASED PLAN TO IMPROVE INSTRUCTIONAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS

by

Jane Doe

Submitted to the Graduate School of Northwestern State University of Louisiana

In partial fulfillment of requirements for the Master of Arts in Adult Learning and Development Degree

Approved by:

Keicia S. Hawkins, Ed.D.

Greg Handel, D.M.A. date

Dean, The Graduate School

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT iii

CHAPTER 1: Introduction 1

Background 1

Research Framework 2

Statement of the Problem 2

Research Questions 3

Rationale and Significance 3

Definition of Terms 4

Delimitations of Study 5

CHAPTER 2: Review of Related Literature 6

Introduction 6 Socio-communicative Orientation 6

Behavior Alteration Techniques and Messages 8

Teacher Self-Efficacy 9

Nonverbal Immediacy 10

Summary 11

CHAPTER 3: Methodology 13

Introduction 13

Proposed Intervention 12

Site and Participants 12

Role of Researcher 13

Data Collection and Research Method 13

Treatment of Data 14

CHAPTER 4: Conclusion

Presentation and Summary of Findings 15

Conclusions and Recommendations 17

Implications for Improvement 18

REFERENCES 19

APPENDICES 23

ABSTRACT

AN ANALYSIS AND RESEARCH BASED PLAN TO IMPROVE INSTRUCTIONAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Doe, Jane, B.S., Northwestern State University, 2017

Master of Arts, Northwestern State University, Fall Commencement 2020

Major: Adult Learning and Development

An Analysis and Research Based Plan to Improve Instructional Communication Skills

Paper-in-Lieu of Thesis directed by Dr. Keicia Hawkins

Pages, 31. Words in abstract, 143.

The purpose of this study was to assess instructional communication skills in the areas of socio-communicative orientation, behaviors alteration techniques and messages, teacher self-efficacy, nonverbal immediacy, and to develop a plan to improve those skills. A total of 10 articles were reviewed and analyzed in the literature review. The researcher was the sole participant of the study. The data was collected through 4 pre-existing surveys developed by scholars who devoted research to the field of study. The surveys were part of primary studies conducted by the researchers. This study used a quantitative analysis on the surveys and included questions related to the following topics: characteristics of the participant when interacting with others; the participant’s sense of efficacy in using instructional strategies, managing the classroom, and engaging students; statements the participant might make to influence student behavior; and participant behavior while talking with others.

Keywords: instructional communication, immediacy, behavior alteration, teacher self-efficacy, responsive, assertiveness

2

CHAPTER ONE

Background

Effective communication is vital to all relationships. Communication is observed with eyes, heard with ears, perceived with emotions, and involves the exchange of meaning between people (Iordache-Platis & Josan, 2009). Instructors influence learners through what and how material is communicated (Levi, 2017). For example, if learners participate in a discussion technique, and the facilitator allows the most confident learners to control the discussion as introverted students observe, then there is a lack of awareness of power between the facilitator and the learners. As a result, the effectiveness of the technique suffers (Brookfield, 2013). Learning centers are populated with diverse learners. Thus, each student and learning situation has its own communication demands and no two instructional environments are the same (McCroskey et al., 2004).

Instructional communication skills focus on the skills teachers use to establish a positive relationship between teacher behaviors and students’ learning process (McCroskey et al., 2004). The authors argue that focus is directed to factors which influence teacher-learner interactions, how participants respond/learn during instruction, how learners perceive the teacher, and how learners evaluate the teacher (McCroskey et al., 2004). Additional factors from earlier work include socio-communicative orientation or teacher assertiveness and responsiveness (Thomas et al., 1994), behavior alteration techniques and behavior alteration messages (Kearney et al., 1985), teacher self-efficacy (Schaller & DeWine, 1993), and teacher nonverbal immediacy (Richmond et al., 1987). The earlier factors remain relevant but are part of boarder concepts described by McCroskey et al. (2004): teachers, students’ perceptions of the teachers’ verbal and nonverbal behaviors, students’ perceptions of teachers’ credibility, instructional outcomes, students, and instructional environment.

Research Framework

French and Raven’s Power Bases/Relational Power and Instructional Influence Theory focuses on the use of behavior alteration techniques and behavior alteration messages to gain learner compliance (Witt, 2016). Five power types are identified by French and Raven: coercive, referent, legitimate, reward, and expert. Utilizing the five power types, researchers have investigated how teachers communicate power, how learners and teachers perceive teacher power, and the relationship between a teacher’s power use and participant learning. The theory further suggests that teacher-learner relationships are enhanced when teachers use more relational forms of power. In the end, teachers achieve long term influence in the learning environment (Witt, 2016).

Statement of the Research Problem

Research Questions

This study addresses the following research questions:

· In what areas of instructional communication do I need improvement?

· How can I improve my instructional communication skills in the areas which warrant improvement?

Rational and Significance

Assessing and improving instructional communication skills is necessary to attain success in future learning environments that I lead. The following paragraphs intend to support this claim:

First, I will learn how to communicate and teach with clarity. Clarity is associated with how the teacher communicates with students and how students understand (Frymier & Weser, 2001). Second, I will gain knowledge that will help me to construct a positive communication atmosphere. The promotion of specific communication behaviors will help me to establish a positive classroom climate. Third, teacher credibility will be enhanced. Teachers who are credible are seen as trustworthy, competent, and understanding by students (Broeckelman-Post, 2018). Credibility is built on students' perception of the teacher. It is developed through what students witness teachers doing and saying (Frymier & Thompson, 1992). Credible teachers are well respected, and their students are highly motivated to learn and study.

Definition of Terms

Socio-communicative Orientation or Teacher Assertiveness and Responsiveness

"Socio-communicative Orientation is the way a person is perceived as relating to other people. It is how an individual initiates, reads, adapts, and ends the communication with others through Assertiveness and Responsiveness" (Dilbeck & McCroskey, 2008, p. 3). "Teacher assertiveness refers to perceptions of teacher control in managing the classroom" (Plax et al., 1986, p. 4). "Teacher responsiveness refers to perceptions of teacher concern for students" (Plax et al., 1986, p.4).

Behavior Alteration Techniques (BATs) and Behavior Alteration Messages (BAMs)

"Behavior Alteration Techniques are techniques rooted in operant conditioning or behavior modification approaches to learning" (Kearney, Plax, Richmond & McCroskey, 1985, p.1).

Teacher Self-Efficacy

"Teacher self-efficacy refers to teachers' "belief in their ability to have a positive effect on student learning" (Schaller & DeWine, 1993, p. 4).

Nonverbal Immediacy

"Nonverbal immediacy represents a cluster of communication behaviors that enhances closeness to and nonverbal interaction with one another" (Finn & Schrodt, 2012, p. 4). Immediacy is closely linked to teacher effectiveness. Immediate teachers are appropriately assertive and responsive (Thomas et al., 1994).

Power

"Power refers to a teacher's ability to affect in some way the student's well-being beyond the student's own control" (McCroskey & Richmond, 1983, p. 2).

Teacher Credibility

"Teacher credibility references the degree to which students perceive the teacher to be believable" (McCroskey et al., 2006, p. 3).

Delimitations

There is one delimitation to note. I was the sole participant of this study. Thus, results are not generalizable to others.

CHAPTER TWO

Review of Related Literature

Socio-communicative Orientation or Assertiveness and Responsiveness

The results of a study by Thomas et al. (1994) indicated immediacy was equally related to responsiveness and assertiveness. Two hundred thirty undergraduate students enrolled in introductory communication courses to satisfy core education requirements participated in the study. Participants completed two questionnaires. The first questionnaire included 10 items and measured teachers’ immediacy behaviors. The second questionnaire included 20 items and measured teachers’ socio-communicative style, with 10 items for responsiveness and 10 items for assertiveness. Thomas et al. (1994) concluded that teachers must be appropriately assertive and responsive to the needs of students. The authors referred to teachers who practice these behaviors as communicatively competent.

However, in a 1996 study, Wooten and McCroskey found that the more responsive students perceive the teacher to be, the more students trust the teacher (Wooten & McCroskey, 1996). There was a modest correlation between teacher assertiveness and the level of students’ trust for the teacher. It was believed the correlation was the result of a weak positive relationship between the teacher and student (Wooten & McCroskey, 1996). They argued that assertiveness should not be avoided but should be used to build trust with assertive students. Less assertive communication was found to be appropriate when communicating with shy or reserved students during one-on-one conversations. While assertiveness was not found to impact trust, highly assertive teachers were perceived as overpowering and threatening. In the end, results of the study suggested that teachers who are both responsive and assertive are more likely to birth positive outcomes in the classroom (Wooten & McCroskey, 1996).

In 1998, Wanzer and McCroskey investigated teacher characteristics associated with teacher misbehaviors. Students who perceived teachers as assertive reported those teachers were less likely to display misbehaviors. It is indicated that assertive teachers aim for excellence in the classroom. Discoveries made concluded that responsive teachers care about their relationships with students and avoid behaviors which could ruin those relationships. The conclusion was reached that misbehaviors are not related to titles or teaching experience but is linked to an instructor’s socio-communicative style (Wanzer & McCroskey, 1998).

In a 2006 study McCroskey et al. concluded that when teachers respond assertively and responsively, students are more motivated. The study included 189 participants, 101 males and 88 females in the range of 18 to 25 years of age enrolled in undergraduate upper level communication courses at a Mid-Atlantic university (McCroskey et al., 2006). Participants completed a questionnaire on the last day of classes, which measured their perceptions of four of their teachers’ communication behaviors. The behaviors measured were nonverbal immediacy, clarity, and assertiveness/responsiveness, the dimensions of socio-communicative style. The results support that communication behaviors, when used together, lead to higher levels of end-of-class motivation. The authors argue, “Teachers’ communication behaviors are powerful predictors of instructional outcomes” (McCroskey et al., 2006, p. 409). The researchers also concluded that a balance of assertiveness and responsiveness produced effective teachers.

In the third study of a series developed to explore teachers’ use of power in managing students’ classroom behavior, Kearney et al. (1985) identified behavior alteration techniques and messages used in managing the classroom. This study was an extension of French and Raven’s work (1968, as cited in Kearney et al., 1985) concerning use of power. Teachers reported the use of 7 BATs used for classroom management: reward from behavior, reward from source, personal responsibility, expert, self-esteem, altruism, and duty.

The reward from behavior approach encouraged students to participate in specific behaviors because the behavior would be rewarding. Kearney et al. (1985), note this approach was relevant when students were resistant to a new learning experience. In reward from source, students were offered rewards for compliance. BAMs associated with personal responsibility reminded students of their unique abilities in comparison to their peers. With the use of the expert BATs, the student believed the teacher was knowledgeable and qualified. As a result, the student complied. Students were praised for their performance using the self-esteem BATs. Teachers suggested members of the class would benefit by means of altruism BATs. BATs that belonged to the duty category resembled the altruism category as teachers made students feel like they were part of a team (Kearney et al., 1985).

In the fourth analysis of power in the classroom, teachers rated teacher feedback highly effective, a new BAT. Punishment oriented BATs remained least frequently used. Male teachers perceived to have used expert BATs effectively more than women. Researchers argued that women utilized BATs which supported responsiveness while men relied on more assertive techniques and their perception of their credibility. Thus, the results reflected traditional gender-based roles (Plax et al., 1986).

Teacher Self-Efficacy

Schaller and DeWine (1993) performed an analysis to determine whether perceived teacher efficacy, teaching immediacy, and teacher communication competence were significant predictors of perceived cognitive and affective learning and whether perceived teacher immediacy and communication competence were significant predictors of perceived teacher efficacy. Their analysis showed that student perceptions of teacher communication and immediacy competence were directly related to predicting teacher efficacy. Their findings highlighted the relationship between teachers’ perceptions of their efficacy and perceptions of students. Teachers who perceived themselves as efficacious and are perceived as competent by students had a positive impact on affective learning but a negative impact on cognitive learning. The data did not describe efficacy as a great contributor to student learning (Schaller & DeWine, 1993).

Another study by Shadzad and Naureen (2017) hypothesized and found there was a positive relationship between teachers’ self-efficacy and student achievement. Teachers with higher levels of self-efficacy yielded better results concerning students’ academic achievement. A great majority of teachers who were more efficacious were more likely to present sound pedagogy for students. They arranged more interesting, effective, and impressive courses for students. It was proven that teachers not only positively impacted achievement but also impacted improvement in struggling students (Shahzad & Naureen, 2017).

Efficacious teachers were found to be more composed and in control when solving problems. The quality of teachers’ self-efficacy allowed them to respond positively in the most difficult situations. They were also more efficient in guiding students to perform a task. The study showed that they desired their students to be confident as they were confident (Shahzad & Naureen, 2017).

Nonverbal Immediacy

A study by Richmond, Gorham, and McCroskey (1987) focused on teachers trained in nonverbal immediacy and the impact on teacher-student immediacy and student affect toward instruction. Research found that teachers trained in using nonverbal immediacy cues created more positive student affect toward instruction. The removal of immediacy removed this impact. Findings concluded that training in nonverbal immediacy constructed greater teacher-student immediacy (Richmond et al., 1987). In a study that investigated the association between immediacy and socio-communicative style, it was suggested that immediacy behaviors are important components of effective communication in instructional settings (Thomas et al., 1994).

In 2000, Baringer and McCroskey argued that teachers and students influence one another through the application of nonverbal immediacy behaviors. The research gathered suggested that students who desired to be perceived more positively by teachers should engage in nonverbal immediacy behaviors. The behaviors included sitting near the teacher, smiling, maintaining eye contact, and learning toward teachers. Teachers perceived students to be interested in listening to what they had to say and were more interested in sharing with students. Thus, the overall classroom environment was enhanced (Baringer & McCroskey, 2000).

There was a principle of reciprocity observed with the use of nonverbal immediacy behaviors. When either teachers or students were immediate, the other party was immediate in return. These findings indicated that as teachers engage in more immediate nonverbal communication behaviors, they are perceived more positively, and students learn more affectively and cognitively (Baringer and McCroskey, 2000).

Thweatt and McCroskey (1998) classified nonimmediate teacher behaviors as teacher misbehaviors. They found that teachers who failed to engage in immediate behaviors, by ignorance or choice, were misbehaving. It was discovered that students perceived nonimmediate teachers less positively than immediate teachers who were not efficient in performing their duties (Thweatt & McCroskey, 1998).

Summary

The common themes discussed in the literature review are interrelated concepts. It appears that the instructional communication skills together contribute to more effective communication and learner motivation as McCroskey et al. (2004) notes linkages between the boarder concepts of instructional communication: teacher temperament, students’ perceptions of teacher communication behaviors, student’s evaluation of teachers’ credibility, and instructional outcomes. As noted earlier, it was concluded that teachers trained in nonverbal immediacy cues created more positive student affect toward instruction (Richmond et al., 1987). The BATs that were used and were effective in managing the classroom did not reflect punishing techniques and were closely related to responsiveness and immediacy, with teacher feedback being the most frequently used (Kearney et al., 1987). In a 2006 study McCroskey et al. concluded that when teachers respond assertively and responsively, students are more motivated. Thus, understanding how teachers’ instructional communication skills positively or negatively impact students’ learning and motivation for learning is crucial to the design and implementation of instructional communicative practices which are conducive to learning (McCroskey et al., 2006). This study will assess instructional communication skills in the areas of socio-communicative orientation, behavior alteration techniques and messages, teacher self-efficacy, and nonverbal immediacy. At the conclusion of the study, the researcher will provide recommendations for improving instructional communication skills.

CHAPTER THREE

Methodology

The purpose of the study was to investigate the strengths and weaknesses of my instructional communication skills and develop a plan to improve those skills. This chapter provides information concerning the proposed intervention, study participants and site, the role of the researcher, data collection and research method, and the treatment of data.

Proposed Intervention

It is proposed that college students, undergraduate and graduate students, participate in surveys and interviews to assess the instructional communication skills of instructors. Instructors would use the results of students’ responses to form conclusions about their performance. They will then use their results to conduct a self-assessment.

Site and Participants

The researcher is the sole participant of the study. She is a 26-year old African American graduate student, who was born and raised in a rural city of Louisiana. She attended Northwestern State University as a first-generation student and earned her B.S. in mathematics in 2017. She is pursuing the Master of Arts in Adult Learning and Development with a concentration in Adult and Workforce Development.

She worked as a graduate assistant with Northwestern State’s Academic Success Center and as a substitute teacher with the Natchitoches Parish School Board system before accepting her current role as an academic advisor and instructor with the university’s Academic Advising Services. The participant advises pre-clinical nursing majors, general studies majors, visiting students, and teaches The University Experience and Academic Study Skills.

The participant accessed four pre-existing questionnaires developed by scholars who devoted research to the field of study and were part of primary studies through links provided by Dr. Michelle Morris in EDUC 5840. The 4 questionnaires were:

· Socio Communicative Style Scale (Richmond & McCroskey, 1990)

· Ohio State Teacher Efficacy Scale (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001)

· Behavior Alteration Techniques (BATs) and Messages (BAMs) (Kearney et al., 1985)

· Non-Verbal Immediacy Scale (Richmond and McCroskey, 1998).

Questionnaires were completed using a personal computer. Reponses for each survey were grouped by instructional communication variable and emailed to the participant for analysis through a secure link by Dr. Morris.

Role of Researcher

The researcher completed and analyzed the four questionnaires. The researcher was also responsible for maintaining ethical standards and was careful to avoid bias in the design of the study, the delivery of the study, and the interpretation of responses collected during the study.

Data Collection and Research Method

The participant was not asked to provide information related to demographics which could be used for identification.

Treatment of Data

Once the results were received, the data was saved to the researcher’s Northwestern State University OneDrive account for ease of access and privacy. The results were analyzed using the directions/scales which accompanied the questionnaires. A quantitative analysis was conducted for each survey. The findings are presented in the next chapter.

CHAPTER FOUR

Conclusion

Presentation and Summary of Findings

Socio-communicative Style

Scores from the Socio-communicative Style Scale (Richmond & McCroskey, 1990) indicate that I am more responsive than assertive. My total score for assertiveness was 28, and my total score for responsiveness was 47. Of the 10 characteristics related to assertiveness, I disagreed with 40% of the characteristics, was undecided concerning 10% of the characteristics, agreed with 30% of the characteristics, and strongly agreed with 20% of the characteristics. Of the 10 characteristics related to responsiveness, I strongly agreed with 80% of the characteristics, agreed with 10% of the characteristics, and was undecided concerning 10% of the characteristics. See Appendix A for completed scale.

Teacher Self-Efficacy

There were 8 questions for each correlated factor in the efficacy scale (Tschannen & Hoy, 2001). My score for efficacy in instructional practices was 34, my score for efficacy in classroom management was 38, and my score for efficacy in student engagement was 36. Based on my responses, I scored the highest in efficacy in classroom management. This indicates that I am most confident in my ability to successfully manage the classroom. My lowest score was in efficacy in instructional practices. This finding suggests that I am least confident in providing a variety of strategies and assessments for students. My average score for each area was calculated by dividing the total score for the area by the total number of questions related to each area. My averages are 4.25 for efficacy in instructional strategies, 4.75 for efficacy in classroom management, and 4.5 for efficacy in student engagement. See Appendix B for completed scale.

Behavior Alteration Techniques (BATs) and Messages (BAMs)

I reviewed my scores in each of the 22 categories of the BATs and BAMs (Kearney et al. 1985), but no calculation was needed. The following items are prosocial BATs: immediate reward from behavior, deferred reward from behavior, reward from others, self-esteem, responsibility to class, normative rules, altruism, peer modeling, teacher modeling, expert teacher, and teacher feedback. The following items are antisocial BATS: punishment from teacher, punishment from others, guilt, teacher-student relationship (negative), legitimate-higher authority, legitimate-teacher authority, and debt. The following items are used by teachers but are neither prosocial or antisocial: reward from teacher, punishment from behavior, teacher-student relationship (positive), and personal (student) responsibility.

Based on my scores, I am more likely to use the following prosocial BATs: deferred reward from Behavior, teacher feedback, self-esteem, and responsibility to class. I am less likely to use reward from others, normative rules, altruism, peer modeling, teacher modeling and expert teacher. The results indicated that I am extremely likely to use both teacher feedback and self-esteem. While observing my results, I noticed that I tend to avoid punishment-oriented BATs. See Appendix C for questionnaire.

Nonverbal Immediacy

Using the directions of the Non-verbal Immediacy Scale by Richmond and McCroskey (1998), I found concluded that my immediacy scores was 61. Of the 16 statements, eight statements described immediate behaviors, and eight statements described non-immediate behaviors. I indicated that I participate in immediate behaviors very often 62.5% of the time, and that I participate in immediate behaviors often 37.5% of the time. I responded with rarely and occasionally for non-immediate statements 100% of the time, responding with rarely 50% of the time, and with occasionally 50% of the time. See appendix D for completed scale.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Surveys were conducted which assessed my socio-communicative orientation; sense of self-efficacy in instructional strategies, managing a classroom, and student engagement; use of behavior alteration techniques and behavior alteration messages; and general nonverbal immediacy.

Results revealed that I am more responsive than assertive. I tend to care about others and the relationship we share. However, I must improve on being more assertive in circumstances that require more assertiveness. The survey showed I lack confidence in my ability to create and use a variety of instructional strategies. I learned that I use more prosocial BATs than antisocial BATs. The study concluded that I use more nonverbal immediacy cues because I desire them in return.

To improve my instructional communication skills, I plan to be appropriately responsive and assertive after learning more about my future students’ personality traits and perceptions. As I seek to strengthen my self-efficacy in instructional practices, I will encourage input from students and attempt to use teacher-centered and student-centered approaches to instruction and formatively assess the effectiveness of both approaches. In addition, I plan to continue using more prosocial BATs and create strategies with students to decrease the use of BAMs. Nonverbal immediate behaviors strengthen teacher-student relationships. I plan to incorporate nonverbal immediate behaviors in hope that my future students will return the gestures and feel more welcomed and valued in my classroom.

The topics that were assessed in the surveys are interrelated concepts. I have a socio-communicative orientation, and my socio-communicative orientation influences how I am perceived by students and which BATs and BAMs I rely on to modify student misbehaviors. My use of BATs and BAMs dictates how I am perceived by students and may determine the level of immediacy between students and me. Every topic plays a significant role in teachers’ instructional communicative effort as they educate students. I hope to continue improving professionally from the information gathered through this study.

Three questions which arose from completing and reflecting on the study are:

· Will my responses concerning efficacy in instructional practices yield different results since I now have more teaching experience?

· If so, is there a correlation between teacher efficacy and teaching experience?

· As I now have more power and credibility, will my most frequently used BATS differ from previous results?

· Do students perceive me as I perceive myself?

· If no, what are the differences?

Implications for Improvement

In the future, undergraduate and graduate students should complete open ended surveys to assess the instructional communication skills of their instructors. There are end of course evaluations the university distributes to students to receive feedback concerning course expectations and course satisfaction, but these do not provide details of instructor communication skills. However, I believe a survey which provides more depth on instructional communication skills should be developed. In addition to the survey, I recommend interviewing selected students from courses to. Faculty/staff members with teaching assignments should complete the surveys used in this study to conduct self-assessment of their instructional communication skills and make improvements as needed using examples provided in relevant research.

References