Learning Theory 2

222 Chapter 5

Hierarchies are not linear orderings of skills. One often must apply two or more pre- requisite skills to learn a higher-order skill with neither of the prerequisites dependent on the other. Nor are higher-order skills necessarily more difficult to learn than lower-order ones. Some prerequisites may be difficult to acquire; once learners have mastered the lower-order skills, learning a higher-order one may seem easier.

Phases of Learning. Instruction is a set of external events designed to facilitate internal learning processes. Table 5.5 shows the nine phases of learning grouped into the three categories (Gagné, 1985).

Preparation for learning includes introductory learning activities. During attending, learners focus on stimuli relevant to material to be learned (audiovisuals, written materials, teacher-modeled behaviors). The learner’s expectancy orients the learner to the goal (learn a motor skill, learn to reduce fractions). During retrieval of relevant information from LTM, learners activate the portions relevant to the topic stud- ied (Gagné & Dick, 1983).

The main phases of learning are acquisition and performance. Selective perception means that the sensory registers recognize relevant stimulus features and transfer them to WM. Semantic encoding is the process whereby new knowledge is transferred to LTM. During retrieval and responding, learners retrieve new information from memory and make a response demonstrating learning. Reinforcement refers to feedback that confirms the accuracy of a student’s response and provides corrective information as necessary.

Transfer of learning phases include cueing retrieval and generalizability. In cueing retrieval, learners receive cues signaling that previous knowledge is applicable in that sit- uation. When solving word problems, for instance, a mathematics teacher might inform learners that their knowledge of right triangles is applicable. Generalizability is enhanced by providing learners the opportunity to practice skills with different content and under different circumstances (e.g., homework, spaced review sessions).

Table 5.5 Gagné’s phases of learning.

Category Phase

Preparation for learning Attending

Expectancy

Retrieval

Acquisition and performance Selective perception

Semantic encoding

Retrieval and responding

Reinforcement

Transfer of learning Cueing retrieval

Generalizability