Read the Book(Uploaded) and write about the questions(each 1150~200 words)

recidivism rate the proportion of released con- victs who are rearrested

reference group a group whose standards we refer to as we evaluate ourselves

reliability the extent to which research pro- duces consistent or dependable results

replication the repetition of a study in order to test its findings

research method one of seven procedures that sociologists use to collect data: surveys, participant observation, case studies, secondary analysis, doc- uments, experiments, and unobtrusive measures

reserve labor force the unemployed; unem- ployed workers are thought of as being “in re- serve”—capitalists take them “out of reserve” (put them back to work) during times of high production and then put them back “in reserve” (lay them off ) when they are no longer needed

resocialization the process of learning new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors

respondents people who respond to a survey, either in interviews or by self-administered ques- tionnaires

rising expectations the sense that better con- ditions are soon to follow, which, if unfulfilled, increases frustration

role the behaviors, obligations, and privileges attached to a status

role conflict conflicts that someone feels between roles because the expectations attached to one role are incompatible with the expecta- tions of another role

role performance the ways in which someone performs a role within the limits that the role pro- vides; showing a particular “style” or “personality”

role strain conflicts that someone feels within a role

romantic love feelings of sexual attraction ac- companied by an idealization of the other

sample the individuals intended to represent the population to be studied

sanctions either expressions of approval given to people for upholding norms or expressions of disapproval for violating them

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf ’s hypothesis that language cre- ates ways of thinking and perceiving

scapegoat an individual or group unfairly blamed for someone else’s troubles

scientific method the use of objective system- atic observations to test theories

secondary analysis the analysis of data that have been collected by other researchers

secondary group compared with a primary group, a larger, relatively temporary, more anonymous, formal, and impersonal group based on some interest or activity

segregation the policy of keeping racial-ethnic groups apart

selective perception seeing certain features of an object or situation, but remaining blind to others

self the unique human capacity of being able to see ourselves “from the outside”; the views we in- ternalize of how others see us

serial fatherhood a pattern of parenting in which a father, after a divorce, reduces contact with his own children, serves as a father to the children of the woman he marries or lives with, then ignores these children, too, after moving in with or marrying another woman

serial murder the killing of several victims in three or more separate events

sex biological characteristics that distinguish fe- males and males, consisting of primary and sec- ondary sex characteristics

sexual harassment the abuse of one’s position of authority to force unwanted sexual demands on someone

shaman the healing specialist of a tribe who attempts to control the spirits thought to cause a disease or injury; commonly called a witch doctor

sign-vehicle a term used by Goffman to refer to how people use social setting, appearance, and manner to communicate information about the self

significant other an individual who signifi- cantly influences someone else’s life

slavery a form of social stratification in which some people own other people

small group a group small enough for everyone to interact directly with all the other members

social class according to Weber, a large group of people who rank close to one another in property power, and prestige; according to Marx, one of two groups: capitalists who own the means of production or workers who sell their labor

social construction of reality the use of back- ground assumptions and life experiences to de- fine what is real

social control a group’s formal and informal means of enforcing its norms

social environment the entire human environ- ment, including direct contact with others

social inequality a social condition in which privileges and obligations are given to some but denied to others

social institution the organized, usual, or stan- dard ways by which society meets its basic needs

social integration the degree to which mem- bers of a group or a society feel united by shared values and other social bonds; also known as social cohesion

social interaction what people do when they are in one another’s presence

social location the group memberships that people have because of their location in history and society

social mobility movement up or down the social class ladder

social network the social ties radiating outward from the self that link people together

social order a group’s usual and customary social arrangements, on which its members depend and on which they base their lives

social stratification the division of large num- bers of people into layers according to their rel- ative property, power, and prestige; applies to both nations and to people within a nation, so- ciety, or other group

social structure the framework (or typical pat- terns) that surrounds us, consisting of the rela- tionships of people and groups to one another, which gives direction to and sets limits on be- havior

socialization the process by which people learn the characteristics of their group—the knowl- edge, skills, attitudes, values, norms, and actions thought appropriate for them

society people who share a culture and a territory

sociobiology a framework of thought that views human behavior as the result of natural se- lection and considers biological factors to be the fundamental cause of human behavior

sociological perspective understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader social context

sociology the scientific study of society and human behavior

split labor market workers split along racial– ethnic, gender, age, or any other lines; this split is exploited by owners to weaken the bargaining power of workers

status the position that someone occupies in a social group

status consistent ranking high or low on all three dimensions of social class

status inconsistency ranking high on some di- mensions of social class and low on others, also called status discrepancy

status set all the statuses or positions that an in- dividual occupies

status symbols items used to identify a status

stereotype assumptions of what people are like, whether true or false

stigma “blemishes” that discredit a person’s claim to a “normal” identity

strain theory Robert Merton’s term for the strain engendered when a society socializes large numbers of people to desire a cultural goal (such as success), but withholds from some the ap- proved means of reaching that goal; one adapta- tion to the strain is crime, the choice of an innovative means (one outside the approved sys- tem) to attain the cultural goal

stratified random sample a sample from se- lected subgroups of the target population in which everyone in those subgroups has an equal chance of being included in the research

street crime crimes such as mugging, rape, and burglary

structural mobility movement up or down the social class ladder that is due to changes in the structure of society, not to individual efforts

G l o s s a r y G3