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GLOSSARY

G

to the process by which Western culture is being exported and diffused into other nations

cultural relativism not judging a culture but trying to understand it on its own terms

cultural universal a value, norm, or other cul- tural trait that is found in every group

culture the language, beliefs, values, norms, be- haviors, and even material objects that character- ize a group and are passed from one generation to the next

culture of poverty the assumption that the val- ues and behaviors of the poor make them fun- damentally different from other people, that these factors are largely responsible for their poverty, and that parents perpetuate poverty across generations by passing these characteris- tics to their children

culture shock the disorientation that people experience when they come in contact with a fundamentally different culture and can no longer depend on their taken-for-granted as- sumptions about life

degradation ceremony a term coined by Harold Garfinkel to refer to a ritual whose goal is to strip away someone’s position (social status); in doing so, a new social and self-identity is stamped on the individual.

democratic leader an individual who leads by trying to reach a consensus

dependent variable a factor in an experiment that is changed by an independent variable

deviance the violation of norms (or rules or ex- pectations)

differential association Edwin Sutherland’s term to indicate that people who associate with some groups learn an “excess of definitions” of deviance, increasing the likelihood that they will become deviant

discrimination an act of unfair treatment di- rected against an individual or a group

division of labor the splitting of a group’s or a society’s tasks into specialties

documents in its narrow sense, written sources that provide data; in its extended sense, archival material of any sort, including photographs, movies, CDs, DVDs, and so on

domestication revolution the first social revo- lution, based on the domestication of plants and animals, which led to pastoral and horticultural societies

dominant group the group with the most power, greatest privileges, and highest social status

downward social mobility movement down the social class ladder

dramaturgy an approach, pioneered by Erving Goffman, in which social life is analyzed in terms

case study an analysis of a single event, situa- tion, or individual

caste system a form of social stratification in which people’s statuses are determined by birth and are lifelong

category people who have similar characteristics

class conflict Marx’s term for the struggle be- tween capitalists and workers

class consciousness Marx’s term for awareness of a common identity based on one’s position in the means of production

class system a form of social stratification based primarily on the possession of money or material possessions

clique a cluster of people within a larger group who choose to interact with one another

closed-ended questions questions that are fol- lowed by a list of possible answers to be selected by the respondent

coalition the alignment of some members of a group against others

cohabitation unmarried couples living together in a sexual relationship

colonialism the process by which one nation takes over another nation, usually for the pur- pose of exploiting its labor and natural resources

compartmentalize to separate acts from feel- ings or attitudes

conflict theory a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups that are competing for scarce resources

control group the subjects in an experiment who are not exposed to the independent variable

control theory the idea that two control sys- tems—inner controls and outer controls—work against our tendenciesto deviate

corporate crime crimes committed by execu- tives in order to benefit their corporation

counterculture a group whose values, beliefs, norms, and related behaviors place its members in opposition to the broader culture

crime the violation of norms written into law

criminal justice system the system of police, courts, and prisons set up to deal with people who are accused of having committed a crime

cultural diffusion the spread of cultural traits from one group to another; includes both mate- rial and nonmaterial cultural traits

cultural goals the objectives held out as legiti- mate or desirable for the members of a society to achieve

cultural lag Ogburn’s term for human behav- ior lagging behind technological innovations

cultural leveling the process by which cultures become similar to one another; refers especially

achieved status a position that is earned, ac- complished, or involves at least some effort or activity on the individual’s part

agents of socialization individuals or groups that affect our self-concept, attitudes, behaviors, or other orientations toward life

aggregate individuals who temporarily share the same physical space but who do not see themselves as belonging together

agricultural revolution the second social rev- olution, based on the invention of the plow, which led to agricultural societies

agricultural society a society based on large- scale agriculture

anticipatory socialization the process of learn- ing in advance an anticipated future role or status

applied sociology the use of sociology to solve problems—from the micro level family relation- ships to the macro level of global pollution

ascribed status a position an individual either inherits at birth or receives involuntarily later in life

assimilation the process of being absorbed into the mainstream culture

authoritarian leader an individual who leads by giving orders

authoritarian personality Theodor Adorno’s term for people who are prejudiced and rank high on scales of conformity, intolerance, inse- curity, respect for authority, and submissiveness to superiors

back stage places where people rest from their performances, discuss their presentations, and plan future performances

background assumption a deeply embedded common understanding of how the world oper- ates and of how people ought to act

bilineal (system of descent) a system of reckon- ing descent that counts both the mother’s and the father’s side

biotech society a society whose economy in- creasingly centers on the application of genetics to produce medicine, food, and materials

blended family a family whose members were once part of other families

body language the ways in which people use their bodies to give messages to others

bonded labor (indentured service) a contrac- tual system in which someone sells his or her body (services) for a specified period of time in an arrangement very close to slavery, except that it is entered into voluntarily

bourgeoisie Marx’s term for capitalists, those who own the means of production

capital punishment the death penalty