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Lip Service? 1

Chapter I

Lip Service? How PA Journals and Textbooks

View Information Technology

Alana Northrop, California State University, Fullertan, USA

Abstract

This chapter first points out the continued need for a reader on information technology by reviewing the early importance given to computing education by MPA programs and prac- titioners. Next, the chapter surveys current textbooks’ and general public-administration journals’ treatment of the topic. Three highly respected public-administration journals and three textbooks are reviewed. The journals are found to typically give little attention to the topic of computing, whether as a main focus or as merely a mention in articles. The textbooks also barely mention computing. In addition, there was no consistent rubric or chapter topic under which computing is discussed. The continued and vital need for a reader on informa- tion technology and computer applications in public administration is apparent. Finally, the chapter concludes by briefly discussing a range of issues that public administrators should be conversant with if they are to successfully utilize computer applications in the delivery of public-sector services.

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Introduction

In 1985, a special computing education committee recommended to the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA) that a sixth skill, computing, be added to the original five skills that must be taught in an MPA program. This recommendation applied to the accreditation of schools starting in 1988. Now over 20 years have passed since the original recommendation. Let us turn to evaluate the progress that has been made.

Computing Education in MPA Programs

There have been two published studies that surveyed MPA programs and assessed the level of computing education. Cleary (1990) mailed out questionnaires to 215 public affairs and public administration (PA) master’s programs affiliated with the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration in 1989. Of the 80% returned, about one out of four reported that they had a course dealing with information systems and computer skills. The respondents were quick to note that the information systems and computer-skills areas needed more attention in the future. Yet, 1989 was a long time ago, especially when it comes to the massive changes in the computer field. Brudney, Hy, and Waugh (1993) did a little more recent survey of MPA programs. Close to 90% of the programs said they use computers in their instruction. Over half of the institu- tions offer a course in computers, yet only 30% had made computing a requirement. The study also suggested that computing skills need to be taught beyond the typically taught statistical applications. Without an absolutely current survey of programs, one can only surmise, though pretty safely, that computer use in MPA courses has greatly expanded. Word processing, spreadsheets, graphics, e-mail, the Internet, geographic information system (GIS), and online classes are now part and parcel of MPA programs and assumed student skills.

What PA Practitioners Advise in Computing Education

Four studies surveyed public managers. Lan and Cayer (1994) surveyed administrators in one state. The recommendations were that MPA programs need course work in computer literacy, specifically knowledge of applications and hands-on skills. The respondents said they use information technology (unfortunately this includes phone and fax) an average of 56% of their day. The respondents also said that they were involved with the management of the information system, so management issues as well as computer skills are important for PA students.

Lip Service? 3

Crewson and Fisher (1997) surveyed 371 city administrators in the United States. In terms of importance for public administrators in the future, 37% of the sample rated computer skills as most important, with 57% giving such skills moderate importance. Similar ratings were given by the sample to knowing about computers. An earlier study (Poister & Streib, 1989) of 451 municipal managers indicates the extensive diffusion of management information systems in the 1980s. Other indications of computer use can be obliquely inferred from usage of such management tools as revenue forecasting and performance monitoring. A 1988 study of 46 technologically advanced cities was intended to predict the common state of computerization in U.S. cities in the late 1990s (Kraemer & Northrop, 1989). That study indicated that no city department or staff role was spared from the diffusion of computers. In fact, 84% of managers respondents and 85% of staff respondents indicated that their work involved major interaction with computers. More recent studies (Moon, 2002; Norris & Moon, 2005) indicate the absolute spread of IT to city and county governance through Web sites and their evolving nature. In essence, the word from public managers is that the use of computers has become essential to daily municipal business.

Computing Education in Public Administration Journals and Textbooks

We know there is a need for computing education in MPA programs, as practitioners in both the 1985 recommendation and 1989 update pointed out (Kraemer & Northrop, 1989; NASPAA Ad Hoc Committee on Computers in Public Management Education, 1986). Yes, schools say they have integrated computing into their curriculum (Brudney et al., 1993), but how has the field of public administration pushed computing education in print? One way to answer that question is to review research and textbooks in public administra- tion. This third approach to looking at computing education is based on the theory of trian- gulation. Triangulation means using different data sources trained on the same problem, in this case, computing education. Triangulation not only involves using data from different sources but also from different perspectives. In this section, the sources are general public- administration journals and textbooks. The different perspective is the belief that one can learn about computing education not just from what university program directors say they teach, but also from looking at the published sources of information commonly available to public-administration academics and professionals.

Professional Public Administration Articles

The journals were selected based on Forester and Watson’s (1994) survey of all editors and editorial board members of 36 journals who mention public administration in general or

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public administration topics, such as personnel and finance, in their mission statements. The study used a 10-point scale: 10 representing the best journal in the field according to the respondents, and a 0 indicating that no respondent rated the journal in the top 10. The top 5 general public-administration journals, whether you include or exclude the board members of those journals in the rankings, can be seen in Table 1. In deciding which journals to evaluate, the quality of the journal was considered as well as the requirement that the journal be recognized as one that dealt with the field of public administration in general. The latter requirement was based on the recommendation of the 1985 NASPAA committee that the computing topic be integrated into all courses vs. segre- gated into one or a part of one course. Thus, the computing topic should be relevant to all academics and practitioners interested in public administration, not just those in a particular specialized area. The quality issue obviously speaks to the dissemination of information as well as the importance of computing as demonstrated by its acceptability as a topic in esteemed publishing outlets. Clearly, Public Administration Review (PAR) and Administration & Society (A&S) stand out as the top general public administration journals and, in fact, as the top public-administra- tion journals, period (Forester & Watson, 1994). We also felt that The American Review of Public Administration (ARPA) should be selected. Although it is closer in ratings to other lower ranked journals than it is to the two leaders, it stands out in its ratings’ gap from the lower journals more than it is similar to them in ratings differences. Table 2 shows how often computing appeared as a topic in the three selected journals over the last 10 years. There is no trend but instead a turning point. Articles that mention computing or have computing as the main focus are rare, with a notable increase in 2002 but slipping downward by 2004. It should be noted that PAR, the main journal outlet for IT issues, had a special issue on 9/11 and terrorism in 2002 that often mentioned IT issues. It should also be noted that articles that mention computing might involve as little as a one-sentence men- tion in the whole article. In sum, while the academic field and the world of government practice increasingly rec- ognize the importance of computing, the research world in terms of top-quality journals really does not.

Note: There is a very clear drop-off in ratings for journals rated lower.

All Respondents Minus Board Members

Public Administration Review 8.34 8.19

Administration & Society 5.36 5.17

The American Review of Public Administration 3.85 3.40

Journal of Public Administration Theory 3.20 2.78

Public Administration Quarterly 2.88 2.45

Table 1.

Lip Service? 5

Table 2. Appearance of computing topic in public administration journals

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19 97

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Public Administration Textbooks

Professional public-administration journal articles are a common outlet for academics and professionals to keep up on the latest research and trends in the field. Articles can be as- signed in class or incorporated into lectures. Another common outlet on what is essential to the public administration field is textbooks. While one can avoid keeping up by not reading all journal articles, it is hard not to read the book assigned in class on both the professor’s and student’s sides. So if one were seeking to learn about the essential topics in the field of public administration, what would you learn by reading the textbooks? In this instance, we looked at how often computers or information systems were mentioned in current public-administration textbooks. Three texts were chosen based on their most current printing date of 2005. Table 2 indicates the remarkable lack of attention that these textbooks give to computing. Similar to the three general public-administration journals studied earlier, computing is just not a textbook topic of major importance. An additional concern, besides the amount of attention given to computing in these texts, is how it is treated. As Table 3 indicates, computing does not have its own chapter except loosely in Starling’s textbook. Computing as a topic also appears to not have any consistent rubric under which it is treated. Such inconsistent treatment suggests that computing has not been integrated into all areas of public administration and, in fact, has not even found a home in one area.

Need for a Book on Computing for Public Administrators

Without a doubt computing has permeated the practice of public administration at all levels of government in the United States. NASPAA has recognized this by requiring all accredited MPA programs to include in their programs information management, including computer literacy and applications. Yet in spite of the importance the work world and NASPAA has put on computing education, the two tables in this chapter show that textbooks and general

Note: *Percentages (in parentheses) are calculated using number of textbook pages as bases (i.e., excluding appendixes, references, and indexes).

Table 3. Appearance of computing topic in public administration textbooks

Textbook name and author Number of pages mentioning computers or information systems and percentage*

Public Administration Concepts and Cases by Stillman (2005)

0 Chapter in which pages appear

Managing the Public Sector by Starling (2005)

10 (2)

Chapter 12, “Information Management”

Public Administration the New Century by Greene (2005)

2 (.5)

Chapter 1, “Understanding Public Administration”

Lip Service? 7

public-administration journals barely treat computing as a topic worthy of mention. Con- sequently, there is the strong sense that we all say computing is important, but it is more lip service than actual service. If it is truly accepted as important, computing should be a common research topic in our leading journals, a common topic in our textbooks, and thus a topic on which we are working hard to build a common body of knowledge. This is not true today, 21 years since we as a profession formally recognized computing’s importance. How can there be a common theme or treatment to computing education if the textbooks and respected journals offer minuscule help or encouragement? A major way to begin correcting this dismal state is the present publication of an edited book on information technology and computer applications. This author also refers the reader to the articles that mention computers, listed at the end of this chapter. Articles going back to 1985 from the three journals are listed there.

Management Issues

A master’s in public administration signifies the recipient has the skills to manage people and tasks in an environment of both internal and external political demands and responsibili- ties. What are some key issues about which an MPA graduate should be conversant when it comes to managing in a computerized environment? First and foremost is the fact that the computerization of a task does not necessarily lead to payoffs and more than likely will underachieve compared to expectations. It is important to understand what factors affect payoffs and then address how to deal with them. The following section briefly points out factors that have been shown to influence the usefulness of computer applications.

Quality of Data

An absolute condition for achieving payoffs from computerization is that the data must be accurate. A system to control input errors and to change data must be instituted. In contrast, the length of time to get information from a computerized task does not need to be made as short as possible. Data that can be quickly retrieved are very nice, but data that many users think take too long to be retrieved will still be used if they are considered useful.

Training

Managers must devote more resources and ongoing thought to training. Based on an infor- mal survey of over 450 public employees, this was one of the top two lessons that was a constant theme from department to department, application to application, and employee to employee (Northrop, 2002). One obviously needs a training program to teach users how to use new applications. Another related consideration is having a way to train new hires in ongoing applications. In addi- tion, an initial training program should not be considered the end of training. Follow-up

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training programs or help sessions need to be routinized; training should be considered an ongoing process. Then there is the issue of who should do the training. There is no clear answer whether in- house trainers or external trainers are best or whether professional trainers or just experienced employees are best (Northrop, Kraemer, Dunkle, & King, 1994). Professional trainers bring experience in conveying application knowledge, but sometimes an employee who uses the program is better at answering questions about how to use the program within the context of the work product.

Resources

Computerized applications may be able to provide all sorts of new and valuable informa- tion to decision makers. However, the information is only useful if the organization has the resources to take full advantage of the new information. To illustrate, a computerized manpower application system can outline where and how many police officers one needs to deploy at a certain time of day across the city. If the police department has that many officers available, all is well and good. If not, whether due to limits on force size or just scheduling variations, the computerized manpower information will not help much in the fight against crime.

What One Automates

When one is automating a task or upgrading a task system, the success of the present system to do the work needs to be considered. Often an organization just automates the way they presently do a task. If, for example, the present way one tracks the names of people who should be paying child support only finds and receives payment from 20% of the list, then the automated system will likely not do better. Therefore, an evaluation of the extent to which policy goals are currently being met should be required before a task is automated or upgraded.

Who to Involve in Adoption Decisions

Oddly enough, some organizations never consult the very employees who will use the new computer application to see what they need and to get their input on the weaknesses of the old application. Employees from all levels who will use the application should be asked for their input, from line personnel to managers.

Purchasing a Customized System

Experience at the federal, state, and local level point out that purchasing an information system is rife with risks. Millions have been spent on systems that were delivered years after being promised or that never worked. Choosing a company and writing a contract should be done with much care. Consider purchasing a customized system as similar to

Lip Service? 9

choosing and working with a contractor to remodel one’s house. Payments should not be made until each stage is approved. A final payment should be held back until the developer fixes the little problems in the system. Expect to pay more if the organization changes its specifications of the system but builds into the contract a cost. A bonus can be offered if the system is finished before the agreed-upon date, and penalties can be assessed if the system is delivered after the expected date. Above all, ask for references and check them. Send a representative to other organizations that have contracted with the system-development company. Do not just call. Remember that line staff may have a different perspective than a manager; all input is relevant.

Management Support

This is the second most frequent lesson passed on by over 450 public employees (Northrop, 2002). Management must be supportive of the computer application. Staff personnel have been known to just not use the application because management has given the signal indi- rectly that they do not see the usefulness of the application. One way that management can effectively show support is to actively use the application or the generated reports. If staff members have a question about the application, management should be able to answer the question even if this only means referring the staff to someone else who can help. Manage- ment must show they care about staff knowing and effectively using the application. It is up to management to sell the usefulness of the application to employees.

Security

Security has been considered a major management concern since the early computerization security of data. If data are accessible and changeable by inappropriate personnel, major legal issues involving rights compromise the usefulness of the computerized database. Depending on the department or agency, security issues vary. For example, police field reports once entered should not be able to be changed at will by any patrol officer. Incident reports must be protected from being expunged or altered to protect the integrity of the court case from bribes or favoritism. Personnel files need to be more widely accessible to change to update job titles, benefits, and addresses. However, the extent of access to personnel information must also be limited. The security needed for some national computer databases, such as that for social security, is monumental.

Conclusion

A PA graduate needs hands-on skills in computer applications. Said graduate also needs to be conversant with the issues involved in successfully managing information technology and computer applications. Professional journals do offer useful articles on information technology, even if they are typically few in number. However, general PA textbooks are not a source for building one’s

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knowledge in this important area. Thus, edited books, like the present one, are critical to provide a common grounding in computer education for PA graduates.

References

Brudney, J., Hy, R. J., & Waugh, W. L. (1993). Building microcomputing skills in public adminis- tration graduate education: An assessment of MPA programs. Administration & Society, 25, 183-203.

Cleary, R. (1990). What do MPA programs look like? Do they do what is needed? Public Administra- tion Review, 50, 663-673.

Crewson, P. E., & Fisher, B. S. (1997). Growing older and wiser: The changing skill requirement of city administrators. Public Administration Review, 53, 380-386.

Forester, J. P., & Watson, S. S. (1994). An assessment of public administration journals: The perspective of editors on editorial board members. Public Administration Review, 54, 474-482.

Kraemer, K. L., & Northrop, A. (1989). Curriculum recommendations for public management educa- tion in computing: An update. Public Administration Review, 49, 447-453.

Lan, Z., & Cayer, J. (1994). The challenges of teaching information technology use and management in a time of information revolution. The American Review of Public Administration, 24, 207-222.

Moon, M. J. (2002). The evolution of e-government among municipalities: Rhetoric or reality? Public Administration Review, 64, 515-528.

National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA) Ad Hoc Committee on Computers in Public Management Education. (1986). Curriculum recommendations for public management education in computing. Public Administration Review, 46, 595-602.

Norris, D. G., & Moon, M. J. (2005). Advancing e-government at the grassroots: Tortoise or hare? Public Administration Review, 65, 64-75.

Northrop, A. (2002). Lessons for managing information technology in the public sector. Social Science Computer Review, 20, 194-205.

Northrop, A., Kraemer, K. L., Dunkle, D. E., & King, J. L. (1994). Management policy for greater computer benefits: Friendly software, computer literacy, or formal training. Social Science Computer Review, 12, 383-404.

Poister, T., & Streib, G. (1989). Management tools in municipal government: Trends over the past decade. Public Administration Review, 49, 240-248.