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FROM DESERT TO DESTINY: SAUDI ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP WITHIN THE SAUDI ARABIAN CULTURAL CONTEXT

A dissertation submitted

MARK CHARLES BECHTOLD

FIELDING GRADUATE UNIVERSITY

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

HUMAN AND ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEMS

This dissertation has been accepted for the faculty of Fielding Graduate University by

_____________________________________

Frederick Steier, PhD Committee Chair

Committee Members:

Richard P. Appelbaum, PhD, Faculty Reader Marie Farrell, EdD, MPH, Faculty Reader Deborah K. Machold, MA, Student Reader Abbas J. Ali, PhD, External Examiner

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From Desert to Destiny: Saudi Organizational Leadership Within the Saudi Arabian Cultural Context

Mark Charles Bechtold

Abstract

This qualitative study examines the ways in which Saudi Arabian organizational leaders and

followers describe their experience of the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of

organizational leadership within the context of the Saudi Arabian culture. A categorical

content analysis of 15 organizational leader and follower responses indicates that effective

Saudi Arabian organizational leaders are able to adopt culturally sensitive leadership styles

and organizational development approaches that serve to enable, develop, and empower

Saudi Arabian employees. The key themes informing this leadership style include

relationships, leader-follower roles, the principles of Islam, and governmental support for

business. A literature review on organizational leadership, Middle East Arab culture, Saudi

Arabian culture, Middle East Arab organizational leadership, and Saudi Arabian

organizational leadership serves as a basis for this study.

Key words: Organizational leadership, Arab organizational leadership, Saudi Arabian

organizational leadership, Middle East Arab culture, Saudi Arabian culture

iii

MARK CHARLES BECHTOLD

2013

Acknowledgements

I want to express a great deal of gratitude for many people, organizations, and circumstances

that have enabled the success of this accomplishment:

My one and only love and lifelong partner, Dawn Marie Bechtold, who, time after time,

helped me believe that I could actually accomplish this, and who sacrificed so much time,

money, and energy on my behalf. Dawn stoically supported me when I left my job to

embark on this new challenge, and left her own job to follow me across the oceans to an

unknown world to help see me through. Dawn helped to motivate me by always pushing me,

by biting her tongue on several occasions, and by quietly listening to my numerous

pontifications. Thank you, Dawn.

My daughter, Sara, and my son, Josh, both of whom offered me enthusiastic support,

encouragement, and insights, sometimes in the form of expressive dialogue on the

complicated business of understanding intercultural and intergenerational differences,

sometimes through challenging my thinking, sometimes through sharing a new book or

movie, and sometimes by simply asking how I was progressing.

My parents, Joan R. Bechtold and Dr. Warren W. Bechtold, and my sister, Linda Michaud,

and brother, Gary W. Bechtold, and the rest of my extended family and in-laws, who have

encouraged and continue to inspire me to this day, and who have given everything they can

to build in our family a strong foundation for succeeding in this and many other life

challenges.

The faculty who served on my dissertation committee, the dedicated and passionate

professors who served as learning facilitators, and my colleagues and fellow students at

Fielding Graduate University, who have contributed and continue to contribute to this truly

unique and special learning community. To my external faculty reader and noted Middle

East expert and scholar, Dr. Abbas J. Ali, whose work has informed and inspired my own.

And finally, to my research participants, the Saudi Arabian organizational leaders and

followers, who have taken me in as one of their own, and worked patiently to educate me to

the ways of their culture, their leadership, and their way of life.

Table of Contents

List of Tables and Figures

List of Appendices

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW

Purpose of the Study

Researcher Reflexivity

Significance

Conceptual Framework

Saudi Arabian Organizational Leadership

Power-Influence Leadership Theory

Trait Leadership Theory

Behavioral Leadership Theory

Situational Leadership Theory

Saudi Arabian Culture

Organizational Leadership Within the Saudi Cultural Context

Research Question

Definition of Key Terms

Summary

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Organizational Leadership

Leadership Theories

Power-Influence Theory

Trait Theory

Behavioral Theory

Role Theory

xii

xiii

vii

Adaptive-Reactive Theory

Expectancy Theory

Situational Theory

Leadership Effectiveness

Self-Reflection

Transformative Learning and Transformational Leadership

Leadership Development

Organizational Change and Development

Arab Organizational Leadership

Followers

Islam

Work Climate

Interpersonal Relationships

Respect

Decision Making

Communication

Technology

Organizational Development

Saudi Arabian Organizational Leadership

Followers

Cultural Influences on Saudi Organizational Leaders

Islam

Cultural Context

Westernization

Government

viii

Gender

Organizational Development

Culture

The Arab Middle East Culture

Collectivism

Power Distance

Uncertainty Avoidance

Preference for Achievement

Masculinity

Communication

Context

Space

Time

Arab Society and Organizational Culture

Arab Culture in the 21st Century

Industrialization

History

Islam

Middle East Economy

Global Economy

Westernization

Education

Family and Tribe

Wasta

The Saudi Arabian Cultural Context

Generations

Values

Personal Health

Islam

Government Administration

Saudi Organizational Leadership and Culture

Summary

CHAPTER THREE: METHODS

Setting

Research Design

Sample

Inclusion Criteria

Exclusion Criteria

Access to Study Participant Recruitment

Selection of Study Participants

Data Collection

Trustworthiness

Authenticity and Credibility

Scorability

Utility

Conduct of the Interviews

Pilot Study

Procedures

Access to Study Participants

Protection of Study Participants

Categorical Content Analysis

Data Management

Data Analysis

Assumptions

Limitations

Credibility and Verification

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS

The Participants

Intended and Final Sample

Participant Descriptions

Saudi Arabian Organizational Leadership

Leadership Knowledge Themes and Subthemes

Leadership Attitude Themes and Subthemes

Leadership Practices Themes and Subthemes

Saudi Arabian Cultural Context

Relationship Themes and Subthemes

Affiliation

Community

Respect

Decision Making

Geography

Work-Life Balance

Gender

Leadership and Followership Themes and Subthemes

Values

Family and Tribe

Leader and Follower Perspectives

Influences of Generations

Islam Themes and Subthemes

Leadership

Life After Death

General Influences

Government and Business Themes and Subthemes

Government Support for Business

Competition

Time

Metaphors, Symbolism, and Participant Stories

Summary of Findings

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Discussion of Findings

Summary

Recommendations for Future Research, Practice, and Theory Development

References

Appendices

Vita

101

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

114

118

123

128

140

162

xii

List of Tables and Figures

Table 1: Newer and Older Saudi Generational Differences

Table 2: Saudi Organizational Leadership Topics and Themes

Table 3: Saudi Cultural Context Topics and Themes

Table 4: Participant Demographic Information

Figure 1: Saudi Arabian Organizational Leadership Within the Saudi Arabian Cultural Context

xiii

List of Appendices

Appendix A: Recruitment Script

Appendix B: Participant Solicitation Letter

Appendix C: Informed Consent Form

Appendix D: Professional Assistance Confidentiality Form

Appendix E: Interview Protocol

Appendix F: Interview Questions

Appendix G: Saudi Organizational Leadership Topics, Themes, and Summarized Subthemes

Appendix H: Descriptive Words and Phrases of the Saudi Organizational Leadership Practices Theme

Appendix I: Saudi Arabian Cultural Context—Relationship Topic Themes and Subthemes

Appendix J: Saudi Arabian Cultural Context—Leadership and Followership Topic Themes and Subthemes

Appendix K: Saudi Arabian Cultural Context—Islam Topic Themes and Subthemes

Appendix L: Saudi Arabian Cultural Context—Government/Business Topic Themes and Subthemes

140

143

144

147

148

149

152

153

155

157

160

161

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW

Organizations operate within a cultural environment that influences how leaders

think, what leaders value and believe, and the ways in which leaders enact their roles within

their organizations (Hofstede, 1980/2001). Leaders’ effectiveness, status, and influence are

viewed as dependent upon the cultural forces acting upon them (Brodbeck et al., 2000;

House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004; Thompson & Arsalan, 2007). Arab-led

organizations need to adopt a leadership approach that builds on the inherent social and

cultural factors of the Arabian Gulf region to strengthen and develop leadership

effectiveness, rather than importing and imposing a Western philosophy and style of

management (Abdalla & Al-Homoud, 2001).

Saudi Arabia is located in the Middle East, bounded on three sides by water and the

fourth by desert (Ali, 2009). An important trade center for many centuries, the discovery of

oil in Saudi Arabia in the late 1930s gradually led to the replacement of the traditional

Bedouin, merchant, and fishing vocations (Ali, 2009). Saudi Arabia has since emerged as a

global economic power, producing a quarter of the world’s oil supply (Mabro, 2006). The

rise in oil prices in the 1970s served to improve the country’s economy through the rapid

accumulation of wealth, resulting in large investments in industry and infrastructure, and

subsequent modernization (Ali, 2009).

Modernization in Saudi Arabia is also being driven by the fact that 50% of Saudis are

under the age of 18 (Al-Dossary, While, & Barriball, 2008), and by continuous exposure to

the influences of media and technology. Another factor is the size of an expatriate workforce

that comprises 51% of the total (Elamin & Alomaim, 2011). Within this changing context,

Saudi Arabia is characterized as a conservative country informed by Islamic teaching and

traditional Arabic values (Dadfar, Norberg, Helander, Schuster, & Zufferey, 2003) derived

from a tribal existence in a harsh desert climate (Ali, 2009).

Leadership can be defined as an individual’s influence over a group of people toward

achievement of a common goal (Lussier & Archua, 2007). The effectiveness of

organizational leadership is contingent upon how well leadership behaviors match cultural

norms (Ali, 2009; House, Wright, & Aditya, 1997). Amidst limited research on ways in

which Saudi Arabian organizational leaders and their employees describe their experience of

organizational leadership within the cultural context of Saudi Arabia, this research adds to

the body of knowledge on this important topic.

Purpose of the Study

This study explores the ways in which Saudi Arabian organizational leaders and

followers describe their experience of organizational leadership knowledge, attitudes, and

practices within the Saudi Arabian cultural context. My intention is to add to the body of

knowledge on the phenomenon of Saudi organizational leadership within the Saudi cultural

context through the collection and a content analysis of a series of self-reported experiences.

From the perspective of intercultural communications, this study also works to clarify

whether the key terms presented in the conceptual framework are identified uniformly and

described by the participants.

Researcher Reflexivity

My current work in Saudi Arabia as a human resources and organizational

development consultant is a further extension of my passion for experiencing, learning from,

and contributing to organizations within different cultural contexts. As a scholar-

practitioner, I situate myself as a researcher within the postmodernist tradition, orientated

within the organic worldview. The cultures of inquiry most important and relevant to me are

those that contrast to the positivist, quantitative, and functionalist-based research approach.

Understanding social systems and impacting social change are contextual experiences

dependent upon both the research subject and the researcher, and the intersection of their

personal histories, paradigms, ethics, politics, and interests, as opposed to a gravitational pull

toward a common truth (Bentz & Shapiro, 1998).

As a researcher, I am able to uncover my own biases, assumptions, and ideologies by

understanding how phenomena appear to others in their own consciousness. This qualitative

culture of inquiry does not explain why things are the way they are, but rather what things

are. Insight is gained by comparing the subjective experiences of different participants by

noting commonalities and/or differences (Bentz & Shapiro, 1998). To address the issue of

my own biases, prior to this research project I completed an exercise using personal

reflexivity in conjunction with feedback from other colleagues involved in academic research

at a doctoral level. This exercise is ongoing, and has resulted in the identification of my

racial and ethnic identity, institutional, educational, and social influences. I have been able to

organize my positions and thinking on cultural considerations, including equality, privilege,

prejudice, and mental models, to position myself most effectively within the Saudi Arabian

cultural context. I recognize, as a researcher and scholar-practitioner, that the richest

opportunities lie in our relationships with others based on differences rather than similarities.

The process of deciphering culture provides for the building of theory to understand

and address issues associated with culture (Schein, 2004). As a researcher, an understanding

of the Saudi Arabian culture is critical to understanding the experience of Saudi Arabian

organizational leadership (Ali, 1993, 2009). My experience living and working in Saudi

Arabia with Saudi nationals has enabled me to gain important insights into the Saudi Arabian

culture, to recognize and reflect on my own cultural biases and assumptions as a researcher,

and thus to limit the intrusion of my frames of reference, biases, and assumptions while

interpreting and analyzing descriptions of Saudi leadership practices, knowledge, and

attitudes within the Saudi cultural context.

Significance

Driven by the predominance of the oil and gas industry, the importance of effective

organizational leadership in the Middle East is considerable. Global demand for oil is

estimated to be 89.9 million barrels per day (mb/d) in 2012, with only a slight dip in 2011 of

1.3 mb/d (International Energy Agency, 2012). The global economy is dependent upon the

transportation sector, and oil is the strategic commodity as the dominant supplier of fuel.

Many countries rely on the importation of oil products to produce their own exports and to

maintain healthy economies. Saudi Arabia has approximately 25% of the world’s oil

reserves, and the steady supply of oil plays a key role in the eradication of world hunger and

poverty, and serves to support technological advances and geopolitical interests

(International Energy Agency, 2012; Mabro, 2006).

Economic growth in the Gulf region has averaged 6% over several years, driven by

the strengthening of the oil and gas industry in the Middle East (International Energy

Agency, 2012). As a result, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has been experiencing rapid

economic growth and development in all business sectors including retail, banking, consumer

goods, healthcare, education, construction, engineering, and manufacturing.

Within this economic context, this study examined Saudi Arabian organizational

leadership with a view toward providing insight into the described experiences of the

knowledge, attitudes, and practices of Saudi Arabian organizational leaders from both leader

and follower perspectives. Participants in the study and organizational leaders in the

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia may benefit from the establishment of a relevant benchmark for

reflecting on current leadership knowledge, attitudes, and practices within a rich and complex

cultural context. Expatriate business leaders working with multinational corporations may

benefit from this study through new insights into effective Saudi leadership practices, and

may have the opportunity to fine-tune their level of cultural sensitivity when conducting

business within Saudi Arabia.

A sociological approach to leadership research suggests that ownership of leadership

lies beyond the leader in a leader-follower relationship (Ali, 2009; Bennis, 1994; Drath,

2001; Schein, 2004). Within this relationship, clarification of attitudes and priorities toward

and elements of effective leadership in the past may be important in the identification of the

effective future leaders. An understanding of these attributes provides the opportunity for

Saudi Arabian leaders to identify how their vision of leadership is being enacted, and the role

they can play in developing and implementing this vision in the future. Publishing this

research serves to advance organizational leadership knowledge in Saudi Arabia and thereby

contributes to narrowing the gap of cultural and organizational misunderstanding in existing

literature pertaining to Arabian leadership effectiveness and evolution.

Finally, international leaders may be able to utilize knowledge and insights gained

from this research to enhance Middle East and Western synergistic relationships. In our

continuously shrinking international community, a collaborative approach for dealing with

pressing issues related to business, political, economic, environmental, and peace initiatives

is in the best interest of all stakeholders.

Conceptual Framework

This study is informed by two areas of literature: Saudi Arabian organizational

leadership and Saudi Arabian culture. A description of the literature is provided below and

detailed in Chapter 2, the Literature Review.

Saudi Arabian Organizational Leadership

In this study’s framework, the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of Saudi Arabian

organizational leadership are viewed within the context of the Saudi Arabian culture from

four theoretical perspectives:

• power-influence (Ajarimah, 2001; Ali, 2009; Ali, Camp, & Gibbs, 2000; Bjerke & Al-Meer, 1993; French & Raven, 1959; Greenleaf, 1977; McClelland, 1975; Yukl, 2006);

• trait (Bass, 1990; Stogdill, 1984; Zaccaro, 2007);

• behavioral (Ajarimah, 2001; Al-Faleh, 1998; Ali, 1990, 1996, 2009; Bjerke & Al- Meer, 1993; Brodbeck et al., 2000; Chhokbar, Brodbeck, & House, 2007; Cunningham & Sarayrah, 1994; Hall & Hall, 1990; House et al., 2004; Hunt & Al- Twaijri, 1996; Jreisat, 1990; Kabasakal & Bodur, 2002; Khan, 2005; Muna, 2003; Thompson & Arsalan, 2007; Weir & Hutchins, 2005); and

• situational (Avolio, 2007; Hersey & Blanchard, 1977; Yukl, 2006).

Power-influence leadership theory. In this study’s framework, the power-influence

realm of leadership is described as the ways in which leaders use power and how power is

derived. Leadership power is defined as exercising influence over others to control or

change either attitudes or behaviors (Yukl, 2006). The exercise of power is dynamic and

dependent upon the relationship between the leader and the follower (Ali et al., 2000;

Greenleaf, 1977; Yukl, 2006). Changes in leader power result from changes in follower

needs or changes in the leader’s ability to satisfy follower needs. Leadership theories diverge

on how leaders influence followers, whether leadership occurs through coercive or other

tactics, and how leadership can be categorized (Vroom & Jago, 2007).

Trait leadership theory. Trait leadership theory is described in this study as the

personal characteristics of leaders that include their innate abilities, skills, and personal

attributes which serve to influence leadership behaviors (Bass, 1990; Stogdill, 1984; Zaccaro,

2007). According to this theory, great leaders are born, not raised (Carlyle, 1841, as cited by

L. Lewis, personal communication [unpublished Fielding Graduate University doctoral

program study guide], 2006), and a leader’s inner qualities significantly influence the

leader’s effectiveness. In different situations, certain leadership traits, including a leader’s

decisiveness, confidence, and interpersonal skills have been shown to correlate with leader

effectiveness (Kouzes & Posner, 2002; Yukl, 2006).

Behavioral leadership theory. In this study, behavioral leadership theory is

described as the typology of behaviors demonstrated by a leader within various situations

(Hemphill & Coons, 1957; Yukl, 2006). A leader’s role is determined by the expectations of

those with whom he or she works, and by the influences of a number of organizational

macrovariables and internal microvariables (Yukl, 2006), or themes and subthemes. For

example, a macrovariable to which a leader would need to adapt is the structure of weekly

board meetings whereby the leader is expected to report on the status of projects using formal

PowerPoint presentations. An example of a microvariable to which a leader would react is

the level of employee experience and capability.

Situational leadership theory. In this study, situational leadership is described as

the environmental and relational factors influencing leadership behavior (McLaurin, 2008;

Yukl, 1971, 2006). Different situational variables or themes bring out certain leadership

attributes (Yukl, 2006; Zaccaro, 2007), and leaders develop leadership competency over time

through the management of changing situational variables (Burns, 1978; Yukl, 2006) or

themes. Situational variables or themes are viewed as either intervening, such as a leader

coaching a subordinate, or as moderating, such as the effort or skill-level of subordinates

(Yukl, 2006; Zaccaro, 2007). Environmental factors influencing leadership include the

influences of religion (Ali, 2007; Hall & Hall, 1990), the cultural context (Al-Dossary et al.,

2008; Al-Faleh, 1998; Bjerke & Al-Meer, 1993; Brodbeck et al., 2000; Elamin & Alomaim,

2011; House et al., 2004; Hunt & Al-Twaijri, 1996), and modernization (Ali, 2009; Assad,

2007; Atiyyah, 1993; Khan, 2005).

Saudi Arabian Culture

In this study’s conceptual framework, the Saudi Arabian cultural context is described

as the community of participation resulting from a homogeneous Islamic culture (Al-Twaijri,

Al-Dukhayyil, & Al-Muhaiza, 1994); a highly collective society (Ajarimah, 2001); a strong

family-based orientation (Chhokbar et al., 2007); prevalent use of high-context, narrative

communication (Hall & Hall, 1990); and a strong preference for certainty over uncertainty,

with a tendency to place more importance on relationships over tasks (Kabasakal & Bodur,

2002). Gender roles are clear; assertiveness and ambition are valued; and the virtues of

aiding others, modesty, and solidarity are espoused (Chhokbar et al., 2007).

The evolution of Saudi culture is influenced by the growth of consumerism resulting

from oil wealth, demographic shifts in a rapidly growing population, modernization, the

extensive use of an expatriate workforce, and the influence of the Western world. The

culture of consumerism in this study is described as the acquisition of material possessions

that leads to a lifestyle of contentment, positional power, and success (Assad, 2007).

In a country with a landmass of 2.25 million km², the population of Saudi Arabia is

over 24,573,000, with close to half under the age of 18 (Al-Dossary et al., 2008; Elamin &

Alomaim, 2011). Technological advances, mass media, modern communications,

urbanization, the growth of multinational corporations, and rising imports are contributing to

the modernization of Saudi Arabia (Assad, 2007). In Saudi Arabia’s workforce, 51% are

expatriates, and 12.5% of all Saudis who hold jobs are women (Elamin & Alomaim, 2011).

The majority of jobs in Saudi Arabia are in the public sector (Madhi & Barrientos, 2003).

Beginning in the 1950s, Western educational opportunities, oil wealth, the rise in

imports of worldwide goods to meet the needs of Saudi Arabia’s growing population, and the

influx of new businesses and oil and gas industry jobs filled by expatriates have significantly

influenced the culture of Saudi Arabia (Hunt & Al-Twaijri, 1996). As a result of these

changes, the traditional Saudi social system, consisting of clearly defined norms and values

guiding interpersonal relationships and conduct, is gradually shifting from a collectivist

society to a more Westernized, individualist society (Ali, 2009; Assad, 2007; Atiyyah, 1993;

Yamani, 2000). The ruling monarchy in Saudi Arabia recognizes that change is inevitable,

and the challenge is not necessarily to Westernize, but rather to modernize in order to

preserve the best of the traditional Saudi culture (Khan, 2005; Yamani, 2000).

Understanding Saudi organizational leadership within the Saudi cultural context is a

necessary challenge in light of rapid globalization. Thorough investigation of current

practices, knowledge, and attitudes of Saudi Arabian organizational leaders serves to address

this challenge. Figure 1 illustrates this study’s conceptual framework.

Saudi Arabian Organizational

Leadership -Knowledge -Attitudes -Practices

Saudi Arabian Cultural Context

Power-Driven Leadership

Theory

Developmental Style -Interacting -Flexible/adaptable -Not placing blame -Relationships over tasks -Learning/growing -Facilitator -Challenging -Listens -Delegates authority -Transformative/innovative

Behavioral Leadership

Theory

Situational Leadership

Theory

Trait Leadership

Theory

Relationships -Affiliation -Community -Respect -Decision making -Geography -Work-life balance -Gender -Communication

Leadership & Followership

-Values -Family & tribe -Leaders -Followers -Influence of

generations

Islam -Leadership -Life after death -General

influences

Government & Business

-Government support

-Competition -Time

Power-Driven Style -Tasks over relationships -Structure -Documentation -Deadlines -Resolve problems -Authoritative -Detail-oriented -Superior -Does not know people -Firm even when wrong -Listens -Delegates authority

Arab Cultural Context

Organizational Leadership Within the Saudi Cultural Context

The cultural context within which leadership is enacted has a direct effect on

organizational leadership thought processes, practices, status, and influence (Brodbeck et al.,

2000; House et al., 2004; Thompson & Arsalan, 2007). Leadership practices emerge as

leaders incorporate followers’ needs and desires in a way that builds on the influences of the

collective sociocultural community (Amis, Slack, & Hinings, 2004; Schein, 2004).

Both large and small organizations in Saudi Arabia operate within a strong set of

cultural norms and guidelines dictated by both Islamic doctrine and the desert environment,

historically impacting every facet of Saudi Arab life (Ali, 2009). These influences have led

to various social practices that dictate roles, traditions, and relationships that inform familial

structures, and attitudes, norms, practices, and beliefs about work, family, tribes, and

organizations. A manager’s organizational leadership style and approach within the Saudi

Arabian cultural context closely resemble the ways in which the leader interacts with family

members, with a strong awareness of positional status within the hierarchical structure of the

organization (Ali, 2009).

How a leader builds on existing cultural factors that influence follower behavior can

serve to meet follower needs, and thus enhance leadership effectiveness (Schein, 2004).

Organizational change and development are dependent upon the leader’s ability to ensure

that measures, incentives, and the involvement of employees are addressed as critical factors

(Jreisat, 1990). More recent research supports these findings (Ali, 2009; Thompson &

Arsalan, 2007) and reinforces the idea that leaders understand the cultural context that

informs the application of these factors.

This study focuses on the described experience of leadership from the perspective of

both Saudi Arabian leaders and nonleaders within various organizations in terms of

leadership knowledge, attitudes, and practices, and the extent of the influences of the Saudi

Arabian culture on organizational leadership.

Research Question

Based on this background and conceptual framework, this study’s research question

is, “In what ways do Saudi Arabian organizational members describe their experience of

Saudi Arabian organizational leadership knowledge, attitudes, and practices within the Saudi

Arabian cultural context?”

Definition of Key Terms

Key terms for this study are defined as follows:

• Cultural context is defined as the set of accepted, adopted, and prevailing norms, practices, thinking, and ways of living within a collective group of people within a given geographical area. Cultural context themes and subthemes were assessed herein through analysis of findings as provided by study participants.

• Leadership attitudes are the beliefs, values, philosophy, and principles that result in

affect, emotions, and feelings that inform leadership behaviors, assessed herein by an analysis of participant descriptions in response to interview questions about their experience of organizational leadership.

• Leadership knowledge is the culmination of experience, intuition, and wherewithal

that results in an understanding of a phenomenon and higher levels of insight for practical and beneficial application, assessed herein by an analysis of participant descriptions in response to interview questions about their experience of organizational leadership.

• Leadership practices are defined as the set of demonstrated and observable

behaviors and actions as reported by participants in this study.

• Organizational followers are individuals who have no one directly reporting to them on the organizational chart.

• Organizational leaders are individuals who have one or more direct reports on the

organizational chart.

Summary

In many countries, the unique challenge of preserving a traditional way of life based

on a clear set of religious principles within a dramatically changing environment is not new.

What sets apart Saudi Arabia is the rapid rate at which this challenge has been brought forth.

It is incumbent upon the leadership of organizations to understand the issues associated with

this challenge, and to take action that builds on the inherent cultural strengths of the

collective Saudi culture to best meet the challenge of modernizing without Westernizing (Ali,

2009; Khan, 2005).

To meet this challenge, leaders must reflect on the nature of leadership in the Saudi

Arabian organization of the 21st century and gain more understanding of this role within the

Saudi Arabian cultural context. This research builds on existing data about Saudi Arabia and

organizational leadership, and the results of this qualitative study broaden the knowledge in

this area and serve as a basis for further research to identify and target leadership strengths

and opportunities for the future.

The question of Saudi Arabian organizational leadership within the Saudi Arabian

cultural context sheds light on a rich and powerful entity whose emerging identity informs

every facet of the global economic and political picture. It behooves practitioners and

academics alike to study this evolving phenomenon with rigor in order to reap and sow the

learnings for the future benefit of humankind.

In Chapter 2 of this dissertation, I review the extant data and literature on Saudi

organizational leadership and Saudi culture, and summarize the literature that speaks to the

relationship and intersection of these two symbiotic variables. In Chapter 3, I share my

research and analysis methods. In Chapter 4, I present the findings of my research, and in

Chapter 5, I provide conclusions and suggestions for additional research.

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This literature review informs the research question, “How do Saudi Arabian

organizational members describe their experience of Saudi Arabian organizational leadership

knowledge, attitudes, and practices within the Saudi Arabian cultural context?” The first part

of this chapter comprises an exploration of the literature on leadership theories, as well as

literature on Middle East and Saudi Arabian organizational leadership. The second section

presents a review of Arab Middle East culture and Saudi Arabian culture, while the third

section addresses literature on the relationship between Saudi Arabian culture and Saudi

Arabian leadership. This literature review serves to position and inform the study’s research

question, and synthesizes the existing research on Saudi Arabian organizational leadership

within the context of the Saudi Arabian culture.

Organizational Leadership

Leadership is universally described as the process of influencing others toward a

common goal through a change process, and as dependent upon the traits, cognitive

processes, and situational and contextual variables acting upon the leader (Lussier & Archua,

2007; Vroom & Jago, 2007). Yet leadership theories diverge on how the influencing process

occurs, whether through coercive or other tactics, and how leadership can be categorized

(Bennis, 2007; Vroom & Jago, 2007). Leadership, specifically within the context of a

business environment, influences and is influenced by the culture in which leadership

behavior occurs (Schein, 2004). Leadership practices emerge as leaders incorporate

followers’ needs and desires in a way that builds on the influences of the collective

sociocultural community (Ali, 2009).

An understanding of the origins and characteristics of effective leadership has been a

topic of study since the days of the ancient Greek, Egyptian, and Chinese civilizations (Ali,

2009, 2011; Gibbons, 1987; Metcalf & Mimouni, 2012; Muna, 2003). Over time, it has

become clear that leadership knowledge, attitudes, and practices are contingent upon various

situational, contextual, and developmental factors, leading to the development of several

leadership theories (Gibbons, 1987; Lord, Brown, Harvey, & Hall, 2001).

The term leadership was first used in 1300 AD (Stogdill, 1984), and in broad terms

can be defined as an observable differentiation within one person from others (Yukl, 2006).

More contemporary definitions suggest that leadership is the process of developing a

relationship within organizations whereby people are able to fulfill a common purpose

through the collective achievement of common goals and objectives (Kouzes & Posner,

2002); an orientation to either task or relationship (Judge, Piccolo, & Iles, 2004); and the

creation of change to achieve organizational objectives by influencing other people (Lussier

& Archua, 2007).

Leadership Theories

Universal leadership theories suggest that certain aspects of leadership are true in any

situation, whereby contingent leadership theories posit that aspects of leadership occur only

in certain situations (Yukl, 2006). Leadership is influenced by external contingencies that

include organizational structure, strategy, technology, tasks, position, culture, and the

relationship between the follower and the leader, while internal contingencies include

capability, level of motivation, personal qualities, and cultural orientation (Avolio, 2007).

As introduced in Chapter 1, universal leadership theories can be categorized as

power-influence, trait, behavioral, or situational (Yukl, 2006). Alternative frameworks for

classifying leadership research have also been offered, including biological, psychological,

competency/skill-based, and sociological (L. Lewis, personal communication [unpublished

Fielding Graduate University doctoral program study guide], 2006).

Power-influence theory. Research within the power-influence realm of leadership

focuses on determining how leaders use power and how it is derived. Power can be defined

as a “dynamic variable that depends on the relationship between agent and target person(s)”

(Yukl, 2006, p. 18). Within the power-influence framework, different forms of leadership

influence have been identified based on the change in either attitude or behavior brought

about within the follower by the leader’s actions. Changes in leader power result from

changes in follower needs or changes in the leader’s ability to satisfy follower needs (Yukl,

2006).

Yukl (2006) identified 11 forms of influence, including “legitimate request,

instrumental compliance, coercion, rational persuasion, rational faith, inspirational appeal,

indoctrination, information distortion, situational engineering, personal identification, and

decision identification” (p. 11). French and Raven (1959) identified five power bases:

reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, expert power, and referent power.

The exercise of power is dynamic and dependent upon the relationship between the

leader and the follower (Ali & Amirshahi, 2000; Greenleaf, 1977; Yukl, 2006). Leadership

power is focused on exercising influence over others; the source of power is either internal or

external, suggesting four categories to express the power drive: reliance on the power of

others, reliance on the power of oneself, reliance on control of others, and reliance on a

higher authority to legitimize power (McClelland, 1975).

Studies linking leader effectiveness with personal and positional power are limited by

measurement validity, participant bias, and the impact of intervening variables including

persistence, commitment, and compliance (Yukl, 2006). Power is generally legitimated by

leaders when their acts are for the benefit of those other than themselves (McClelland, 1975).

In general, research on power is more conclusive regarding how leaders influence followers

rather than on the sources of power (Yukl, 2006).

Social exchange theory speaks to the dynamic of how expert power is gained or lost

by the leader, suggesting that expert power may be preserved, for example, by projecting

expertise, maintaining credibility, maintaining confidence in crisis situations, staying

technically aware, being receptive to follower interests, and/or preserving the self-esteem of

followers (Yukl, 2006). Referent power is most dependent upon leader-follower relations,

while reward power derives from the use of rewards as incentives for desired behavior.

Reward power can boost referent power if consistently used in conjunction with leader

recognition of follower contributions (Yukl, 2006).

Coercive power is the use of punishment and discipline to influence followers—

historically the most used of all power sources, and most effective as a legitimate part of a

social system when applied on a limited scale (Yukl, 2006). At its worst, coercive power

dehumanizes people, instilling fear and self-doubt as means to ensure compliance.

Although managers with high power needs are typically driven to motivate others, a

high need for power is viewed negatively in all societies, in part because people are generally

suspicious of those with high power needs (McClelland, 1975). Charismatic leaders are

effective because they enable others to feel powerful through experience, and inspire their

followers through goals which are important to them (Greenleaf, 1977; McClelland, 1975).

Trait theory. Research on leadership has generally focused narrowly on how

different situations influence some leader traits, how leaders attempt to influence follower

attitudes and behaviors, and how leader traits correlate with leader influence (Yukl, 2006).

Trait leadership theories focus on the innate, personal attributes and critical skills of leaders,

identifying traits that are characteristic of leaders and followers, and traits that influence

leadership behavior (Bass, 1990; Stogdill, 1984; Zaccaro, 2007). These trait theories of

leadership suggest that there are inner qualities important to leadership effectiveness in

different situations. One of the original leadership theories within the trait-based or

biological research framework is known as the great man theory (Carlyle, 1841, as cited by

L. Lewis, personal communication [unpublished Fielding Graduate University doctoral

program study guide], 2006). This theory suggested that leaders are born, not made. This

theory continues to be of influence in the current business world, whereby successful leaders

are credited with inheriting exceptional leadership attributes as opposed to acquiring them

over time.

Despite the popularity of these types of theories, research provides little evidence that

certain leadership characteristics are critical to effective leadership, but rather that certain

traits have a higher correlation to leadership effectiveness depending upon a leader’s

situation (Yukl, 2006). For example, leaders who exhibit charismatic behaviors may be

ineffective in organizations where experienced employees are in highly formalized jobs with

routine tasks and clear performance standards. However, general traits most characteristic of

leaders who are successful include confidence, dependability, adaptability, decisiveness,

interpersonal proficiency, and assertiveness (Kouzes & Posner, 2002; Yukl, 2006).

Earlier research on the relationship between personal leadership traits and leadership

effectiveness identified certain traits as more characteristic of leaders than nonleaders

(Stogdill, 1984), but the situation dictates their relative importance (Zaccaro, 2007). More

recent research indicates that trait theory does not differentiate between leaders and followers

(Zaccaro, 2007). Of more importance than the leader’s pattern of personal traits is the

relationship of leader and followers in terms of relevant interests (Stogdill, 1984). Research

on leadership trait theory has also found that a combination of personality and situational

variables is responsible for the behavioral complexity of leaders (Yukl, 2006; Yukl & Van

Fleet, 1992; Zaccaro, Kemp, & Bader, 2004)

Assessment centers can be valid predictors of a manager’s leadership potential (Huck,

1973). In some large organizations, supervisors, managers, and executives participate in an

assessment of their capabilities to determine individual strengths and developmental needs

early in their careers. To accomplish this, the assessment center measures the inherent

strength of various traits through a series of tests, interviews, and observations. This enables

organizations to replace managers who are lost through attrition by developing a more

consistent flow of candidates through a leadership pipeline.

Thus, research on leadership has generally focused narrowly on how different

situations influence some leader traits, how leaders attempt to influence follower attitudes

and behaviors, and if or how leader traits correlate with leader influence (Yukl, 2006).

Behavioral theory. Research emphasizing behaviors seeks description of the

typology of leaders in terms of patterns and behaviors (Hemphill & Coons, 1957; Yukl,

2006). Behavioral theories focus on leadership behaviors that result from events and

situational forces (Yukl, 2006). The link between these determinants and the behavior of

leaders can be understood using role theory (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964;

Pfeffer & Salancik, 1975), adaptive-reactive theory (Osborn & Hunt, 1975), and expectancy

theory (Nebecker & Mitchell, 1974; Yukl, 2006).

Role theory. Role theory describes leadership behavior as driven by the expectations

of those with whom the leader works. The leader’s perception of these expectations

determines the leader response, and these role requirements are communicated verbally and

in writing from both subordinates and supervisors (Yukl, 2006).

Adaptive-reactive theory. Adaptive-reactive theory suggests that leadership behavior

is most influenced by universal macrovariables within an organizational context, such as

technology, structure, and the environment. Microvariables such as follower characteristics,

organizational tasks, and attitudes also affect leadership behavior. Leaders adapt to

macrovariables, react to microvariables, and thus modify behavior based on constraints. This

theory posits that leadership behaviors are based on the extent of a leader’s discretion within

a given context. Less stable environments result in higher internal operating uncertainty,

increasing the leader’s dependency on external variables and reducing discretionary behavior

(Yukl, 2006).

Expectancy theory. Expectancy theory proposes that leadership behavior results

from consequences that can be expected. Thus, leadership behavior can be predicted based

on projected outcomes (Nebecker & Mitchell, 1974; Yukl, 2006). Task-oriented behaviors,

such as planning, scheduling, coordinating, and supporting the work of subordinates, were

found to be instrumental for efficiency, while relation-oriented behaviors, including the

provision of reinforcing and constructive feedback, open communication, recognition of

desired behaviors, and performance outcomes, were found to correlate with positive

relationships between leaders and followers (Dorfman, Hanges, & Brodbeck, 2004; Judge,

Piccolo, & Ilies, 2004; Yukl, 2006). Challenges to these and similar study findings include

the direction of causality, whether the results can be generalized to leaders in other situations,

and the degree to which the success of a group’s performance influences follower response

on questionnaires (Yukl, 2006).

Situational theory. Situational leadership theories consider the relational and

environmental factors influencing leadership (McLaurin, 2008; Yukl, 1971, 2006).

Leadership skills most contributory to the various situations become more proximal in

leaders—typically knowledge, and interpersonal and problem-solving skills (Yukl, 2006;

Zaccaro, 2007). Other leadership attributes are brought to bear depending on different

situations (Yukl, 2006).

Situational variables can take the place of or complement a leader’s behavior, and are

classified as either subordinate characteristics, task characteristics, or organizational

characteristics (Burns, 1978). By applying one or more substitutes for effective leadership,

organizational managers depend upon situational variables such as organizational

formalization of methodologically invariant tasks as part of an autocratic leadership

approach, while more appropriate substitutes include the provision of intrinsically satisfying

tasks, task feedback, group cohesiveness, and advisory/staff support (Burns, 1978).

Managing situational variables has been found to develop leadership attributes over time

through experience and practice, contributing to leadership competency (Yukl, 2006).

Contingency theory suggests that leadership is dependent upon the individual

characteristics and behaviors as well as the situation (McLaurin, 2008). “Situational

determinants become more salient for those leader attributes that are more proximal to

performance” (Zaccaro, 2007, p. 10). The multiple-linkage model classifies situational

variables that modify leader behavior as either intervening or moderator (Yukl, 2006).

Intervening variables compel leadership behaviors such as providing direction, delegation, or

coaching. Intervening variable modifiers include subordinate effort, subordinate role clarity,

subordinate task skills, resources and support services, task-role organization, group

cohesiveness and teamwork, and leader-subordinate relations (Yukl, 2006). Situational

variables which serve as environmental moderators include structure and role formalization,

reward systems, and the intrinsic motivation of subordinates. Both intervening and

moderator variables directly or indirectly affect subordinate performance, and thus influence

leadership actions (Yukl, 2006). Despite the application of leadership attributes in various

situations, environmental factors such as organizational structure, collective expertise, group

cohesion, and degree of support can constrain the success of the leader (Kerr & Jermier,

1978).

Leadership Effectiveness

In this study, I examine the knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding leadership

in the Saudi environment. In this regard, leadership effectiveness is viewed in terms of

participants’ understanding of these factors. Understanding of the environmental and

personal factors comprising the social context provides insight into behavior (Lewin, 1946).

Leadership effectiveness is contingent upon the leader’s ability to self-reflect on what has

been done and its effects (Sternberg & Vroom, 2002); such self-reflection contributes to

more appropriate responses over time. Various situations require leadership flexibility in

style and approach (Zaccaro, 2007). Effective leaders become self-authoring, act with

integrity, passion, and vision, and build trust by modeling what they wish others to become

(Bennis, 1994). Effective leaders are continuous, self-directed learners and, through their

interactions with others, work hard at unlearning as a precursor to true learning (Bennis,

1994).

Effective leadership is also known as supportive leadership, characterized by a

genuine caring for employee concerns, sensitivity to employee needs, and the building of a

positive work climate and relationships (Chen, Chen, & Meindl, 1998; House et al., 2004).

Effective leaders demonstrate attributes including cognitive capacities, personal disposition,

motives and values, sociality (the state of being sociable), problem solving, and self-

regulation (Bass, 1990; Kent, 2004; Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs, & Fleishman, 2000;

Yukl, 2006; Zaccaro & Klimoski, 2001).

Attainment of individual and organizational goals results from transformational and

charismatic leadership, which can be defined as motivating employees “beyond expected

levels by activating higher order needs, fostering a climate of trust, and inducing them to

transcend their self-interest for the organization’s sake” (Eisenbach, Watson, & Rajnandini,

1999, p. 764), leading to more desirable performance outcomes. Higher levels of quality

exchange between leaders and their direct reports results in stronger relationships based on

trust, loyalty, and cooperation, while lower quality levels result in more transactional

relationships.

Self-reflection. Self-reflection is a key ingredient of effective leadership. Becoming

conscious of the enactment of self-agency takes introspection, insightfulness, and deference

(Thompson & Arsalan, 2007). “When [leaders] forego [their] own thoughts and opinions,

they end up coming back to [the leaders] from the mouths of others” (Bennis, 1994, p. 105).

Self-reflection should occur not only when leaders falter and naturally contemplate their

failures, but when they experience success as well. Yet “most [leaders] are shaped more by

negative experiences than by positive” (p. 116).

Gaining access to and then altering the leader’s underlying beliefs through critical

self-reflection on one’s assumptions and archetypes ideally occurs during the process of

discourse (Habermas, 1971; Pearce & Cronin, 1980). Characteristics of this ideal state

include the ability to demonstrate understanding, empathy, and objectivity. In educational

settings, the learning facilitator typically focuses on creating learning experiences,

applications, and suggestions for this critical reflection and discourse to more readily occur

(Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Leadership coaching is also an avenue

supporting reflexivity.

Transformative learning and transformational leadership. Transformative

learning is another key element of leader effectiveness, based on the concepts of experience,

reflection, discourse, and action (Mezirow, 1981). Learning will not necessarily result in

transformative thinking if an experience serves only to reinforce pre-existing paradigms, in

which case the learning is then limited to reinforcement of previously held beliefs and

knowledge through a transactional learning process. For transformative learning to occur,

both contextual and dialectical factors are important. Context is formed by political, cultural,

social, and economic factors which help to explain the world in which one operates;

awareness of contextual influences provides insight into thinking patterns. Dialectical

thinking enables critical thinking, reflection, and reframing of life’s challenges, polarities,

and contradictions (Merriam et al., 2007; Thompson & Arsalan, 2007).

Transformational leadership is a leadership style that leads to profound shifts in

people’s ways of knowing (Freire, 1973; Mezirow, 1981). Transformational leadership

theories differentiate between transformational and transactional leadership (Burns, 1978).

Transformational leadership is based on the premise that a leader’s effectiveness is

contingent upon the leader-follower relationship. This relationship is based on engagement

and interaction that leads to the mutual pursuit a higher purpose and motivation, a journey

which results in a transformation of not just actions, but the thoughts informing these

behaviors (Mezirow, 1978, 1981). Transformational leaders must also generate and sustain

trust through honesty, competence through credibility, and inspiration through energy and

excitement (Kouzes & Pozner, 2002). Positive leadership is about caring for people and

helping them to formulate and achieve their goals (McClelland, 1975). In contrast,

transactional leadership is concerned with the accomplishment of organizational goals and

tasks rather than the relationship of the leader with followers (Mezirow, 1978).

Leadership development. Developmental interventions can target both distal and

proximal attributes. Distal attributes are those considered foundational, including cognitive

and social intelligence, whereas proximal attributes include particular competencies which

are more responsive to developmental interventions (Zaccaro, Wood, & Herman, 2006).

Distal attributes can mitigate the development of proximal attributes, depending upon an

individual’s motivations, metacognitive skills, and goal orientation (Zaccaro et al., 2006).

Organizational Change and Development

The context created within an organization’s evolving life cycle has an important

impact on leadership. Younger organizations are in need of a leadership style that creates

conditions for stimulating product innovation and development (Kanter, 1983). In more

mature organizations, the primary focus of leadership is on improving organizational

performance, operating efficiency, and cost savings. In light of the current operational

environment characterized by a scarcity of resources, reduced profitability, and reduced

growth, these mature organizations must reinvent themselves, recycling back to the

leadership practices of their organizations’ younger years, typified by innovation, open

communication, integration, and alignment.

Changing internal and external contexts require current business leaders to realize

that the simple linear, logical, and sequential practices characteristic of more mature

organizations have been replaced by more complex, turbulent, ambiguous, and spontaneous

organizational practices in a rapidly modernizing world (Ali, 2009; Bennis, 1994).

Organizational leaders must support innovative thinking and practices among their followers,

particularly challenging in more traditional organizations, “especially where there has been a

tradition of subordinating individuals to the routines and rules of bureaucratic systems”

(Kanter, 1983, p. 23).

In the 21st century, companies with the highest long-term rates of financial growth

and profitability will be those with leaders who foster progressive human resource practices

(Kanter, 1983). Companies with innovative, collaborative practices for involving their

people from all levels and perspectives are more apt to continuously innovate, solve

problems, and offer ideas for improvement. Integrative thinking among employees is

required, in which the implications of problems are viewed from a wider perspective in order

to encourage multiple viewpoints, innovative ideas, and the sharing of information across

boundaries, to “provide coherence and direction to the whole organization” (p. 28).

Conversely, organizations in which problems, actions, and events are isolated and

compartmentalized make innovation difficult. Segmentation within organizations was

designed to minimize organizational change and protect against unnecessary change,

ensuring that desired routines and tasks will be repeated for targeted and efficient

performance (Kanter, 1983). In such environments, organizational members develop an

attitude that confines them to their assigned compartments, and thus assume that their

contributions are limited to that assigned category. Lacking competition, in the government

sector, employees operate under mandates to perform routine tasks with little incentive to

innovate, modernize, or improve services (Benson, 1985).

The leader’s challenge is to create cohesiveness among organizational members

through a common and shared philosophy. This can only be derived from the way in which

work is carried out, and cannot be imposed or simulated (Kanter, 1983). Leaders must

recognize that their followers expect to perform their job for pay and benefits, but also expect

to join a social community in which their work is supported by mutual respect, participation

on teams, and multiple ties throughout the organization.

Arab Organizational Leadership

Arab leadership qualities readily align to effective leadership practices, including

recognition of the need for continuous change, and openness to the idea of incorporating

change into existing structures and systems (Ali, 1996). Focus on the ideal state and

identification with the hero image enable an open, flexible mindset for self-development,

innovation, and creativity. Building on a culture of strong traditions and Islamic beliefs is

helpful for creating alignment among organizational members, and an optimistic outlook

results in the establishment of a strong and compelling vision for the future. A respectful and

polite approach creates an environment of trust and support. Striving for self-development

and improvement serves to model desirable behavior. A paternalistic tendency enables a

consultative, coaching leadership style with subordinates. Inherent tribal and family loyalty

leads to the development of strong social relationships among teams (Ali, 1996).

This description of the ideal falls under the so-called great man category of

leadership, as described above, whereby the prophetic model of the visionary and inspiring

leader is the described aspiration of the followers (Ali, 2009; Khadra, 1985). In contrast, the

reality of the Arab organizational leader can be defined as the ordinary man or caliphate

model, whereby the leader is more of a dominating presence (Khadra, 1985).

Ali (2009, 2011) identified four forms of Arab leadership: autocratic, sheikocratic,

tradition-guided (group-oriented), and spiritually enlightened:

• Autocratic: top-down decision making focused on results; relies on authority, rules, and regulations.

• Sheikocratic: builds on the autocratic form with a focus on personal connections and tribalism, an open-door policy, individual power and personality, and a patriarchal approach in which nepotism is most commonly practiced at higher organizational levels; emphasis on personal relationships with a paternalistic orientation; the sheikocratic leader “considers the organization to be their fiefdom; an extension of their personal property and in the service of their interest and that of their extended family” (2011, p. 121).

• Tradition-guided (group-oriented): most common in smaller organizations, leadership characterized as tradition-driven, whereby information and decisions are centralized at the top but operational conduct is less formal.

• Spiritually enlightened: characterized by an alignment of organization with community and comparable to the great man category (Khadra, 1985); based on an intrinsic motivation driven by a strong sense of Islamic values in which open communication, trust, and flexibility are most prevalent.

Scholars on Middle East organizational leadership recognize the prevalence of the

autocratic and sheikocratic styles over the tradition-driven and spiritually enlightened styles

that are based on Islamic values and perspectives (Ali, 2011). This tendency makes positive

change and transformation difficult in the Gulf region, but the younger followers entering the

workplace are seen as activators of a shift in leadership that privileges a more humanistic and

enlightened approach. Other factors influencing Arab Middle East organizational leaders

include Islam, work climate, relationships, communication, gender, and globalization (Ali,

2011).

Followers. Ali (1998) developed a typology of Arab individuals recognizing several

contradictions influencing the force and direction of change. The seven categories of

followers are

• Traditionalists, who need direction from leadership, believe that problems arise from lack of adherence to Islamic principles, and tend to be duplicitous;

• Spectators, who stick to the routine and resist change and innovation;

• Idealists, who are emotional, enthusiastic, infatuated with words and the ideal, and who demonstrate low goal achievement and practical judgment;

• Illusionists, who have trouble dealing with reality, and who are either dreamers or exaggerators, blaming the difficulties of Arab societies on the outside world;

• Transitionalists, those who have wealth and power yet show little compassion for others outside of this group, and a second subgroup of those who are caught living between the Arab and Islamic tradition and modernization;

• Manipulators, who experienced the rises and declines in oil revenues and are motivated by wealth and power;

• Revivalists, who believe that a return to the traditional Islamic ways will cure current societal disorientation and cultural alienation; and

• Existentialists, who are confident, capable organizational leaders and encourage creativity, flexibility, sharing, tolerance, and the development of others (Ali, 1998).

The leader who recognizes these differences in follower orientations and motivations has an

advantage in addressing organizational disparities by recognizing and allowing for them

while rationally addressing issues that impede organizational growth and success.

Islam. More than just a belief, Islam is a religion that informs every aspect of life

(Ali, 2008; Maznil, 1997), and the objective of the Muslim is to create a society of health and

peace by practicing the will of God in word and deed (Abuznaid, 2006). The three basic

principles of Islam guiding economic and social behavior are that all wealth is owned by

God, that humans are the stewards of God’s wealth, and that pious people are most loved by

God (Branine & Pollard, 2010).

From an Islamic point of view, leadership is not the result of divine ordination, but

rather an attribution built on a foundation of trust and acceptance from followers (Ali, 2011).

Muslim scholars believe that effective leadership is critical for prosperity and the

preservation of faith, spirituality, and the well-being of the Muslim States. Islamic principles

espouse the notion that valid leadership is beneficial to society, a civic duty, and legitimate

only through reciprocal relationships and shared influence toward common goals (Ali, 2012).

The Islamic practice of consultative decision making is found in the Quran as the

concept of shoura, which means that the person in charge consults with his or her people for

input in the decision-making process. Mohammed the Prophet formed the Shoura Council to

advise on such decisions (Branine & Pollard, 2010). The Quran also emphasizes fairness,

honesty, and courtesy, and considers work and self-reliance as obligatory, and manifestations

of worship (Al-Buraey, 1988; Ali, 2008; Bourma, Haidar, Nyland, & Smith, 2003). Other

Islamic tenets are the rewarding of positive intentions (nya), mindfulness of God (taqwa),

compassion in the face of God (ehsan), justice (adl), trust (amana), truthfulness (sedq),

conscientiousness (etqan), sincerity (ekhlas), and patience (sabar; Branine & Pollard, 2010).

Arab leaders integrate Western and Middle Eastern leadership values (Mellahi, 2000),

and believe that successful leaders demonstrate integrity, consideration, charisma,

competence, and a future orientation (Abdalla & Al-Homoud, 2001), all of which are closely

aligned with Islamic ideals (Ali, 2011; Jasim, 1987; Khadra, 1985). Democratic practices

also align closely with Islamic values (Armstrong, 1992).

The influence of Arab tribal culture has clashed with the traditional Islamic principles

of consultation and consensus, resulting in the prevalence of an authoritative leadership style

which conflicts with Islamic ideals (Branine & Pollard, 2010). Arab organizational leaders

sustain the contradiction between ideal Islamic values and actual practice:

The leaders focus on projecting the image of consultation and of caring and inclusiveness. Their hope is that neither their immediate subordinates nor the community at large will notice these contradictions. In the process, the leaders treat illusion as reality and actually begin to believe that they are literally representing the ideal form of leadership. Leaders’ behavior, which remains strictly within the framework of the authoritarian system, seeks to disguise their authoritarian propensities by projecting a false image of idealism on their subordinates and followers. (Ali, 2011, p.103)

Although Islamic principles fundamentally form the values of the Arab Middle East culture,

their application and interpretation are influenced most by more lenient traditional, local, and

national values and norms (Fontaine, 2008).

Work climate. Arab organizational leaders value knowledge acquisition as a virtue,

and have a healthy contempt for strict rules and regulations that limit participation of

employees in personal and organizational development (Ali, 1996). A strong tendency to

focus on results and intentions, as well as social equality and justice, leads to a work climate

open to the advancement of organizational improvement and participant involvement.

Arabs tend to avoid manual labor, instead preferring administrative or clerical work

(Al-Faleh, 1998). Arab workers are also averse to procedures and systems more readily

accepted in the industrial mentality, and place their trust and confidence in only the most

senior official in organizations (Al-Faleh, 1998). A high degree of bureaucracy,

centralization, poor management, and lack of communication exists in many Arab-led

organizations (Assad, 2002; Weir, 2000), and organizational afflictions such as high

turnover, absenteeism, and corruption are the result (Branine & Pollard, 2010).

One dangerous affliction is that position and relationships take precedence over merit

and performance in Arab organizations, creating a work climate and atmosphere of political

gamesmanship, low trust, and low delegation of authority (Al-Faleh, 1998; Branine &

Pollard, 2010). Status and power are gained through affiliations, family and tribe, position in

the organization, and the type of university degree (Branine & Pollard, 2010).

Interpersonal relationships. Arab leaders tend to develop close relationships with

their followers. In Arab culture, the term for nepotism is wasta, which, in the organization,

can be understood as the use of favoritism when employing and rewarding employees based

on personal relations with family, friends, and relatives over qualifications and organizational

interests (Branine, 2002; Metcalfe, 2007). In the Middle East, intercessory wasta is defined

as the intervention by an intermediary on behalf of an individual in exchange for a benefit, a

practice used extensively in concert with a merit-based performance review system for

determining who will be promoted into positions of power (Cunningham & Sarayrah, 1994;

Hall & Hall, 1990).

Loyalty is valued over efficiency by managers and leaders, and an open-door policy

for airing of serious grievances predominates (Ali, 2009; Muna, 2003). Managers naturally

tend to make autocratic, centralized decisions after consultation with stakeholders for the

purposes of ensuring the correctness of the decision and preserving relationships (Kabasakal

& Bodur, 2002). Networking is prevalent, and learning through action is characteristic of

Arab organizational leaders, such that skills are practiced, debated, and applied (Weir &

Hutchins, 2005). Broader social obligations of organizational leaders include free loans and

financial assistance for employees, charities, and communities, and advice and support for

family-related matters (Ali, 1992).

There is a tendency in Arab societies to live in the present moment, as evidenced by

the common use of the term ensha Allah, which means “God willing.” The belief that events

are controlled by God suggests that actions may or may not take place at some point, and can

either imply “no” when used in response to a request requiring a commitment or a

responsibility, or “yes” at some future point in time (Jreisat, 1990). These alternative

meanings enable the leader to “coordinate and control interactions” (p. 367).

The prevalent directive style of leadership in Arab Middle East organizations is

focused more on tasks than on relationships, whereby the leader dominates discussions and

interactions while pressing for details and results within time limits (Cruz, Henningsen, &

Smith, 1999; Dorfman et al., 2004; Judge et al., 2004; Schmidt & Yeh, 1992). This

leadership style creates a strong relationship that is dependent primarily on the leader

(Wheelan, 2005), whereby employees avoid taking action or initiative (Wendt, Euwemab, &

Hetty van Emmerik, 2009), express little open communication and commitment to the

organization (Cruz et al., 1999; Paine & Organ, 2000), and have lower group affiliation

(Tjosvoid & Tjosvoid, 1991).

Respect. Arab culture emphasizes power, paternalism, and collectivism, in which the

young respect and must obey the old (Branine & Pollard, 2010). In developing employee

performance, organizational leaders are challenged with preserving the face-saving tradition

of the Arab culture. Westernized performance review processes emphasize goal setting and

feedback on performance, both of which conflict with high power-distance tendencies in

which employees tend to avoid critical discussions on performance needs, weaknesses, and

failures. Arab culture also emphasizes the importance of relationships over performance, and

performance reviews often fail to recognize and validate employee allegiance, loyalty, or the

value of strong relationships to the organization (Al-Faleh, 1998; Branine, 2002; Branine &

Pollard, 2010; Metcalfe, 2007; Seddon, 1987).

Decision making. The degree of individualism in leaders is influenced by cultural

expectations of the leader (Hinkley, 1985), and moderates the acceptance of input from

followers (Ali, Al-Shakhis, & Naturaj, 1991). Individuals with a low sense of individualism

are more apt to follow the leader’s decision (Yukl, 2006). In Arab society, management by

consensus is the preferred style of tribal leaders, but research indicates that espoused values

are not always practiced and do not always match current cultural norms within organizations

(Ali, 2011). In Arab Middle East organizations, decisions are typically made at the highest

levels of management (Ali, 2011; Muna, 2003; Yavas, 1998). Typified by an intuitive and ad

hoc approach based on available information, decisions are made most often without

subordinate consultation, and then implemented through specific directives and instructions

(Al-Twaijri, 1989; Badawy, 1980; Yavas, 1997).

Communication. Face-to-face communication is the preferred method of interaction

among Arabs, based on the tradition of trade in the marketplace and communion in the

Mosque (Mellahi, 2006). In the workplace, direct communication is also preferred over

indirect through the use of memos, e-mails, and phone. This is believed to increase trust and

support, and leaders who are able to preserve strong rapport with followers must be able to

say “no” without compromising good relationships (Weir, 2000).

In Arab society, individuals are infatuated with words because of their emotional

impact and appeal (Ali, 1993). In negotiations, Arabs can take offense to directives and

orders due to an inflated sense of pride, and seek a win-win outcome through the cohesive

consideration of all issues (Ali, 1993, 1996). Communication styles impact leadership

effectiveness. Critical thinkers know how to ask good questions, helping followers to reflect

and develop (King, 1995). Voice intonation is a variable that influences the leader’s

effectiveness in making decisions and influencing others. Those who speak loudly and

rapidly are considered passionate, sincere, and strong, while soft-spoken individuals can be

considered as insincere and even devious in Arab society (Jreisat, 1990). Silence and lack of

eye contact also have a significant impact on the course of Arab leader-follower

relationships, providing the space for a “psychological retreat in order to accommodate the

need for privacy” (p. 369). Eye contact also serves to differentiate and limit gender roles and

relationships. The Prophet Mohammed practiced sermons, open debates, and two-way

communication, considering every person a leader in a process of shared influence (Ali,

2011).

Technology. The transfer of information technology is impacted by cultural values,

and the use of computers can be seen as a threat to the preferred face-to-face communication

in the Arab culture (Shore & Venkatachalam, 1996; Yavas, 1998). Use of technology is

further hindered by the autocratic leadership style, such that organizational leaders may

withhold information to preserve power, and may perceive technology as a disruption that

forces change (Cunningham & Sarayrah, 1994; Yavas, 1998).

Organizational development. Organizational change and development are

necessary for reacting to external changes in the environment, and are closely linked to the

values and beliefs inherent in the society within which they occur (Amis et al., 2004). As

with all cultures, factors within the existing Arab culture are resistant to organizational

development. Organizational development involves dealing with variables attributable to

people, including work climate, leadership, attitudes, and values (Bennis & Nanus, 2004).

The strongest influence on these people-related variables within Arab culture is the religion

of Islam, which guides the conduct of both business and personal life, and informs all

cultural beliefs and values (Ali, 1996). A second major influence on Arab culture is the use

of the Arabic language, and the daily ritualistic recitation of Quranic verse; during these

periods, passions are aroused which strengthen and reinforce existing traditions and values

(Ali, 1996).

The principles of the Quran guide all family and business affairs, and serve to

influence economic and political structures in Arab society (Ali, 1996). Various schools of

thought developed during the early days of Islam, the most prevalent being the Jabria

principles, in which the leader is regarded as having the answers and is solely responsible for

determining the need for organizational change (Ali, 1996).

Change in the Arab organization can be understood as contrasted with the

Westernized approach. In Arab organizations, change is characterized by a processional,

“zig-zag pattern” (Ali, 1996, p. 12), whereas in Western organizations change is more linear

and follows a progressive or compounding methodology (Marshak, 1993). Arab leaders and

managers are short-term goal-oriented rather than long-term destination-oriented, and strive

to maintain equilibrium rather than create disequilibrium (Marshak, 1993). Arab thought is

dominated by the ideal form rather than the actual reality and thus no differentiation is made

between the two in the conduct of the Arab leader and worker (Ali, 1996). “The

endorsement of the work ethic reflects a commitment to, rather than a practice of, principles”

(p. 15). In other words, the intention is more important than the action. This is in contrast to

the Western philosophy that espouses actions over intentions, in which statements such as

“actions speak louder than words,” or “talk is cheap,” or even “the road to hell is paved with

good intentions,” are indicative of this mindset. Saudi Arab leaders tend to “think with their

hearts,” and thus are genuine in sharing their desires to resolve issues and extend goodwill.

Organizational change and development in the Arab Middle East are driven by the

Quranic values that serve to motivate individuals based on three levels of psyche: the

ammara, in which the individual is unconscious of evil and unconsciously self-motivated; the

lawama, in which the individual is conscious of evil and motivation is self-serving; and the

mutmainna, or ideal level, in which the motives are righteous and self-actualized, driven by

organizational goals (Ali, 1996, p. 9). Different change principles are associated with each

level.

Within the Islamic system, there are six change principles (Ali, 1996):

• The first change principle (pp. 12-13) suggests that change is nonlinear and noncyclical, instead following a “zig-zag pattern” (p. 12). Arab motivational needs are not hierarchical as in Western cultures.

• The second change principle suggests that change balances between and alternates from one state to another. States of mind shift until balance is achieved between opposing views and positions (p. 13).

• The third change principle posits that change is continuous and goal-oriented. Goals are both spiritual and material; goals must be balanced with the greatest reward to be found in the hereafter (p. 13).

• The fourth change principle indicates that the purpose of change is to achieve and maintain equilibrium. Man is two-dimensional and Islam ensures a balance between ascentricism and an overconcern with worldly, nonspiritual needs (p. 13).

• The fifth change principle indicates that human beings plan and manage change. Quranic principles dictate that people must have a purpose in the universe created for them by God (pp. 13-14).

• The sixth change principle posits that change is a natural process. Conditions for change become apparent over time and good deeds, knowledge, and proactive work lead to beneficial change (p. 14).

The assumptions underlying these change principles serve to enhance the human

element and organizational competitiveness, and are driven by a desire for the ideal (Ali,

1996; Berger & Luckmann, 1966; Berque & Stookey, 1978).

Arab individuals are infatuated with ideal forms, even when they know these forms are contradicted by reality. For the Arabs, the ideal is carried out in conduct and is identical with practice rather than merely constituting the criterion by which practice is to be judged. (Ali, 1996, p. 10)

When practicing organizational development interventions, leaders and practitioners should

strive to exhibit competence and build trust through dialogue, based on confidentiality and

patience rather than judgment and critique (Ali, 1996). Successful organizational

development in Arab organizations occurs more likely by maintaining respect and

appreciation for the culture through facilitation that includes mudarasa (spirited debate),

muthakrha (goal-oriented assignments), and munatharah (collaborative theory-building; Ali,

1996).

Saudi Arabian Organizational Leadership

Leadership is influenced by and influences the culture in which leadership behavior

occurs, specifically within the context of a business environment (Schein, 2004). The values

of the Saudi Arabian organizational leader are derived from both Islamic teachings and the

historically nomadic lifestyle (Ali, 2009). In Saudi organizations, relationships are

considered more important than performance, merit, and organizational goals (Hunt & Al-

Twaijri, 1996). Saudi leaders have a strong work ethic, and are committed to their personal

relationships (Ali, 2009; Hunt & Al-Twaijri, 1996).

Followers. In Saudi Arabia, respect, freedom of expression, feedback, truthfulness,

and courtesy are of most importance to workers (Bies & Moag, 1986). Organizational justice

is another core value, which can take the form of fairness in distribution of resources and

outcomes (Saunders, Thornhill, & Lewis, 2002), equitable processes (Colquitt, Conlon,

Wesson, Porter, & Ng, 2001; Folger & Konovsky, 1989), and consistent and uniform

treatment of individual workers (Bies & Moag, 1986). Saudi workers’ job satisfaction is

contingent on their perception of organizational justice (Elamin & Alomaim, 2011). An

understanding of perceived organizational fairness is based on the norms, standards, and

values of workers and their organization, and is best understood within the context of the

culture (Greenberg, 2001; Leung, Su, & Morris, 2001).

Cultural influences on Saudi organizational leaders. A number of key cultural

influences are relevant to Saudi organizational leaders. Those influences include the

teachings of Islam, Saudi cultural heritage, the influences of Westernization, Saudi

government, gender in Saudi culture, and the status of organizational development in Saudi

Arabia, each detailed below.

Islam. Saudi societal norms are most influenced by the teachings of the Islamic

religion (Ali, 2009; Branine & Pollard, 2010; Patai, 1976). From an early age, Saudi children

are educated, socialized, and indoctrinated into a tradition that advocates and demands

compliance and conformity with clear consequences. The country’s history as a

predominantly Bedouin culture in which most Saudis existed in a seasonal, nomadic lifestyle

influenced a heavy reliance on the extended family and tribalism for survival and success.

Accordingly, there is a strong sense of loyalty to family, tribe, and sect (Ali, 2009).

Islamic law focuses on social aspects, which in most Arab countries manifests in

organizational settings. In contrast, in Western countries, management and economic

principles shape management thinking and practices (Branine & Pollard, 2010; Dadfar et al.,

2003). Both traditional and Western influences have failed to yield desired results as

evidenced by relatively slow industrial and economic development in Saudi Arabia (Branine

& Pollard, 2010).

Cultural context. In addition to being influenced by the conservative Wahhabi form

of Islam, organizational leadership in the Kingdom is significantly shaped by the Saudi

cultural heritage (Yeganeh & Su, 2008). Values, beliefs, and attitudes are infused into the

workplace, and include strong group membership, respect for position and seniority,

dedication, and acceptance of ambiguity (Tayeb, 1996). The political context in Saudi

Arabia is a traditional monarchy, which also shapes the Saudi cultural heritage. The

country’s economic situation is another contextual factor.

Westernization. Satellite broadcast of Western television shows and news has a

significant impact on young viewers, for whom a common social pastime is to spend time in

large shopping malls that have all of the products found in the US and more. The influence

of a Western way of life which espouses independence and self-expression as basic human

rights can create challenges for transactional leaders in organizations that are either

government owned and operated or controlled by at least a 51% Saudi Arab partnership in

joint ventures. The rise of the so-called Arab Spring is evidence of Western, democratic

influences on the youth of Saudi Arabia and the entire Middle East.

Government. The Saudi bureaucracy is driven by its interpretation of Islamic laws,

propagation of the Islamic message, enforcement of Islamic law and punishment, and

maintaining a welfare state in which citizens are not required to pay taxes or pay for public

services including healthcare, education, and a lucrative retirement pension. Oil wealth and

increasing oil prices have enabled Saudi citizens to enjoy a wide range of other benefits such

as political stability, subsidized vacations, modern public infrastructure, and people’s

readiness and ability raise their concerns to those in authority (Al-Mizjaji, 2002).

The Saudi government recently passed the Saudization law, designed to provide more

jobs for Saudis while limiting reliance on foreign labor (Elamin & Alomaim, 2011; Mahdi &

Barrientos, 2003; Sadi & Al-Buraey, 2009). Government-sponsored employment and

unemployment benefits, free education, and free healthcare are also benefits which Saudi

citizens enjoy (Elamin & Alomaim, 2011; Madhi & Barrientos, 2003).

The ruling monarchy typically uses a top-down approach to instituting reform in

Saudi administration systems, which results in a preoccupation with valuing compliance and

conformity to specified directions in a controlled work environment (Assad, 2002). The

onset of oil wealth over time has resulted in a distribution of money and the funding of health

care, education, and interest-free loans, which have combined to increase standards of living,

contributing to an increase in the importation of cheap foreign labor. This has facilitated a

more recent attitude of free spending and consumerism, apathy, and a lifestyle of ease in light

of a tradition of hard work and productive use of time (Assad, 2002). In Saudi organizations,

organizational inefficiency has been perpetuated by the lack of quality management training

(Assad, 2002).

Gender. In Saudi Arabia, women and men have clear expectations and social roles;

as a result, there are relatively few Saudi women workers, most of whom work in the nursing

and teaching fields (Elamin & Alomaim, 2011). Gender relationships are being impacted by

modern media and technology. Adolescent Saudi boys and girls have figured out how to

meet each other indirectly in shopping malls by placing cell phones next to a person with

whom they desire to talk; they then call the cell phone, hoping the individual picks up the

phone and answers it. In this way, a respectful distance is maintained in the establishment of

social contacts. The Saudi government recently passed a law banning the walking of dogs in

public because young Saudis were beginning to use the dog as a medium for socially

interacting with each other, which is forbidden by Saudi law and custom.

Smell can also play a role in gender relationships, and breathing on each other during

conversations can signify total involvement and commitment to the other person (Hall,

1981). In Saudi shopping malls, many small shops sell incense, fragrances, and colognes.

Many Saudis, both male and female, apply perfumes and colognes on a daily basis, and enjoy

these fragrances as a part of their cultural identity and religious practice (Hall, 1981).

Organizational development. With the industrialization of Saudi Arabia driven by

the discovery of oil in the mid-20th century, Saudi organizations are relatively early in their

organizational life cycles. Organizational behavior is readily influenced by cultural values,

and Saudi Arabia faces the ongoing challenge of changing while maintaining stability as a

country:

On the one hand, organizational structures in Saudi Arabia are influenced by conservative traditions: Islamic values, particularistic tribal family orientations, and inheritance of the autocratic Ottoman system. On the other hand, industrialization, Western contact, and the use of modern technology have strengthened the influence of more pragmatic, universalistic values. At the top level, the government recognizes that in order to compete in the global economy, it must modernize its management practices. (Assad, 2002, p. 54)

Organizational effectiveness can be measured by attainment of goals and structure,

which includes internal processes, behavior, and attitude (Assad, 2002). Extensive research

studies of Arab management indicate that administrative problems associated with structure,

behavior, and attitudes are significantly affecting the economic development in Saudi Arabia

(Assad, 2002). Saudi organizational leaders typically use a top-down approach to direct

organizational change efforts and that most value employees for their loyalty and ability to

follow directions, tending to focus on political interests rather than implementation issues

(Jreisat, 1990).

Culture

Culture is the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of

one group or category of people from another (Hofstede & Bond, 1988) into a “socially

produced symbolic form” (Jenks, 1993, p. 6). Conceptually, culture can be defined in

general terms as the common ideas or theories about the prevalent thoughts and behaviors

that are shared by a group (Jaeger, 1986). For example, with the onset of the industrial

revolution, culture in the US shifted from being the mediator of “man and nature” to that

“man and machine” (Jenks, 1993, p. 7). Culture can be measured by interpreting the

collective behavior of a population, or by comparing and contrasting the attitudes and beliefs

of cultural groups (Hofstede & Bond, 1988).

Culture can also be defined as “traditions of thought located within social structures”

(Jenks, 1993, p. 2), the common ideas or theories about the prevalent thoughts and behaviors

that are shared by a group (Jaeger, 1986), the differentiated values and beliefs that are shared

by a collective body of people (Ajiferuke & Boddewyn, 1970), and a shared set of

assumptions (Schein, 2004). Culture is influenced by education level, economic status, and

environmental factors (Al-Dossary et al., 2008).

Schein (2004) described culture based on three levels: artifacts, defined as the

observable actions taking place; espoused values and beliefs at play, including goals and

ideals; and underlying assumptions and mental models that inform the nature of

relationships, including the concepts of time, space, and nature itself. Each of these levels is

interwoven and thus depicts a complicated, multidimensional landscape of culture (Schein,

2004).

Schein (2004) offered a formal definition of culture:

a pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems. (p. 12)

Schein further identified seven assumptions related to the study of culture:

1. Culture is a set of shared assumptions;

2. The contextual meaning of cultural assumptions can only be understood by members of the culture;

3. Not all parts of a culture are relevant to any given issue the organization may be facing, so studying an entire culture is impractical and inappropriate;

4. Insiders are capable of understanding and making explicit the tacit assumptions that make up the culture, but they need outsider help in this process. The process consultation model should be used [versus] the “expert consultant” model;

5. Some cultural assumptions will be perceived as helping the organization to achieve its strategic goals, while others hinder . . . hence, group members must have a process for sorting cultural assumptions;

6. The culture deciphering process often reveals that new practices can be derived from the existing culture; and

7. Change in cultural assumptions, if necessary, will rarely, if ever, involve the whole culture . . . [instead involving] changing one or two assumptions in a broader cultural context. Only rarely does the basic paradigm have to change, but if it does, the group faces a multiyear, major change process. (p. 148)

Culture can be further defined through the world of operational communication,

which takes the forms of behavior, material things, and words (Hall & Hall, 1990). Cross-

cultural communication is more complex than communication that is either written or

spoken, and has more to do with “releasing the right responses than with sending the ‘right’

messages” (p. 4). This implies that individuals within a culture are, first, in relation with

others in order to then define themselves within the complex, cross-cultural context.

Culture can play a major role in the formation of leadership characteristics. Jaeger

(1986) provided an empirical model of the main elements of culture, based on the work of

Hofstede (1980/2001), which identified four dimensions: power distance, defined as the

degree to which a society accepts unequal power distribution; uncertainty avoidance, which

is a measure of how risk averse a society is; tendency toward individualism versus

collectivism; and expression of masculinity versus femininity. These cultural dimensions can

influence the degree of an organization’s orientation toward performance (high masculinity),

acceptance of organizational change (low uncertainty avoidance), and follower deference to a

leader (high power distance).

The Arab Middle East Culture

Hofstede (1980/2001) conducted a longitudinal, cross-cultural study using a

questionnaire that was administered within a multinational company involving 40 different

countries. The results of this research identified the four cultural dimensions, as noted above:

power distance, collectivism-individualism, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity-

femininity. Power distance is the degree to which a culture accepts hierarchical structures in

society and organizations. The higher the power distance, the more accepting the culture is

of unequal distribution of power. The collectivism-individualism scale measures the

tendency of individual affiliation with groups and institutions. Uncertainty avoidance

measures the degree of resistance to ambiguity and risk. The masculinity-femininity scale

indicates the level of gender equality, by rating the degree of masculine characteristics that

predominate, including acquisition of material possessions and assertiveness (Hofstede,

1980/2001). The main element of Arab culture that influences an organization’s orientation

toward performance is high masculinity; toward acceptance of organizational change is low

uncertainty avoidance; and toward follower deference to a leader is high power distance

(Hofstede, 1980/2001; Jaeger, 1986).

Collectivism. Arabic culture can be characterized as high in collectivism, in which

the tribal and familial affiliations subordinate the individual orientation (Chhokar et al.,

2007). Arab managers have been found to have a very high sense of obligation and

responsibility to society and to the extended tribe and family (Jreisat, 1990).

Power distance. Arab culture ranks high in power distance, in which deference to

power, authority, and age takes precedence (Chhokar et al, 2007; Kabasakal & Bodur, 2002).

The religion of Islam tends to encourage an uncritical acceptance of authority figures (Ali,

1990). Inequality in tight, hierarchical structures is accepted, whereby roles and authority are

clearly defined and an autocratic management style prevails. Privilege among power holders

is accepted, and a formal, pyramidal structure exists in organizations, characterized by

workers who are obedient and dependent upon those in power.

Uncertainty avoidance. Arab culture can also be characterized as high in

uncertainty avoidance and low in future orientation, as evidenced by a deference to authority,

preservation of group affiliation, and an emphasis on the importance of relationships over

task accomplishment (Chhokar et al., 2007; Kabasakal & Bodur, 2002). There is a general

preference for structure and strict codes of management and behavior. Risk-taking and

deviant behavior are discouraged, and in some cases punished. Normative, conservative

rules are specified. Strict adherence to prayer times, dress, and deference to elders are

examples.

Preference for achievement. On the preference for achievement scale, Arab culture

scores range at the midpoint between a task orientation and a relationship orientation

(Chhokar et al., 2007). Gender roles are clear, assertiveness and ambition are valued, and the

virtues of aiding others, modesty, and solidarity are espoused.

Masculinity. Arab culture can also be characterized as rating high in masculinity

because the male role in Arab society is clearly defined as the dominant authority (Jaeger,

1986). Family structures emphasize the father figure (Ali & Camp, 1995) and a low level of

gender egalitarianism with a strong tendency toward the maintenance of a rigid, male-

oriented hierarchy (Kabasakal & Bodur, 2002).

Although Hofstede (1980/2001) grouped Arab Gulf countries together based on

cultural characteristics, Hickson and Pugh (1995) refuted the appropriateness of this

categorization. Said’s (1978) work on the nature of orientalism, predating Hofstede’s

original publication, also lent support to this refutation, suggesting that the Western approach

to understanding the Arab Orient is driven by a psychological need to reduce the threat of the

unfamiliar and the novel, thus resulting in a description and categorization of its culture that

is, by virtue of the imposed values, considered reality. Cultural composition consists of the

extent of subcultures (Keillor, Hult, & Owens, 2002) and the degree of convergence in a

particular society (Ralston, Gustafson, Cheung, & Terpstra, 1993). Saudi Arabia is a

culturally homogenous society and, with the majority of the population being Sunni, the

Saudi culture is highly convergent around the preservation of Saudi cultural values from

outside influences (Al-Khatib, Rawwas, & Vitell, 2004).

Communication. A variable that affects the operational communication process is

the speed at which messages can be decoded and addressed. Examples of high-speed

communication include cartoons, headlines, and TV commercials. Slow messages include

books, art, deep relationships, and culture itself (Hall & Hall, 1990). Some cultures employ a

slow-message communication style in interpersonal relationships, whereas others employ the

opposite. One study in the US indicated that Americans were accustomed to high-speed

communications in which relationships are superficial, informal, and lacking in a deeper

exchange of confidences (Hall & Hall, 1990). Leadership communication effectiveness can

be enhanced by allowing for and building upon cultural strengths through increased

awareness of specific cultural tendencies.

Context. Context also plays a role in differentiating communication styles that serve

to define culture. Context can be defined as the information that provides the meaning of a

situation, and can be classified as either high or low (Hall & Hall, 1990). The difference

between the two is in the content of the message: A high-context message has most of the

information contained within the person communicating the message, whereas a low-context

message contains most of the actual information. In intercultural communication, leaders

need to be aware of their own context preferences, realizing that a low-context sharing of

information may irritate or offend people of high-context cultures (Ali, 1990).

A shifting of context up the scale indicates a relationship that is being enhanced,

while down the scale can mean a decrease in the quality of the relationship (Ali, 1990). In

Japan, the organizational manager or leader typically begins the day at a low-context level,

gradually increasing in scale throughout the day, whereas in the US, a higher level of

communication meaning based on familiarity gives way to a lower level as problems occur.

Europeans prefer lower level meaning where specific details are solicited among formal

lines, and the use of first names is considered offensive for those other than close friends and

family members (Ali, 1990).

The context scale also reflects the importance of meetings. In Arab and Asian

cultures, the turnout of an important person to a meeting is of primary importance, more so

than the topic of the meeting, or whether participants arrive on time (Hall & Hall, 1990).

Often, meetings are scheduled with little advance notice to demonstrate the relative

importance of the meeting as measured by who is able to attend as a result of canceling other,

previously scheduled meetings. In contrast, Americans focus on how far in advance a

meeting is planned to emphasize the meeting’s importance, the agenda, and the attendees

who have expertise on the topic.

Space. Space is another variable contributing to cultural communication. The

concept of space refers to territoriality, which is heavily influenced by culture. In different

cultures, location and size of office space indicates status and power. For example, the

corner office in the US is often reserved for the highest level of management. Mediterranean

Europeans operate in small “bubbles” of personal space as compared to northern Europeans,

who prefer a comfortable buffer between themselves and others. People in high-context

societies are more comfortable with auditory interruptions characteristic of open office

spaces (Ali, 1990). Differences in personal space preferences can lead to misinterpretation of

meanings in the communication process. Leaders must be aware of their own preferences

and those of others to help ensure effective communication.

Time. An Arab cultural variable influencing organizational leadership is time. Time

can be considered either monochromic, in which one engages in one endeavor at any point,

or polychromic, in which individuals engage in multitasking over a given time period. In

monochromic cultures, time is segmented into discrete units and events are prioritized based

on importance. Time is considered tangible and something to be spent wisely. As a result,

time is shared sparingly, privileging some over others, and limiting relationships. In Western

cultures, monochromic time dominates organizational practices (Ali, 1990).

In polychromic cultures, many people are involved in completing multiple tasks

concurrently, and more emphasis is placed on relationships rather than on timelines (Ali,

1990). Plans that change are more acceptable as a general rule, and promptness is more

dependent upon the importance of the relationship than on the event. In the Arab culture,

close familial and tribal relationships predominate. The Arab leader has the inherent cultural

strength of building and maintaining multiple, effective relationships concurrently and over

time, which naturally serves to support consensus building and cooperation among followers

(Ali, 1990).

Arab society and organizational culture. Ali and Amirshahi (2000) argued that

societal culture informs organizational culture. A number of characteristics specific to the

Arab culture influence the thinking and behavior of Arab managers. The cultural

homogeneity resulting from Islamic doctrine emphasizes conformity to standards of conduct,

and the family is considered the most important social entity and the main determinant of

status and identity. As a result, leaders and managers tend to treat their organizational

members as extended families, honoring and providing for their constituents (Al-Faleh,

1998). Another cultural characteristic impacting Arab management is the tendency of

organizational members to be motivated less by performance achievement than by power

needs and affiliation. Loyalty is valued more than efficiency (Al-Faleh, 1998).

Arab culture in the 21st century. In Arab countries, oil revenues, a rising middle

class, improved education and communications, private and public organizations, the

presence of Western consultants, and interaction with the industrial culture have given rise to

pragmatic values, including clarification of authority and responsibilities, formulation of

civil laws, and organizational efficiency improvements (Soraya, 2002). However, traditional

Arab values and norms persist, such as, for example, the importance of personal relations and

the preference for individuals from influential tribes over organizational affiliation (Soraya,

2002).

Industrialization. There are two schools of thought regarding the influence of global

industrialization processes. The first assumes that Westernized organizations will influence a

shifting of cultural values in an industrialized, technologically advancing society, while the

second school suggests that, depending upon the strength of the existing culture in terms of

convergence and collectivism, organizational leadership will be most influenced by local

culture (Ralston et al., 1993). These arguments suggest that Westernized organizational

management processes influence Arab culture to a lesser degree than in other, less

convergent cultures.

History. All Muslims are guided by Quranic standards written centuries ago, and

these guidelines were recorded in the form of the Jabria principles, condemning independent

thinking and sanctioning authoritarian regimes (Ali, 1996.) The Ottoman Empire came into

power in the early 1400s and was sustained for 500 years, establishing a society based on

autocracy and control, demanding obedience and further influencing the development of

contemporary cultural values and beliefs (Ali, 1996). French and English colonialism and

the establishment of monarchies by the strongest tribes are also influencing factors

contributing to Arab culture.

Islam. The broadest cultural influence in the Arab Middle East is the religion of

Islam, which espouses morals, values, and ethics to guide behaviors along with the

importance of family. In conjunction with the establishment of the authoritarian regimes in

the early 20th century, Jabria principles came to dominate Arab culture (Ali, 1996). Within

this context, organizational change and development operate in an arena of autocratic

leadership, avoidance of conflict, deference to management for decisions, and a general

belief that predestination is the determinant of success in lieu of planning, personal

development, and/or self-reliance (Ali, 1996).

Based on Quranic teachings and the sayings of Prophet Mohammed, which instruct

the faithful to work hard and persist in achieving goals, contemporary organizational Arab

culture is increasingly influenced by the Islamic work ethic (Ali, 1996). Arabs tend to hold

business motives in the highest regard, and espouse the pursuit of work in any and all forms

as a virtue. Prior to and absent the Quran, Arab peoples in the 15th through the 19th centuries

had no written language, and lived a nomadic, isolated lifestyle. Over time, the Arab culture

adopted the legends, rituals, habits, and customs of those foreigners with whom they

interacted in trade. This discontinuity and the influence of the Ottoman Empire led to the

establishment of authoritarian regimes that stress obedience and compliance (Ali, 1996).

The Quran provides guidance to Muslims on behaviors, including forgiveness and

empathy, and stresses the need to do good deeds and have positive intentions (Ali et al.,

2000). Islam also forbids abuse of power and covert dealings, and espouses the preservation

of dignity; organizational leaders are expected to be altruistic and open to their employees’

suggestions, avoiding overt conflict, which Muslims find unacceptable (Ali et al., 2000).

Middle East economy. The economic environment is also dramatically impacting

Arab culture. Profits from oil and gas reserves in the Middle East have created

unprecedented free wealth and prosperity, and a dependent society that relies on these

revenues with little expended effort (Cunningham & Sarayrah, 1994). The family and tribal

unit serve as a model for business structures (Ali et al., 2000). Due to tremendous oil wealth,

the Saudi non-oil business sector is expanding at a rate equal to the oil sector (Glain, 2006).

Rapid population growth, the rise in consumerism, government changes in commerce laws,

investments in infrastructure, and privatization of Saudi businesses and foreign investments

are driving the economic revolution (Glain, 2006).

Global economy. The steady supply of oil produced by the Arab Middle East plays a

key role in the challenge of eradicating worldwide hunger and poverty, and in the support of

technological advances and geopolitical interests. The external operating environment

shaped by the historical context provides a challenging arena for current organizational

leaders. Global demand for oil and gas is dramatically increasing to support a world

economic growth rate of about 5.1%, and, between 2000 and 2005, the cost of expanding

capacity increased by 50% in OPEC countries due to rising material and service-provider

prices (Mabro, 2006). In 1974, oil consumption was 56 million barrels per day (mb/d),

increasing to 81 mb/d in 2004; this rate continues to grow (Mabro, 2006) to the current

consumption rate of 88.6 mb/d in 2011 (International Energy Agency, 2012). The global

economy is dependent upon the transportation sector, and oil is the most strategic commodity

as the dominant fuel source. Many countries rely on the importation of oil products to

produce their own exports and to maintain healthy economies.

Westernization. Western business practices in local government and Arab business

practices in the Middle East have significantly influenced Arab culture and leadership

approaches. The prevalent use of chain-of-command, centralized decision making, and the

use of the scalar approach to communication are examples (Ali, 2009). Some Arab countries

consider Westernization to be damaging to Arab society, resulting in corruption, moral

degradation, materialism and erosion of the family unit (Ayubi, 1988).

Education. The educational system in Arab countries stresses rote memorization

over the development of intelligence and initiative in students (Al-Faleh, 1998). Arab

scholars have created exemplary role models of Islamic leaders as visionary, prophetic,

courageous and knowledgeable (Hawi, 1982; Khadra, 1985). Respect for age and authority

is emphasized and enforces a tradition of conformity and compliance in thinking and in the

control of critical and independent thought.

Family and tribe. The strong emphasis on the responsibility for prioritizing familial

relationships creates the obligation of helping, supporting, and assisting family and tribal

members above all others, including organizational obligations and responsibilities (Al-

Faleh, 1998). Tribal affiliations are an important tradition and, along with family name,

distinguish individuals among peers. On the individualism-collectivism scale, Arabs as a

culture rank generally low in individualism, indicating a clear preference toward affiliation in

a collective society (Chhokar et al, 2007). Affiliations are to God, family, tribe, country,

region, and Arabic speakers (Al-Faleh, 1998).

Wasta. The importance of influence in the aiding of others in Arab societies can be

defined by the term wasta (defined above, in the organization, as the use of favoritism when

employing and rewarding employees based on personal relations with family, friends, and

relatives over qualifications and organizational interests; Branine, 2002; Metcalfe, 2007).

Wasta can impact the leader’s effectiveness in both negative and positive ways (Jreisat,

1990). On the downside, wasta can perpetuate incompetence and a lack of organizational

improvement. Organizational employees who secure positions through wasta can develop

low self-esteem and poor personal confidence because they are not able to fulfill the

requirements of their positions. On the positive side, wasta can provide a safe haven during

periods of social uncertainty and change, and enable individuals to feel unconditional

acceptance and the support of more experienced colleagues (Jreisat, 1990).

The Saudi Arabian Cultural Context

Saudi Arabia can be characterized as a country struggling between the forces of

change imposed by Western civilization, technology, and industrialization, and stability

within the historically conservative society as influenced by the autocratic system of the

Ottoman Empire, Islamic values, and tribal-family traditions (Ali, 1996; Assad, 2002).

Resolving modern organizational issues using traditional management approaches results in

“sheikocracy” (Ali, 1990, p. 16), characterized by an autocratic leadership style, deference to

individual power and personalities, indecisiveness, nepotism, the sacrifice of efficiency to

personal relationships, and compartmentalization of jobs. In Saudi organizations, leaders

consider relationships more important than performance, merit, and organizational goals

(Hunt & Al-Twaijri, 1996).

Education level, economic status, and environmental factors also influence Saudi

culture (Al-Dossary et al., 2008). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is undergoing change in a

number of areas. “At the socio-cultural level, the gradual erosion of the traditional social

system and its long-established values and norms controlling behavior and interpersonal

relationships continues” (Atiyyah, 1993, p. 4). Some Arabs are responding to this perceived

threat to their security and way of life with pessimism and a fear of losing their cultural

identity, and are taking solace in fundamentalist movements, or through the acquisition of

material possessions and wealth or political power (Atiyyah, 1993).

Generations. There are three generations of Saudis differentiated by birth years:

1930s, 1950s, and 1970s and 1980s. The 1930s generation experienced the unification of

Saudi Arabia into a nation state, whereas the 1950s generation grew into adults during the oil

boom years. The 1970s and 1980s generation has felt the impact of oil price fluctuations and

influence of Western values through media (Yamani, 2000).

In contrast to rapid economic growth and modernization, social and political change

has progressed at a slower pace, creating the challenge of balancing between older

conservative values while benefiting from the newer influences of Western technology (Ali,

1993, 2011). Examples of social and political challenges include rising unemployment, a

deficient educational system resulting in unskilled Saudi workers, a gender gap, and a lack of

research by Saudis themselves on how to address these challenges (Ali, 1993, 2011; Yamani,

2000). Other challenges include corruption, morality, and prosperity, with a focus on

domestic concerns over foreign affairs (Byman, 2005).

In a country where leadership power and authority have been the privilege of certain

families and tribes, the newest generation has expanded this group to include individuals who

have knowledge and competence through social networks and affiliation with political

groups. But those in power are inclined to not accept this (Yamani, 2000). Table 1

highlights these generational differences.

Values. Major influences on contemporary Saudi values lie in its Islamic and

nomadic roots (Al-Twaijri, 1989). Saudi managers tend to value personal relationships over

performance and the achievement of objectives (Asaf, 1983), and are devoted to the work

ethic of Islam (Ali, 1992). Hunt and Al-Twaijri (1996) found that Saudi managerial values

influence choice of organizational goals. In the high-collectivist Saudi culture, individual

values are closely aligned in harmonious relationships, leading to higher levels of job

satisfaction (Hunt & Al-Twaijri, 1996).

Table 1

Newer and Older Saudi Generational Differences

Elements affecting

Saudi society Newer generation (born after 1970)

Older generation (born before 1970)

Historical influences

Experienced modernization and the influences of Western values and technology

Experienced the creation of the conservative nation state and/or the oil boom and fluctuations

Modernization Rapid and unprecedented Slow and steady

Economic growth

Rapid and unprecedented Slow and steady

Wealth Rapid and unprecedented Sporadic

Technology Rapid Slow

Western values Broad exposure through media Little exposure through lack of technology and limited information sharing by government

Power and authority

Information, technology, professional and social networks, political affiliations, knowledge, competency, expertise

Family and tribe; position

Political and social norms

Open Preference for centralized authority

Decision making Study and discussions; values hard facts Suggestions, debate, and discussion are generally not accepted; influenced by emotional considerations

Access to information

Informed; asserts equal access Limited; considered a threat that could change mindsets and perspectives

Change Embrace change, creativity, and new technology; opportunistic

Reject social and political change

Motivations Goal-oriented; seek opportunities for advancement; seek benefits resulting from hard work

Conservative Saudi values

Note. Material adapted from Changed Identities: The Challenge of the New Generation in Saudi Arabia (pp. 25, 151) by M. Yamani, 2000, London, UK: Royal Institute of International Affairs. Copyright 2000 by the Royal Institute of International Affairs. Adapted with permission.

High collectivism in Saudi Arabian society emphasizes group achievement over

individual, and Saudis “feel embarrassed when they are individually praised in public” (Al-

Twaijri et al., 1994, p. 66). There is also “a tendency to take sole credit for successes and to

pass the blame on to others or to circumstances when things go wrong” (p. 24).

The homogeneity of the Islamic culture effectively influences attitudes and values

within families and the society (Hall & Hall, 1990). High-context messaging means

extensive networks of information within relationships that are close and personal among

friends, family, coworkers, and customers (Hall & Hall, 1990). For example, high-context

messaging is prevalent within twins’ communications, in which details give way to general

statements, since the twin relationship is so close, and thus, the relational connection

precludes the need for transfer of specific information. The communication style between

the Saudi leader and the employees provides another example. Westerners tend toward low-

context messaging in which work, personal relationships, and the daily aspects of living are

compartmentalized. In these interactions, detailed and specific background information is

expected (Hall & Hall, 1990).

The age of Saudi managers influences the value assigned to organizational goals

(Hunt & At-Twaijri, 1996). Marital status also has a significant effect on Saudi managers’

values, most likely due to the importance of strong family affiliation and stability in Saudi

society (Ali, 1992). The results of these and other studies suggest homogenous workforces

that lead to harmony and job satisfaction. Opportunities for organizational change include

the involvement of employees in organizational goal-setting processes, and the development

of a more strategic mindset in Saudi leaders to compete in an increasingly global marketplace

(Hunt & At-Twaijri, 1996).

The Saudi government, controlled by the royal family, has invested recently in

building infrastructure, including roads, healthcare facilities, schools, and airports. The king

recently appointed a female as the new deputy minister of education, the first cabinet post

ever filled by a Saudi woman. Fundamentalist values are slowly giving way to more modern,

Westernized values. Demographic changes have also influenced Saudi culture. The most

recently reported population of Saudi Arabia is approximately 24,573,000, with close to half

under the age of 18 (Al-Dossary et al., 2008).

Personal health. A significant cost for organizations in Saudi Arabia relates to the

health of employees. A rapidly growing population and changes in lifestyle have resulted in

increases in obesity, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes (Research and Markets, 2011-

2013). Increases in consumption of fat and meats, as well as caloric intake from about 1,800

calories in 1975 to 3,200 calories in 1995, have combined with an increase in cigarette

smoking and the Saudi tendencies of inactivity and obesity to resulting increases in

hypertension, diabetes, and hypercholesterolemia (Al-Dossary et al., 2008). The strong

cultural tendencies toward collectivism and compliance, along with a desire for masculinity

and face-saving practices, may result in employees’ mental-health needs going unmet. All

Saudis are Muslims who believe that life, death, and illness are determined by Allah

(Rassool, 2000). Illness is considered an opportunity for atonement of one’s sins (Al-Shari,

2002). On the other hand, Islam recommends abstinence from alcohol, tobacco, and drugs,

and suggests regular exercise, personal hygiene, breastfeeding, and moderation in food

consumption (Rassool, 2000). As a result of employee health problems, the Saudi leader

must deal with the associated monetary costs, tardiness, absenteeism, and lower productivity.

Islam. Despite administrative problems in Saudi organizations and the need to

ameliorate rapid modernization in light of Saudi cultural traditions, Saudi organizational

leaders can use the Islamic model to maintain an orientation conducive to the support of the

dignity, growth, and satisfaction of employees (Soraya, 2002). Elements of the Islamic

model are as follows:

• The development of [one’s] spiritual and psychological well-being, as well as [one’s] physical and material well-being;

• Social equity, ethics, morality, humanism, and dignity;

• Consultation and participation rather than authoritarianism in decision making;

• Personalized relationships;

• Moderate leadership authority;

• Development of skillful employees through training;

• Hiring and rewarding based on merit;

• Diligence and competence in work; [and]

• Punishment of administrative corruption such as nepotism and favoritism. (p. 55)

Government administration. Economic development and reform in Saudi Arabia

and other developing countries are characterized as being limited to relatively few actual

achievements due to the use of a bureaucratic, top-down approach in which “managers

impede change since they are occupied to fulfill obligations to the political leaders rather

than to follow through with organizational programs” (Jreisat, 1990, p. 415). Employees are

valued and rewarded for their compliance with rules, procedures, and routines; “in a control-

oriented system, highly valued employees are those who just follow directions, not those who

can follow directions but who also think for themselves” (p. 415). The Saudi bureaucracy is

largely based on the Ottoman system, in which multiple levels of approvals are required, and

in which the tradition of kinship in hiring and employment decisions result in slow and

difficult change and development efforts (Assad, 2002).

Saudi Organizational Leadership and Culture

Leadership is influenced by and influences the culture in which leadership behavior

occurs, specifically within the context of a business environment. Leadership practices

emerge as leaders incorporate followers’ needs and desires in a way that builds on the

influences of the collective sociocultural community (Schein, 2004).

A high degree of acceptance of hierarchical power structures within the Saudi culture

positions Saudi leaders to have great influence over followers who are sensitive to the

passions and inspirations of the leader (Bjerke & Al-Meer, 1993). High collectivism in Saudi

society positions a leader to develop strong relationships with followers, enabling an

environment of teamwork and collaboration (Bjerke & Al-Meer, 1993). An orientation

toward femininity (relationship-oriented) versus masculinity (task-oriented) privileges

leaders who care about their people (Bjerke & Al-Meer, 1993). High-context messaging, in

which details give way to broader concepts and meanings in everyday communication,

results from close and extensive networks of relationships (Hall & Hall, 1990).

Within the Saudi Arabian cultural context, organizational leaders seek to build and

maintain multiple, effective relationships, concurrently and over time, that naturally serve to

support consensus building and cooperation among followers in their organizations (Ali,

1996, 2009). In the Islamic tradition, an important part of leadership is the concept of

shoura, in which all members of a community participate in ongoing dialogue for the

common good of all (Ajarimah, 2001). This concept is reinforced by the homogeneity of the

Islamic culture, which effectively influences attitudes and values within families and the

society (Hall & Hall, 1990). As contrasted with U.S. leaders, Saudi Arabian organizational

leaders are characterized as having a wide range of emotional expression (Trompenaars,

1993), with more supportive coaching behaviors (Noer, 2008). In Saudi organizations,

culturally informed attitudes toward social status strongly influence organizational leadership

(Hunt & Al-Twaijri, 1996).

Summary

The purpose of this study was to explore how Saudi Arabian organizational leaders

and followers describe their experience of organizational leadership knowledge, attitudes,

and practices, within the Saudi Arabian cultural context. My intention was to add to the body

of knowledge on the phenomenon of Saudi organizational leadership within the Saudi

cultural context through the collection and content analysis of a series of self-reported

experiences from both the leader’s and the follower’s perspectives. The literature review

presented a basis from which to inform this study, identifying the broad landscape of

research and literature on leadership and culture theory, and Middle East Arab and Saudi

Arabian organizational leadership and culture.

The literature clearly indicates that Saudi Arabian organizational leadership

comprises and is influenced by the collective beliefs, practices, and behaviors within a

society informed by Islamic law and long-practiced social traditions dictated by the harsh

desert environment (Ali, 1996). For organizational leaders, understanding cultural values

and issues serves to inform leadership priorities and practices (Schein, 2004). A preference

toward hierarchical structure, centralized authority, and power within Saudi Arabian

organizations demonstrates that Saudi business leaders value loyalty, affiliation, obedience,

compliance, and respect for authority. Indeed, the prevailing cultural norms in the Kingdom

that sanction strict conformity to traditional practices dictates standards of personal and

social conduct; perceptions of virtues and desired beliefs create a mindset that values respect,

compliance, positional power, and influence. The influence of the historical traditions of a

Bedouin, merchant, and fishing lifestyle competing for scarce and limited resources remains

apparent today in the form of strong tribal and family ties, clear gender roles, a focus on the

development and maintenance of strong interpersonal relationships, the importance of strong

convictions, and the valuing of strong and decisive leadership. Westernization and the more

recent onset of modernization over the past 50 years through the rapid accumulation of oil

wealth have also contributed to the complexity of the dense cultural context within Saudi

Arabia. A higher standard of living, the availability of new communications and

entertainment technology, the influence of the Internet, and the new generation which is

growing up with these modern conveniences also create and influence the current Saudi

Arabian cultural context.

From this investigation of the existing literature, it is necessary to raise and address

additional questions through this study. How does a sample of individual organizational

leaders and followers describe the specific leadership practices in current Saudi-led

organizations? What are the perceptions of leadership knowledge and attitudes that inform

Saudi organizational leadership practices? What are the specific behaviors of the described

Saudi Arabian organizational leadership practices? What is the perceived impact of the

described behaviors? What are specific examples of how Saudi culture has influenced the

thinking, knowledge, and attitudes informing leadership practices? What is the description of

ideal Saudi organizational leadership knowledge, attitudes, and practices?

This study enriches the depth of the existing literature by identifying and

investigating the perspectives of both Saudi organizational leaders and followers. The

findings were derived using a qualitative, emic research approach based on an inductive,

categorical content analysis of a series of individual interviews, as detailed in the next

chapter. This approach enables the further emergence of a new frame of reference, and

serves to identify additional topics for future research on Saudi Arabian organizational

leadership within the Saudi cultural context.

CHAPTER THREE: METHODS

This study used a descriptive, exploratory approach to identify the ways in which

Saudi Arabian individuals in Saudi-led organizations, in both leadership and nonleadership

positions, report their experience of organizational leadership within the Saudi Arabian

cultural context. This qualitative approach complements existing research by adding

knowledge derived from actual descriptions of how participants experience Saudi

organizational leadership and the Saudi cultural factors influencing organizational leadership

knowledge, attitudes, and practices. The individual interviews enabled the sharing of stories

and descriptions of the relationship between leadership and culture using a series of

semistructured, open-ended, and follow-up probe questions.

Setting

The individual interviews were conducted in-person or by phone during the autumn

and winter seasons of 2011 and 2012. Participants included individuals from various Saudi

Arabian organizations located throughout the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. In-person

and phone interviews were scheduled at convenient hours for participants in comfortable

conference meeting rooms or offices conveniently located in the proximity of participants’

work locations.

Research Design

In this research design, my exposure to the study participants included the use of a

qualitative-descriptive culture of inquiry; the content of exposure was interviewing Saudi

organizational members in both leadership and nonleadership roles to identify the ways in

which they describe their experience of organizational leadership within the context of the

Saudi Arabian culture; the duration of exposure was approximately 1 hour, and the frequency

of exposure was one interview, for each participant. Interview questions were derived from

the research question: How is Saudi Arabian organizational leadership experienced in terms

of knowledge, attitudes, and practices within the Saudi Arabian cultural context?

Individual interviews with leaders and nonleaders from various organizations resulted

in answers to questions from the interview protocol in order to identify leadership

components including how it emerges, how it works, how it is implemented, its effects, and

the influences of Saudi culture on organizational leadership. Both concepts and constructs

were targeted in the design of the open-ended and probe questions and were classified after

all responses were categorized into main topics, themes, and subthemes (Leedy & Ormrod,

2005; Neuendorf, 2002).

A culture of inquiry based on an inductive reasoning process of deriving general

learnings from specific participant responses in which relevant stories, examples,

experiences, and facts were disclosed provided a basis for reporting findings. General

categories from participant responses were then organized into topics, themes, and

subthemes, and interview quotes were then coded under each of the main themes. The

interviews led to the identification of both facts and opinions about the phenomenon (Yin,

2003), and provided me with different perspectives and attached meanings of Saudi

organizational leadership that cannot be observed (Patton, 2002). This information was then

reviewed within the context of the research literature for the development of conclusions and

the creation of a conceptual model.

Sample

A group of 20 potential participants was identified from which the sample was

selected. From this overall number, I selected 15 participants who comprised the sample size

for this study. Eight participants were classified as organizational leaders and seven as

followers in nonleadership positions. Each organizational leader was identified as having at

least one or more direct reports. Employees in nonleadership positions had no direct reports.

Participants were from various organizations throughout the Eastern Province of Saudi

Arabia.

Inclusion Criteria

All selected participants were native Saudi Arabians working in the Eastern Province

in Saudi Arabian-led organizations. Each participant needed to be able to understand spoken

English and converse freely.

Exclusion Criteria

Prospective participants were excluded if they were non-Saudi natives, not working in

Saudi Arabian-led organizations at the time of the study, or could not understand and

converse freely in English.

Access to Study Participants

To recruit participants, I relied on my network of contacts to identify candidates using

the snowball recruiting method (Creswell, 1998). I contacted these individuals by e-mail

and/or phone in the order in which their names were revealed to me, and used the

Recruitment Script (Appendix A) to review the purpose and nature of the study with each, by

reading the script to them in person or over the phone. I then asked these individuals to

provide me with names of other potential candidates to whom I would deliver in person or by

e-mail a copy of the Participant Solicitation Letter (Appendix B), which indicated how to

contact me if they were interested in participating in an interview.

Selection of Study Participants

I identified 20 potential candidates on a list, 10 in leadership positions and 10 in

nonleadership positions, and selected the first 15 participants in the order in which I had

made contact with them by phone, e-mail, or in person. I read the Recruitment Script

(Appendix A) to each of the 15 study participants to ensure their continued interest, and

scheduled their individual interviews.

Data Collection

The data collection instruments for this study were a self-developed Interview

Protocol, entitled, “Your Experience of Saudi Arabian Organizational Leadership”

(Appendix E), and Interview Questions (Appendix F). The purpose of the protocol and

questions was to solicit input on the ways in which each participant experienced Saudi

Arabian organizational leadership within the Saudi Arabian culture. Selected items from the

instrument included

• Can you tell me about your experience of Saudi Arabian organizational leadership?

• Think back on a time when you worked with an effective organizational leader. What was this leader doing?

• Can you share a story of when a leader was influenced by one or more of his or her followers?

• Can you tell me about a time when you were very aware of the influence of the Saudi culture in the work of a leader?

• Can you share with me a time when a leader built upon the factors of the Saudi culture to accomplish his or her goals at work?

The research conducted in this study sought to answer the research question: How do

Saudi Arabian organizational members describe their experience of organizational leadership

knowledge, attitudes, and practices within the Saudi Arabian cultural context? A series of

interview questions (Appendix F) were designed to determine

• how individuals who are working in leadership positions describe their experience in terms of their knowledge, attitudes, and practices as leaders; and

• how individuals in nonleadership positions (followers) describe their experience of leadership knowledge, attitudes, and practices.

Specific questions focused on soliciting participant experiences and feelings about leadership

routines, relationships, influences, challenges, and outcomes (Jensen, 2006). Each of the 44

semistructured interview questions enabled participants to share their thoughts and feelings

in the form of stories, metaphors, examples, expressions, and insights gained from their

experience of leadership within their current organizations. Specific probe questions

included

• Can you say more about that?

• What has led you to this conclusion?

• How does this play out?

• Can you provide an example of this?

At the conclusion of each interview, participants were asked whether they wanted to add any

additional information, and whether they felt comfortable with the interview process they had

just experienced.

Trustworthiness

To assess trustworthiness, I recorded notes during each interview to record key points

of interest requiring the use of probe questions. I also conducted a brief audit at the

conclusion of each pilot study interview (detailed below), during which I asked the

participant how he or she felt about the interview process, whether the questions were

appropriate, and whether there were any questions or comments. I also indicated that a

summary of the study findings would be provided the participant, and that upon completion

of the interviews I could make available the transcript of the participant’s answers to each of

the questions asked to determine whether it accurately represented the participant’s interview

responses.

Authenticity and Credibility

After the transcriptionist completed the word documents, I reviewed each several

times to ensure correct transcription, checking randomly with the original tapes. I also

reviewed the written notes that I recorded during each interview to capture key points for

further probes during each interview. I ensured the rigor of the process by recognizing my

own subjectivity in steering the interview process. During the individual interviews, and

shortly afterward, while conducting the content analysis, I focused on my own reflexivity as

a researcher, and continuously recorded and considered my thoughts, feelings, preferences,

biases, and initial reactions to participant responses in a process known as bracketing. This

enabled me to isolate my own biases and thinking enough so that I was able to feel more

closely what the participant was feeling, and thus make more sense of the responses. In

conducting the interviews, I also focused my approach to create a climate of well-being and

connection with the participant by making continuous eye contact, smiling, acknowledging

statements, summarizing, ensuring participant comfort, and avoiding any verbal or nonverbal

behavior that could be construed as leading, approving, or judging (Davies & Dodd, 2002).

Scorability

To score the individual interview responses, I related the answers from both of the

pilot study interview participants for consistency to topic relevance to assess the quality of

the interview questions. Triangulation also ensured scorability because I reviewed

participant responses for convergence during the content analysis to identify themes and

subthemes for each topic (Creswell & Miller, 2000).

Utility

I followed the Interview Protocol (Appendix E) and noted the start time and the end

time to determine the total interview time. The total time was approximately 60 minutes; I

determined that this time was adequate to provide the data required and yet within participant

expectations for a meeting.

I was also interested in other factors related to utility: whether there were any

confusing questions, whether the participant understood each question, what questions were

not asked that should have been, and whether the order of the questions was appropriate. I

also asked the participants postinterview questions specifically about the process, including

how the process felt for them. I asked about each of these at the conclusion of each of the

individual interview sessions.

Conduct of the Interviews

To begin the interview process, I formally introduced the purpose of the study, and

thanked the participant for taking part. I also explained the context of the research in terms

of the process of the interview, the benefits of the study, how the research would complement

existing theory on Saudi Arabian organizational leadership and culture, and the confidential

nature of the study participation. I answered any questions, and in so doing, I tried to create

a comfortable atmosphere of trust and openness through subtle humor, expressions of

appreciation, and affirming body language. I asked each participant to read and sign two

copies of the Informed Consent Forms (Appendix C), and directed the participant to keep one

of the signed forms while I kept the other. I indicated that after the interview, I might need to

be in phone contact for follow-up questions. I then proceeded with the Interview Protocol

(Appendix E) to conduct the individual interviews.

The individual interviews were conducted with study participants to assess the

conceptual framework developed for this study. Voice recordings captured responses, and

were then transcribed and analyzed. Recorded demographic information included date of

hire to the organization, current position, tenure in the position, age, gender, religion, and

race, presented in Chapter 4.

Pilot Study

Prior to conducting the study, I conducted a pilot study to assess the data collection

instrument, and the methods and procedures surrounding the collection of data, using the

intended selection criteria to interview one organizational leader and one nonleader. To

establish trustworthiness, authenticity, credibility, scorability, utility, and cost of the data

collection instrument, I practiced administering the interview three times.

To assess trustworthiness, I provided the pilot study participants with a copy of the

transcript upon completion of the interview and asked the participant if it accurately

represented the participant’s interview responses. Both agreed that the transcripts did so.

After the transcriptionist completed the word documents, I reviewed each several

times to ensure correct transcription, checking randomly with the original tapes. I also

reviewed the written notes that I recorded during each interview to capture key points for

further probes. To score the pilot study, I related the answers from both of the pilot study

participants for consistency to topic relevance to assess the quality of the interview questions.

I ensured informed consent of the participants by having each complete the Informed

Consent Form (Appendix C). Next, I solicited demographic information from the participants

including date of hire to the organization, current position, tenure, age, gender, religion, and

race, presented in Chapter 4.

I followed the Interview Protocol and Interview Questions (Appendices E and F) and

noted the start time and end time to determine the total interview time. The total time was 60

minutes; I determined that this time was adequate to provide the data required and yet within

participant expectations for a meeting. I was also interested in other factors related to utility:

whether there were any confusing questions, whether the participant understood each

question, what questions were not asked that should have been, whether the order of the

questions was appropriate. I also asked the pilot participants postinterview questions

specifically about the process, including how the process felt for them. I asked about each of

these at the conclusion of each of the two pilot study interview sessions.

Procedures

Access to Study Participants

Upon identifying potential study participants, I contacted each directly by phone, e-

mail, or in person and used the Recruitment Script (Appendix A) to determine their

accessibility and interest.

Protection of Study Participants

As with the pilot study, I submitted a proposal to the Fielding Graduate University to

ensure the protection of the study participants with particular regard to confidentiality and

anonymity. For each of the study participants, I explained the nature of the study, and the

mandated compliance of the university’s Internal Review Board rules and procedures

specifying participant protection in this academic research. I also read to each participant the

Recruitment Script (Appendix A), and the Participant Solicitation Letter (Appendix B), had

each participant read and sign the Informed Consent Form (Appendix C), and explained that

the one transcriptionist of the interview audio recordings would read and sign the

Professional Confidentiality Form (Appendix D). In addition, I indicated that all material

related to this study would remain under lock and key, and would be destroyed 5 years from

the date of completion of the study.

To further protect the study participants, the written interview notes and audio tapes

were collected and transported from the interview site immediately after each interview to

my home office in my personal and locked briefcase. The data was secured in a locked file

cabinet and office, to which only I and my certified transcriptionist had access. All files were

backed up in a USB flash drive which was also locked in a file cabinet in my home office.

Five years after study completion, all files, tapes and documentation related to the interviews

will be destroyed by shredding, erasure, and permanent deletion.

All study participants were assigned a number for identification purposes; no names,

locations, or other personal information were disclosed at any time. The participant data

noted herein, when identified, is identified only by false names or pseudonyms. As noted

above, the trained, professional transcriptionist signed a strict confidentiality statement

(Appendix D), maintained both confidentiality and anonymity, and was not provided with

participant names.

Categorical Content Analysis

I organized study participants’ data using a categorical content analysis (Josselson,

Lieblich, & McAdams, 2002), following these steps:

1. Print transcripts.

2. Read transcripts.

3. Bracket my assumptions of what is happening in margins.

4. Reread and underline phrases and list a general corresponding topic in the margin.

5. Review list of topics and phrases to form general themes.

6. Revise list of themes and phrases for meaning and descriptiveness to form subthemes.

7. Align phrases under subthemes.

8. Examine for interrelationships and insights.

9. Relate findings to literature.

10. Draw conclusions and summarize.

Data Management

After the transcriptionist completed the Word documents, I reviewed each several

times to ensure correct transcription, checking randomly with the original tapes. I then

established a code book based on my conceptual framework to organize the data, a practice

consistent with content analysis. Next, I read through the transcripts several times and

identified, rearranged, consolidated, combined, and reworded each segment of each transcript

into the final units of analysis, parsed the statements, and numbered them. I then coded the

statements, mapping the transcript responses to the conceptual framework of the study, again,

consistent with the practices of content analysis.

Data Analysis

Qualitative descriptive analysis was used to determine emergent elements, themes,

and subthemes from participant responses to the interview questions, including behavioral

descriptions, stories, reflections, and explanations (Creswell, 1998). I organized the data into

coded categories as noted above using content analysis (Josselson et al., 2002; Leedy &

Ormrod, 2005; Neuendorf, 2002; Patton, 2002).

The individual topics emerged, and within each I derived the themes. I then

differentiated the major and minor themes. For each major theme, I developed a composite

set of subtheme descriptors. I then reclassified the subtheme phrases of the interview text

under the themes. In this way, I was able to provide a comprehensive overview of the

research topic based on leader and follower input of the described experience of Saudi

organizational leadership within the Saudi cultural context, and to establish the foundation

for my own interpretation, leading to the final discussion and conclusions noted herein.

Throughout the interview and subsequent analysis process, I came to recognize that

the nature of the research question and interview protocol reinforced the emergent, emic

content analysis process in which participant responses lead to the identification of a web of

complex relationships for highlighting and exploration. This process can be termed as a

categorical content analysis by hand (Josselson et al., 2002). For the category of Saudi

organizational leadership, three topics and 10 themes emerged (Table 2). Four topics and 19

themes were identified for the category of the Saudi Arabian cultural context (Table 3).

Finally, I included a fourth topic, metaphors, symbolism, and stories, in order to

highlight the rich dialogue and more expressive insights to expand the depth and breadth of

my analysis. With this coding scheme and level of analysis, I was able to critically review

the literature to synthesize the information into a number of tables and figures that provide

models depicting the experience of Saudi organizational leadership within the Saudi Arabian

cultural context.

Table 2

Saudi Organizational Leadership Topics and Themes

Topics: Leadership knowledge Leadership attitudes Leadership practices

Themes: Reflection and change

Self-development

Dealing with people

Leadership approach

Success

People

Happiness

Challenges

Power-driven style

Developmental style

Assumptions

This study assumed that all participants would be comfortable sharing their

understandings and definitions of leadership with me in the interview process. With the help

of the probes and follow-up questions, participants were also able to clearly define their

concepts of leadership in the interviews through the sharing of insights, stories, and elements

Table 3

Saudi Arabian Cultural Context Topics and Themes

Topics: Relationships Leadership & Followership Islam

Government & Business

Themes: Affiliation

Community

Respect

Decision making

Geography

Work-life balance

Gender

Communication

Values

Family and tribe

Leaders

Followers

Influence of generations

Leadership

Life after death

General influences

Government support for business

Competition

Time

within the context of the Saudi Arabian culture. Each participant was fully conversant in

spoken English.

Interviewer bias was minimized by following the scripted Interview Questions

(Appendix F) and the Interview Protocol (Appendix E).

Limitations

This study involved 15 research participants who worked within various

organizations located throughout the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. Research findings

are limited to this specific geographical region, and thus, do not necessarily represent how

leaders and followers experience and enact leadership in other Middle East, Arab nations or

in other cultural contexts.

Credibility and Verification

The coding system for organizing the information in this study was developed as the

results became available, and built on the consistency of the conceptual framework, the

research question, the key definitions, the data collection protocol, and the interview

questions. The information gathered in this study from the transcripts and the audio files

were arranged into the coded categories for reporting the described experience of Saudi

organizational leadership within the Saudi Arabian cultural context.

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS

In this chapter, I report participant demographics and how study participants

described their experience of the topics of knowledge, attitudes, and practices of Saudi

Arabian organizational leaders within the Saudi Arabian cultural context, in the form of

themes and subthemes. As described in the preceding Methods chapter, the reported themes

were derived by the ranked frequency of the responses for each of the interview questions.

The participant responses formed the reported subthemes, and these led to the identification

of the themes for each topic. I then present an analysis of the reported findings in relation to

the conceptual framework, and link the findings to the literature reviewed in Chapter 2.

The Participants

Intended and Final Sample

The intended sample for this study was 15 participants who were to represent six

different organizations in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. The final sample included

15 participants who represented seven different organizations in the Eastern Province of

Saudi Arabia. Demographic information on the sample is provided in Table 4.

Thirteen participants were male and two were female. Seven participants were in

organizational leadership positions (having one or more direct reports) and eight were

defined as followers (no direct reports). At the time of this research, in late 2011 and early

2012, the youngest participant was 27 years old and the oldest was over 70. Each is a Saudi

Arabian and practices Islam as a religion.

Table 4 Participant Demographic Information (N = 15)

Elements Males (n = 13) Females (n = 2)

Gender 13 2

Age range:

20 – 29

30 – 39

40 – 49

50 – 59

60+

Industry sector:

Oil and gas

Petrochemical

Retail

Services

Healthcare

University degree totals:

Inside Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Outside Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Position titles:

Consultant

Business System Analyst

President

Manager

Senior Quality Analyst

Human Resources Business Partner

Director

Maintenance Engineer

Years in current position:

2 years or less

3 to 5 years

6 to 10 years

Over 10 years

Years in current organization:

2 years or less

3 to 5 years

6 to 10 years

Over 10 years

Note. Elements totaling >n are due to multiple elements per participant (e.g., multiple industries or degrees).

The majority of participants fell within the age group of 40-49; 60% worked in the oil

and gas sector. Approximately half earned university degrees in the Kingdom of Saudi

Arabia, and the others earned their degrees from foreign, Western universities. Three

participants obtained a bachelor’s degree in Kingdom, and then obtained master’s degrees

elsewhere. Participants worked in a broad range of positions, and 13 of the 15 had been in

these positions for 5 years or less. Nine participants had been with their organizations for 10

years or more.

Two other individuals expressed the intention to participate in the study but

withdrew. One withdrew because he was uncomfortable with a phone interview and a

person-to-person interview could not be arranged due to schedule conflicts on four different

occasions. The other individual dropped out for the same reasons. I approached a third

individual who was referred to me, but he declined participation without reason. Of those

who did participate, each was apparently motivated to contribute to the advancement of

knowledge about their culture by sharing their perceptions of organizational leadership

within the Saudi cultural context. This served the study well, since all participants freely

expressed their views through the sharing of stories, metaphors, observations, and viewpoints

in answer to each of the interview questions.

Participant Descriptions

To protect participant anonymity, each was provided a number in the order in which

the participant was interviewed and a false name or pseudonym (in quotation marks on first

use herein) for identification purposes; no pseudonym used herein is the actual name of any

participant. A brief description of each participant is as follows:

• “Abdullah” served as the first member of the pilot study, and was a manager with over 5 years of experience, in his mid-40s. With over 20 years in his company, he

was well versed in the ways and means of his company’s organizational leadership tendencies, and contributed several rich descriptions, stories, and metaphors to convey his healthy skepticism, important issues, ideas for change, and hope for the future.

• “Hamoud” was in his late 20s, in a non-leadership position. With only 2 years in the company, he shared a generally optimistic perspective, perhaps based on an idealism informed by recent university studies and his “honeymoon” period (a short amount of time) within his organization. Much of Hamoud’s input focused on the ideal, and what should be happening. Hamoud also shared his own aspirations as a leader of the future.

• “Mohammed” was a senior leader and head of his own company, which he had started 30 years prior to the time of this study. He emphasized clearly the importance of a developmental leadership style by sharing his own thinking, practices, and approaches. At over the age of 70, this participant was most interested in describing the leadership challenges of operating a business within Saudi Arabia, and pointed out several issues and suggested remedies for each.

• “Hassan” was a leader with 25 years experience in his organization. He openly shared openly his approaches and successes as a leader, and clearly espoused a developmental leadership style. He gained several years of supervisory experience before returning to school for a higher degree. During his master’s study, he learned a more participative style of leadership, and shifted his own leadership approach after applying his new learnings and recognizing the positive impact on followers.

• “Mustafa” was in his late 20s and an engineer in a nonleadership position at the time of this study. He shared his feelings and perspectives on leadership as being largely dependent upon the leader’s supervisor expectations, and the type of followers reporting to the leader. Mustafa was cautious to not share any incriminating remarks, and preferred to speak to what was working well, as compared to most of the other participants, who had a tendency to emphasize problems and issues related to organizational leadership. Mustafa also cautioned on the need to avoid generalizing.

• “Majed” was a new employee of less than 3 years at his company, in his early 30s. Majed earned both his undergraduate and master’s degree in the United States. He provided a succinct differentiation between leadership styles based on his simultaneous reporting to two different supervisors with very different styles. In a very calm and thoughtful way, Majed described the two different styles as the power-driven style and the developmental style, and shared the impacts of each on him along with his feelings on each.

• “Khaled” was a leader in a supervisory position at the time of this study. In his mid-40s, with 20 years of experience in his organization, he offered a description of organizational leadership from his perspective as a supervisor, and spoke to the

impact of the hierarchical decision-making approach inherent in his organization. Khaled also expressed a concern for the utility of his supervisory role since all decisions were made at his manager’s level while he was left to carry out those orders.

• “Ahmed” spoke to the need for leaders to provide “amnesty” to followers so that they can take initiative and responsibility for their performance. Ahmed, as a leader with 20 years of operational experience, provided HR consultation to all levels of management for a large manufacturing facility. Ahmed provided details on the differences between developmental and power-driven oriented leaders, and shared stories of some of his challenges.

• “Hussaine,” a leader in his late 40s with several years of experience in his large organization, described his leadership practices in an assertive and detailed manner, and as the researcher, I found myself probing into his responses to gain deeper insight into his ideas and perceptions of Saudi organizational leadership. He espoused a leadership style akin to the developmental approach, but in practice, he clearly described a power-driven style orientation from his descriptions of sequenced practices, protocols, rules, and standards. Hussaine seemed very self- assured and confident in his capability, intelligence, and leadership approach.

• “Eyad” was in a leadership role for over 5 years in his organization at the time of this interview, and in his mid-40s. He emphasized the importance of staying close to the people out on the floor as a leader, and his focus on monitoring and assessing key measures of performance and project development with his people using a team-based approach. Eyad also spoke to the issue of balancing tactical work with strategic work, and the need for leadership flexibility to recognize and respond to external changes in the business environment.

• “Emad” was in his mid50s and an employee of over 30 years in a larger organization. Classified as a follower in this study, Emad shared information that indicated a nonjudgmental perspective on leadership. Emad’s responses were focused on the work in which he was personally involved, and touched on the processes in place that involved management in terms of decision making, planning, and communication protocols. For the most part, Emad appeared happy and accepting of the existing power-driven leadership style, and seemed to appreciate the high level of role clarity and level of responsibilities in his organization.

• “Faisal” was an engineer in his early 30s with over 10 years in his organization. Clearly representing the younger demographic, Faisal spoke to the transition that leadership was experiencing in his organization, from that of transactional management to more transformational leadership. Faisal also pointed out that the ultimate guarantee of this transition was the influx of the younger generation who were demanding this change, in both word and deed, as demonstrated by the organization’s high attrition rate.

• “Nora” was one of the two female participants in the study. As a nonleader in her 20s, she spoke of leadership from the gender perspective. Nora reflected on her female supervisor’s approach and challenges as an organizational leader. Nora considered her supervisor to be respected and a friend to her followers. When asked what most influenced her supervisor’s leadership style, indicated that it was due to the influence of her North American undergraduate education, as well as the influences of sectarianism, family name, geographic region, and the hierarchical decision-making process used by upper management in her organization.

• “Natasha,” the second female participant in this study, was also in her 20s. As a nonleader in this study, Natasha was educated in Saudi Arabia and shared an interesting story about her female supervisor, whom Natasha categorized as being autocratic. In Natasha’s words, her supervisor was transferring the oppression she was feeling as a female member of Saudi society onto Natasha’s male coworkers. Natasha also indicated that over the previous 3 years, her supervisor’s leadership style had been slowly changing from this autocratic style due to her enrollment in a number of leadership courses.

• “Abdulrahman,” in his early 40s, was in a nonleadership position with his company. He earned his bachelor’s and master’s degrees in North America, and focused on change management processes as the organizational leader’s greatest challenge. Probing questions revealed that in his experience, change management success was contingent upon the leader’s cultural sensitivity and ability to understand and preserve the importance of recognition and mutual respect in the leader-follower relationship. Abdulrahman also noted that leaders can be differentiated by their focus on task versus people, administering the work versus actually doing the work, and considering employees as either customers or suppliers.

In sum, the demographics of the study participants (Table 4) spanned various ranges

of age, experience, and position within organizations. After careful assessment, a gender

differentiation was found between the male and female participants. Both female

participants spoke about gender issues within the context of the Saudi culture and Saudi

organizational leadership, while only one male participant did. No other subthemes leading

to the identification of the emergent themes appeared to relate to any particular demographic.

The next section provides the study findings in the form of themes and subthemes for each

topic, which emerged as a result of the analysis of participant responses.

Saudi Arabian Organizational Leadership

This study’s findings on Saudi Arabian organizational leadership aspects are grouped

in terms of leadership knowledge, attitudes, and practices (Table 2; Appendix G). Based on

participant responses, the Leadership Knowledge topic is divided into the emergent themes

of Reflection and Change, Self-Development, Dealing With People, Leadership Approach,

and Success. Leadership Attitudes descriptors emerged into the themes of People,

Happiness, and Challenges. The Leadership Practice topic is discussed in terms of two

themes: a Power-Driven Style or a Developmental Style (further detailed in Appendix H).

The subthemes for each of these themes are reported in summary form in the following

sections.

Leadership Knowledge Themes and Subthemes

For this element of the conceptual framework, emergent themes included Reflection

& Change, Self-Development, Dealing with People, Leadership Approach, and Success. The

emergent subthemes for each of these themes speak to the knowledge perceived to be

important for effective Saudi organizational leadership as experienced by study participants,

as well as an actual judgment of current leadership effectiveness for each of the themes in the

majority of participants. Summarized subthemes were derived from participant quotes.

Examples of leadership knowledge subthemes included, “Leaders are in the dark and

don’t know much about this change brought by the new generation.” “We can no longer

control people by giving them vague information.” “The leaders realize that to deal with

people who are starting to ask for their rights, they need to move from the authoritative style

to a more Western style of dealing with people.” These three statements are shared here to

represent all 15 of the participants’ beliefs, feelings, and perceptions about leadership

knowledge and related challenges as reported by each participant. All participants

commonly reported a recognition of the difference between actual versus desired

organizational leadership styles. Descriptions of these two styles are characterized as either

the power-driven style or the developmental style, and are detailed in the following section

on Leadership Practices.

As related to the conceptual framework of this study, the reported subthemes and

emergent themes provided by participants indicated that, within the realm of the power-

driven influence style of leadership, there was a strong acknowledgement of a leader’s

knowledge of, and preference for a directive, power-driven-oriented style and approach. The

power-driven style of leadership was perceived to be the most rewarded style in 12 of the 15

participants’ Saudi-led organizations, and these participants also identified the impact of this

style, on both the younger and older generations, as being lower than desired levels of

motivation, self-esteem, and performance.

The impact of the power-driven style of organizational leadership in Saudi Arabian

organizations may be explained in its contrast to the Saudi cultural factors of respect, valuing

of diversity, consultative decision making, and the importance of interpersonal relationships

as reported in the literature review (Ali, 2009; Bies & Moag, 1986; Branine & Pollard, 2010).

Thus, the prevalent Saudi organizational leadership style may be incongruent with the

general Saudi cultural norms and beliefs in this respect, and may be influencing perceptions

of organizational justice (Abdallah & Nasser, 2011).

Leadership Attitude Themes and Subthemes

For this element of the conceptual framework, emergent themes were People,

Happiness, and Challenges. The emergent subthemes for each of these themes speak to the

prevalent attitudes perceived to be evident and important for effective Saudi organizational

leadership. Summarized subthemes were derived from participant quotes.

For the theme of People, subthemes were summarized as an attitude of openness and

trust, transparency of goals, forgiveness, compassion, unbiased employee selection, having a

big heart, loyalty, and transparency of feelings. For example, quotes from three different

participants defining their perceptions of ideal leadership attitudes included, “This is critical.

Don’t criticize others’ mistakes,” “You don’t want others to ever feel bad,” and, “Respect

gets more respect.” All participants emphasized the importance of attitude on the

effectiveness of the Saudi organizational leader as evidenced by various related statements.

Within situational leadership theory, religion is identified as a significant environmental

influence on leadership behavior, and the Quran speaks to the virtues of honesty, fairness,

and courtesy (Al-Buraey, 1988; Ali, 2009; Bourma et al., 2003).

For the theme of Happiness, subthemes included having authority, sharing of

knowledge, caring, realizing that “my voice counts,” having trust, taking on challenges,

creating a win-win approach to resolving problems, and, in the mind of Hamoud, the late 20s

aspiring leader of the future, of “shocking people positively” per one of his leaders.

Mohammed, a senior manager and business owner, shared a comment that is particularly

illustrative of the theme of Happiness: “I am happy because I get to be happy. And if you

are happy, you make people around you happier also.” Hamoud further noted that

Some of them [employees] are not happy. Some are. The unhappy people, they think like . . . even some of the old people here [tend to] think, “This is not leadership; this is following orders.” . . . Others are happy; they’re just used to it [current leadership practices] and they feel like family and . . . they think we are only complicating things by thinking. “This is okay . . . he is [the] leader, and he said this, and . . . let’s follow it.”

The tendency of many of the participants in this study to avoid the sharing of negative

feelings may be due to the influence of a strong cultural belief in the omnipotence of God

(Ali, 2009), predestination (Ali, 1996; Jreiset, 1990), the Arab and Saudi cultural infatuation

with the ideal (Ali, 1996), and the Islamic teaching of the virtue of avoiding overt conflict

(Ali et al., 2000). As researcher, I note this because some of the responses to closely related

questions in the same interview from the same individual were inconsistent and confusing.

For example, one participant stated that he was very happy, yet moments before he had

expressed emotionally his frustration with organizational leadership and its impact on his

family and life.

For the theme of Challenges, subthemes included making mistakes, the new

generation, micromanagement, bureaucracy, unfair treatment, the human factor, maintaining

transparency, and fear of reprisal. For example, two of the eight participants designated as

leaders characterized their perceptions of leadership attitudes within the theme of Challenges

by stating that, “You cannot allow any followers to be stronger than you as a leader; you will

be seen as weak if you allow this.” This finding clearly aligns with the power-driven

influence leadership style defined in the conceptual framework, supported in the review of

literature that identifies the prevalence of the autocratic and sheikocratic Arab leadership

styles over the more spiritually enlightened leadership styles informed by Islamic principles

and values (Ali, 2011).

Faisal, the 32 year-old engineer with 12 years of experience stated that

leaders are learning that they need to use the new approach to inspire, motivate, and develop people, but they are strongly influenced by the current leadership style of power-driven influence; this power-driven style is what is most currently respected and leads to the most rapid promotion.

Leadership Practices Themes and Subthemes

The Leadership Practice element of the conceptual framework comprised two themes:

a Power-Driven Style or a Developmental Style (further detailed in Appendix H). The

emergent subthemes for each of these two themes identify the leadership practices identified

by study participants. The Developmental Style theme was characterized by participants in

subthemes that included interacting, flexible/adaptable, not placing blame, emphasizing

relationships over tasks, learning and growing, facilitating, challenging, listening, delegating

of authority, and using transformational and/or innovative approaches as a leader. Examples

of key words and phrases for leadership practices as described by 11 of the 15 study

participants included connected in and outside of work; open mind, heart and office; not

looking at the mistake as a mistake; personality is very clean; and shifting to meet the new

generation.

The Power-Driven Style theme was characterized by subthemes including the

emphasizing tasks over relationships, formal structure, extensive documentation, strict

adherence to deadlines, rapid resolution of problems, demonstration of authority, attention to

detail, demonstration of superiority, does not know people, and being firm even when wrong.

Five of the seven followers and half of the leader participants in the study described their

leadership experiences in line with the statement offered by Khaled, the supervisor with little

or no decision-making authority:

In the Saudi culture, if you ask people who the best leaders are, they will say, “those who are very strong, pushing people, demanding, (being) listened to with his requests implemented,” versus “the one who inspires, motivates, and develops his people.” Abdullah also commented, in reference to the power-driven leadership style, that

the power-driven style is most dominant still, and this leader is most interested in his influence; this drives him to be dominant in meetings. When making jokes, [he is]

making sure his jokes are the most dominating. . . . The power-driven style is about getting results, whether through the military or the developmental style.

Other comments included “by himself in the office,” “firm even when he is wrong,” “just

filling the position because all decisions go to the top,” and “tends to hide the full story.”

Here again, the recurrent theme of the power-driven style of leadership was raised as

the predominant influence on leadership practices, whereas in the literature, Ali (2011)

pointed out that in Islam, leadership is built on the foundation of acceptance of followers.

Saudi Arabian Cultural Context

The data analysis of the Saudi Arabian cultural context within which Saudi Arabian

organizational leaders function is divided into four topics based on participant descriptions:

Relationships, Leadership and Followership, Islam, and Government and Business (Table 3).

The themes emergent from each topic are detailed below.

Relationships Themes

The themes for the topic of relationships are affiliation, community, respect, decision

making, geography, work-life balance, gender, and communication (Appendix I). Subthemes

were derived from participant interview answers resulting in emergent themes. For example,

for the emergent theme of respect, Hussaine shared the following:

In the culture, the respect is very important. For people here in our country, there are boundaries. Sometimes you need to be very careful. When you are a boss, you are a boss, [whether] working or [on the] outside. Sometimes the things you are saying outside of work could embarrass you at work. People need to be very careful. Saudis don’t distinguish between these things. As part of the culture, if they committed to do something, it is tied to their entity; “I said I will do it, I will do it.” If you get used to that, you get that into the business, and that will be a great success because commitment will be much higher.

Six other participants provided similar responses speaking to the interrelationship between

leadership behavior within the organization and outside in the community.

If there is one word that defines the Saudi social culture, that word is relationships.

Saudis place a high value on harmonious relationships (Hunt & Al-Twaijri, 1996). Islam

informs all aspects of Saudi society (Ali, 1996), sharing as a partner the cultural traditions

derived from a life of survival in the extreme desert environment over thousands of years

(Ali, 1996). Family and tribe are esteemed above all others (Al-Faleh, 1998), in a highly

collective society (Bjerke & Al-Meer, 1993; Chhokar, et al., 2007). Appendix I lists the

specific subthemes reported by participants for the emergent theme of Relationships, as

detailed below.

Affiliation. Under the emergent theme of Affiliation, participant response subthemes

include a responsibility for family, pride in family name, preferential treatment for family

and tribe, loyalty to tribe (even if they are wrong) above all else, emphasis on knowing

extended family members; family issues and family businesses; individuality as linked to

tribal affiliation; and the father-son relationship as based on loyalty.

Community. For the emergent theme of Community, subthemes included looking to

the people in the community of a leader to know of the leader’s success. If people are happy,

then the leader will be made happy; the team is more important than the individual; celebrate

every success; goodwill and self-satisfaction are key; helping to solve family problems is

being a part of the team; one is supposed to say, “the company first, then me,” but it is the

opposite; on paper, it is the company, but individuals look to their own interests first; many

employees have outside businesses; the primary motivator of people is themselves, not the

company; there are real barriers between Saudi and expatriates.

Respect. Participants reported that respecting others is critical, and that one should

not criticize others’ mistakes. Other rules of etiquette reported to be universal include

avoiding labeling others; not embarrassing oneself or one’s family and tribe; not making

others feel bad; not showing displeasure; carefully respecting boundaries; and never talking

about what occurred behind closed doors. Working within some companies also warrants

respect because they are seen as benefiting the country.

Quotes of interest on the theme of respect as related to organizational leadership

included, “Reprimanding is done behind closed doors; otherwise all smiles on our faces,”

“Respect results in reward,” “Reward is a way of saying, ‘Thank you,’” And, “When you are

a leadership imposter, people have so little respect, you will be as stressed as they are.”

Participants also reported that committing to do something is part of a person’s individual

entity, and is considered to be not only about business, but also about “man-to-man” respect.

If committed, followers will go beyond the call of duty, and leaders need to tap into this.

Decision making. Three participants reported that older family members make

decisions without listening to those younger, and that making decisions without input is

normal at work, but not at home. It is also more difficult to make decisions at home because

one must use the input of the family. As one leader in the study indicated, “When I make the

decision, I then communicate it for feedback.” “I take some feedback on my decisions, but

some of it is not relevant, but [it is] important to hear [it] to gain commitment.” Participants

also reported that leaders take and act upon relevant feedback, that the full implementation of

decisions is very important, and that it is important not just to prepare the policy that results

from a decision, but to ensure that such policy is implemented.

Geography. For this emergent theme, participants spoke to the influence of

geography on personality, through statements such as, “You can see the mountains; they are

tough and hard,” and, “A guy who is nervous and losses his temper very fast, he is from the

mountains.” Other responses spoke to the influence of the desert environment, indicating

that desert people have a kind of acceptance and, “need to be off [alone or isolated from

others],” unlike the people from the mountains. “In the desert, the ground is soft, it is simple,

and nothing blocks your vision; you hold the sand between your hands, [and] it flies.” Other

comments reinforce this phenomenon, indicating that the eastern region of Saudi Arabia is

more industrialized. Saudis are strongly linked to the region in which they were raised (Ali,

2009); people raised in the east and west (near Jeddah) have a soft leadership style, but

people from the mountains, “They are rigid; but it is difficult to generalize this to everyone.”

One participant reported that people from Riyadh, the capital region in the central area of

Saudi Arabia, have become like the desert, “very harsh and very tough.” Also, there are still

Bedouins in the north and south, and they continue to “value the family as being first, even in

the workplace, and this makes a problem.”

Work-life balance. For the theme of work-life balance, it is clear that relationships

are most important to Saudis, and there is little separation between the nature of relationships

within the workplace and outside the workplace. “At 4:00 p.m., they are outside having

coffee together; this is the culture, there is not separation.” If the employee is having a

family problem, it is natural for the boss to inquire on a personal level to help. Sometimes

things said outside of work can embarrass an individual at work, and people are very careful

about this. Finally, it is clear that, in this culture, family and community are not separate

from leadership style in the organization; each influences the other, as was indicated in the

literature review.

Gender. Women are seen much differently than men, according to the participants’

comments. Both Majed and Nora noted that Saudis always underestimate Saudi girls when

compared to Saudi boys. “Boys are preferred over girls, and girls should serve the boys.”

From a young age, boys are privileged, and gender roles are clearly established. Both

women in the study, Nora and Natasha, reported that women are victims of the society, and

that this is reflected on the job. Khaled shared the following thoughts: “Women are just

born different than men, not uniform, and leaders need to realize this. Women will naturally

do crazy things, and one must realize that this is the way it is.” “The woman was created

from the bone that was curved, so this impacts how you adjust your leadership.” “Women

are half-minded; they don’t do things right; they are raised with this image, that they can’t do

anything right.”

Nora further noted that

Most women feel humiliated because we don’t feel our full rights. . . . I have my driving license, I have my car, but I can’t drive to my work. I depend on my driver or my husband, or my brother . . . you can’t move.

Natasha reported that young teenage women want to experience new things and change their

lives, but that after a certain age, they accept the inequality because they want to live

peacefully, and do not want create any conflict.

Communication. All study participants reported that communication in the Saudi

culture is very important, that leaders like the people they know better, and that effective

communication makes the difference due to the higher levels of trust that result. The Arab

Spring has not yet penetrated Saudi Arabia, according to the two participants who referenced

this, but other factors supporting the malcontent of the younger generation, like the sharing

and processing of information, and open communication, are having an important impact on

organizational leaders.

Khalid shared his feelings on communication:

When something bad happens in the community or the country, people never know about it. . . . If there is a thief, they will try to calm everybody down; we are a nice family; [in this culture,] don’t publish it [the bad thing], don’t send e-mails about your stolen stuff, don’t do anything. . . . A lot of bad things, a lot of drugs, they don’t speak to that; in the US or Canada, people actually tend to share that to avoid those issues to make people aware. We have a job before us, we have to work on this.

Leadership and Followership Themes

Topic themes for Leadership and Followership included values, family and tribe,

leadership, followership, and influence of generations (Appendix J). Hamoud offered his

perspective on leader-follower relations:

Usually, we look at the old tribe, [and] there has been a good culture of listening there. That got eroded when the Saudi corporation was created based on the Western corporate model, where it is top-down. There was a good moment there, but it has eroded, with the new corporate style as a way of getting things done.

This was a position shared by only three of the participants (perhaps out of respect for me as

a Western researcher), who largely attributed the perceived erosion of leadership to other

factors such as the geographical and regional influences, individual leadership values, and the

cultural norm of respecting the elderly and authority figures.

In this study’s conceptual framework, participants identified two leadership

behaviors—listening and consultative decision making—as being characteristic of Saudi

tribal traditions. The literature suggests that leaders deal with several different types of

followers, and within the framework of situational leadership (Hersey & Blanchard, 1977),

leaders face several contradictions when attempting to influence organizational change (Ali,

1989).

One contradiction of note involves the cultural tendency of the follower to defer to

the leader (Chhokar et al., 2007; Kabasakal & Bodur, 2002); in so doing, the follower may

undermine the success of the change implementation, since this deference can result in

diffused commitment to the change. A diminished sense of follower self-identity, self-

esteem, and motivation toward contributing to the success of the change may result. The

leader then, as Nora pointed out, has a choice to either use the “carrot [reward]” or the “stick

[punishment].” Appendix J lists the specific subthemes reported by participants for the

emergent theme of Leadership and Followership relations.

Values. Participants reported that Saudi leadership values are based on the Islamic

religion, not on scientific research, although they noted they are very similar, but arrived at

differently. As a leader himself, Abdullah noted that

a leader is a role model with high ethical and moral values, and will lead you in prayer; this is very important. How to respect your people is part of the religious training and a part of the Saudi culture. Value the people and be close to them. Be benevolent, and you will have absolute power; these are some of the values taught. It is a challenge to go against the value of loving people, because it is returned to the leader who does this, but this is a problem if the leader is not qualified for the position, but is only there because he is loved.

Other participants reported similar statements speaking to the importance of moral and

ethical values. “We also value the caring of people outside of work, and we always tie

performance to personality.” “If he is not doing something that is good, then he is bad.” “In

our culture, they [leaders] want everybody to be perfect.” “Respect, virtue—as a leader, if

you show these values, then they will do anything for you.” “There is no contradiction

between Islamic values and business values,” so organizational leadership based on these

values is most effective.

A majority of participants also reported that leadership values are derived in theory

from Islam, and serve to accentuate leadership virtue, respect, and compassion, interpreted by

virtually all study participants to mean that leaders must be loving and benevolent and that

these values are reciprocal between leaders and followers. This information on leadership

values speaks to the basis of situational leadership theory, in which a leader uses the

influences of religion, people, culture, and other factors to inform behaviors, and aligns

closely with Islamic ideals (Ali, 2011; Jasim, 1987; Khadra, 1985).

Family and tribe. Participants reported that family and tribe comprise the “net” and

the most important component of the Saudi culture. The influence of Bedouin traditions

honors family name over all else (Ali, 2009). In terms of organizational leadership, this

creates a considerable problem, because it is difficult to be fair, since the family will expect

the leader to help the family member first. Larger Saudi Arabian companies are addressing

this issue by regulating and monitoring employment decisions to ensure that promotions are

based on results and merit, so it is difficult for leaders to take care of a family member if he

or she is not performing well on the job. Natasha stated that, “You have to be tough on them

while caring about them.” Natasha also reported that leadership within families is more

difficult than organizational leadership, because, “you have to live with them, so you have to

be nice, and be considerate.”

It is difficult for a Saudi organizational leader to be autocratic at home for these

reasons, and outside of work the leader must be seen as good, smart, and brave. Faisal, the

young engineer with 12 years of experience in his company, stated that

When you sit in a conference room for a meeting, you take a number and sit, and wait while the leaders come in later, and greet everyone; and you might wait forever, and you are not complaining; this is how it is on the outside also. . . . If you have a problem at work with your supervisor and you talk to this person, you might have issues; the tribes or regions you are from may influence this. . . . Bedouins are so close with their relationships to each other, and when there are problems, they are calm; they listen more carefully before making a decision; they are most influenced by the household.

As noted in the review of literature, loyalty to personal affiliations, family, and tribe

tend to take precedence over efficiency and merit when organizational leaders make

employment decisions such as hiring, promotion, and employee performance evaluation (Ali,

2009; Asaf, 1983; Assad, 2002; Muna, 2003). It may be difficult for organizational leaders

to justify this loyalty, which may support and perpetuate the use of the power-driven style of

leadership, in which leaders take advantage of their positional authority, using a directive,

autocratic, and top-down decision-making approach in order to meet the burden of their

relational obligations. The high power-distance characteristic of the traditional Saudi culture

(Ali, 1990; Bjerke & Al-Meer, 1993; Chhokar et al., 2007; Kabasakal & Bodur, 2002), which

has also served to perpetuate the power-driven style of leadership, may be giving way to a

more developmental style due to the influence of the younger generation entering the

workforce (Ali, 2011; Yamani, 2000).

One subtheme that emerged here is the role of the leader within the hierarchy outside

of the organization, and how this influences organizational structures and thinking within

organizations. Another subtheme is the way decisions are made. Within the family and

tribe, deference to elderly leaders and to certain families and tribes is practiced, and this

tradition carries over into the modern Saudi organization (Ali, 2009).

Leader and follower perspectives. Participants reported that generally, the power is

“top-down” in organizations, like a pecking order, following a clear hierarchy and chain of

command. “When we look at the old tribe, there is a good culture of listening there, [but]

this was eroded when the Western corporate model was created that is top-down.” Another

factor that influences a leader’s style is the influence of parents in the childhood years.

“Maybe in my upbringing I wasn’t cared for. This will affect my leadership style; I, too, may

not care [about others].”

Islam has a critical influence on leaders and followers, and clearly specifies that the

work of God is most important, and that God is watching. “God will reward those who are

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doing good deeds, and punish those who are not, in the life after death.” The leader-follower

relationship within organizations is clearly defined in Saudi society and informed by Islamic

principles (Soraya, 2002).

Four participants reported that the desert climate has influenced the creation of an

authoritative society, and that most change has been made by force in the past. Participants

provided examples of this in current-day Saudi Arabia, and noted the visibility of the police

and military, and the use of strict policies and procedures in some companies, which all use

force to ensure compliance, since “they feel that the Saudi is a resistant person.”

Other participant quotes provide insights into the relationship between leaders and

followers.

A senior leader going to a younger [person] to ask for IT help is not easy because of the culture, so he is smart and hides his weakness, and asks the IT guy to check what is wrong with the system.

In so doing, the leader has the technician explain what the leader does not know under the

guise that there is a problem with the system. “You cannot allow any followers to be

stronger than you as a leader [or] you will be seen as weak if you allow this.”

The apparent insecurity of the organizational leader who considers as a weakness lack

of knowledge on a particular subject, or a strong, highly competent follower may be

influenced to a degree by the strongly collectivist Saudi culture. Within the Saudi culture,

independent thought and agency are informed by the strict religious ideology; an educational

system emphasizing ethnocentric, rote learning; and the cultural artifacts derived from an

historical existence in a harsh desert environment (Ali, 1996). The additional emphasis, early

in childhood, on clearly established roles based on age and gender (Al-Faleh, 1998) may also

affect the contemporary Saudi organizational leader’s sense of agency and self-confidence.

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In addition, the ongoing comparison of some Saudi organizational leaders at various

levels with highly skilled and experienced expatriates on whom they rely to assist them in

operating their businesses may serve as a constant reminder of their leadership deficiencies.

This situation may further contribute to a leader’s feeling of inadequacy, and simultaneously

may induce the leader to show publicly a sense of security by practicing an autocratic

leadership style and surrounding oneself with loyal disciples and allies.

One organizational leadership subtheme related to the leader’s alliances to a political

network relates to the promotion of incompetent people. Abdullah noted that

my father said this company was better 20 years ago, because it was run by Americans who were fair and you were achieving a lot of things. Now, if you are a certain name, then you give others with your name a better rating, and you promote them, and then end up with people who are not competent or not very strong [as] leaders in some jobs.

In this situation, the effects of wasta are apparent (Jreisat, 1990). Abdullah and several other

study participants offered statements such as, “Respect for [the] authority of weak leaders

creates poor work decisions and nonstrategic work activities” and, “Truth is withheld to give

the boss what he wants to hear; rather, [it is better to] give promises and lies.”

Influence of generations. Participants made the point that the new generation must

be treated differently than the older generations. “They cannot be treated with the same level

of toughness.” Participants noted the influence of the younger generation since they think

they can do more and they expect more, a mindset reported as influenced largely not from the

Saudi or Middle East culture, but from the Internet, social media, and exposure to Western

education, since many students are studying internationally. This new generational mindset

clashes with the “tradition of depending upon the older thinking of older people and

generations as leaders and mentors.” “In the past, leaders have not shared information, so

people don’t understand. Now, more information is transferred and people are learning more

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about each other. This exposure has led to different thinking within the younger generation.”

Generational differences were highlighted in the literature review, noting significant

differences between those who were born before and those who were born after 1970

(Yamani, 2000).

Participants identified the ramifications of the enhanced awareness of the younger

generation as being a loss of control of people through the dissemination of vague

information; strong unification of people around certain causes; and the rapid erosion of the

traditional leader’s understanding of the younger generation. These ramifications fall within

a context in which leaders want to maintain control, stability, and structure, and some leaders

are now shifting their leadership style from autocratic to a more inspiring, motivating, and

developmental approach, giving more to their people, “because they don’t know or

understand the new generation.” Hamoud shared the feelings of Eyad, Mohammed, and most

of the other study participants on this subject:

The leader influenced by the Bedouin tradition makes all decisions, and gives orders to be executed; he resolves all issues. This style [of leadership] is like the military style, and [is] accepted by the older generations because they were all grown in the same environment. As a result, many of the new generation are quitting, terminating, or resigning; they do not see themselves fitting in to this environment.

Building on this statement, Hamoud added that the new generation needs a “super-

friendly” environment which shepherds their development. Other study participants offered

the perspective that in the past, leaders would do as they liked, and people would trust and go

along with that approach, but that now, followers are questioning what they themselves

believe to be true. The new generation is also “realizing that they have been misinformed,

since information has been withheld.” In turn, this situation is driving leaders to change from

the authoritative style to more of a participative style of leadership in dealing with people.

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A final note on this theme is participants’ reports that working with the new

generation is easier, since they have grown up with and been exposed to new, professional

ways of working and are aware of what is right and wrong. “The younger [generation] is

easier to lead, more reasonable, and not so old-fashioned, so tough, and so uptight.” But

participants also reported that, “There is a big conflict because most managers are over 55

[years old] and their approach is the old, power-driven style of leadership.”

Islam Themes

Islam topic themes are leadership, life after death, and general influences (Appendix

K). Khaled offered the following statements representing a majority of the other

participants’ feelings, leading to the identification of the theme of life after death:

You are also getting good deeds from God if you work. [We are] always referring it back [to the belief] that there is life after death. What we do here and how we do it here, and how we act with each other; we’re always referring [back to the belief] that we will be rewarded by God. And if we do something different, then God is going to be upset. It is not a scientific approach; the impact of religion has a lot on the influence [of leadership behavior].

Hussaine offered another pertinent quote:

The more stories we hear in [the] Quran, [the more] you will apply some of that [the learnings] in your work, or day—how to be fair with your followers—and you will apply that. And then you will see some other leaders who would completely ignore that fairness part. That is why I am not completely sure if Islam is affecting our leadership; [it’s] 50/50. It depends.

Nora offered that

the leadership is looking back, always saying we are going to be judged on this. The leader cares a lot about you, and the ones that don’t care are more [of the] military style. They don’t want to hurt you, because they will say, “God will punish us.”

As noted earlier, this theme speaks to the cultural norm of a strong belief in predestination

(Ali, 1996; Jreiset, 1990) as informed by Islamic beliefs. Appendix K lists the specific

subthemes reported by participants for the emergent theme of Islam, further detailed below.

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Leadership. The religion of Islam significantly influences Saudi organizational

leadership, as evidenced by participant quotes: “You have to balance between right and

wrong [halal and haran]; your religion, culture, [and] values [all] need to balance without

affecting [your] original values. If you do, you will be very successful; balance will protect

you from disaster.” “What you seek, seeks you.”

“The way our Prophet has led is used as the measuring stick, as a guide for

leadership. A lot of our leadership is based on his sayings. He says you should not push

people until they break.” “A lot of our religion [was] developed based on mentoring and

changing assignments, not so much [on] training, and looking back at the Prophet [and] how

he had done things.” “A lot of leaders are chosen for their strong affiliation with religion; if

not, there is a strong likelihood that he will not be selected [as] a leader.” “The leader needs

strong morals and ethics; the leaders who come from the West are too Westernized, they

have lost the religion, [and] they appreciate the science.”

“We believe that the Prophet came from God and he led people for years to Islam, so

he is obviously a leader. He gave people the leadership methodology, which is a prime

benchmark and aid, a guide, and one day could be discovered by the Western world.” “The

new leadership theories match those of the Prophet but were arrived at differently; scientific

versus religious. Emotional intelligence existed 1,430 years ago and is now being discovered

as an important factor.”

Other participant input regarding the relationship between Islam and leadership

included the point that leaders resist hurting people since they believe that they will be

punished by God; that the Prophet’s leadership style, which was described as developmental

rather than power driven, should be emulated by organizational leaders; that “the religion is

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always golden to all the leadership styles”; and that many leaders do not follow the Prophet’s

instructions, and can stop listening to their people when they are promoted into positions of

power. The question of whether Islam is affecting organizational leadership was also raised

since Islamic principles are ignored by some.

Participants made another point regarding the voicing of complaints; Ahmed said that

Complaining in Saudi Arabia is like a curse; no one likes complaining. This is a noncomplaining culture, but complaining is a start for a change and for improvement. When you complain here, you are actually publishing, but our religion suggests that you shouldn’t be publishing, complaining, [and] talking about certain things, even if there is an issue, in front of everybody.

Life after death. A poignant quote offered by Khaled summarizes this theme:

We are not worrying too much about the scientific approach to leadership, because we are worrying about doing good deeds and going to heaven. This is the concept here, so why worry about it? Let the Westerners find out [about leadership] and we will concentrate more on our duties, because we will get another life.

From this quote, it is clear that fatalism is a cultural norm, in the opinion of Khaled, such that

Muslims believe that their fate is largely in God’s hands (Ali, 1996; Jreiset, 1990).

General influences. The majority of participants reported that a leadership style

based on Islamic principles is the ideal, conveyed by one participant as the “respecting of

truth and justice for all humankind, not serving one person, but all persons. It is friendlier

and easier on the people.” The Prophet focused on the welfare of people, and how to care for

them and deal with their problems. Islam provides values and differentiates between what is

permitted (halal) and forbidden (haran). “In business, it is difficult to do what is needed if it

contradicts Islamic values.” During the holy month of Ramadan, the work must get done, but

only by accommodating the fasting and prayer times.

Two participants reported that sectarianism in the workplace is an issue:

You can see it in your evaluations if you are Shiite, since this is the minority to the Sunni [who are in power]. Shiites don’t receive all the rights in the workplace; [but]

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in the university, it is based more on how you perform and your degrees. You can see it in the small details like saying, “Good morning.”

In the Saudi culture, alcohol is forbidden; however,

we have some leaders who use it and we say, “Okay, that is part of the business of the leader.” Some think it clears the mind to better solve problems. This is a deviation and influencing the society to move to the scientific approach.

Finally, a particular quote from a study participant summarizes the theme of Islam:

“Islam is everywhere, it is our life. There are true believers and not true believers, [but] real

Islamic people apply the Islamic principles to everything. Islam is a habit, but there is some

weakness [in its application].”

Government and Business Themes

Government and business topic themes are government support for business,

competition, and time. Emergent topics and themes for the Saudi cultural context regarding

government and business are displayed in Appendix L. Mohammed’s comments gave rise to

this theme:

Now, what is happening is [that] the government is affecting the other sectors; it has increased the wages, and we are still running behind in the market because our wages and our compensation packages are maybe 15 years old. So what has emerged is this other thing, the [Arab] Spring, and they are starting to increase the wages. So now we are lacking, because everybody has caught up; so this affected the emergence of the new [higher rates of attrition] and is causing a disturbance. So we, as leaders, we try to look at other ways of influencing the people to stay. We have to find different methodologies.

From Mohammed’s input, it is apparent that his challenge as an organizational leader

may be similar to those of other small business owners in Saudi Arabia and other Middle

East countries. In a rapidly modernizing world with increasing global competition, the

relationship between government support and private business needs is tenuous and

challenging to varying degrees.

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The subthemes for each of the Saudi cultural context themes are reported in

Appendices I, J, K, and L as actual quotes, key words, and/or key phrases, to best convey the

descriptions of the participants’ experience of the Saudi cultural context and the reported

relationships and influences. A summary of the theme subthemes is reported in the following

sections. Appendix L lists the specific subthemes reported by participants for the emergent

theme of government and business, each detailed below.

Government support for business. Participants reported that the government of

Saudi Arabia wants people to come up with new business ideas, what they need and want,

and how and why; “they are waiting for you.” Leaders need to become better at lobbying for

what they need and at explaining the benefits for the business and country.

We are close to the American system in terms of individuality. We are not team players as businesses; we don’t have a debate and then come up with solutions for implementation. Business is a dictatorship. We don’t have a business culture like in the West, where the business community will speak out and demand and present proposals, and the government will look at and evaluate and then decide.

Participants also reported that the private sector gets enormous pressure from big

companies and nationalized companies. The lowest bidder wins contracts. “There is a

structural problem; one Saudi business will get everything for free, while another business

will have to pay for it.” The government charges for certifying business training programs.

Government institutions provide university educations for free, while private sector

businesses must pay out of pocket. The private sector operates under severely unfair

competition because it lacks the funds to provide and support training and education; “this is

due to profit margins on a barrel of oil produced by the nationalized oil company that costs

about $3.00 to produce and sells for a lot more.” One problem is that

We don’t outsource in this country, so we can’t compete due to a lack of availability of resources. It’s very difficult to develop and grow [a] business here in Saudi Arabia

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due to lack of resources, innovationist expertise, support services, and money for loans, even with technology.

Examples of lack of resources include laws, training, government service, subsidies, and

rules and regulations. “You have to figure out by yourself how to develop your business.”

“The government is an organization that is supposed to help the private sector conduct

business; a big part of this is the responsibility to train Saudis to work in their own country.”

Poor Saudis and their families do not have the money to educate themselves or the

wherewithal to excel or win a government scholarship. “An investment in people creates an

asset in our country; this is invaluable.” Other countries are investing in their people and

properly developing their social assets, and this is what Saudi Arabia is doing, sending

people all over the world; “this is the best investment for me as a business and for my

country.”

Competition. One participant reported that, “The world is changing, and we are

linked with the outside world.” A structural problem is that the lowest bidder wins the

business; for a business owner to win, the owner has to employ cheap expatriate labor

because the Saudi worker is more expensive. “This problem can be fixed by mandating a

minimum wage like the rest of the world.” If a minimum wage were imposed, an expatriate

could not compete unfairly with a citizen. “This is a serious problem in Saudi Arabia; you

cannot employ Saudis and win bids for contracts.”

When the government calls for bids on a project, they do not allow a contract

provision to hire their own citizens; “a Saudi cannot live on what we pay an Indian

expatriate.” Oil wealth has not affected small business, “because we were always the highest

paid; but now the government has increased the wages in other business sectors, so we are

running behind the market in wages and compensation packages, which are 15 years old.”

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“Western societies have lost the strong reliance on religion and rely more on the

scientific method to explain leadership; we are competing with them, so we need to balance,

but this is not really liked.”

The Arab Spring has emerged, so the government is starting to increase wages; so now everyone has caught up with us in wages, so we are lacking. This is causing a disturbance with the new employees, so as leaders, we need to find other ways to influence people to stay.

Time. Participants indicated the prevalence of a feeling that everything is changing

in Saudi Arabia. Arab culture does not value time very much; time is not a big consideration

in the culture, not an issue. “It goes back to the way we look at life, as if it’s going to end.”

Some participants reported punctuality in meetings, while others suggested the opposite, yet

generally, people try to abide in terms of attendance. Participants also felt that meetings take

a long time, and that the tasks completed in the meetings could be done outside the meetings

so that meeting would not be needed. “Meetings influence a lot. Sometimes the tasks should

be completed in 2 weeks, but [are] not completed for 6 months. Accept this, because there is

no real prayer for time.” “Saudis don’t have this idea that ‘I’m in a hurry to go nowhere . . .

but the rest of the world is in a hurry to get to nowhere.’”

Metaphors, Symbolism, and Participant Stories

In this section, I present a selection of quotations offered by different participants

during the interviews that articulate both leader and follower feelings in this study, and

provide additional insights into how the role of organizational leadership is situated within

the Saudi cultural context. The quotations illustrate the participants’ metaphors and

symbolism as well as their stories.

I talk to individuals. There is this guy I care about and I saw him yesterday, and he says, “I want to move from where I am to IT.” And we talked, and I said, “How many years?” and he says, “Five years.” And I says, “What is your salary?” and he says, “4,500 SAR [$1,200] per month.” I says, “That’s not good.” So I go Saturday and do

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something about that. One thing I will do for him is help him write a good résumé and find other positions for him company-wide, maybe for another company, because he stopped growing. So here is somebody with a high school plus another diploma that I paid for to help him find a purpose. This is what excites me, makes me happy [as a leader] at this stage in my life.

I really believe that the potential in each and every human being can be brought out if you have the right people to do that, and that is a special kind of person that can do that. You need somebody that really believes that I can make [something] out of this person, I can give him something I created over the years, that I can make his progress trip shorter, and easier, and more peaceful than a tough life.

“I never volunteer to pay a person and do his work.”

Yea, yea, I follow the Kissinger procedure, when he was asked how come he was able to read all those huge reports and make comments on them. What he says [is that] when someone brings him a report, he would write, “Can you do better than this?” and leave the document. And the person comes back for it, and he gives it to him, and the person goes and redoes it. He does the same thing again, and [makes] the same statement, “Can you do better than this again?” until the person says, “No, this is all I have, this is it.” Then he reads it.

“I believe strongly that what you seek seeks you, so then all you need to do is be on the same

wavelength: what is being sought. Just like a radio, you tune to certain broadcasting, and

you connect.”

You have to discover a road in order to start walking, and then all of a sudden you are not only walking, you are running, and all of a sudden not only running, then you are really going full speed. You are hoping to get a new channel, road, something like that.

“Carter was the best president worldwide, but he was labeled a weak president, and so is this

guy, Obama. So that is your [American] culture. You like to be tough.” “The best is the

enemy of the group. Make it good enough to go and don’t make it perfect. I go by the

passing mark. I don’t go by the 100[%], because you can do more that way.

I used to work in Utility, I used to go in the field, tightening the bolt, loosening the bolt, fixing the pump. Then I moved to the workshop where all the plant parts come to us. We overhaul them, we fix it. [Then] I moved to crane and mobile workshop. The crane is essential in making the steel. Without the crane you cannot produce the steel. I was in that department; it was a critical department to the company, and we were in charge in all of the cranes, 450 cranes; some of them [weighed] 250 tons. I

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have seen the different hazards in the environment every day, the tools. These guys are climbing up the cranes. During the process of making steel, there is a lot of fumes and gases, and dust, scrap. This action creates a lot of gases. I recognized the hazard these guys are working in. I was the supervisor at this time; I was managing more than doing the job itself; I visiting on a daily basis, or every 2 days, and see the guys. I recognize the hazard and the tough environment. I made many proposals to the management, like having elevators. They said it was a crazy idea, to think to put elevators in a crane. I take it from a safety perspective. I said, “If I am a technician, working on the crane, and I am doing maintenance, changing something on the crane, and I want to go to toilet, I will put in my mind that I have to go 30 m down to approach the toilet. I will hold myself and I will finish my job. My concentration will not be on the job 100%. My attention will go down, plus the heat.” I was ready to provide the facility to the people. I said, “I want a tea room and a toilet on top of each crane.” I was not successful. I don’t stop, I want to bring the management to the real fact. I ask the photo guy to come to the top of the crane and hang a thermometer and they want to make a movie on the process and the temperature. The temperature reaches 60°C (140° F), and the dust. When I go back to play the tape, nothing turn out; it couldn’t resist the heat. So I do it again, and luckily I convinced the management, and I have the elevators now. When I left this department, they are erecting the elevators and the tearoom. So, I get the tearoom and the elevator, so I get both of them.

“You hold the sand between your hands, it flies. It has an impact on the personality of the

people.”

[The] fly-eyed manager only looks at your dirt, and the bee-eyed manager, they only look for flowers, only looking for the good things. Culturally, at this organization, there are more fly-eyed than bee-eyed managers. Everyone is trying to protect himself. This is what it is all about. Fly-eyed people think his boss is a fly-eyed people.

My boss was a Saudi, and he was one of the bad guys. He was tough, he was good in technical, and he very bad as far as people skills. I had to have a vacation, short leave, so I went to him and said to him, “I need to take vacation.” He said, “Sorry, [you] can’t go.” Just as simple as that. So I went back to my office. I was absolutely not happy. I was sitting in my office, I wasn’t doing anything; I was in a completely different mood. All of a sudden my door was opened, and this person came in and he asked how things are; he heard about my vacation. I know he want me to talk about my vacation, [by] the way he is asking. I said, “I need at least 1 week leave; it is desperate.” So he said, “When [do] you need it?” He said, “Plan your vacation.” I said, “What about my job?” He said, “[Another name] will take your job, I will take [his] job.” I have good respect for that guy, [still] today.

The resilient, we had technicalities that required a shutdown in our plant. When our plant is shut down, 30% of our production is off. When we did our technical calculation and risk measurement, we cannot feel [the benefit of] that equipment for 1

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week that [it] can produce. ‘Til that 1 week is finished, remaining [necessary] resources will not be available. And instead of shutting down and waiting for 1 week for materials, unfortunately, at this time, we had a very rushy, very nervous operation superintendent. He heard about the equipment. He said, “Okay, shut down, we don’t want to take any risk. Just forget about it, I want to have a safe plant without any problems.” At that morning call, we did our calculation, and we were very confident, [with] 96, 97% [certainty, that] we can keep this machine running and avoid this unnecessary shutdown. He shouted at me and said, “Operations superintendent, thank you for your advice, and we will not go with your recommendation.” I said that morning [that] we should just go with [our] recommendation and not honor his recommendation, but at that time, I didn’t see any physical decision. We closed that call and I went to the manager and said “One, two, three, four, and I will be accountable and responsible for my decision. Don’t lose that profitability and just keep it running, and I will assure you that it can withstand that condition and will not be a problem.” My manager said, “Are you confident?” And [I said], “If you want me to write it on paper, I will do so.” Then the supervisors talk[ed] and we close[d] the call with that. It was very successful.

I believe there is no perfection. Intellectuals, I hear, [say], “Sometimes I overlooked something.” I accept it. Engineer[ing] work is easy to see; it is tangible; you stand and you can see it. The technicians needs time to see it. At communication meetings, major work is done by engineers. One technician came to me and said, “You just appreciate engineers.” What about technicians? From that, I keep in mind, I have to have full spectrum of work horses, even technicians.

My father says that [the company] was better 20 years ago than now; it was American system. He says [that] if you have American leader, you feel comfortable because you are human and you are achieving a lot of things. He appreciates what you are doing. And now, with Saudi system, the leader, he is [a big tribe name], he only give[s] the other guys [with the same name] better evaluation[s]. It is all about tribe and what you are doing, and to spoil your boss.

Remove the barriers between the employees and the manager. Appreciate the achievement, other than the employees herself. I am not going to appreciate you because you are not my family, or tribe. I am going to appreciate you because you are a good person, and you are doing a good job.

If you are going to be a leader, and staff, and [do good] work, you have to be a fighter, to be tough with them [while] caring about them. But [with] family, there is much [more] you have to consider. Because they are family, you are living with them further, you have to be considerate. Because work is business life. He [the leader] has to separate work and outside [of] work. With the family, you have to be more sentimental; not at work, because emotion at work is not to be [less acceptable and expected].

He should tell you, “Okay, I want this to be done. I want to build a home,” for example. Then you take decisions, where to put it, you suggest and you put things,

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what you see as the good things, what you see as the good things of the place, which contractor, and all of that [kind of] thing. Not the manager telling you everything, [and] you just follow what he just said. You bring a clerk, he will do it. There is not much of, you know, decision making [as a follower].

It’s like a car [spinning] burning its tires while it’s stopped. You are not moving, you are burning, you are working, you are making energy, but you are still . . . in the first place that you started, 20 years earlier.

I still remember the reaction of the executive director and even his assistant at that time; he didn’t know me, but when he was walking out he raised his hand and said, “[My name], excellent! You shocked me positively!” This is the first time he saw me. My presentation affected him very well; this is now why he knows my name and my face. This is the type of thing you need to do to let others know what you can do.

As you see, maybe, Riyadh was a desert, and now it’s a city. So, imagine that you are the guy who decided to convert this desert to a city. You feel proud when you see this city and you say, “Okay, it was my decision, and I work on this, and I try my best and help people to make this. It’s not only me, but in the end, I was the guy with the idea. I helped to do this. Or, at least maybe I let people see something maybe they couldn’t see. Maybe other people see desert. . . . How can we convert it to a city? It’s impossible.” So you give them the thinking of “Okay, maybe we can do it. Let’s think about it.”

“The system is there, but on the shelf. The system is in the back yard, it’s not in front of

you.”

In any picture of people, each of them has left a fingerprint, be it positive or negative. This is why I keep this picture [of a collage of positive people who have influenced me] in my office. Leave a fingerprint.

“We give them basically, a basket of lies.” “People are a mind of knowledge.” “Use the

stick for people who are damaged from the past and are skeptics.”

Success is like being pregnant. Everybody comes to congratulate you. But nobody knows how many times you were [expletive indicating copulation]ed. Those people [leaders] are looking at a result, and they congratulate you for this result. But they do not know how many of the people they were [expletive indicating copulation deleted]ed. How [much] damage we caused the people, damaging employees by decisions that were made.

“[The] danger is that this [leadership style] could turn out like Stalin in Russia or Hitler in

Germany.” “With the professional, you do not have to worry as much. Because I do not

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have to worry so much about mistakes, I do not make as [many] mistakes.” “The words

‘thank you’ are more important for [the] young generation than anything else.

When I lived in the US, I lived with an American family, [and] they have children. If they did something wrong, they [the parents] would always say, “Go and say, ‘Sorry.’” Or if I give them a candy, they would always go, [and] tell him, “[Say] ‘Thank you.’” I do not see that here in our culture. I think in the American culture, even if the child is a little shy, and [does] not say, “Sorry,” they will force him to say it. Here, if they feel shy, they will not force the child to say “Sorry,” or, “Thank you.” I think since we were young, it has affected us. I told my cousins, “You did this wrong and that affected me,” and he will say, “Yes, I did it and it’s wrong.” And then I tell him, “You need to say, ‘Sorry,’” and he said, “No [I will not],” but [he will admit that] whatever [he] did is wrong.

“If I don’t like something, whatever is in my heart is on my tongue.”

Summary of Findings

This research answered the research question, “What is your experience of the

knowledge, attitudes, and practices of Saudi Arabian organizational leadership within the

Saudi cultural context?” Each of the 15 participants provided a variety of perspectives

leading to the identification of seven main topics. Three leadership topics, leadership

knowledge, attitudes, and practices, were then differentiated into 10 themes and subthemes.

For the topic of leadership practices, a clear distinction was made between the power-driven

leadership style and the developmental leadership style. The topic of leadership knowledge

included the themes of reflection and change, self-development, dealing with people,

leadership approach or style, and success. Leadership attitudes themes identified were

people, happiness, and challenges.

Four Saudi cultural context topics were identified: relationships, leadership and

followership, Islam, and government and business. For the topic of relationships, the eight

themes were identified as affiliation, community, respect, decision making, geography, work-

life balance, gender, and communication. For the leadership and followership topic, five

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themes were identified: values, family and tribe, leadership and followership perspectives,

and the influence of generations. The topic of Islam themes included leadership, life after

death, and general influences. The last topic of government and business comprised themes

of government support for private sector business, competition, and time.

A culmination of the findings is represented in a series of metaphors, symbolism, and

stories taken from the participant interviews in the form of direct quotes. Saudi

organizational leaders and followers offered their feelings and perspectives to provide

additional insight on Saudi culture and its influence on leadership behavior, and the

consequences and challenges of both the leader and the follower in Saudi organizations.

A careful review of the reported subthemes by study participants for each of the topic

themes revealed findings related to the conceptual framework and review of literature

informing this dissertation. The first finding on the topic theme of leadership power was the

incongruence of the predominant power-driven organizational leadership style with the

Islamic and traditional cultural values espousing respect, fair treatment, and consultative

decision making.

A second, related finding of interest was that in some cases, participants may have

avoided the sharing of negative feelings and perceptions due to a number of factors which

may include the influence of Islamic teachings and beliefs regarding fatalism, the avoidance

of conflict, and a focus and striving for the ideal. For organizational leaders, the avoidance

of open expression and sharing of problems and issues can exacerbate the challenge of

creating organizational change, since a necessary precursor for change is dissatisfaction with

the current reality, a voicing and recognition of this dissatisfaction, and a willingness to

reflect on the causes and impact of certain organizational issues and problems. Further,

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organizational leaders and followers who are constrained from raising issues and voicing

opinions which may be considered in opposition to the existing leadership practices and

beliefs of those in power can become subject to their subsequent condemnation. Thus, a

general attitude of deference to authority can result in a shifting of individual and collective

mindsets—ultimately comprising organizational culture—away from one of personal growth,

accomplishment, and improvement, giving way to one of mindless conformity and

compliance as “living casualties.” The ultimate goal of organizational members in this

scenario describing the impact of the power-driven leadership style becomes survival.

Another key finding relates to the importance of loyalty in hierarchical relationships.

Since loyalty is typically a most valued attribute of followers in the Saudi culture (Ali, 2009),

a challenge may exist for many organizational leaders to ensure that followers avoid

parroting what the leader wants to hear. This shift would logically involve a leader taking

steps create follower trust, practice consultative decision making practices, encourage

cognitive dissonance and dialectical discourse within teams, and hiring and promoting of

those with diverse thinking.

A fourth key finding relates to leadership behaviors that may indicate a degree of

insecurity in Saudi organizational leaders and leadership behaviors that lead to less than

desirable results. Religious ideology, public educational processes, and highly homogeneous

collectivism lead to clearly established roles and expectations in Saudi society. When

coupled with the stress of functioning as an organizational leader against the standards of

Westernized business practices that have evolved over decades and are being applied within

the Middle East, along with the assistance of experienced expatriates in some cases, some

Saudi organizational leaders may lack self-confidence and a sense of agency.

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Finally, a major issue confronting both the Saudi society and Saudi organizational

leaders is the challenge of leading the younger generation. Generational differences dictate

the need for a shift in leadership knowledge, attitudes, and practices. Leadership behaviors

driven by a focus on the accomplishment of work may have been a logical match with the

needs of the older generation in the past, but are now shifting to emphasize a concern for the

leader’s people. The younger generation has a vastly different set of needs that include

desires for immediate gratification, short-term incentives, constant recognition, autonomy,

more rapid promotions into positions of responsibility, new challenges, and the constant flow

of a diverse amount of information. Accordingly, a developmental leadership style as

defined in the literature and by participants in this study may be most appropriate.

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

In this chapter, I discuss and share my conclusions on the interrelationship between

Saudi culture and Saudi organizational leadership. I highlight the key learnings based on the

findings presented in Chapter 4 and the review of literature provided in Chapter 2 in the form

of a summarized discussion. These highlights reference the main factors within the Saudi

culture resulting in Saudi organizational leadership strengths and challenges in effectively

leading a new generation of followers into the future. I then offer my conclusions, and close

with recommendations for future consideration in research, practice, and theory

development.

Discussion of Findings

The findings of this research are the result of the complex intersection between Saudi

organizational leadership and the Saudi cultural context. Using a categorical content analysis

(Josselson et al., 2002; Leiblich, Tuval-Maschiach, & Ziber, 1998; Marshall & Rossman,

1995), analysis of participant descriptions yielded identified themes and subthemes that

cumulatively serve to define the perceptions of both organizational leaders and followers in

terms of leadership topics and Saudi cultural context topics.

In this research, several subthemes for the emergent leadership themes were coded to

provide a broad range of insights into the experience of Saudi organizational leadership from

both the leader and the follower perspectives in this study. This knowledge is of particular

value in gaining an understanding of what Saudi leaders and followers may perceive as

prevalent leadership knowledge, attitudes, and practices, and the Saudi cultural factors

contextually influencing organizational leadership.

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The two main themes of leadership practices that emerged from this study were

developmental leadership and power-driven leadership. Also described by participants as

relationship and task-centered leadership, participants made clear distinctions between these

two categories of leadership practice, and the majority of the participants identified the

prevalent style of leadership in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia as being a power-driven

style of leadership in their organizations, while their desire was for a developmental

leadership style. There is a distinct and clear definition of these two leadership styles, and

the impact of each style is also clear. The power-driven leadership style was reported as

domineering and disrespectful of followers, serving to demotivate employees and create

feelings leading to low morale. In contrast, the developmental leadership style was linked

closely with the Prophet Mohammed’s teachings of Islam, and clearly had a positive effect

on employee motivation, morale, and loyalty, since employees feel appreciated and valued.

In every interview, participants had a tendency to accentuate the distinction between

espoused theory and the actual lived experience, clearly differentiating between the two. The

style of communication in which the desired and the current reality are both shared may be

explained by a tendency to focus on the ideal as expressed in the literature review, in which

the disclosure of less-than-optimal conditions (lived experience) is tempered by the sharing

of what should or could be (ideal experience). The use of affect in communication in which

thoughts are expressed with emotion is also a common characteristic of the Saudi culture in

this highly relational, collective society, and the expression of the ideal is manifest in this

emotional discourse. This finding substantiates the work of Ali (1993, 1996, 2009) and

Jreisat (1990).

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For the topic of leadership knowledge, the theme of reflection and change highlighted

the use of technology, modernization, media, and the influences of education in gaining

access to the larger Middle East, Arab, and global contexts. Participants reported that the

younger generation is most affected by these influences against the backdrop of a strong

history of Saudi traditions espoused by those of the older generation, who generally prefer

the way of conservative Islamic principles.

The ideals of leadership knowledge were further identified within the themes of self-

development, dealing with people, leadership approach, and success. Again, the espoused

theory of leadership was contrasted with the reality that leaders can be caught within a

daunting context of organizational politics, facing the challenge of driving organizational

improvement while balancing loyalty and deference to higher level leaders in order to avoid

career-damaging mishaps in a highly sensitized, relationship-oriented work climate.

The leadership attitude themes of people, happiness, and challenges emerged from the

participants’ descriptions of the ideal of strong relationships, and the virtues of Islamic-

principled living, including forgiveness, openness, compassion, and trust. Participants

identified mistakes, micromanagement, bureaucracy, unfair treatment, and fear of reprisal as

leadership challenges.

Another insight was the importance of happiness as a leadership attitude, referenced

many times throughout the interviews by various participants. This reflects the highly

collective nature of the Saudi cultural mindset, and the tendency toward what participants

described as a preference for a leadership focus toward the feminine over the masculine,

emphasizing relationships over tasks. This desire was reportedly realized outside of the

organization more than within, whereby leadership espouses the more task-focused,

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masculine, power-driven style in most participant organizations. One participant

summarized a leader’s effectiveness with the simple yet powerful statement, “If you make

your people happy, they will make you happy.”

Participants also reported a difference in leadership attitudes within as compared to

outside of organizations in the same individuals, and a weakening of the influence of external

cultural norms and Islamic principles to guide the practice of organizational leadership.

Investigating this phenomenon through the literature review, I found at least four factors that

may be contributing to the shift in Saudi organizational leadership behaviors from an external

orientation focused on relationships, to an internal orientation emphasizing tasks:

• the influence of modernization, marketing, and advertising practices emphasizing material wealth and consumerism (Ali, 2009), and raising the appeal of the power of wealth through position and consequent subjugation of other forms of wealth, including virtuous, Islamic leadership practices within organizations;

• the residual influence of the Ottoman invasion and autocratic, bureaucratic rule for 500 years beginning in the early 15th century (Ali, 1996; Assad, 2002);

• the past practices of Western business leaders who helped with the discovery of oil in the 1930s and 1940s, and the subsequent establishment of management processes and leadership practices adopted from the historically autocratic U.S. military model (Ali, 1996); and

• the strong affiliation with family, tribe, and religious sect which, when Saudization began in the 1990s, influenced organizational leaders to emphasize loyalty and membership as a base for employment decisions (Al-Faleh, 1998; Chhokar et al., 2007; Soraya, 2002); and the exercise of positional authority over rational transparency to justify such decisions.

In the absence of individual differentiation in the highly collective, homogenous

Saudi society, strong affiliation with religion, family, and tribe is the most important method

for defining the self. But this orientation can pose a serious problem for the organizational

leader, since external affiliations are stronger than internal affiliations. Loyalty to outside

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family and interests clearly takes precedence over company loyalty based on the participant

responses in this study.

The assumption and practice of leadership within an organization characterized by a

history of an autocratic, power-based, top-down leadership style tend to force the distancing

of the leader from known affiliations, creating a sense of vulnerability within the Saudi

organizational leader. This sense of insecurity may be mitigated by the practices of

favoritism and nepotism, and the adoption of a benevolent power-driven leadership style.

Growing access of Saudi Arabians to modern amenities, combined with the cultural

premise of the Bedouin leader who is revered and obeyed, create a compelling story that may

explain why many research participants indicated a strong desire for the power and status

resulting from the assumption of higher levels of responsibility and positional authority

within their organizations.

Against the backdrop of a conservative, tribalistic, homogenous society, rapid

modernization has resulted in a mindset of consumerism for many nationals in Saudi Arabia

and native citizens of the Arab Middle East. Wealth generated from oil and gas revenues has

resulted in the extensive hiring of expatriate laborers. The transfer of organizational

leadership from expatriates who have established highly formalized organizations and

leadership practices over the years to Saudi nationals through the process of Saudization has

been a significant challenge. In light of a culture of strong family and tribal affiliations and

the importance placed on positional power and status as a highly desired definition of the

Saudi individual, the data reflect a rift between espoused Islamic principles and practiced

leadership behaviors as reported by the participants.

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Study participants also provided insights into the nature of the ways in which cultural

norms support effective organizational leadership:

• Islamic beliefs and principles have been universally established throughout the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and serve as a moral and ethical guide within organizations.

• The tradition of respecting the elderly facilitates the transfer of knowledge.

• The focus on the importance of relationships privileges leaders who respect their followers, and can result in high levels of employee motivation and performance.

• The homogeneity of the Saudi culture can be the source of a strategic advantage for the developmental, progressive organizational leader in instituting organizational changes rapidly and efficiently in a competitive world.

• High collectivity suggests the use of a team-based approach for addressing organizational issues.

• The traditions of respect and justice enable the use of appreciative inquiry (Cooperrider & Whitney, 1999) as a methodology for driving performance improvement and employee development.

One of the study participants captured the essence of the complexity of Saudi

organizational leadership within the current Saudi Arabian cultural context: “Your

personality, mindset, and character all affect your leadership style. Your character has been

built over the years by the family, the culture, the religion, the changes, your education, and

the people you are dealing with.”

Summary

Each of the emergent themes and subthemes identified through this research

elucidates the experience of Saudi organizational leadership and Saudi cultural influences

from the perspectives of both Saudi organizational leaders and followers. Leadership topics

include knowledge, attitudes, and practices. Themes for the topic of practices include the

power-driven style and the developmental style of leadership. Knowledge themes include

reflection and change, self-development, dealing with people, leadership approach, and

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success. Themes for the attitude topic include people, happiness, and challenges. The

reported subthemes (phrases, stories, words) offered as descriptors indicate both the ideal and

the current reality as comparative standards in a particular pattern of communication

prevalent among the study participants.

Within leadership practices, the power-driven style of leadership theme, characterized

by an autocratic approach, was noted as most prevalent. In contrast,, the developmental

leadership style was most preferred by both the younger and the older study participants, and

closely matches Islamic principles, resulting in feelings of being valued and respected.

Within the topic of leadership knowledge, participants identified the importance of

technology and modernization as significant factors influencing leadership approaches to

dealing with a younger, better educated, and more informed workforce. Also significant was

the importance of balancing political astuteness within organizations while striving to drive

change as a leader.

On the topic of leadership attitudes, participants highlighted the desire for a

leadership focus on ensuring follower happiness and a preference for leadership focus on

relationships over the more prevalent focus on tasks by Saudi organizational leaders.

Another finding was the reported diffusion of the influence of Islamic principles out of

organizations, possibly due to the influences of Westernization and modernization.

Interviews results targeting the Saudi Arabian cultural context revealed four topics of

particular interest: relationships, leadership and followership, Islam, and government and

business. Themes for the topic of relationships included strong family and tribal affiliations;

the importance of community; respect for elders, fellow men, and leadership positions;

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decision making; geographic influences on personality; work-life balance; subjugation of

women in the workplace and society; and the use of affect in communication.

For the topic of leadership and followership, viewpoints from each perspective

emphasized the importance of values, but indicated a disassociation between espoused and

lived values in the workplace to some degree; the family and tribe as the centerpiece of Saudi

culture; the ideal organizational leader; and the serious challenge driving the need for a

change in leadership from a power-driven style to a developmental style, brought about by

the influx of the new generation entering the workplace.

Participants reported the emergent topic of Islam as central in every walk of Saudi

society and in its influence on organizational leadership. Islamic principles appear to closely

match the developmental leadership style. The topic of government and business identified

the elements of this relationship with specific examples in the areas of government support

for business, competition, and the perception and use of time in Saudi-led organizations.

These research findings are supported by the literature review in this study.

Conclusions regarding Saudi Arabian organizational leadership within the context of the

Saudi Arabian culture, as viewed by the study participants, include the following:

• Leadership is defined as much by the followers as it is by the leaders in any given situation (Schein, 1994).

• The followers’ projections of what the leader is and, more importantly, what the leader should be in the face of the followers’ needs, define the leader (Ali, 1996; Avolio, 2007; Bennis, 1994).

• The interaction of the leader’s traits within a given situation determines leadership behavior and success (Hackman & Wageman, 2007).

• An individual’s social and political orientation positively correlates with high power distance (Vitell, Nwachukwu, & Barnes, 1993).

• Western leadership styles defined as participative, developmental, and engaging of employees correlate strongly with Middle Eastern, Islamic principles (Ali, 2007).

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Recommendations for Future Research, Practice, and Theory Development

Against the larger backdrop of organizational leadership challenges in the Arab

Middle East, further research on Saudi organizational leadership practices should consider

building knowledge and comprehension of key leadership subthemes in a culturally sensitive

way. From this study, key subthemes impacting leadership were identified and further

clarified to complement the extant research-based body of knowledge. Subthemes included

decision-making styles, the impact of organizational leadership agency on the community,

follower affiliation, the use of power, communication practices, change processes and

methodologies, the impact of rapid modernization on leadership practices, and leadership

approaches that match the younger generation’s needs as followers.

Building on this study as a basis for future research, specific areas of potential

research lie at the intersection of Saudi cultural influences and Westernized business

practices on Saudi organizational leadership, and the evolution of internal organizational

cultures. One question to be addressed is how the effectiveness of organizational leadership

can be further developed through the infusion and assimilation of a more diverse work

culture, considering the infusion of both the younger generation and Saudi women into the

workplace.

To this end, important topics for action-research study focus include

• how Saudi Arabian organizational teams are built and operate;

• the impact of the younger generation on organizational leadership;

• the effective use of power in a highly collective, high power-distance society;

• the impact and benefits of bringing women into the workplace as leaders and followers;

• communication processes and requirements in the modern Saudi Arabian organization; and

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• The influence of Islamic principles that are brought to bear by organizational leaders in support of organizational development.

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Appendix A: Recruitment Script

Hello (Potential Participant):

(Introduction…)

As-salam ‘alaykum. This is Mark Bechtold. I hope everything is fine with you. I am

working on my doctoral dissertation study. I would like to know if you are interested in

participating in my study on organizational leadership within the Saudi Arabian context.

This would involve you and me sitting down for a 2-hour interview sometime within the next

2 weeks, if possible, during which I would record your answers to a series of questions.

Your responses would remain anonymous. I will then take your responses and those of the

other 10 participants and arrange them so that I can summarize them and draw conclusions

for my dissertation paper. I might need to contact you with a few follow-up questions at your

convenience.

(Confirmation…)

Is this something you may be interested in and have the time for? (If yes…) Great!

Let me tell you a little bit more about the purpose of the interview.

Purpose: I am interested in hearing how you experience and practice your leadership

role as a manager, what factors contribute to or influence your leadership role, and the nature

of your relationship as an organizational leader in Saudi Arabian culture.

Length: This study will involve one, 2-hour interview with me, and then one or two

short, follow-up phone calls or in-person contacts to clarify a few items from our interview. I

am targeting completion of the study within 60 days from the time we first meet.

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Benefits: You will be provided the collective results of the study if you wish. You

will also have the opportunity to reflect on your organizational leadership experience

including your knowledge, attitudes, and practices, and Saudi Arabian cultural factors that

influence your leadership style and approach.

Requirements: You will only need to set aside a 2-hour time block for us to meet,

and then be available for possibly one or two follow-up contacts from me for short

discussions to clarify any answers you provided me in the interview. You will only need to

clear your schedule for the 2 hours, relax, and enjoy sharing with your thoughts and insights

on this topic.

Do you have any questions for me? (Answer the questions…)

So, are you interested in participating in this project? (If yes…) Great! And thank

you.

What is a convenient time for us to meet, according to your calendar? (Set a date…)

If a conflict arises, please contact me at my office number [phone number] or by e-mail. I’ll

send you an e-mail indicating the date, time, and location of our meeting within 24 hours,

and I will contact you by phone the day before we are scheduled to meet to confirm our

interview meeting.

One other question for you: Can you suggest another manager who might be

interested in participating? (Record name…)

(If no…) Okay, I completely understand that you have other commitments. Can you

suggest other managers who might be interested in participating? (Record name…) (If no

one is suggested…) You can call me later, or e-mail their name(s) to me at your convenience

if you think of anyone.

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Okay, thank you for agreeing to participate in this study. A couple of questions: Are

you currently a manager within the organization? (If yes…) Great, you meet the criteria for

this study. What is your availability of the next 2 weeks? (Set agreed upon date, time, and

location for the interview) (If no…) Okay, you will not be able to participate, since this

research is targeting current managers. Thank you for your time. Goodbye.

One other thing: after this phone call, if, within the next 48 hours, you think of other

managers who may be interested in participating in this study, please forward the e-mail I

will send you to them. This e-mail will include an MS Word document attachment that will

review the purpose of the study and other information, as we have just discussed. These

individuals will then be able to contact me directly. In the interest of confidentiality, you will

not know who has agreed to participate.

Thank you again for agreeing to participate. I look forward to meeting with you on

(previously agreed upon date and time, and location…).

Thank you for your time and Ma salama.

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Appendix B: Participant Solicitation Letter

Hello Potential Research Study Participant,

My name is Mark Charles Bechtold, and I am a doctoral student at Fielding Graduate

University in Santa Barbara, California, USA. I am also a human resources and

organizational development consultant in the Middle East. I am conducting research with

Saudi Arabian organizational leaders and followers in Eastern Province organizations to

learn the ways in which they experience their roles as organizational leaders within the Saudi

Arabian cultural context.

To complete this research, I am interested in recruiting current Saudi organizational

leaders or followers. You have been identified as a possible participant in this study by a

mutual contact. If you are interested in participating, I would need to conduct a 60-minute

interview with you during the next 60 days. After the interview, I may then contact you for a

few follow-up questions, but this would be voluntary on your part. There would be no other

obligations or requirements of you in this research study.

This is an opportunity for you to contribute to new research in the field of Saudi

Arabian organizational leadership. If you are willing to participate in this research study,

please respond by e-mail to this letter and I will call you to schedule a convenient time for

the interview. Whether you participate will not be disclosed to anyone, and all information is

confidential.

Thank you for your time and consideration,

Mark Charles Bechtold Doctoral Student, Fielding Graduate University Human Resources/Organizational Development Consultant 056-538-9181 (cell)

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Appendix C: Informed Consent Form

Dear (Addressee):

As part of the dissertation for my doctoral studies at the Fielding Graduate University,

I, Mark Bechtold, am conducting research on Saudi Arabian organizational leadership.

Because you are a member of the management team at a Saudi Arabian organization, you are

being asked to take part in an interview in which I will ask you a series of questions.

As a volunteer agreeing to take part in this study, by signing this Informed Consent

Form you agree to the following:

1. Your participation in this study is voluntary

2. You will take part in an in-depth, 2-hour interview, arranged at your convenience.

3. The information you provide will remain anonymous, and you will not be

identified by name in any of the research documents. No one will know whether

you participate in this study unless you choose to disclose this information.

4. The interview will be audio-recorded and this recording will only be accessed by

me and a transcriptionist. The transcriptionist will have signed a Professional

Assistance Confidentiality Agreement (Appendix D), attached to this Informed

Consent Form.

5. I will transcribe, code, and analyze the information you provide me in this

interview along with the information from the other anonymous responses of

study participants.

6. I may contact you to speak by phone or in person for follow-up and clarification

of information you provide in this interview. At that time, I will seek your

permission to record our follow-up conversation using the same recording process

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as used in our first interview, and this information will be added to the original

information from the first interview. Your participation in any follow-up

discussions is also voluntary.

7. You will provide me with your contact information including your e-mail address,

your phone number, and your mailing address so I can contact you and send you a

summary of final results.

8. The information from all of the interviews will be stored in secured files on my

personal hard drive and a USB back-up flash drive. All data will be password

protected and stored under lock and key, with access limited to only me.

9. The tabulated and analyzed results will be used in the dissertation, and may also

be used in subsequent publications, presentations, and papers.

10. All information will be destroyed after 5 years from the conclusion of the study

by deleting all data files.

11. You have the right to withdraw from participation at any time. If you choose to

withdraw, you have the right to request that all of the information that you

provided be deleted from all notes, files, and recordings.

12. You have the option to not answer any particular question.

13. There is no payment involved for participation in this study.

14. You may request a copy of the results of the study by checking the appropriate

box on this form.

15. By signing the two copies of this Informed Consent Form, you agree to file one

copy and return the second copy to me; and agree that you have read this

agreement, fully understand it, and fully agree to participate as indicated on this

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Informed Consent Form. The Fielding Graduate University Institutional Review

Board will keep your signed Informed Consent Form in their files.

Thank you for agreeing to participate in this study. Please contact me if you require

more information at [email protected]. My cell phone number is 056-538-

9181 in Saudi Arabia.

The individual supervising my work on this study is named Fred Steier, Dissertation

Committee Chair. If you wish to contact Fred for more information, he can be reached by e-

mail at [email protected], or at the Fielding Graduate University, 2122 Santa Barbara

Street, Santa Barbara, CA, 03105.

Thank you,

Mark C. Bechtold

PLEASE READ, CHECK THE BOX, AND SIGN YOUR NAME BELOW.

I have read, understand, and agree to participate in this doctoral dissertation study conducted

by Mark C. Bechtold.

Printed Name_____________________________ Date______________

Signature________________________________ Date______________

Please forward a summary of the final results: YES NO (circle one)

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Appendix D: Professional Assistance Confidentiality Form

Research Topic: Organizational Leadership within the Saudi Arabian Cultural Context

Researcher & Affiliation: Mark Charles Bechtold, Fielding Graduate University

I, ___________(printed name of research assistant)______agree to assist Mark

Charles Bechtold in this research study titled, Organizational Leadership Within the Saudi

Arabian Cultural Context, as a research assistant and/or transcriptionist.

I understand that all participants in this study have been assured that their names and

all other identifying information, along with the full content of their responses will be kept

confidential. I agree to maintain that confidentiality. I further agree that no materials will

remain in my possession beyond the conduct of this research project, and I agree that I will

make no independent use of any of the research materials from this research project.

Signature: _____________________________________________

Date: _________________________________________________

Title: _________________________________________________

Address: ______________________________________________

Phone/e-mail address: ___________________________________

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Appendix E: Interview Protocol

Your Experience of Saudi Arabian Organizational Leadership

Name __________________________ Title _____________________ Date _____________

Organization ________________________ Years of Service ____________ Phone _______

Introduction: The purpose of this interview is to solicit your input on the ways in which you

experience Saudi Arabian organizational leadership within the Saudi Arabian culture. There

are 14 other participants in this study, and all responses will lead to the identification of the

study group’s perceived knowledge, attitudes, and practices of Saudi organizational

leadership within the Saudi cultural context. Questions are semistructured and open-ended,

supplemented by probe questions to further elicit the description of your experience.

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Appendix F: Interview Questions

1. Warm Up

a. Can you provide me with the following demographic information?

1. What is your current, permanent job title?

2. How long have you worked in this company?

3. What is your age?

4. What position do you currently report to?

5. How long have you been in your current position?

6. What other leadership positions have you held?

7. What degrees do you hold?

8. Where did you earn your degrees?

b. Can you tell me about your work and work unit?

9. What is your work responsibility?

10. How many employees work in your unit (division, department, administrative area, business line)?

11. How is your unit structured?

12. How many employees report directly to you?

2. Your Leadership Experience

a. Can you tell me about your experience as a Saudi Arabian organizational leader?

13. As a leader, what is your typical workday like?

14. How do you feel about your routine as a leader (the responsibilities, tasks, successes, and challenges)?

15. Over time, how has your leadership experience changed?

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16. What is your relationship (involvement) with your people?

17. How does this relationship affect your leadership approach and effectiveness?

18. What is your relationship with your boss?

19. How does this relationship affect your leadership?

20. What is your relationship with your colleagues?

21. How does this relationship affect your leadership?

22. Can you give me three words that describe you as a leader?

23. How have your leadership style and approach developed over time?

24. Describe a time when your felt really good as a leader. (What were you doing? What was happening? Who was involved?)

25. What do you like about being a leader? (What is exciting to you? What

is important to you? What is enjoyable for you?)

26. What is challenging for you as a leader?

27. How do you deal with these challenges?

28. Given these challenges, what would you like to change as a leader?

b. Think back on a period of time when you worked with an effective organizational leader.

29. What was this leader doing?

30. How were you involved?

31. How did this involvement affect you?

32. How does your own leadership approach compare?

c. Can you share a story of when you were influenced as a leader by one or more of your followers?

33. What happened?

34. How were you influenced?

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35. What was the outcome?

36. How did you feel?

d. Can you tell me about a time when you were very aware of the influence of the Saudi culture in your work as a leader?

37. What was happening?

38. Who was involved?

39. How were you influenced as a leader?

40. How did you feel about this?

e. Can you share with me a time when you built upon the factors of the Saudi culture to accomplish your goals at work?

41. What were you trying to accomplish?

42. What were the cultural factors at play?

43. How did these factors influence your success?

f. Summary questions.

44. As a Saudi organizational leader, what is most important to you?

Probe questions include

• Can you say more about that?

• What has led you to this conclusion?

• How does this play out?

• Can you provide an example of this?

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Appendix G: Saudi Organizational Leadership Topics, Themes, and Summarized Subthemes

Leadership Knowledge

Reflection & change

Self- development

Dealing with people

Leadership approach

Success

-Sit & think -Talk about mistakes -Be influenced -Good listener -Get assistance -Gain buy-in -Befriend technology -Starts at the top -Allow mistakes

-Read -Emotional intelligent -Grow older faster -Access info -Social network -Relate learning to practices -Watch/engage -Practice

-Judge results, not people -Be close -Convince & satisfy -Talk -Take action -Build teams -Provide comfort through change -When data goes up, nothing returns

-Transparent -Adaptable -People-oriented -Respectful -Don’t overrule -Chain of command -Hide details - Help people -Dynamic

-Get the most out of others -Find untapped capabilities -Right people in right spots -Follow-thru -Focus -Make people happy -Fine tune as you go

Leadership Attitudes

People Happiness Challenges

-Openness -Clear goals -Forgiveness -Comfort -Selection -Big heart -Loyalty -Communicate feelings

-Authority -Sharing knowledge -Caring -My voice counts -Trust -Challenges -Win-win -You shock me positively

-Mistakes -New Generation -Micromanagement -Bureaucracy -Fair treatment -Human factor -Transparency -Fear of reprisal

Leadership Practices Developmental style Power-driven style

-Interacting -Flexible/adaptable -Not placing blame -Relationships over tasks -Learning/growing -Facilitator -Challenging -Listens -Delegates authority -Transformation/innovative

-Tasks over relationships -Structure -Documentation -Deadlines -Resolve problems -Authoritative -Detail-oriented -Superior -Doesn’t know people -Firm even when wrong

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Appendix H: Descriptive Words and Phrases of the Saudi Organizational Leadership Practices Theme

Power-Driven Style Developmental Style

-Structure -Insecure -Irritating -Focus on documentation -Deadlines -E-mail updates -Mistakes not tolerated -Focus on blame -Monitor attendance -Set goals -Focus on alignment and results -Resolve problems -Use authority -Accuracy -Focus on task over relationship -Involved in day-to-day -Detail-oriented -Only talks to managers -Doesn’t know people -Going to policy and procedure -Do it right versus do the right thing -Bureaucratic -Keeps control -Micromanagement -Superior -Always giving instructions -By himself in office -Dictated by upper management -Tough -Weak -Does not want to be bad guy -Firm even when he is wrong -Tells what to do and how to do it -Not flexible -Make the boss happy -Old school -Just filling the position because all decisions go to the top -Focus on follow-up and discipline -Dictator -The work is most important -Lies at the top -Do we have the right people -Monitor budget -Review new requests and requirements -Monitor manpower levels -Older generation -Overseeing -Provide direction, comments, advice -Pointing out where we need to do more -Asking people to refocus and redistribute efforts

-Results-focused -Flexible/adaptable -Interacting/participative -Consistent and fair -Secure and trusting -Connected in and outside of work -Recognizes and rewards performance and results -Compassionate -Focuses on teamwork -Meets employee and company objectives -Direct and transparent -Communicating, sociable, and friendly -Delegates authority -Uses input to make decisions -Open mind, heart, and office -Proactive and resilient -Integrity and credibility -Makes decisions -Tough and caring -Open to feedback -Develops people -Resolves issues -Transformational and innovative -Rotates around to workstations -Conducts unit meetings each morning -Prepare reports -Host upper management visits -Listens -Teaches -Shares experience -Encourages people to raise concerns -Give people time to try in their own ways -Give space to grow -Understands critical issues -Does not over- or underestimate the issues -Not looking at the mistake as a mistake -Sees mistakes as opportunities to grow -A coaching leader -Uses appreciative inquiry -The human factor is most important -Grows into his leadership position -Personality is very clean -Full autonomy -Cares about me -Participative -Giving me challenges -Helping me -I felt I was learning -Shifting to meet new generation -More discussion

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Appendix H (continued)

Power-Driven Style (continued) Developmental Style (continued)

-My time is expensive and I don’t have a lot of time -I put my weight behind their effort to make them move -Tends to hide the full story -Passes the decision to supervisor who has to pass that message to employees -Instead of going to root cause and solution, he says we are good, we are nice -Why are we hiring expats and not Saudis? -Top-down communication -Explains to you your rating is lower than he gave you because top management downgraded -Assigns many unplanned projects by e-mail with tight deadlines -Starts a project but after a while it loses its momentum and is forgotten -Reactive mode more than proactive -Demands weekly reports -Asks for input and it goes up but not (back) down

-Self-led teams -Getting away from PowerPoint presentations -Assign projects and research -Facilitates -Try to stay away from people’s path -Trying to get out of the box

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Appendix I: Saudi Arabian Cultural Context—Relationship Topic Themes and Subthemes

Affiliation Community Respect Decision making

-Responsible for family

-Family orientation

-Your growth equals their lifestyle

-Choose between family and work

-Family name is more important than qualifications

-Preferential treatment

-First question: What is your tribe?

-Most important, be loyal to tribe, even if they are wrong

-Pride in name

-At work, I just care what you do, not who you are

-What is your contribution?

-Emphasis on getting to know the family, the person, family issues

-The sense of individual entity comes from tribal affiliation and the way we are raising people

-Father-son relationship is based on loyalty

-To understand a leader’s success, look at his people, not him

-If a leader is successful, his people will be happy

-Leader cannot be successful by himself

-If I make them happy, they will make me happy

-Team is more important than the individual

-Self-satisfaction and goodwill are key

-We celebrate every success

-Helping to solve family problems is being a part of the team

-Supposed to say, “the company first, then me,” but it’s opposite

-On paper, it’s the company, but individuals look at their interest, their increase, their promotion

-Many employees have other outside businesses

-The primary motivator is themselves, not the company

-There are still real barriers between Saudis and expats

-This is critical: don’t criticize others’ mistakes

-Don’t label others

-Don’t do anything to embarrass yourself, family, or tribe

-Don’t want others to ever feel bad

-Respect gets more respect

-With this company, you get more respect by default because you are benefiting the country

-Reprimanding is done behind closed doors, otherwise all smiles on our faces

-Never talk about what went on behind closed doors

-Shouldn’t show displeasure

-Respect is very important

-Respect results in reward

-Reward is a way of saying “Thank you” and they go beyond the expectation

-When you are a leadership imposter, people have so little respect, you will be as stressed as they are

-Be careful of boundaries

-Committing to do something is part of a person’s individual entity

-It’s not only about business, it’s about “man-to-man”

-If committed, they will go beyond the duties called for, and leaders need to tap into this

-Usually older makes decision without listening to younger

-Making decisions without input is normal at work, but not at home

-More difficult to make decisions at home because you have to use input of the family

-I make the decision, then communicate it for feedback

-I take some feedback on my decisions, but some of it is not relevant, but important to hear to gain commitment

-I take the feedback points that are relevant and act on them

-The full implementation of decisions is very important

-It’s not just to prepare the policy, but to make sure it is implemented

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Appendix I (continued)

Geography Work-life balance

Gender Communication

-You can see the mountains, they are tough and hard

-A guy who is nervous and losses his temper very fast, he is from the mountains

-People from the desert, they have a kind of acceptance

-Desert people need time to be off, not like people from the mountains

-In the desert, the ground is soft; it is simple and nothing blocks your vision; you hold the sand between your hands, it flies; it can impact the personality of the people

-More industrialized in the Eastern Region

-Saudis are strongly linked to where they are raised

-People raised in east and west have a soft leadership style, but mountain people, maybe they are rigid; cannot generalize, but there is a link

-In Riyadh, they become like the desert, very harsh and very tough

-You cannot distinguish the bedouins as before

-There are still bedouins in the north and south, and still think family is most important; this is how they are different; the family members are first, even in the worksite, and this makes a problem

-The Saudis are after relationships; this is more than enough; it’s not just about supervisors and employees; at 4 PM they are outside having coffee together; this is the culture, there is not separation

- If the employee is having a family problem, it’s natural for the boss to inquire on a personal level to help

-Sometimes the things you say outside of work could embarrass you at work; you need to be very careful; Saudis don’t distinguish between these things

-You cannot separate your family and community from your management style

-The Saudi woman is a different thing

-We always underestimate the Saudi girls

-The females see themselves as the victims of society, and reflect this on the job to the males

-They say women are just born to be different; not uniform; you have to realize that as a leader

-The woman will naturally do crazy things; you have to realize that this was the way she was created

-The woman was created from a bone that was curved, so this impact how you adjust your leadership

-They prefer boys more than girls

-The girls should serve the boys

-Women are half-minded; they don’t do things right; they are raised with this image; women can’t do anything

-Most women feel humiliated because we don’t feel our full rights

-I have my driving license, I have my car, but I can’t drive to my work; I depend on my driver or my husband, or my brother; you can’t move

-Maybe the teenagers want to experience new things, they want to change their lives, but after a certain age they accept it because we want to live peacefully; we don’t want any fight or conflict

-In our culture, communication is very important

-Leaders like the people they know; communication makes the difference; they give them more trust

-The Arab spring is totally different; it is not yet penetrating the country, at least at the working level, but the other factors, like IT are impacting how people are receiving, processing and communication information

-If something bad happens in the community, we never know about it; if there is a thief, they will try to calm everybody down; we are a nice family, don’t’ publish it (the bad thing), don’t send e- mails about your stolen stuff, don’t do anything

-A lot of bad things, a lot of drugs, they don’t speak to that; in the US or Canada people actually tend to share that to avoid those issues to make people aware; we have a job before us; we have to work on this

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Appendix J: Saudi Arabian Cultural Context— Leadership and Followership Topic Theme and Subthemes

Values Family & tribe

-Benevolent leaders

-Absolute power of leaders

-Employee is becoming less subordinate

-Leadership is based on religion, not scientific research

-Leader as a role model

-Leader will lead you in prayer; this is very important

-How to respect your people is part of the training and part of the Saudi culture

-Be close to the people or they will dis-attach

-Be close to unleash the potential in your people

-He is a leader because he is qualified, not because we love him; this is a challenge; at least we have a system that guides

-Care for your people outside of work

-We always tie performance to personality

-If he is not doing something that is good, then he is bad

-In our culture, they want everybody to be perfect

-Respect, virtue; as a leader if you show these values then they will do anything for you

-The family, the net, the tribe are most important

-For the last 20 years it has been difficult for a leader to be fair, because the family will instruct him to help the family member

-The company monitors to see who is doing well so they can give him a promotion

-The guy who is sleeping, let him sleep, or maybe kick him out despite his name

-The bedouin tradition honor family name over all else

-It’s difficult for a leader to not take care of a family member if he is not doing good

-Leaders prefer the guys they know and like, with the same skills

-Evaluations are based on personal experience, not work experience; this results in incompetent people or weak leaders

-You have to be tough with them while caring about them

-With family, because you are living with them, you have to be considerate

-Even outside work he has to be a leader, but with limitations; he must be nice

-It is difficult for a leader to be a leader on one side (autocratic style); it is difficult for the family, especially if he is fair, because he has to live with them

-There is a lot of pressure on a leader outside of work to be good, smart, brave

-I want to be the best; that is good except when you distinguish between the personalities and work; that can create a lot of damage

-When you sit in the conference room for a meeting, you take a number and sit, and wait while the leaders come in later, and greet everyone, and you might wait forever and you are not complaining; this is how it is on the outside also

-If you have a problem at work with your supervisor and you talk to this person, you might have issues; the tribes or regions you are from may influence this

-Generally, the power is top down

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Appendix J (continued)

Leaders & followers Influence of generations

-My leadership style started outside the company

- Bedouins are so close with their relationships to each other, and when there are problems, they are calm; they listen more carefully before making his decision; he is most influenced from the household

-When we look at the old tribe, there is a good culture of listening there; this was eroded when the Western corporate model was created that is top-down

-Maybe in my upbringing I wasn’t cared for; this will also affect my leadership style; I too may not care

- The religious influence; that you should work as God would lead you; to do good; that if you don’t, God is watching; you will get rewarded if you are doing good deeds; there is life after death and we will be rewarded or punished

-The hard desert climate influences the society to be an authoritative society; the culture is mostly force; the military, the company the police, they are based on the use of force because they feel that the Saudi is a resistant person

-Western societies have lost the strong reliance on religion and rely more on the scientific method to explain leadership; we are competing with them so we need to balance, but this is not really liked; in our culture, alcohol is forbidden, however we have some leaders who use it and we say, okay, that is part of the business of the leader; some think it clears the mind to better solve problems; this is a deviation and influencing the society to move to the scientific approach

-Your personality, mindset and character; your character, by family, culture, religion changes, education, and people you deal with over the years

-The world is changing and we are linked with the outside world

-You have to balance between right and wrong, Halal, Haran, your religion, culture, values; need to balance without affecting original values; if you do, you will be very successful; balance will protect you from disaster

Technology; a senior leader going to a younger to ask for help is not easy because of the culture; so he is smart and hides his weakness, and asks the IT guy to check what is wrong with the system;

-We say “Americanized” because the Americans were handling business but the Saudis were inexperienced, so there was never a “Saudi way” versus an “American way.”

-The new generation must be raised to a certain point, not with toughness; must be aware of everything and be treated nicely

-Corporations, the Middle East, all over the world, are being influenced by the new generation

-They are thinking they can do more, and expect more too

-It is not something that came from the Saudi or Middle East culture, but from the internet and social media

-A lot of people depend on traditions and the ways of thinking of older people; older generations are mentors

-In the past leaders have not shared information, so people don’t understand; now, more information is transferred and people are learning more about each other

-We can no longer control people by giving them vague information

-People are becoming strong by uniting

-Leaders want to maintain stability and structure

-Leaders are in the dark and don’t know much about this change brought by the new generation

-This is having the effect on leaders to give more to the people because they don’t know or understand the new generation

-Before, Saudi Arabia was secluded and leaders could do as they liked and the people would trust and go

-People are starting to question and realizing that they have been misinformed since information has been withheld

-The leaders realize that to deal with people who are starting to ask for their rights, they need to move from the authoritative style to a more Western style of dealing with people

-We have to change right now; everybody is asking questions, should we adapt? What are the minimal losses?

-The factors for success include strong leadership with honesty and integrity; too much strength without integrity and honesty will destroy the business; if you have an honest and nice guy as a leader, but he is not strong enough to lead the team, then more problems

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Appendix J (continued)

Leaders & followers (continued) Influence of generations (continued)

- My father said this company was better 20 years ago because it was run by Americans who were fair and you were achieving a lot of things; now, if you are a certain name, then you give others with your name a better rating, and you promote them and then end up with people who are not competent or not very strong leaders in some jobs

-Respect for authority by weak leaders creates poor work decisions and nonstrategic work activities

-Truth is withheld to give the boss what he wants to hear; rather, give promises and lies

-You cannot allow any followers to be stronger than you as a leader; you will be seen as weak if you allow this

-What you seek, seeks you

-The way our prophet has led is used as the measuring stick; as a guide for leadership; a lot of our leadership is based on his sayings; he says you should not push people until they break

-A lot of our religion developed based on mentoring and changing assignments, not so much training, and looking back at the prophet can how he had done things

-A lot of leaders are chosen for their strong affiliation with religion, if not, there is a strong likelihood that he will not be selected a leader

-The leader needs strong morals and ethics; the leaders who come from the West are too Westernized, they have lost the religion; they appreciate the science

-We believe that the prophet came from God and he led people for years to Islam, so he is obviously a leader; he gave people the leadership methodology, which is a prime benchmark, and aid, a guide, and one day could be discovered by the Western word

-The new leadership theories match those of the prophet but were arrived at differently; scientific vs. religious; emotional intelligence existed 1430 years ago and is now being discovered an important factor

-Among leaders, there’s not too much caring

-The higher you move up, the more you have to care about others

-Theory X management style is prevalent

-More militaristic than tribal

-Driven by tribal affiliations

-Many leaders chosen because of family and tribe

-Leadership is a combination of military style, tribe name, and a little bit of religion

-Some are extreme while some try to balance

-It is very rooted into the people, accepting some things and not others

-There is no contradiction between Islamic values and business values

-Our young people are studying internationally, and they come back different than when they left

-Now, the leadership style is 50/50, power-driven vs. developmental style

-Leaders are learning that they need to use the new approach to inspire, motivate and develop people, but they are strongly influenced by the current leadership style of power-influence; this power-driven style is what is most currently respected and leads to the most rapid promotion

-Bedouin culture teaches strong leadership skills

-The Bedouin leader makes all decisions, and gives orders to be executed; he resolves all issues; this style is like the military style and accepted by the older generations because they were all grown in the same environment; as a result, many of the new generation are quitting, terminating, or resigning; they do not see themselves fitting in to this environment

-Bedouin is more task oriented rather than human

-The new generation needs a user-friendly environment where their development is being looked after

-In the Saudi culture, if you ask people who the best leaders are, they will say those who are very strong, pushing people, demanding, listened to and his requests are implemented; vs. the one who inspires, motivates and develops his people

-The power-driven style is most dominant still, and this leader is most interested in his influence; this drives him to be dominant in meetings; when making jokes, making sure their jokes are the most dominating

-The power-driven style is about getting results, whether through the military or developmental style

-It is easier to lead the new generation; they have grown up with the new, professional ways of working; they are aware of what is right and wrong; there is a big conflict because most managers are over 55 and their approach is the old, power-driven style of leadership

-The younger is easier to lead; more reasonable and not so old-fashioned, so tough, and so uptight

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Appendix K: Saudi Arabian Cultural Context—Islam Topic Themes and Subthemes

Leadership Life after death General influences

-Leaders don’t want to hurt you, because they believe they will be punished by God

-The prophet was sent from God, so we refer to his leadership style, which is the new (developmental) style, but the old style (power-driven) is remains

-Islam spoke more to the poets than the scientists, so to convince the scientists, leadership needed to be linguistic-based; the people were convinced through the use of language that Islam came from God; whereas in Christianity, Jesus Christ had to perform miracles (i.e., cure the blind) to convince people to worship God, because people were more scientifically-minded

-The religion is always golden to all the leadership styles

-Most Muslims don’t act like Muslims; leaders don’t follow the prophet’s instructions; Once they get into positions of power, they feel they can stop listing to their people

-Group work is difficult in our culture; we are raised to keep our problems silent

-When some leaders or people hear stories from the Quran, they will apply some of what you learn in your daily work, like how to fair, but others will ignore this; this is why I’m not sure if Islam is affecting leadership

-Complaining in Saudi Arabia is like a curse; no one likes complaining; this is a noncomplaining culture, but complaining is a start for a change and for improvement; when you complain here, you are actually publishing, but our religion suggests that you shouldn’t be publishing, complaining, talking about certain things, even if there is an issue in front of everybody

-If you publish, you might face retribution: a person might not serve you, or will delay service, or say a document is missing

-Some believe that not talking about problems is an Islamic principle, but this is not true, this is a bad interpretation of Islamic principles

-We are not worrying too much about the scientific approach to leadership, because we are worrying about doing good deeds and going to heaven; this is the concept here, so why worry about it, let the Westerners find out and we will concentrate more on our duties because we will get another life

-Leaders are not looking at leadership from a scientific perspective, but rather from a religious

-The power-driven leadership style is not from Islam

-The Islamic leadership style is respecting of truth and justice for all humankind, not serving one person, but all persons, more friendlier, and easier on the people

-The leadership style espoused by Islamic teaching matches that of the scientific style derived by the West; the prophet was focused on people, how to take care of them and not offend them, how to deal with their problems and help them and pray for them

-From Islam, we have values; some things are Halal (permitted) while some are Haran (forbidden); in business, it is difficult to do what is needed if it contradicts Islamic values

-During Ramadan fasting during working hours affects the business; you have to make sure the work gets done while accommodating fasting and prayer times

-Islamic laws will not contradict best business practices, but will improve and grow the success; this is debatable in some people’s minds

- The Quran says that the best you are going to get are the strong and the honest

-Sectarianism is an issue in the workplace; you can see it in your evaluations if you are Shiite since this is the minority to the Sunni; Shiites don’t receive all the rights in the workplace; in university, it is based more on how you perform and your degrees; you can see it in the small details like saying “good morning”

-Islam is everywhere, it is our life; there are true believers and not true believers; real Islamic people apply the Islamic principles to everything; Islam is a habit, but there is some weakness

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Appendix L: Saudi Arabian Cultural Context— Government and Business Topic Themes and Subthemes

Government support for business Competition Time

-The government wants people to come up with new business ideas and what they need and want, how, and why; they are waiting for you -Leaders need to be better at lobbying for what they need and explaining the benefits for the business and country -We are close to the American system in terms of individuality: we are not team players as businesses; we don’t have a debate and then come up with solutions for implementation; business is a dictatorship -We don’t have a business culture like in the West, where the business community will speak out and demand and present proposals and the government will look at and evaluate and then decide -The private sector gets enormous pressure from big companies and nationalized companies; the lowest bidder wins contracts -There is a structural problem; one Saudi business will get everything for free, while another business will have to pay for it -The government charges for certifying business training programs -Government institutions provide university educations for free, while private sector businesses pay out-of-pocket -The private sector operates under severe unfair competition because it lacks the funds to provide and support training and education; This is due to profit margins on a barrel of oil produced by the nationalized oil company that costs about $3.00 to produce and sells for a lot more -One problem is we don’t outsource in this country so we can’t compete due to a lack of availability of resources -It’s very difficult to develop and grow business here in Saudi Arabia due to lack of resources, innovationist expertise, support services, and money for loans, even with technology - Lack of resources includes laws, training, government service, subsidies, and rules and regulations. -You have to figure out by yourself how to develop your business -The government is an organization that is supposed to help the private sector conduct business; a big part of this is the responsibility to train Saudis to work in their own country -The poor Saudi and his family doesn’t have the money to educate themselves or the wherewithal to excel or win a government scholarship -An investment in people creates an asset in our country; this is invaluable - Other countries are investing in their people and properly developing their social assets; this is what Saudi Arabia is doing, sending people all over the world; this is the best investment for me as a business and for my country

-A structural problem is that the lowest bidder wins the business; for him to win he has to employ cheap expatriate labor because the Saudi is more expensive; this problem can be fixed by mandating a minimum wage like the rest of the world; this way, an expatriate can’t compete with a citizen unfairly; this is a serious problem in Saudi Arabia; you cannot employ Saudis and win bids -When the government calls for bids on a project, they don’t allow a contract provision to hire their own citizens; a Saudi cannot live on what we pay an Indian expatriate Oil wealth has not affected small business because we were always the highest paid, but now the government has increased the wages in other business sectors so we are running behind the market in wages and compensation packages, which are 15 years old -The Arab Spring has emerged so the government is starting to increase wages so now everyone has caught up with us in wages, so we are lacking; this is causing a disturbance with the new employees, so as leaders, we need to find other ways to influence people to stay

-Everything is changing in Saudi Arabia -Arab culture does not value time very much; time is not a big consideration in the culture; not an issue -It goes back to the way we look at life, as if its going to end -There is punctuality in meetings, and generally people try to abide in terms of attendance -Meetings take a long time; the tasks completed in the meetings could be done outside the meetings so they wouldn’t be needed -Meetings influence a lot; sometimes the tasks should be completed in 2 weeks, but it is not completed for 6 months; accept this, because there is no real prayer for time -Saudis don’t have this idea that “I’m in a hurry to go nowhere” but the rest of the world is in a hurry to get to nowhere

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Mark C. Bechtold, PhD, MA, EdM, SPHR

Dr. Bechtold is an experienced and personable human resources and organization

developmental professional, currently working in Saudi Arabia. His practice focuses on

organizational redesign and restructuring to drive performance improvement and optimize

human capital systems. He prioritizes relationship building to partner effectively with

constituents and colleagues to plan, implement, and sustain organizational development

strategic initiatives. His work experience includes assignments in North and South America

as well as Asia and the Middle East.

Dr. Bechtold holds a bachelor’s degree in environmental science and education from

Springfield College, and a master’s in education in human resources management and

organizational development from Oregon State University. He also earned a master’s in

human development and, with this dissertation research, a PhD in human and organizational

systems from Fielding Graduate University. His professional credentials include Senior

Professional in Human Resources (SPHR); ASTD Certified Coach for Management,

Leadership Development, and Change Management; Qualified Emotional Intelligence

Instructor/Coach; Certified Situational Leadership Instructor; and Qualified Myers-Briggs

Type Indicator® Trainer and Consultant.

A frequent international speaker, Dr. Bechtold has also served as an adjunct professor

for related business topics. His publications include “Improving Worker Morale Through the

Use of Appreciative Inquiry” (2011) in the Industrial & Commercial Training Journal, and

“The 21st Century Leader at Saudi Aramco” (2013) in The Arabian Sun.