Organizational Motivation

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The Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors

for Teacher Motivation

Harun GULTEKIN1, Erkan ACAR2

Abstract

Education researchers and school administrators have faced the challenge of

motivating teachers to higher levels of performance. In this regard, teacher mo-

tivation increases classroom performance and, accordingly, improves schooling

and the overall quality of the school system. The purpose of this paper is to

investigate the different types of motivational factors, both intrinsic and extrinsic,

that influence teacher performance and contribute to teacher motivation.

Keywords: intrinsic and extrinsic factors, teacher motivation, social cognitive

learning theory, and teacher performance.

Introduction

It is a common belief that a teacher’s motivation - strongly related to the desire

to be involved in the educational process - is an essential component of classroom

effectiveness and improvement (Good & Brophy, 1994). The role of motivation in

classroom learning and performance can affect both new learning and the perfor-

mance of previously learned skills, strategies, and behaviors (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). The purpose of this paper is to explore the different types of

motivational factors, both intrinsic and extrinsic that influence teacher perfor-

mance. The purpose of this paper is to explore various sources of intrinsic and

extrinsic factors, especially those which contribute to teacher motivation. The

theoretical framework of this paper is based on Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive

Learning Theory and on the educational philosophy of Turkish scholar Fethullah Gülen. The following section will define and discuss the concept of motivation.

The remainder of the paper will discuss several intrinsic and extrinsic teacher

motivational factors and analyze their contribution to teaching effectiveness.

1 Alvernia University, PA, USA. E-mail: [email protected]

2 Suleyman Sah University, Istanbul, TURKEY. E-mail: [email protected] (corresponding author)

Working together www.rcis.ro

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Motivation

The word motivation is a general term that can be related to a complex series

of physical and mental behaviors. According to Green (2002), motivation is an

internal state that activates, guides, and maintains behavior. Gagne (2004) con-

siders it to be a condition that facilitates the development of high achievement. Wlodkowski and Jaynes (1990) define it as a value and a desire for learning, Kim

(2000) as inner striving conditions, such as wishes, desires, and urges, which

stimulate the interest of a person in an activity. Motivation, therefore, is generally

considered to be an inner state that stimulates and triggers behavior. Kleinginna

and Kleinginna (1981) support this, defining it as an internal condition that serves

to activate or energize behavior and give it direction. Thus, teacher motivation sets teachers in motion and makes them do things (which may or may not be

worth doing), in order to reach their goals.

The sources of motivation can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. According to

Deci and Ryan (1985), intrinsic motivation refers to the motivation necessary to

engage in an activity because that activity is enjoyable and satisfying. Woolfolk (2001) explains that intrinsic motivation involves internal, personal factors such

as needs, interests, curiosity, and enjoyment. In Woolfolk’s view, intrinsic moti-

vation is the primary attitude in education. Alexander (2006) argues that intrinsic

motivation emanates from personal interests and inherent feelings of satisfaction.

Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is derived from the influence of some kind of external incentive, distinct from the wish to engage in education for its

own sake. It is concerned with factors outside the classroom. In extrinsically

motivated behaviors, actions are performed to achieve some kind of result, such

as earning rewards or avoiding a negative consequence (Covington, 2000). Con-

sequently, an effective understanding of teacher motivation necessitates the analy-

sis of motivational factors based on their extrinsic or intrinsic nature. There are various theoretical approaches that shed light on the distinct aspects of teacher

motivation. In this paper, Bandura’s and Gülen’s contributions will be examined.

Theoretical framework

Social Learning Theory: Bandura and Motivation

Many educational theories focus on modeling, which is an outcome of moti-

vation. According to Social Learning Theory (SLT), which first emerged in the

late nineteenth century, people learn from one another, through observation,

imitation, and modeling. Albert Bandura, who is one of the leading proponents of

SLT, introduced many SLT concepts into the educational field in the 1960s. He focused on the centrality of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and

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emotional reactions of others. Bandura states: “Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of

their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is

learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an

idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded

information serves as a guide for action” (Bandura, 1997: 22). Bandura claims

here that if people had to rely solely on trial and error in order to learn, it would take them a very long time to learn even simple tasks. In addition, many of us

probably wouldn’t live very long if, say, the only way you could learn not to run

out into the street is by getting hit by a car. The influence that others have on

behavior and the importance of modeling were noted likewise by Eggen and

Kauchak (1997). Bandura’s social cognitive theory also points out individual

capabilities. This approach is reminiscent of Maslow’s (1954) concept of “self actualization,” which states that human beings search for higher-level qualities

such as creativity, maximum consciousness, and wisdom. This school of thought

maintains that these potentials can and must be developed by proper upbringing,

education and various motivational factors. In the case of education, students’

potential can be developed and utilized by motivating teachers. Thus self-actua-

lization is closely connected to motivation. According to Bandura (1986), people are capable of symbolizing, learning through modeling, having forethought, self-

regulating, and self-reflecting. They are not only reactive to situations, but also

proactive and anticipative, and they function as regulators and self-evaluators of

motivations and actions (Bandura, 2001). In other words, people are not simple

stimulus-response machines. They will prepare for what they think is going to happen, and they can initiate their own behaviors. People are organisms with

aspirations and the capacity for anticipatory self-control with regard to behavior

(Bandura, 1991). Consequently, motivation is not only central for self-actua-

lization, but is also highly correlated with self-reflection and modeling.

Another educational approach to modeling and motivation is proposed by a contemporary thinker, and well-known Islamic scholar Fethullah Gülen self-

actualization can be understood as the search for the maximum level people can

achieve. This level concerns not only physical development, but also the spiritual

acquisition of full human potential. The individual actualizes his or her true

potential and enjoys the ensuing delights and pleasures. Maslow (1954) also

points out that self-actualized people, even though they have everything, maxi- mize their potential and seek even more knowledge, justice, esthetic experiences,

self-fulfillment, etc. A Turkish scholar and educational reformer, Fethullah Gülen,

has extensively contributed to the theoretical debates of self-actualization and

achievement and his contribution well deserves our attention.

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Gülen’s Educational Vision

Gülen is a self-educated Turkish educationist and well-known author, whose

ideas have inspired a social movement since the 1970s. The Fethullah Gülen

Movement is a faith-inspired civil society movement named after Fetullah Gülen,

for ease of reference. By its participants, however, it is often called hizmet or volunteer services (Movement) .The Gülen Movement, originating in Turkey,

focused on educational and intercultural dialogue activities. Today, the movement

has reached a global scale, involving intercultural and educational institutions at

all levels in more than a hundred countries, as well as media outlets and business

initiatives. The Movement originated in Turkey and has activities in 115 countries,

and has established a particularly strong presence in Central Asia, Europe, Africa, The United States, and other places around the global scale (Gülerce, 2009). In

the early 1980’s Gülen and his associates’ vision had led the beginnings of a

enthusiastic educational project of building educational institutions all over the

world (Nelson, 2005). However, Gülen’s teachings provide the theoretical frame-

work for the movement’s educational activities. Mainly in Turkey, Turkish bu-

sinessmen fund educational institutions which are staffed with a young generation of altruistic teachers. The educational and intercultural emphasis of the Gülen

movement has recently come to the attention of Western scholars. According to

Thomas Michel (2001), the Vatican’s secretary for interreligious dialog, Gülen’s

educational vision is one that embraces societies throughout the world. Gülen’s

ideas, especially on education, provide a valuable contrast to Bandura’s social learning theory. The following discussion will focus on Gülen’s theory of edu-

cation and its contribution to teacher motivation. Additionally, Gülen’s philosophy

has motivated many individuals not only within the profession of teaching but

also the individuals outside the profession. Teachers adopting Gülen’s under-

standing aim to become the builders of the future, founders of a peaceful, harmo-

nious, progressive and prosperous society, and constructors of human personality

Gülen’s educational theory is based upon four dimensions (Aslandogan &

Cetin, 2007). The first involves the concept of a paradigm: teachers are accus-

tomed to thinking systematically and/or working in a comprehensive tradition. In

other words, they should avoid anarchy in thought or action. Also, they should not

allow themselves to be dragged along by anything novel in the name of change and development. A teacher should not be attached to novelties introduced at

random; instead, he or she should evaluate all material according to established

and universally accepted norms and values. This does not mean that the teacher

should remain indifferent to new developments and methods, but should be able

to adapt new developments to the basic paradigm. Otherwise, what Kuhn (1962)

calls a “paradigm shift” happens. However, Gülen does not categorically reject the notion of a “paradigm shift” in the field of education: Gülen himself introduces

a “paradigm” that initiates a new understanding and attitude towards the teaching

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profession. He believes that only education can solve society’s problems. In this solution, teachers are the primary actors.

Altruism is the second dimension of Gülen’s educational paradigm. In other

words, he calls for elimination of selfishness and the establishment of a spirit of

community service in education. His motivational efforts began with teachers and

potential sponsors. Through his speeches in many different places, he motivated college students to choose the educational field as their profession. He sees

altruism as the key factor to convincing business owners and entrepreneurs to

sponsor educational projects (Aslandogan & Cetin, 2007).

The third is a social dimension which brings stakeholders or communities

together. Gülen thinks that political elite which is distanced from society cannot bring about improvements in education. Instead, altruistic teachers who see edu-

cation as a noble profession are deemed essential, as is the formation of an

educator-parent-sponsor triangle. Teachers, administrators, educational policy

makers, parents, entrepreneurial sponsors, and civic leaders - in short, almost

every segment of society - need to play a role in these educational activities (Unal

& Williams, 2000).

The fourth dimension consists of the synthesis of the heart and the mind,

tradition and modernity, and the spiritual and the intellectual. Gülen highlights

the importance of sound reasoning for every individual, while promoting spiritual

values as a guide for the intellect. He holds that the most favorable way should be the middle way between a self-centered individualism and a collectivism that

encourages a sense of social responsibility but does not deny individual rights

(Gülen, 2005). He promotes the sense that, as humans, people have the respon-

sibility to serve their community. He also frames individual rights as uninfrin-

geable for the greater good without an individual’s consent (Kuru, 2003). Perhaps

Gülen’s most crucial synthesis is that he is able to achieve, in theory and practice, a harmony of science and religion, reason and faith (Gülen, 2005). Teacher

motivation is deemed to be central in both Bandura’s and Gülen’s theories.

Bandura’s approach points out both extrinsic and intrinsic factors in teacher

motivation. Gülen’s teachings on teacher-parent-sponsor relations and the adap-

tation to external circumstances highlight the extrinsic factors in teacher moti-

vation, while altruism and modeling emphasize the intrinsic. A closer analysis of intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors will enable us to better identify the

contributions of Bandura and Gülen to the study of teacher motivation.

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Motivational Factors

Common intrinsic motivational factors

1. Desire to participate the teaching-learning process, and management style.

According to Curless (2000), one’s teaching philosophy can and does affect the

teaching-learning process. In order to deal with complex role demands in the

routine of teaching, one has to understand styles of student learning in a new

educational paradigm that has been constructed, refined, adjusted, and repaired.

While finding solutions to these difficulties, teachers should understand their own needs and the opportunities available in teaching, and should desire to participate

in the pedagogical processes of students’ education within the school environment

(Petress, 2003). A teacher’s pedagogical role needs to be improved and translated

into the effective achievement of educational objectives. Carter (1993) stresses

the importance of “pedagogical content knowledge” in this complex process.

According to her, knowledge of the content or subject matter has to be taught via curricular activities that are significant in terms of teacher motivational strategies.

Borko and Putnam (1996) note that a teacher’s acquisition of pedagogical content

knowledge is influenced by his or her personal beliefs. As an educator, I believe

that our openness to accept the new is also important! I feel really motivated when

I´m learning new things! But then we need to be given the space to do something.

Some teachers are so loaded that when they come back home they just want to sleep! Flexibility and openness to the new also keep me motivated. I try to be

open to hear the students and attend to their needs! Games, humor, technolo-

gy give a nice spice to my teaching. When preparing a class I try to picture myself

as a student and ask if I would enjoy it. If not, I throw my plan away and start

from scratch! That is the advantage of once being a foreign English student.

Therefore teachers, in my view, are not the only ones responsible for their lack of motivation; the whole environment plays its role. According to Bandura (1977)

and Gülen (2000, 2001), most human behavior is learned observationally through

modeling, so teachers are naturally role models, and this role modeling helps

prepare students for the future. Teachers are leaders in the classroom, and their

leadership should contribute positively to students’ performance and to the general

atmosphere at school. As leaders in the classroom, teachers need to be visionary and exemplary, and to serve as prototypes. Furthermore, Gülen (1996) clarifies

those teachers as leaders should be reasonable and wise in all their acts and

decisions. Their insight should allow them to solve even the most complex

problems, and they should, therefore, implant hope and resolution in the hearts of

even the most hopeless students. They should strictly avoid harming anyone, and

use all their strength, energy and abilities for the good of their students. Stigler, Lee and Stevenson (1987) observed that student compliance is an indispensable

class management issue and is positively associated with academic performance.

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In order to achieve this, most teachers wish to have a more controllable student environment, and for this reason they apply an authoritarian condition to teaching.

By doing this, they think they are satisfying their “safety need” and can take care

of small problems themselves without sending students to the office. They feel

they should address disruptive behavior before it escalates or becomes habitual.

Also, a teacher must take care to not punish a slightly improper behavior with the

same punishment meted out for highly disruptive behavior. According to Baumrid (1971), there are four types of teacher classroom management styles: the autho-

ritative style, the authoritarian style, the permissive style and the indulgent style.

The authoritative style is characterized by behavioral principles, high expectations

of appropriate behavior, clear statements about why certain behaviors are accep-

table and others unacceptable, and warm student-teacher relationships. The autho-

ritarian style tends to be characterized by numerous behavioral regulations. It is often seen as punitive and restrictive, and gives students neither a say in their

management nor the courtesy of an explanation when appropriate; the teacher’s

character is sometimes perceived as cold, even punishing. The permissive style is

characterized by a lack of involvement. The environment is non-punitive, there

are few demands on students, and there is a lot of freedom. The indulgent style

presents an environment where there are no demands on the student of any sort, and the students are actively supported in their efforts to seek their own ends

using any reasonable means (Baumrind, 1971).

2. Personal traits and development. A second class of intrinsic motivational

factor is an inexperienced teacher, be they young in years or merely new to the profession, need to be encouraged to improve their skills and develop themselves

in their career. If teachers have established the necessary trust and bonds with the

school management and have established proper channels to communicate and

receive proper feedback, this will not only improve their professional skills but

also encourage the healthy development of their personalities (Kegan, 1982).

Teachers need to be encouraged to talk about new ways of looking at their own development. Throughout their careers, they encounter and respond to changing

demands, circumstances or educational paradigms. In this regard, Kegan’s (1982)

work is illuminating, positing that there are practical models of adult develop-

mental stages that render the development of teachers as educators more com-

prehensible. Individuals, including teachers, may occasionally have difficulty

communicating, establishing liaisons with others, or receiving due recognition and acceptance. Therefore, they need to be supported in their personal and pro-

fessional career, which, of course, positively affects motivation and classroom

effectiveness.

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Common extrinsic motivational factors

1. School environment. Teachers are part of the school society and bear the

responsibility of encouraging safety in the school environment. It is well known

that positive teacher behaviors, such as good lesson preparation and presentation,

warmth, patience and confidence, generally lead to safe schools (Independent Project Trust, 1999). Clement et al. (1994) explain that a good classroom at-

mosphere promotes student involvement, enhances learning activities and self-

confidence, and moderates anxiety. As emphasized in Bandura’s social learning

theory (2001), through social interaction and the maintenance of a role-model

status, teachers can enhance the learning environment. Seeing themselves as

change factors in their schools enables teachers to provide safe learning envi- ronments. Linda Darling Hammond from Stanford University explains that we

need to create classrooms that are more personalized, with teachers working in

teams with students in a supportive nurturing environment (Alliance for Excellent

Education, 2008). According to Tschannen-Moran and Barr (2004), individual

teachers make a difference in student achievement, but the collective efforts of

teachers also have a positive influence on students. Tapola and Niemivirta (2008) examined 208 sixth graders, looking at student goal profiles, motivation, and

student preferences. They found that student achievement and motivation depend

upon the classroom environment. Gülen (1996) argues that school is about much

more than effectively teaching people during a particular phase of their lives. For

him, the school is like a theater in which we experience different phases of life together. It provides students many possibilities for interacting with others. Wha-

tever students learn in school affects them for the rest of their lives in positive or

negative ways. School buildings reflect the importance attached to education.

They are part of a community’s permanent infrastructure and also belong to future

generations. Educating children is seen as a primarily public function. It is e-

veryone’s right to be informed by, to participate in and to benefit from the provision of a satisfying public education. Society is obliged to teach and, ideally,

provide learning facilities and supportive resources when needed. With this in

mind, teachers’ attendance at a workshop or conference that is held at a facility

with superior resources could be an eye-opening experience, and it might inspire

them to have, organize and manage new resources and facilities. According to

Buckley, Schneider and Shang (2004), the quality of school buildings can affect teachers’ morale and ability to teach, and their very health and safety. According

to Gülen, such properly working, encouraging or inspiring environments both

affect teacher performance and motivation positively, and support students’ le-

arning (Aslandogan & Cetin, 2007). Gülen (2004a) says that teachers are the

front-line educators and need to be asked their perspectives and insights about

their working conditions. The forums and facilities in which they will air their opinions, share their professional experiences, and explore innovative ideas ought

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to be relaxed and comfortable and not intimidating or threatening. Successful completion of any project or program can build respect, support and relationships

between a student and teacher in a school environment (Brady, 2005). For exam-

ple, in short-term projects, teachers and students can take extra roles and res-

ponsibility, and community-based facilities and committees can become involved.

This may reduce the cost of the projects and motivate teachers, students and to a

certain extent, the entire school community. The projects also may provide ways for teachers and students to become more familiar with the organization, design,

condition, and utilization of the building or facilities. Having different programs

and activities might shed light on vital ideas and events and enable teachers and

students to understand their natural and human environments.

2. Stress vs. tolerance at workplace. The more teachers are motivated to teach, the more students will learn and be successful. According to Brophy and Good

(1986), teachers’ enthusiasm is one of the core qualities in their effective teaching

and instructional behaviors. This positive relationship highlights the importance

of enthusiasm as a characteristic of effective teachers (Watt & Richardson, 2008).

The other factor that lessens the level of stress in education is humor. Without a

rich sense of humor, teaching or learning may not be very enjoyable. It has also been established that an increased stress level cause a rise in blood pressure,

which in turn reduces success in cognitive tasks, induces feelings of helplessness,

and makes it difficult to concentrate (Simon, 2009). Jepson and Forrest (2006)

add that if teachers have high expectations of themselves, they may experience

heightened stress and disappointment. In return, their teaching effectiveness and classroom management may be negatively affected (Klusmann, Kunter, Tra-

utwein, & Baumert, 2006). In Germany, in recent years, the situation has become

serious. As a result of stress-related conditions enormous numbers of teachers are

taking disability leave or early retirement (Weber, 2004). According to Larchick

and Chance’s (1998) study of 400 middle school teachers from 102 school dis-

tricts, there are four exceptionally high-stress factors that teachers admit carrying into their classrooms: money management, health, relationships and care-giving.

As a result of personal problems, teachers often miss deadlines and refer more

students to the principal for disciplinary reasons. In the same study, teachers rated

their principal’s willingness to help them cope with intense personal problems

that interfered with their significantly high work (Larchick & Chance, 1998).

Tolerance opens the doors to dialogue, and dialogue helps people to learn about each other. Gülen (2004a) defines tolerance as follows: “Tolerance does not mean

being influenced by others and joining them; it means accepting others as they are

and knowing how to get along with them” (p. 37). He sees tolerance as a kind of

empathy and positive thinking and as a method for achieving coexistence with

others. Tolerance is, therefore, being able to live with others while maintaining

one’s identity. In fact, such respectful tolerance, mutual understanding and re- ciprocal respect positively affect the atmosphere in the classroom and the school.

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When students conduct themselves respectfully and harmoniously, this eases the teachers’ duty with respect to discipline and control.

3. Financial incentives: good salary, regular pay, allowances/payments. In

2000, Figlio and Kenny surveyed school personnel practices in 502 schools across

the country. They found that teacher salary incentives are associated with higher

levels of student performance (Figlio & Kenny, 2006). According to their findings, teachers need to be in a position to meet their financial obligations. Inconsistencies

in teachers’ salaries certainly influence their motivation, classroom activities and

effectiveness. Also, teachers with high salaries may feel more respected. Results

of the research carried out by Tutor (1986) with the Tennessee Career Ladder

Program (TCLP) clearly indicate that salary is one of the most influential factors

that motivate teachers. The survey asked classroom teachers, “To what extent did salary influence your decision to participate in the TCLP program?” Teachers

responded to these questions and they were ranking items by influence, and salary

came in as one of the four highest-ranked items. Eberts, Hollenbeck and Stone’s

(2002) case study of the implementation of a merit-pay system in a specific high

school suggests that incentives do “work.” The merit-pay system is directly

targeted at student retention, as defined by a measure understood and agreed upon by both teachers and administrators. Therefore, their results suggest that pay for

performance incentives can motivate agents to produce outcomes that are directly

rewarded.

4. The Role of Professional Ethics. The ethics of teaching require teachers to gain students’ respect and to protect their own and their students’ dignity. Any

positive act by a teacher has the potential to produce a positive outcome or

positive feedback from students (Wong & Waring, 2009). It is useful here to

remember a very simple principle from daily life: treat people as you wish to be

treated, or simply “what goes around comes around” (Weingardt, 2009). Teachers

ought to exert extra care not to place students in a negative light or in an emba- rrassing situation among others, especially among their peers. Teachers should

never promote wrong acts, attitudes, and responses. It is obvious that an em-

barrassed, intimidated, or inhibited student will not wish to participate in any

activities or interactions. In other words, the consequences of unethical acts can

directly affect motivation. This is not only a personal loss but also a collective

loss in terms of society. Caroll (2007) compared Kant and Gülen’s works and indicated that both take human value and dignity as the basis for defining le-

gitimate and illegitimate behaviors toward others in society. Within a classroom,

which is a microcosm of larger society, teachers need to act sensitively to all

people, since they are the role model, even if a student gives a wrong response to

a request or question. In any awkward situation, teachers should respond in a way

that does not cause embarrassment. The response to a wrong must be right. When witnessing a student doing something wrong or exhibiting a bad habit, teachers

should sensitively raise awareness about such wrong or bad habits, and warn all in

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general, rather than warning that particular individual directly. It is expected and hoped that the particular student will draw the moral from the general warning

(Gülen, 2001). In short, protecting students’ self-esteem, personal honor and

dignity is part of the responsibility of the teacher and the ethics of teaching. Doing

so establishes a positive relationship between the teacher and the students and

provides a successful teaching experience for the teacher. Also, what make for

excellent and caring teachers is their sensibilities, such as love, engaging with intellectual work, the hope of changing students’ lives and a belief in equal rights

(Nieto, 2003).

Conclusion

Education is of crucial importance in the construction of human personality, in

the development of potentials, in adaptation to society, in the development of new

skills and especially in dealing with the problems everyone faces while pro-

gressing from childhood to adulthood. This is the period in which students learn

to shoulder responsibility. For this reason, whether formal or informal, one’s

educational years are the most important period of one’s life.

According to the literature, teacher motivation increases classroom perfor-

mance and accordingly improves schooling and the quality of the school system.

The quality of academic learning opportunities can only be enhanced by com-

petent and committed teachers (Prenzel et al., 2005). Khamis, Dukmak, and

Elhoweris (2008) found that teachers have a direct effect on students’ motivation to learn in every aspect of their classroom experience, and that most students

respond positively to a well organized course taught by an enthusiastic instruc-

tor. A lack of knowledge in students and teachers alike is directly related to a lack

of teacher motivation (Borko & Putnam, 1996; Carter, 1993).

Teachers’ motivation and responsibilities have an impact not only on the days and years they spend in schools, but on the days and years they will spend in

society at large. Teachers are, therefore, role models, and the memory of their

performance continues to offer progress, exemplary modeling and support to their

students throughout their students’ entire lives, whether this is acknowledged or

not. Gage and Berliner (1998) describe observational learning, modeling, and

mentoring as the essential components of Bandura’s social learning theory, much of which deals with learning through observing someone’s behavior. It is im-

portant to understand that for learning to take place, effective modeling must

occur (Abbott, 2007). This is an ongoing effect. The motivation of teachers to

teach and their sincere efforts to broaden their students’ perspectives and world-

views, their positive, exemplary interpersonal relationships with students, and

their pedagogical caring all help to produce socially, culturally and mentally healthy and prosperous individuals and societies. Intrinsic motivation is an

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important part of commitment to the profession. When applicants of educational degree programs are asked why they chose the profession, their answers are

mostly related to intrinsic sources of motivation, such as liking teaching (Younger

et al., 2004). According to Nieto (2009), teachers’ attitudes, beliefs, values, and

dispositions have a powerful influence on why teachers teach and why they remain

in the profession in spite of difficult conditions.

As Wentzel’s (1997) research reveals, students continue to value the memories

and positive influence of teachers, caring and uncaring alike, long after graduation.

Students’ perceptions of good teachers center on teachers who are fair, democratic,

communicative, disciplined (in the sense that they set rules for the classroom and

activities), and last but not least, motivated. Organizing conferences, supporting

programs, and involving teachers and students in these activities may help develop individual and societal motivations for both learning and teaching. Such activities

can be related to Bandura’s (1994) self-efficacy, which is defined as “individuals’

confidence in their ability to control their thoughts, feelings, and actions, and

therefore influence an outcome” (p. 71-81).

Gülen (2002) also motivates both students and teachers by saying that edu- cation is humanity’s greatest service, and that both teachers and students should

be aware that they are doing the most honorable thing for society. Gülen’s (2002)

broader concept of “teacher” includes not only traditional classroom teachers in

public schools but also many other key personalities, from prophets to parents,

from philosophers to spiritual guides, from lovers of wisdom to the honest gover- nment administrator. His message to all these teachers is simple: serving your

fellow citizens and humanity in general through education is the responsibility of

being a human, and it fulfills the purpose of one’s own creation (Gülen, 2002).

Gülen’s philosophy has motivated many individuals, not only within the pro-

fession of teaching but also outside of it. Teachers adopting Gülen’s understanding

aim to become the builders of the future, founders of a peaceful, harmonious, progressive and prosperous society; and constructors of human personality. This

compensates for the low-paid, unappreciated, low social status given to teachers

in some societies (Aslandogan & Cetin, 2007).

Gülen (1998) succinctly emphasizes the place and weight of teachers and their

dedication and motivation to build a better future; to actualize true human po- tential, which lies dormant in many people; and to cultivate and spread humane

values through philosophical, social and spiritual structures. For Gülen (1998),

freedoms of ideas, of thought and of conscience are indispensable and inalienable

rights. According to him, one cannot reach full actualization without the freedom

of thinking, learning, and self-expression. To realize such an actualization, tea-

chers are the most important means, conduits and agents that will engage students and improve performance at all levels, from elementary through postsecondary

classrooms. Therefore, motivating teachers should be an essential part of any

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educational system, so that students can perform better and so that we, as the larger society, may attain a better future.

References

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