MANAGEMENT AND BUSINESS CONTEXT
ROYAL IND
Organizationalcultureandhumanresourcesintheenvironmentalissueareviewoftheliterature.pdf
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rijh20
International Journal of Human Resource Management
ISSN: 0958-5192 (Print) 1466-4399 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rijh20
Organizational culture and human resources in the environmental issue: a review of the literature
Esteban Fernández , Beatriz Junquera & Mónica Ordiz
To cite this article: Esteban Fernández , Beatriz Junquera & Mónica Ordiz (2003) Organizational culture and human resources in the environmental issue: a review of the literature, International Journal of Human Resource Management, 14:4, 634-656, DOI: 10.1080/0958519032000057628
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/0958519032000057628
Published online: 24 Jun 2010.
Submit your article to this journal
Article views: 1349
Citing articles: 103 View citing articles
Int. J. of Human Resource Management 14:4 June 2003 634–656
Organizational culture and human resources in the environmental issue: a review of the literature
Esteban Fernández, Beatriz Junquera and Mónica Ordiz
Abstract From the resourced-based view, the weakness of organizations’ business culture and their shortcomings in human resources may be important obstacles in the process of environmental action. However, as the number of works on these questions is still limited, our aim is to integrate the classical literature concerning business culture and human resources and the small number of works concerning these aspects of environmental management. Several issues, such as managerial duties, the role of organizational culture in the formation of environmental internal stakeholders’ awareness, organizational involvement in environmental issues, environmental training and concern, environmental motivation and incentives and implementation and organizational innovations, may be very important for the success of companies’ environmental strategy. However, it seems necessary to carry out studies in which qualitative and quantitative methodologies are applied.
Keywords Organizational culture; human resources; environmental management; internal stakeholder; environmental training; environmental organization innovation.
Introduction
Organizations operate in very diverse domains and meet the demands of multiple stakeholders. A company’s capacity to develop new products and services adapted to its demands, or their quality requirements, depend, to a large extent, on its ability to use its stock of resources effectively. This is so because, although competition takes place among companies, it is in resource integration where the capacity that grants them a sustainable competitive advantage is created. Such a process, in relation to environ- mental protection, was modelled by Hart (1995).
From the resourced-based view (Penrose, 1959; Barney, 1991; Grant, 1991; Amit and Schoemaker, 1993), the concept of capacity refers to the form in which a company is capable of exploiting all together the resources it possesses in the whole organization. These capacities consist of the procedures and routines the organization develops. They are difficult or impossible to replicate, since the patterns of behaviour, the leadership capacity or the culture based on certain values cannot be transferred to other contexts not
Esteban Fernández, Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, Avda. del Cristo, s/n 33071 Oviedo (Asturias), Spain (tel: +985103919; fax: +985103708; e-mail: [email protected]); Beatriz Junquera (address for correspondence), Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, Avda. del Cristo, s/n 33071 Oviedo (Asturias), Spain (tel: +985104972; fax: +985103708; e-mail: [email protected]); Mónica Ordiz, Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, Avda. del Cristo, s/n 33071 Oviedo (Asturias), Spain (tel: +985104970; fax: +985103708; e-mail: [email protected]).
The International Journal of Human Resource Management ISSN 0958-5192 print/ISSN 1466-4399 online © 2003 Taylor & Francis Ltd
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals DOI: 10.1080/0958519032000057628
Fernández et al.: Organizational culture and HR in environmental issue 635
related to the company. Thus, the competitive advantage emerges as the result of the form in which the company makes use of its business capacities (Ulrich and Lake, 1990).
Following this approach, some writers have explained the differences perceived among companies regarding the sign or nature of the existing relationship between environmental performance and business performance (Russo and Fouts, 1997). In general, companies’ environmental approaches can be grouped into two categories: control and prevention. Companies where the pollution control approach predominates usually include a specialized team to fight pollution, which may be quite costly, apart from unproductive, since it does not generate value (Andersson and Wolff, 1996). The philosophy on which this approach is based is that the only force that leads a corporate environmental policy is the minimization of tangible pollution costs. Thus, any company that went beyond compliance would renounce the benefits it could obtain from cost internalization (Russo and Fouts, 1997). But, as regulatory instruments start to appear, and society and consumers become more demanding with respect to companies’ environmental actions, control approaches prove to be insufficient.
Nowadays, different countries have travelled different routes in the race for the leadership in environmental technology as a consequence of their governments’ specific policies and linkages with industry. In Germany, for example, very stringent regulations have led to private-sector response in the form of innovation such as the search for new uses for waste materials once headed for landfills; while in Japan the nature of collaboration between industry and government has meant a more integrated process, with subsidies to R&D efforts in this area. In contrast to these two countries, there has been strong resistance in the USA to policy measures which interfere with the activities of the energy industry, although previous American government policies have led to significant reductions in sulphur dioxide emissions from the electricity generation sector, and American-owned power engineering companies produce a range of energy-efficient and ‘cleaner’ products for sale on the international market (Wilkinson et al., 2001).
From a perspective internal to the company, these new environmental requirements need not be interpreted negatively. The argument based on the resourced-based view, even empirically proved in some works, points out the role of the most advanced environmental approaches – those of a preventive type – in the generation, internal and external, of wider competitive advantages that allow the company to obtain extraordinary benefits (Hart, 1995; Russo and Fouts, 1997; Angell and Klassen, 1999; Handfield et al., 2001).
It is based on the logic that preventive approaches try to intercept problems, instead of solving them once they have appeared. Thus, as environmental issues move on to stages of more advanced development, companies can obtain increasingly important competitive advantages from their environmental protection actions (Sanderlands, 1994). In this way, the effects of preventive environmental approaches on business performance do not show an addition, but a multiplying effect of the value created in the organization.
Nevertheless, improving environmental performance by introducing preventive approaches requires important changes in the company’s organization as well as facing the opposition of stakeholders. These must be reflected in the business culture, human resources and the necessary organizational capacities to manage actions in this area (Russo and Fouts, 1997). A differentiated approach to environmental problems, especially with respect to their integration into the business strategy (Cordano and Frieze, 2000), will also be necessary. This is specified by Azzone et al. (1997) and Azzone and Noci (1998b) for different types of business strategies.
Consequently, the evolution towards preventive environmental approaches demands that companies rely more and more on the resources of organizational involvement and learning. Several works have pointed out the importance of the organizational culture. The company’s strategic vision shapes are organizational culture, as an element in the
636 The International Journal of Human Resource Management
motivation and involvement of workers in environmental issues (Shrivastava, 1995; Ramus, 1997; Russo and Fouts, 1997) and as driver of the communication mechanisms that enable improvement in the environmental performance (Gupta and Sharma, 1996; Hanna et al., 2000; Kitazawa and Sarkis, 2000; Handfield et al., 2001).
In fact, Azzone et al. (1997) show that the most advanced environmental strategies already demand consideration of these factors. So, the most developed approaches are labour-intensive strategies that depend on the development of tacit skills through workers’ involvement and work in ‘green’ teams. This is the resourced-based view in relation to natural environment proposed by Hart (1995). This is the key reason why, from this point of view, organizational culture and human resources play a key role in the success of the most advanced environmental approaches.
Consequently, organizational culture and decisions about human resources are, although maybe not the central mainstay, at least one of the critical elements on which all the capacities that involve the achievement of a sustainable competitive advantage are based.1 This is so because they are the linking mechanism for the rest of the company’s resources, especially regarding environmental issues (Handfield et al., 2001). In this sense, Schein (1990) points out that culture is what a group learns over a period of time as that group solves its problems of survival in an external environment and its problems of internal integration, and Duncan (1989) highlights the three characteristics of organizational culture: it is learned, it is shared and it is transmitted. So, organizational culture and human resources maintain a close relationship. There are two main reasons for this. On the one hand, the companies best known for their high level of environmental development and a solid culture with reference to environmental issues will attract the most skilled employees (Dechant and Altman, 1994).2 On the other hand, the organi- zational culture with respect to environmental issues is strengthened when companies have employees who are more concerned about this matter.
Following such arguments, some authors have considered the weakness of organizations’ business culture and their shortcomings in human resources as important obstacles to the process of environmental action (Klassen, 2000). However, the number of works on these questions is still very limited (Table 1 shows a selection that we consider to be the most important studies). Only Daily and Huang (2001) have proposed a conceptual model of the environmental management system and human resource factors to assist in proper facilitation of the environmental management programme. Taking this fact into account, the aim of this work is to integrate the classical literature concerning business culture and human resources and the small number of works concerning aspects of environmental management. With this purpose, we refer next to issues related to environmental managers’ duties, interest formation for workers as internal stakeholders and the role of organizational culture, the need for involvement, environmental training and concern, motivation and incentives and the implementation of organizational innovation.
Environmental demands and managerial duties
The firm’s leaders create a view that influences the organization’s emotional and cultural resources, sharing with its members the values, commitments and aspirations they intend to achieve in the business domain, also in the environmental area. Its main objective is to focus workers’ and managers’ attention on the issues they consider essential.
For this, the manager uses their interpersonal skills (Egri and Herman, 2000) or communication skills (Azzone et al., 1997), those that generate positive relations with the stakeholders, external or internal to the company. These authors have shown that these leaders are very important in reaching the most advanced levels of environmental development.
Fernández et al.: Organizational culture and HR in environmental issue 637
T ab
le 1
S u m
m a ry
o f
th e
co n tr
ib u ti
o n s
A rt
ic le
C o n tr
ib u ti
o n s
A lb
er ti
e t
a l.
(2 00
0) Im
pl em
en ta
ti on
c os
ts v
ar y
fr om
b us
in es
s to
b us
in es
s, an
d ar
e m
ai nl
y in
fl ue
nc ed
b y
th e
fo ll
ow in
g pa
ra m
et er
s: or
ga ni
za ti
on al
s tr
uc tu
re ,
la ck
o f
sp ec
ifi c
sk il
ls a
nd a
va il
ab il
it y
of i
nt er
na l
hu m
an r
es ou
rc es
. C
as e
an al
ys is
. A
nd er
ss on
a nd
B at
em an
T
he s
uc ce
ss o
f th
e ‘e
nv ir
on m
en ta
l ch
am pi
on s’
, m
ea su
re d
in r
el at
io n
to s
ev er
al d
im en
si on
s, an
d am
on g
th em
, th
e to
p (2
00 0)
m an
ag em
en t
at te
nt io
n to
f or
m in
g a
te am
f or
t he
a na
ly si
s of
e nv
ir on
m en
ta l
is su
es d
ep en
ds o
n th
e in
te rn
al a
nd e
xt er
na l
co nt
ex t
(c or
po ra
te e
nv ir
on m
en ta
l pa
ra di
gm ,
re gu
la to
ry r
eq ui
re m
en ts
a nd
c om
pe ti
ti ve
p re
ss ur
es )
an d
ot he
r fa
ct or
s, su
ch a
s sc
an ni
ng b
eh av
io ur
s, is
su e
fr am
in g
an d
pr es
en ta
ti on
, an
d th
e in
fl ue
nc e
of b
eh av
io ur
s an
d ti
m in
g of
s el
li ng
. R
eg re
ss io
n an
al ys
is .
A nd
er ss
on a
nd W
ol ff
( 19
96 )
T op
m an
ag em
en t
at te
nt io
n is
t he
b ot
tl en
ec k
in o
rg an
iz at
io ns
. O
nc e
th e
le ar
ni ng
o f
ne w
p ro
ce du
re s
ha s
be en
s uc
ce ss
fu ll
y im
pl em
en te
d, ro
ut in
es a
re e
st ab
li sh
ed a
nd m
ai nt
ai ne
d in
t he
s ha
pe o
f pr
og ra
m m
ed c
on tr
ol .
T he
or et
ic al
a na
ly si
s. A
ng el
l (2
00 1)
S uc
ce ss
fu l
in it
ia ti
ve s
ar e
di ff
er en
t de
pe nd
in g
on w
or k
st yl
e. C
as e
an al
ys is
. A
ng el
l an
d K
la ss
en (
19 99
) O
rg an
iz at
io na
l cu
lt ur
e, tr
ai ni
ng a
nd e
du ca
ti on
a nd
t he
i m
po rt
an ce
o f
th e
m ea
su re
m en
t sy
st em
s in
fl ue
nc e
th e
w or
kf or
ce in
vo lv
em en
t in
e nv
ir on
m en
ta l
m an
ag em
en t,
si m
il ar
t o
qu al
it y
m an
ag em
en t.
F oc
us g
ro up
. A
zz on
e et
a l.
( 19
97 )
T he
c om
pa ny
’s e
nv ir
on m
en ta
l cu
lt ur
e an
d th
e em
pl oy
ee s’
‘g re
en ’
co m
pe te
nc ie
s as
d im
en si
on s
of t
he e
nv ir
on m
en ta
l st
ra te
gi es
. C
as e
an al
ys is
. A
zz on
e an
d N
oc i
(1 99
8a )
E ac
h en
vi ro
nm en
ta l
pa tt
er n
af fe
ct s
hu m
an r
es ou
rc e
m an
ag em
en t
in a
d if
fe re
nt w
ay .
T he
or et
ic al
a na
ly si
s. A
zz on
e an
d N
oc i
(1 99
8b )
C ha
ng es
i n
th e
m an
ag em
en t
pr oc
es se
s ar
e ne
ce ss
ar y
fo r
th e
de ve
lo pm
en t
of i
nn ov
at iv
e en
vi ro
nm en
ta l
pr og
ra m
m es
. C
as e
an al
ys is
. B
am be
r et
a l.
( 20
00 )
T ea
m w
or ki
ng a
nd c
om m
it m
en t
to q
ua li
ty c
an b
e de
li ve
re d
th ro
ug h
im pl
em en
ti ng
t ot
al p
ro du
ct iv
e m
ai nt
en an
ce a
nd in
fl ue
nc e
th e
en vi
ro nm
en ta
l pe
rf or
m an
ce .
C as
e an
al ys
is .
B an
er je
e (1
99 8)
C om
m it
m en
t of
s en
io r
m an
ag er
s is
o ne
p os
si bl
e in
pu t
to t
he e
nv ir
on m
en ta
l le
ar ni
ng p
ro ce
ss . A
d ou
bl e-
lo op
a pp
ro ac
h to
en vi
ro nm
en ta
l le
ar ni
ng m
ay a
ls o
re su
lt i
n a
ch an
ge i
n th
e or
ga ni
za ti
on al
c ul
tu re
. T
he or
et ic
al a
na ly
si s.
C hi
na nd
er (
20 01
) In
te rn
al d
ri ve
rs s
uc h
as c
om m
un ic
at io
n of
v al
ue s
an d
al ig
nm en
t w
il l
in fl
ue nc
e a
fi rm
’s e
nv ir
on m
en ta
l pe
rf or
m an
ce .
F ir
m s
ne ed
t o
pa y
sp ec
ia l
at te
nt io
n to
p ro
m ot
io n
fe ed
ba ck
, ed
uc at
io n
an d
qu al
it y
im pr
ov em
en t
in t
hi s
ar ea
. C
as e
an al
ys is
. C
oo k
an d
S ei
th (
19 91
) R
ol e
of e
m pl
oy ee
s, be
ne fi
ts a
nd d
ev el
op m
en t
of a
n ef
fe ct
iv e
pr og
ra m
m e.
T he
or et
ic al
a na
ly si
s. C
oo k
an d
S ei
th (
19 92
) P
ur po
se o
f a
tr ai
ni ng
p ro
gr am
m e,
de fi
ni ng
g oa
ls ,
cu rr
ic ul
um d
ev el
op m
en t
an d
se le
ct io
n of
e ff
ec ti
ve m
ed ia
. T
he or
et ic
al an
al ys
is .
C or
be tt
a nd
C ut
le r
(2 00
0) In
fl ue
nc e
of e
m pl
oy ee
i nv
ol ve
m en
t, m
ea su
re m
en t,
m an
ag em
en t
at ti
tu de
s to
t ra
in in
g, pe
op le
a nd
t ec
hn ol
og y,
co m
m un
ic at
io n,
en vi
ro nm
en ta
l ch
an ne
ls ,
co m
m it
m en
t an
d cu
lt ur
e. C
as e
an al
ys is
.
638 The International Journal of Human Resource Management
C ra
m er
a nd
R oe
s (1
99 3)
M ot
iv es
, fo
rm s
an d
m ea
su re
s. C
as e
an al
ys is
. C
ur ko
vi c
et a
l. (
20 00
) A
ll a
sp ec
ts o
f hu
m an
r es
ou rc
e m
an ag
em en
t (e
.g .
m an
po w
er p
la nn
in g,
re cr
ui tm
en t
an d
st af
fi ng
, tr
ai ni
ng a
nd d
ev el
op m
en t,
pe rf
or m
an ce
a pp
ra is
al a
nd r
ew ar
d sy
st em
s) a
ss um
e st
ra te
gi c
ro le
s. T
he b
es t
re su
lt s
ca n
be o
bt ai
ne d
on ly
w he
n th
er e
is a
hi gh
l ev
el o
f in
vo lv
em en
t an
d co
m m
it m
en t
fr om
t ra
in ed
p eo
pl e.
S tr
uc tu
ra l
eq ua
ti on
m od
el .
D ai
ly a
nd H
ua ng
( 20
01 )
A c
on ce
pt ua
l m
od el
o f
th e
en vi
ro nm
en ta
l m
an ag
em en
t sy
st em
s. H
um an
r es
ou rc
es f
ac to
rs a
re p
ro po
se d
to a
ss is
t in
pr op
er f
ac il
it at
io n
of e
nv ir
on m
en ta
l m
an ag
em en
t pr
og ra
m m
e. T
he or
et ic
al a
na ly
si s.
D ec
ha nt
a nd
A lt
m an
( 19
94 )
E xa
m pl
es i
n co
m pa
ni es
. C
as e
an al
ys is
. E
gr i
an d
H er
m an
( 20
00 )
O rg
an iz
at io
n st
ru ct
ur es
i n
en vi
ro nm
en ta
l se
ct or
. R
eg re
ss io
n an
al ys
is .
E na
nd le
r an
d P
an nu
ll o
(1 99
0) E
m pl
oy ee
i nv
ol ve
m en
t an
d po
ll ut
io n
pr ev
en ti
on .
T he
or et
ic al
a na
ly si
s. E
ps te
in a
nd R
oy (
20 01
) O
rg an
iz at
io na
l cu
lt ur
e an
d pr
oc es
se s
to i
m pr
ov e
bo th
s oc
ia l
an d
fi na
nc ia
l pe
rf or
m an
ce .
T he
or et
ic al
a na
ly si
s. F
lo ri
da (
19 96
) W
or ke
r in
vo lv
em en
t in
p ol
lu ti
on p
re ve
nt io
n. D
es cr
ip ti
ve a
na ly
si s.
F or
m an
a nd
J or
ge ns
en (
20 01
) P
ar ti
ci pa
ti on
o f
em pl
oy ee
s in
a D
an is
h co
nt ex
t. C
as e
an al
ys is
. G
ri ffi
th s
an d
P et
ri ck
( 20
01 )
C or
po ra
te a
rc hi
te ct
ur es
f or
s us
ta in
ab il
it y.
T he
or et
ic al
a na
ly si
s. G
ro en
ew eg
en a
nd V
er gr
ag t
E nv
ir on
m en
ta l,
sa fe
ty a
nd h
ea lt
h un
it i
n en
vi ro
nm en
ta l
is su
es a
s op
po rt
un it
ie s
fo r
te ch
no lo
gi ca
l in
no va
ti on
. C
as e
an al
ys is
. (1
99 1)
G up
ta a
nd S
ha rm
a (1
99 6)
R ol
e of
w or
kf or
ce m
an ag
em en
t in
e nv
ir on
m en
ta l
op er
at io
ns m
an ag
em en
t. T
he or
et ic
al a
na ly
si s.
H
al li
er (
20 01
) G
re en
fi el
d re
cr ui
tm en
t is
a c
ri ti
ca l
fe at
ur e
of g
re en
fi el
d w
or kp
la ce
p ol
it ic
s an
d pr
ac ti
ce s.
T he
or et
ic al
a na
ly si
s. H
an dfi
el d
et a
l. (
20 01
) P
eo pl
e pr
ac ti
ce s.
C as
e an
al ys
is .
H an
na et
a l.
( 20
00 )
In fl
ue nc
e of
e m
pl oy
ee i
nv ol
ve m
en t
pr ac
ti ce
s on
p ol
lu ti
on p
re ve
nt io
n, en
vi ro
nm en
ta l
an d
op er
at io
na l
pe rf
or m
an ce
. E
m pi
ri ca
l an
al ys
is .
K it
az aw
a an
d S
ar ki
s (2
00 0)
P eo
pl e
pr ac
ti ce
s an
d co
nt in
uo us
s ou
rc e
re du
ct io
n pr
og ra
m m
es .
C as
e an
al ys
is .
K la
ss en
( 20
00 )
E nv
ir on
m en
ta l
de pa
rt m
en t,
pr oc
ed ur
es f
or e
nc ou
ra gi
ng c
ro ss
-f un
ct io
na l
in te
gr at
io n
of e
nv ir
on m
en ta
l is
su es
, am
on g
ot he
rs .
E m
pi ri
ca l
an al
ys is
. K
la ss
en (
20 01
) In
fl ue
nc e
of m
an ag
er s’
or ga
ni za
ti on
al r
es po
ns ib
il it
y on
p la
nt -l
ev el
e nv
ir on
m en
ta l
m an
ag em
en t
or ie
nt at
io n.
E m
pi ri
ca l
an al
ys is
. K
la ss
en a
nd M
cL au
gh li
n H
um an
r es
ou rc
es f
or e
nv ir
on m
en ta
l ex
ce ll
en ce
. T
he or
et ic
al a
na ly
si s.
(1 99
3) M
ay a
nd F
la nn
er y
(1 99
5) C
ut ti
ng w
as te
w it
h em
pl oy
ee i
nv ol
ve m
en t
te am
s. T
he or
et ic
al a
na ly
si s.
M il
li m
an a
nd C
la ir
( 19
95 )
R ev
ie w
o f
th e
li te
ra tu
re i
n th
e U
S A
. T
he or
et ic
al a
na ly
si s.
O ’h
E ch
oa (
20 00
) C
om pa
ny c
ul tu
re ,
co m
m un
ic at
io ns
a nd
e m
pl oy
ee a
tt it
ud es
o n
th e
us e
of 5
S s
fo r
en vi
ro nm
en ta
l m
an ag
em en
t. C
as e
an al
y si
s. P
ol on
sk y
et a
l. (1
99 8)
R ol
e of
o rg
an iz
at io
na l
cu lt
ur e
in d
ev el
op m
en t
of g
re en
p ro
du ct
s. C
as e
an al
ys is
. R
am us
( 19
97 )
E xa
m pl
e of
G E
P la
st ic
s E
ur op
e. C
as e
an al
ys is
. R
am us
( 20
01 )
E nc
ou ra
gi ng
c re
at iv
e id
ea s
fo r
en vi
ro nm
en ta
l su
st ai
na bi
li ty
a nd
o rg
an iz
at io
na l
su pp
or t
fo r
em pl
oy ee
s. E
m pi
ri ca
l an
al ys
is .
(C o n ti
n u ed
)
Fernández et al.: Organizational culture and HR in environmental issue 639
T ab
le 1
(C o n ti
n u ed
)
A rt
ic le
C o n tr
ib u ti
o n s
R am
us a
nd S
te ge
r (2
00 0)
C om
pe te
nc e
bu il
di ng
, co
m m
un ic
at io
n, in
fo rm
at io
n di
ss em
in at
io n,
re w
ar ds
a nd
r ec
og ni
ti on
. E
m pi
ri ca
l an
al ys
is .
R on
di ne
ll i
an d
B er
ry (
19 97
) H
um an
r es
ou rc
es a
nd s
ys te
m at
ic p
ro bl
em s
ol vi
ng .
C as
e an
al ys
is .
R us
so a
nd F
ou ts
( 19
97 )
In fl
ue nc
e on
c or
po ra
te e
nv ir
on m
en ta
l pe
rf or
m an
ce a
nd p
ro fi
ta bi
li ty
. E
m pi
ri ca
l an
al ys
is .
S ar
ki s
(2 00
1) H
um an
r es
ou rc
es ,
m an
uf ac
tu ri
ng a
nd e
nv ir
on m
en t.
T he
or et
ic al
a na
ly si
s. S
ha rm
a (2
00 0)
O rg
an iz
at io
na l
co nt
ex t
as p
re di
ct or
o f
co rp
or at
e ch
oi ce
o f
en vi
ro nm
en ta
l st
ra te
gy .
E m
pi ri
ca l
an al
ys is
. S
ha rm
a et
a l.
( 19
99 )
O rg
an iz
at io
na l
co nt
ex t
an d
co rp
or at
e en
vi ro
nm en
ta l
re sp
on si
ve ne
ss s
tr at
eg ie
s. C
as e
an al
ys is
. S
hr iv
as ta
va (
19 95
) E
m pl
oy ee
i n
ec ol
og ic
al s
us ta
in ab
il it
y. T
he or
et ic
al a
na ly
si s.
S ta
ri k
an d
R an
ds (
19 95
) M
ul ti
-l ev
el a
nd m
ul ti
-s ys
te m
p er
sp ec
ti ve
s. T
he or
et ic
al a
na ly
si s.
T ay
lo r
an d
W el
fo rd
( 19
93 )
C om
m un
ic at
io n
an d
ed uc
at io
n in
i nt
eg ra
te d
sy st
em s
in I
B M
. C
as e
an al
ys is
. T
ho m
ps on
a nd
R au
ck (
19 93
) T
ea m
s fo
r T
Q E
M i
n A
T &
T .
C as
e an
al ys
is .
V an
B er
ke l
et a
l. (
19 97
) E
m pl
oy ee
i nv
ol ve
m en
t an
d oc
cu pa
ti on
al h
ea lt
h an
d sa
fe ty
p ro
gr am
m es
i n
in du
st ri
al e
co lo
gy .
T he
or et
ic al
a na
ly si
s. W
el fo
rd (
19 92
) T
ea m
s to
l in
k qu
al it
y an
d th
e en
vi ro
nm en
t. T
he or
et ic
al a
na ly
si s.
W il
ki ns
on e
t a l.
( 20
01 )
S us
ta in
ab il
it y
an d
m an
ag em
en t
of h
um an
r es
ou rc
es m
an ag
em en
t. T
he or
et ic
al a
na ly
si s.
However, these are not the only skills that managers need to manage the most advanced environmental approaches. Portugal and Yukl (1994) detected some transformational leadership behaviour – articulation of an anti-establishment appellant view on environmental issues, change in perceptions about environmental questions and the assumption of symbolic actions to show personal commitment in the matter – as essential aspects of environmental leadership.
Environmental leaders are, in fact, transformational leaders3 (Gladwin, 1993). But Egri and Herman (2000), following Quinn’s model (1988), show that, as well as characteristic features of the transformational leader, the environmental manager must possess some characteristics of the transactional leader.4 Although Egri and Herman (2000) demonstrate empirically that environmental leaders show more markedly transformational patterns of behaviour than traditional leaders (values of collaboration, granting responsibility to the subordinates, two-way communication, orientation towards change, charisma, creation of individualized confidence and consideration), they conclude that environmental leaders tend to be master managers5 rather than exclusively transformational, with the result that they are also influenced, to a large extent, by transactional practices (instrumentality, contingent compensation and one-way communication).
The managers’ importance is so large that some authors emphasize the dominant role of managers in a company. They consider them a distinguishing element because of their capacity to improve certain aspect of the company, to modify obsolete structures and prepare it for change (Purcell and Ahlstrand, 1994) through the creation of the strategic vision. In sum, managers’ contribution is considered essential because they are responsible for creating the conditions, through the promotion of certain forms of corporate culture, under which a sustainable competitive advantage is achieved. Specifically, Ramus (2001) shows, by means of an empirical study, the relevance of the role of the management in breaking down organizational barriers to environmental progress, together with honesty with employees and openness to their criticisms. So, companies improve their environmental performance.
This concern about the role of managers regarding environmental development is based on the fact that, at first, and despite its importance, not even they themselves perceive environmental management as a source of opportunities. Therefore, their attitude is usually an important obstacle to such a development (Ashford, 1993; Dieleman and de Hoo, 1993). Later, a frequent problem is that managers and workers may see the environmental challenge differently. In this second stage, the former start to see the environment as an opportunity to improve business, and, from an individual point of view, as a possibility of facing specific new challenges. However, for a lot of workers, even middle managers, it continues to be something not sought and not always welcome (Strebel, 1996).
It is here where it starts to be recognized that management’s capacity is not enough on its own. Employees’ vision in the environmental area is also necessary. In general, this can be recognized as a weak point of companies from an environmental perspective, since their cultures fail to choose and use employees’ ideas (Environmental Manager, 1994). Under these circumstances, investments in the natural environment can also be wasted if the fact that, in order to generate a sustainable competitive advantage, workers have to be part of the process of formulation of the strategy and take part in decision making is not taken into account (Klassen and McLaughlin, 1993; Azzone and Noci, 1998a; Polonsky et al., 1998; Handfield et al., 2001).
This conception of a company as an institution for the integration of knowledge that generates capacities establishes a vision based on strong integration among the members of the organization. It implies promoting stability and social relations with all the members of the company knowing which role they play and how to carry it out. So, an
640 The International Journal of Human Resource Management
environmental vision becomes part of the company’s identity and leads its members’ actions (Dutton and Dukerich, 1991). So, too, it will influence human resource policies, changing the design of jobs, recruitment and selection (Hallier, 2001), as well as training systems (Starik and Rands, 1995). It is for this reason that the articulation of a strategic vision from an environmental perspective, to be effective, is accompanied by specific actions in the area of human resource management (Azzone and Noci, 1998a).
In this way, an adequate design for environmental issues inside the company means that the management counts on the employees and their participation in such a business. In fact, Ramus and Steger (2000) show, by means of an empirical analysis, that the involvement of the work organization is the element that most significantly induces responsible environmental approaches by workers. Thus, to be successful, a company needs to activate mechanisms that allow the understanding and adoption of the vision in the whole company.
Formation of internal environmental stakeholders’ awareness: the role of the organizational culture
Lawrence and Lorsch (1987) point out that culture may facilitate the adoption of a specific strategy if there exists strong coherence between them. On the other hand, culture may become an ‘insuperable barrier’, which hinders and delays change. Beer and Eisentat (1996) assume that the form in which the co-ordination of capacities is developed depends on a company’s cultural context. Thus, the impact on performance will take place when the human resource management system is inserted into the organization’s architecture and environmental awareness becomes part of a company’s culture.
Thus, the effective implementation of an advanced environmental approach demands a culture based on ecological values. It includes a deep awareness on the part of the workers. Otherwise, investments and management’s efforts could lose part of their value.
Consequently, the organizational culture or legitimation of the environmental issue as an integral part of corporate identity is one of the key elements for the achievement of superior environmental performance in companies (Klassen and McLaughlin, 1993; Russo and Fouts, 1997; Azzone and Noci, 1998a; Polonsky et al., 1998; Egri and Herman, 2000; Sharma, 2000; Handfield et al., 2001). At the beginning of their development, they usually order external consultants to carry out environmental studies and prepare plans without involving managers and employees. However, for the most preventive approaches, the importance of culture for environmental development is different. In these cases, unlike what happens with environmental control approaches as the most preventative approaches develop, managers and employees start perceiving that this lack of participation is a problematic issue. For this reason, it is managers who lead employees into involvement in the company’s environmental issues, following arguments that rest on the individuals’ job satisfaction and on their considerations about the working environment (Florida, 1996; Forman and Jorgensen, 2001). In fact, their importance is such that any employee of the company may become an ‘environmental champion’6 (Andersson and Bateman, 2000). Thus, managers’ and workers’ training, their ecological awareness and that of the senior management are combined with high levels of motivation to influence environmental performance (Hart, 1995). In this respect, it has been proved that the highest reduction in pollution emissions comes from the combination of internal pollution prevention efforts, prevention opportunity audits, programmes of recommendations or formal suggestions to employees
Fernández et al.: Organizational culture and HR in environmental issue 641
and approaches by the participative management team (Bunge et al., 1995; Alberti et al., 2000).
Besides, it has been proved that a company’s members’ perception about the identity of the company affects their interpretations of strategic issues, since they consider them as threats or opportunities (Dutton and Dukerich, 1991; Gioia and Thomas, 1996). Thus, the interpretations of strategic issues affect the patterns of environmental behaviour of the company’s members. According to this argument, when the environmental issue becomes an integral component of corporate identity, environmental problems are more difficult to deny (Weick, 1988). In this way, environmental issues can be legitimized as an integral part of corporate identity on the basis of an internal economic approach or of a wider approach of corporate social responsibility (Wood, 1991; Greening and Gray, 1994; Sharma et al., 1999). In the first case, management’s concern about environmental problems is restricted to a corporate identity that gives more importance to the maximization of the objectives of financial performance in the short term. In the other case, economic considerations can be balanced through the need for greater social responsibility and corporate public spirit. If environmental issues result in positive associations in the corporate identity (for example, if the company wants to be recognized as an environmental leader), they will create emotional associations, also positive, in the managing interpretations and will stimulate the search for opportunities in their behaviour rather than aversion to a threat. In this way, also in the environmental area, expressing or putting forward a strategic vision7 and implementing it adequately may constitute an advantage with respect to those companies that have not developed it (Sharma, 2000).
Organizational involvement in environmental issues
The instruments for involving the natural environment in a company’s organizational structure are troubled. The creation of a management post/department with environmental responsibilities (shared or not with others) is an idea increasingly implemented by companies. However, its role has been under discussion. The argument is that senior managers create these posts/departments to isolate the company in relation to regulators. Nevertheless, such departments do not act in an isolated way; rather, they provide information about process improvement and innovative ideas for the engineers and the technical team (King, 1995). This is the option that most of the authors support. So, an assessment of the different approaches allows us to conclude that, though companies should set in motion the appropriate mechanisms so that all the personnel can have some type of environmental responsibility (King, 1995), the literature has for the most part shown a preference for the assumption that the company that dedicates a specific manager/department to these questions grants more importance to the environment, especially if this is part of or depends on the senior management. Sharma (2000) shows empirical evidence of these issues. Besides, the legitimation that the appointment of an environmental manager gives to the company’s culture is far from its least important aspect.
Another debate is about the way to assume these responsibilities: from the appointment of an environmental manager to the creation of an ad hoc department that depends on the senior managers, argument supported by Greeno and Robinson (1992). The importance of both options, and the intermediate ones, is supported by many studies (OECD, 1995; Angell and Klassen, 1999), and even tested empirically (Sharma, 2000). In relation to the manager’s/department’s responsibilities, we have not met a homogeneous approach either. So, there are few companies where such a manager/department is working only on environmental issues (Fundación Entorno, 1998).
642 The International Journal of Human Resource Management
However, the most advanced companies link environmental management to health and safety. Nevertheless, each case is also different. So, during the 1980s, environment, health and safety (EH&S) staff in US corporations were often part of a central corporate staff reporting to the corporation’s legal department. As professional EH&S staffs grew, it often was deemed necessary and desirable to push primary EH&S responsibility on to the business units and many companies reduced the size of their central staff. Now many companies have recognized that both a central staff and EH&S personnel in the facilities are necessary. Substantial advantages can be achieved at the business unit and facility level in product and process design, operational controls and self-audits to control and reduce waste production and other environmental impacts. Further, a central EH&S staff is necessary to provide overall strategic planning, guidance and co-ordination to the corporate environmental function and to business units and facilities (Epstein and Roy, 2001).
Previously discussed solutions are right in firms larger than a certain size, but not in smaller ones. For this, firms look for other structures to achieve sustainability. Griffiths and Petrick (2001) suggest network organizations and virtual organizations. Networks are relevant to sustainability in at least two primary ways. First, networks are increasingly recognized as a major source of innovativeness in new product and service developments. In Germany and Denmark, networks of small firms have been leaders in green technology developments. Second, network structures are reliant upon free-flowing information and communication – they are therefore appropriate structures for capturing and diffusing through the network information relevant to sustainability outcomes. Alternatively, a virtual organization can give the impression of size, yet be small in terms of numbers of employees. In other words, corporate sustainability is not just about large corporations but can and will also include smaller, more nimble corporations that have a virtual facade. Such organizations as Amazon.com (an Internet book retailer) and Land’s End (textile and clothing manufacturer) can offer a service via the Internet and electronic commerce and operate globally with a small number of employees. They are organizations that require flexible structures that compete on speed. These organizations will tend to leave a minimal environmental footprint; however, they will need to be responsible for the environmental impacts of their suppliers and distributors rather than take the attitude that it is none of their responsibility how they operate.
Whatever the system used to organize the environmental issues, to move decisions towards other members of the company is necessary to define, later, the instruments. So, the involvement of all the company in the putting forward of the articulated strategic vision requires specific and efficient communication systems. The setting up of internal channels for the communication of the strategic vision to workers has been pointed out as a fundamental success factor in employees’ involvement (Argenti, 1998), especially in business activity (Gupta and Sharma, 1996; Handfield et al., 2001). For this reason, a key requirement is to focus on updating employees on the achievements and new requirements, which allows, among other things, sharing common goals and points of view and considering these a unique objective (Kitazawa and Sarkis, 2000).
It is so important that, if companies do not allow workers to contribute with their ideas and suggestions, they lose the advantage associated with their skills and motivation. However, part of the problem at many companies is that senior managers fail to involve employees in the decision-making process. Many companies are still fearful of sharing information with employees even though today’s workers are much more educated than their counterparts of an earlier era. One of the more important goals is to create the sense that employees are an important asset to the firm (Argenti, 1998).
Other empirical studies grant the importance of the communication. Chinander (2001) shows in her case study that, in addition to the role that external drivers have in
Fernández et al.: Organizational culture and HR in environmental issue 643
influencing a firm’s environmental performance, internal drivers such as communication and accountability will also influence a firm’s environmental performance. Clear communication of values and alignment of rewards and punishment with these values will influence the actions of employees in day-to-day operations, which will in turn impact on overall environmental performance. Furthermore, given the level of ambiguity and uncertainty in values and feedback in the environmental area and the potential long- term latent effects, firms need to pay special attention to promoting feedback, education and quality improvement in this area.
In the most advanced environmental approaches, this communication, or transfer of information, about environmental questions must be a two-way process, instead of the traditional downward spiral of communication that is still seen in many firms. Information must be about the company’s future plans, its policies and, above all, how these are going to affect workers, and also how the surrounding events are going to have effects on the company and their job. For this purpose, a useful tool may be to have a suggestion system and arrange open meetings periodically (Cascio et al., 1996).8
Nevertheless, up and down communication should not be incompatible with communication among different areas. Kitazawa and Sarkis (2000) have shown that preventive environmental practices demand interfunctional integration by means of communication mechanisms improved by the organization. This relevance of the commun- ication among functions is higher, in this particular case, in environmental issues than in other areas. This is so because, although most of those concerned agree that a company’s environmental result comes from its operative system, the two types of issues are in the charge of separate departments and, even, potentially opposite (Hanna et al., 2000).
Some case studies even show how to implement environmental information communication systems. Taylor and Welford (1993) have stated the way to enable internal communication in IBM, applying electronic communication tools. This has provided better access to information, with employees able to view UK environmental programmes and policies through on-line office systems. IBM also uses communication systems that provide an instrument whereby the staff can communicate anonymously with management about issues which concern them. The single greatest criticism by employees is the tendency towards excessive bureaucracy.
Environmental training and concern
Almost all the operative actions with a preventive environmental management approach demand an increase in awareness and knowledge of processes and materials, along with the improvement of employees’ skills. Here we must highlight that all the company’s employees – not only those of some departments, like production – must receive this integrating training, an aspect which characterizes the most environmentally developed companies (Banerjee, 1998). With this, both instruction in the environmental field – availability of knowledge and education – and eco-centric values of employees are indispensable for successful development of the company’s environmental strategy, especially in the most advanced approaches9 (Groenewegen and Vergragt, 1991; Klassen and McLaughlin, 1993; Shrivastava, 1995; Gupta and Sharma, 1996; Azzone and Noci, 1998a; Getzner, 1999; Handfield et al., 2001; Sarkis, 2001).
First, as environmental practices become more advanced, their success depends, to a large extent, on employees’ involvement. Fineman (1997) had already stated that a substantial change in the system of values and beliefs of the key organizational actors was necessary because employees with this desired line or pattern of thought are usually characterized by a more collaborative attitude.10 The immediate consequences are the
644 The International Journal of Human Resource Management
individual’s emotional involvement and the identification of and support for environmental issues (Keogh and Polonsky, 1998). This will lead to a richer and smoother relationship with different groups of stakeholders, with whom collaboration is essential. So, companies reach the most advanced stages of environmental development.
However, education becomes inadequate if it is not accompanied by the necessary instruction each activity demands because it is this that brings out the capacity to make good use of knowledge. In general, Dyer and Reeves (1995) consider that workers’ productivity depends on their knowledge. Specifically in relation to the environmental issue, an improvement in skills helps individuals to achieve objectives. Some examples are the skills for the systematic solution of problems and a conscious approach based on such skills. Without them, the efforts of the teams and the delegation of functions, fundamental elements if a good result is to be expected from the adoption of preventive environmental approaches, become less effective (Kitazawa and Sarkis, 2000).
The importance of the workers’ environmental training – a conjunction of education and training – is key. But this is still scarce in a lot of companies, and the proportion of companies with this type of shortcoming is overwhelming in some countries (Fundación Entorno (1998) and Brío (1999) are studies that show this issue in relation to the Spanish situation). The reasons are basically the following: a) the relatively slight importance granted to it and, as a result, the reduced allocation of resources it shares; b) the inefficiency of training plans and programmes which are often unable to contact and interest those to whom they were originally addressed; and c) the discouragement and scepticism of workers (who have among their main concerns to keep their job).11
Despite this precarious situation, training is an essential aspect in systems that need high performance. These are based mainly on front line workers’ skills and initiatives to solve problems, suggest changes and be responsible for the product’s environmental quality. In fact, some studies have shown the existence of a relationship between a company’s employees’ level of environmental training and the level of development of the company in this area (Groenewegen and Vergragt, 1991). Especially at the most advanced environmental stages (when companies focus on an increasingly clean production or on the re-manufacture of products by means of material already discarded), it is necessary to make use of components of the assembly. This is essentially a work- intensive task, which implies a strong demand for trained personnel with functional flexibility (Ayres et al., 1997). Likewise, in the long term, the benefits of these training programmes include more efficient production with safer operations (Cook and Seith, 1991). They lead, even, to improvements in productivity (Koch and McGrath, 1995).
The empowerment of employees requires identifying the level of competence, experience, qualification and training of all the employees – especially of those who deal with functions which may affect the natural environment (Hart, 1995). This higher level of knowledge about the company’s tasks and processes allows performance improvement. The reason is that it places employees in a better position than managers to identify and correct problems when these take place (Wright et al., 1999). Training programmes include new employees and the personnel appointed to new tasks, teams and procedures, but also those already experienced. Therefore, together with initial training, continuous training has to be taken into account. In general, the objective of an environmental training programme for employees include: an increase in workers’ motivation, the promotion of the integration of good practices into the company and fostering integration, along with collaboration at all levels with the company’s policy (Cook and Seith, 1992).
Any environmental training programme requires careful planning that includes: a) deciding what are the reasons that lead a company to develop this type of programme – a change in the corporate environmental philosophy, agreements or lack of
Fernández et al.: Organizational culture and HR in environmental issue 645
fulfilment of some actions, lack of awareness on the part of employees, increase in concern, complex regulatory climate or findings on the part of internal audits; b) defining its objectives; and c) developing the curriculum which must fit the company’s objectives and the information collected about its specific needs (Cook and Seith, 1992).
There exist different types of procedures to identify the needs for training (for example, interviews, the reports of the people responsible for departments and environmental management committees). Once the needs have been detected, there are numerous means of training, which range from classes with an expert in the subject to sessions with video or audio and approaches based on computer and multimedia (Cascio et al., 1996). Moreover, it is advisable for companies to carry out a specific follow-up for certain jobs.
Some firms have already implemented advanced training programmes, as Taylor and Welford (1993) show in relation to IBM. Environmental issues are identified as an area to be addressed in the development of future strategies within the company.
Environmental motivation and incentives
The creation and expansion of knowledge, along with the image it offers, are intangible activities that cannot be supervised or forced by the company. They take place only when individuals co-operate voluntarily. Consequently, in the same way as in the literature about classical management issues (Dyer and Reeves, 1995; Meyer and Allen, 1997), Shrivastava (1995) and Getzner (1999) point out that employees’ motivation is one of the main incentives companies have to introduce advanced environmental approaches.12 The argument is implicitly stated by MacDuffie (1995), when he assumes that performance is more likely to be maximized when practices that reinforce workers’ patterns of behaviour via motivation are introduced.13
A staff deeply involved in the organization contributes to the success of the more preventive environmental approaches. Besides, it feeds back an organizational culture that promotes specific compliance with compromises and facilitates obtaining a more efficient product or more value for customers (Porter, 1985), especially regarding environmental issues. Therefore, such preventive approaches, the most advanced ones, have become the framework for the connection of workers’ participation in the environ- mental work (Forman and Jorgensen, 2001). Its importance is such that even some companies, like Alcoa, set up individual objectives for their employees. This has been demonstrated empirically. Examples are the discussion of quantitative and qualitative environmental objectives with employees and communication with them. The main aim is to evaluate the results with respect to the limits marked and the correction of deviations allows for the improvement of performance in this area (Ramus, 2001). ‘Employees’ motivation and discussion and communication of environmental objectives with employees emphasize the relevance of designing a set of human resource management policies that promotes workers’ co-operation and involvement with the company’s environmental objectives (Handfield et al., 2001).
There exist diverse ways of motivating staff from an environmental point of view. Ramus (2001) distinguishes between intrinsic and extrinsic factors. That is, a company can show that it wants employees to engage in the search for innovative solutions to environmental problems by providing incentives. For example, environmental policies that manifest commitment to improvements in environmental performance can show that the company wants employees to try eco-initiatives. Supportive behaviours from supervisors, like allocating time and resources to experimenting/developing ideas, rewarding ideas for environmental improvements, providing environmental competence-building opportunities and being open to employees’ ideas can demonstrate that the company
646 The International Journal of Human Resource Management
encourages eco-innovation. Research on creativity and innovation in general shows that employees must perceive organizational support or they are less likely to try initiatives. However, individuals also have a set of skills and values that they bring with them to any employment. An employee may have intrinsic motivation (like placing great personal value on a pristine environment), which pushes him or her to take actions to protect the natural environment (Ramus, 2001).
In accordance with the previous arguments, Milliman and Clair (1995) and Handfield et al. (2001) show the need to set standards of assessment of results for employees that encourage environmental activities at work. This is a difficult task if one wants to carry it out in a precise and consistent way, above all with respect to assessment among the different business units of multinational companies. Another serious difficulty is obtaining objective and precise data on managers’ performance. It is common at first for this setting of standards to be limited exclusively to managers. So, the personnel can check that some relationship exists between the facility’s performance and environmental efforts (Handfield et al., 2001).
Apart from the setting of standards, the company must have compensation systems suited to these objectives. With this purpose, it is common to use quantitative measures. But these are feared to create external pressures on managers, so that they distort the system to show they have reached all their objectives or focus almost exclusively on numeric objectives. Thus, other, qualitative aspects of environmental initiatives are ignored (Wolfe and Howes, 1993).
On the other hand, there are numerous studies that link individual compensation (Gerhart and Milkovich, 1992) and group incentives (Welbourne and Gomez-Mejía, 1995) with business performance. Gerhart and Milkovich (1992) produced empirical evidence that companies that used contingent remuneration for senior managers had a higher performance than those that established fixed salaries for their managers. This is important with respect to environmental management as well (Ramus, 1997).
Some companies have also used public recognition systems for the achievement of the objectives in the environmental area. It is quite often a matter of financial compensation. Examples are meetings with employees that take part in environmental working teams, which have been successful (Handfield et al., 2001).
Some companies have already started action in this sense. For example, Xerox has programmes to reward employees in order to achieve high levels of innovation in waste reduction, re-using and recycling (Milliman and Clair, 1995).
Implementation and organizational innovations
Environmental innovations can be seen in many companies nowadays. Eco-initiatives occur at all levels within companies, resulting from creative ideas from managers, office personnel, blue-collar workers and other types of employees. In practice, there are three types of environmental initiatives: a) those that decrease the environmental impacts of the company (like re-use and recycling), b) those that solve an environmental problem for the company (like reduction in use of hazardous substances) and c) those that develop a more eco-efficient product/service (for example, less resource and/or energy intensive). Examples of employee-led environmental innovations abound. Employees at GE Plastics Europe’s Bergen Op Zoom facilities in the Netherlands took on the responsibility for developing innovative waste reduction and recycling programmes as part of company- wide efforts to decrease environmental impacts. At the Allentown, Pennsylvania, Lucent Technologies manufacturing facility, a team of employees developed a microchip cleaning process that replaced a hazardous and volatile organic compound with water,
Fernández et al.: Organizational culture and HR in environmental issue 647
thus eliminating an environmental problem for the company. A team at Neste’s research laboratory in Porvoo, Finland, developed a cleaner diesel fuel, which was marketed with great success, adding to the company profitability while resulting in cleaner air (Ramus, 2001). All of them are organizational innovations in the environmental area.
As occurs with quality management (Juran, 1988), workers’ motivation and the carrying out of their tasks in the environmental field demand the design of mechanisms for their involvement (Hart, 1995; Ramus, 1997; Chase et al., 1998; Kitazawa and Sarkis, 2000). This is because the development of tacit skills depends on it (Lawler, 1986; Cole, 1991). In fact, Rondinelli and Berry (1997) have cited the company Sonoco as an example of the effects of the teamwork based on the quality of the human resources. So, in environmental management the personnel’s direct involvement is conducive to the prevention of problems and the identifying of opportunities and processes for improvement (Klassen and McLaughlin, 1993). However, this should not mean neglecting the necessary involvement of the general management and the work of environmental experts (van Berkel et al., 1998).
Besides, Ramus (2001) shows, by means of an empirical study, what the role of the manager is when it comes to obtaining environmental performance. It focuses, among other aspects, on giving independence to employees so that they achieve creative solutions and solve problems, encouraging their environmental concern and better applying their knowledge in this field (Cramer and Roes, 1993). There also exist works that show case analyses that support the importance of employees’ involvement in the environmental field (Milliman and Clair, 1995; Shrivastava, 1996; Forman and Jorgensen, 2001). Thus, employees’ environmental involvement is related in a positive way to the results of the productive activity and protection of the natural environment (Hanna et al., 2000).
Certain elements determine how employees can become involved in environmental issues. Thus, the case analysis carried out by Forman and Jorgensen (2001) shows that the need management feels to involve employees in environmental issues derives from four aspects: a) the environmental forces behind the employees’ participation, b) the type of task the employees have to be involved in, c) the determination of the concentration on environmental work and d) the specific employees that are going to take part in such tasks.
The importance of employees’ involvement is shown, mainly, through the delegation of responsibilities – empowerment – and teamwork (Ichniowski et al., 1996). Both support the generation of ideas (Cramer and Roes, 1993; Ghobadran et al., 1995; Hanna et al., 2000; Kitazawa and Sarkis, 2000). Ramus (1997) shows the approach of GE Plastics Europe in the integration of the leadership in order to achieve a good performance.
The integration of personnel into environmental activity reaches even the maintenance activity. This is the most advanced level of development in which productive maintenance is directly related to environmental management (Bamber et al., 2000). In this respect, we cannot forget the environmental consequences of a tool used for maintenance tasks. We are referring to the incorporation of the 5S.14 The philosophy of this consists in that each working area evaluates itself at fixed intervals (generally monthly). This then creates a general attitude among workers of respect for the maintenance of the workplace, and develops certain regular maintenance activities (Sugiyama, 1991). The application of the 5S philosophy generates two types of consequences. On the one hand, the workplace must be in order: each thing in its place and a place for each thing. And a second consequence is the idea of absolute cleanness of the workplace. This has, in its turn, an additional implication: the worker’s involvement in the maintenance task – cleaning, greasing and degreasing. This is so- called productive maintenance. It is characterized by the assignment of these tasks to the worker, and not to a group that has these types of tasks entrusted specifically. This is
648 The International Journal of Human Resource Management
a situation characteristic of corrective and preventive maintenance. This approach, apart from motivating the worker, allows him to detect problems in the productive process: for example, some leakages, apart from labour health consequences, have environmental consequences and consequences for quality. In this way, the application of the 5S philosophy and some management techniques (such as productive maintenance) allows issues related to the environment, traditional quality and risk prevention to be integrated in a solution. The advantage of the 5S philosophy in terms of environmental management is based on the fact that, to improve environmental performance, a lot of the activities are linked to the most routine tasks. So, the shopfloor, as well as the storage areas, will become relevant focuses of attention. This is shown for Thorsman & Co. (O’hEocha, 2000).
The delegation of responsibilities to workers is based on a team of workers that will probably have specific knowledge about the causes of waste and the possible solutions to reduce it (Gupta and Sharma, 1996). In this respect, we shall mention two cases that show this. On the one hand, the Chrysler team at the Jeep plant in Toledo (United States) was formed to respond to state legislation that banned the disposal of certain biodegradable and recyclable materials. In this way, establishing collection points and a network of recyclers for such materials, along with returnable packaging systems with suppliers, the team saved the company millions of dollars annually. An AT&T team15
completely eliminated the primary sources of toxic emissions with operative changes that improved the unit cost and the installations’ operative efficiency (Ohio Manufacturers, 1991).
However, not every environmental team has the same characteristics. In fact, there are differences among them, but mainly regarding the employees’ level of participation (Forman and Jorgensen, 2001). Welford (1992) and May and Flannery (1995) have described their most relevant aspects. This work shows the performance of the involvement of employees in the waste reduction programmes at AT&T, 3M, Kodak, Du Pont and Procter&Gamble.
Conclusions
The main component of the new basis of human resources is the creation of a mentality focused on ecological values and technical competencies capable of succeeding in the market. In this respect, the aim of this work is to integrate the classical literature concerning organizational culture and human resources and the limited works about these aspects for environmental management. With this purpose, we have collected and integrated the still limited existing bibliography about this matter. We have analyzed the mechanisms that allow a strategic environmental view of the company to become involved in the organizational culture and disseminated over the whole company. Thus, we are at a starting point for the undertaking of empirical work that allows going deeply into this field. Likewise, we have analysed the form these issues, relative to the organizational culture and human resource management, adopt for each of the diverse environmental strategies, considering their differences.
In this way, in the first place, it seems necessary to carry out studies in which a qualitative methodology is applied that allows building a theoretical framework. This must show the relationships between the aspects analysed in this work and environmental performance and their influence on the relationships of this with production performance and business performance. On the other hand, it is also interesting to study the existing relationships among the aspects related in this study, as well as their feedback mechanisms. Once the theoretical framework emerged from such analyses is established,
Fernández et al.: Organizational culture and HR in environmental issue 649
it would be appropriate to conduct theoretical studies that allow the validation of the results obtained, using large samples that allow the generalization of the results previously obtained.
Acknowledgements
We thank the referees for their comments and suggestions, because we think they have improved remarkably the contents and writing of this article.
Notes
1 In fact, Hall (1992) observed that employees’ know-how, reputation and the business culture were considered the most relevant sources of business success.
2 Spence (1974) states that, when adequate and complete information is missing, those who take decisions rely on observable factors or signals as a substitute for this. A policy of human resources intended to motivate the staff to environmental awareness are signals a company emits to the market. This generates a reputation that allows attracting and retaining more qualified workers, which results in the achievement of a competitive advantage (Boudreau, 1983).
3 Transformational leaders recognize the stimulus aspects based on inspiration and those of an intellectual nature, which reflect roles of the innovators’ open system model (creative problem solving, change and adaptation) and assets (they exercise power and influence and acquire resources). Moreover, the roles of the human relations model of mediator (management of conflict and participatory decision making) and mentor (human resource development) are also contemplated.
4 Transactional leaders are characterized by directing subordinates’ task results towards the achievement of organizational objectives. This is reflected in the roles of the model of the internal process of co-ordinator (analysis and co-ordination of the tasks and financial control) and controller (information management and critical thought) and the roles of the models of rational objectives of producer (productivity and efficiency) and director (planning and setting objectives).
5 Balanced situation between the two types of leadership – transformational and transactional – which are sometimes in conflict.
6 ‘Environmental champions’ are people who believe environmental issues are a top priority and have enough environmental knowledge or skills. So, they can express in an attractive way their personal view of environmental protection according to the industry’s needs and the concern of society in general (Fineman and Clarke, 2000). They are key factors in the achievement of support to face and improve companies’ environmental situations (Starik and Rands, 1995) and they are considered vital in corporate management programmes (Winn, 1995).
7 Since it is inherently tacit, specific to an organization and subject to causal ambiguity (Lippman and Rumelt, 1982; Reed and DeFillippi, 1990).
8 Toyota, for example, has a maxim: ‘do not waste your time worrying about something, just say it’. This allows workers to express their feelings about the company and its managers.
9 In fact, only their conjunction allows reaching such a learning level that a human being can go from ‘storing’ the capacity given by instruction, to listen, capture and respond in a productive and active way (Fromm, 1976). This can be achieved, adding to such instruction environmental education in values. Thus, it is necessary for employees to learn these conditions to turn their efforts into effective actions.
10 In this respect, and for the majority of questions, Bronbanck (1998) considers that the key competition is not technical but cultural.
11 We must not forget that, sometimes, workers, like managers, perceive the environment’s conservation and protection as an enemy of the industrial activity.
12 In fact, worker’s co-operation and motivation are two aspects strongly emphasized in the economic and strategic literature (Porter, 1985). If such co-operation did not exist, the human being would not be considered part of the organization. Therefore, he would not be related to the product as a whole (Fromm, 1964).
650 The International Journal of Human Resource Management
Fernández et al.: Organizational culture and HR in environmental issue 651
13 This has been for a long time a preferred topic of discussion. In this respect, Elton Mayo (in the experiment of the Western Electric Company in the Hawthorne mills of Chicago in the middle of the twentieth century) already concluded that, even for the more routine tasks, the simple fact of being considered influences employees’ productivity more positively than other factors: specifically, the introduction of breaks during each shift. A human being usually appears passive until he is made to participate (in the case of Mayo, in the experiment), which arouses a feeling of collaboration, inducing activity and changing, automatically, his attitudes (Fromm, 1983). If this motivation does not exist, a human being loses the feeling of himself, of converting his job into a specific and meaningful activity (Fromm, 1964). With this, the lack of motivation would soon generate a reduction in the level of results.
14 Each 5S is defined as follows. Seiri consists in selecting and classifying things according to what is and is not necessary, later removing what is not necessary. Seiton is related to the efficient placing of things so that they are easily accessible if they are necessary and can be employed in the best possible order. Seisco means preventing any surface in the working areas from being dirty and using machinery and equipment to keep the rooms glossy in normal working conditions. Seiketsu implies removing germs and stains and keeping everything very clean. Finally, shitsuke involves the scrupulous application of the norms, making them a habit.
15 Which had been mentioned previously as an example of the worst polluters.
References
Alberti, M., Caini, M., Calabrese, A. and Rossi, D. (2000) ‘Evaluation of the Costs and Benefits of an Environmental Management System’, International Journal of Production Research, 38(1): 4455–66.
Amit, R. and Schoemaker, P. (1993) ‘Strategic Assets and Organizational Rents’, Strategic Management Journal, 14: 33–46.
Andersson, L.M. and Bateman, T.S. (2000) ‘Individual Environmental Initiative: Championing Natural Environmental Issues in U.S. Business Organizations’, Academy of Management Journal, 43(4): 548–70.
Andersson, T. and Wolff, R. (1996) ‘Ecology as a Challenge for Management Research’, Scandinavian Journal Management, 12(3): 223–31.
Angell, L.C. (2001) ‘Comparing the Environmental and Quality Initiatives of Baldridge Award Winners’, Production and Operations Management, 10(3): 306–326.
Angell, L.C. and Klassen, R.D. (1999) ‘Integrating Environmental Issues into the Mainstream: An Agenda for Research in Operations Management’, Journal of Operations and Production Management, 11(3): 63–76.
Argenti, P.A. (1998) ‘Strategic Employee Communications’, Human Resource Management, 37(4): 199–206.
Ashford, N.A. (1993) ‘Understanding Technological Responses of Industrial Firms to Environmental Problems: Implications for Government Policy’. In Schot, J. and Fischer, K. (eds) Environmental Strategies for Industry: International Perspectives on Research Needs and Policy Implications. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Ayres, R., Ferrer, G. and van Leynseele, T. (1997) ‘Ecoefficiency, Asset Recovery and Remanufacturing’, European Management Journal, 15(5): 557–74.
Azzone, G., Bianchi, R., Mauri, R. and Noci, G. (1997) ‘Defining Operating Environmental Strategies: Programmes and Plans within Italian Industries’, Environmental Management and Health, 8(1): 4–19.
Azzone, G. and Noci, G. (1998a) ‘Seeing Ecology and “Green” Innovations as a Source of Change’, Journal of Organizational Change Management, 119(2): 94–111.
Azzone, G. and Noci, G. (1998b) ‘Identifying Effective PMSs for the Deployment of “Green” Manufacturing Strategies’, International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 18(4): 308–35.
Bamber, C.J., Sharp, J.M. and Hides, M.T. (2000) ‘Developing Management Systems towards Integrated Manufacturing: A Case Study Perspective’, Integrated Manufacturing Systems, 11(7): 454–61.
652 The International Journal of Human Resource Management
Banerjee, S.B. (1998) ‘Corporate Environmentalism: Perspectives from Organizational Learning’, Management Learning, 29(2): 147–64.
Barney, J.B. (1991) ‘Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage’, Journal of Management, 17(1): 99–120.
Beer, M. and Eisentat, R.A. (1996) ‘The Silent Killers: Overcoming the Hidden Barriers to Organizational Fitness’, work document 97-004, Harvard Business School, Division of Research, Boston.
Boudreau, J. (1983) ‘Economic Consideration in Estimating the Utility of Human Resource Productivity Improvement Programs’, Personnel Psychology, 36: 551–75.
Brío, J.A. (1999) ‘Actitudes de las Empresas Industriales Españolas Hacia el Medio Ambiente: Factores de Influencia’, unpublished doctoral thesis, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo.
Bronbank, W. (1995) ‘Logic and Conflict in Corporate Values’, work document, Third International Conference on Social Values, Oxford University, UK.
Bunge, J., Cohen-Rosenthal, E. and Ruíz-Quintanilla, A. (1995) Report from the Cornell Work and Environmental Initiative and the Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Cascio, J., Woodside, G. and Mitchell, P. (1996) ISO 14000 Guide: The New International Management Standards. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Chase, R.B., Aquilano, J. and Jacobs, F.R. (1998) Production and Operations Management, 8th edn. Homewood, IL: Irwin.
Chinander, K.R. (2001) ‘Aligning Accountability and Awareness for Environmental Performance in Operations’, Production and Operations Management, 10(3): 276–91.
Cole, R. (1991) Strategies for Learning. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Cook, J. and Seith, B.J. (1991) ‘Environmental Training: A Tool for Assuring Compliance’, Journal
of Environmental Regulation, Winter: 167–72. Cook, J. and Seith, B.J. (1992) ‘Designing an Effective Environmental Training Program’, Journal
of Environmental Regulation, Autumn: 53–62. Corbett, L.M. and Cutler, D.J. (2000) ‘Environmental Management Systems in the New Zealand
Plastics Industry’, International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 20(2): 204–224.
Cordano, M. and Frieze, I.H. (2000) ‘Pollution Reduction Preferences of U.S. Environmental Managers: Applying Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior’, Academy of Management Journal, 43(4): 627–41.
Cramer, J.M. and Roes, B. (1993) ‘Total Employee Involvement: Measures for Success’, Total Quality Environmental Management, Autumn: 39–52.
Curkovic, S., Melnyk, S.A., Handfield, R.B. and Calantone, R. (2000). ‘Investigating the Linkage between TQM and Environmentally Responsible Manufacturing’, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 47(4): 444–64.
Daily, B.F. and Huang, S.-C. (1994) ‘Achieving Sustainability through Attention to Human Resource Factors in Environmental Management’, International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 21(12): 1539–52.
Dechant, K. and Altman, B. (1994) ‘Environmental Leadership: From Compliance to Competitive Advantage’, Academy of Management Executive, 8(3): 7–27.
Dieleman, H. and de Hoo, S. (1993) ‘Toward a Tailor-Made Process of Pollution Prevention and Cleaner Production: Results and Implications of the PRISMA Project’. In Schot, J. and Fischer, K. (eds) Environmental Strategies for Industry: International Perspectives on Research Needs and Policy Implications. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Duncan, W.J. (1989) ‘Organizational Culture: “Getting a Fix” on an Elusive Concept’, Academy of Management Executive, 2: 229–36.
Dutton, J.E. and Dukerich, J.M. (1991) ‘Keeping an Eye on the Mirror: Image and Identity in Organizational Adaptation’, Academy of Management Review, 34: 517–54.
Dyer, L. and Reeves, T. (1995) ‘Human Resource Strategies and Firm Performance: What Do We Know and Where Do We Need to Go?’, International Journal of Human Resource Management, 6(3): 656–70.
Egri, C.P. and Herman, S. (2000) ‘Leadership in the North American Environmental Sector: Values, Leadership Styles, and Contexts of Environmental Leaders and their Organizations’, Academy of Management Journal, 43(4): 571–604.
Enander, R.T. and Pannullo, D. (1990) ‘Employee Involvement and Pollution Prevention’, Journal for Quality and Participation, July/August: 50–53.
Epstein, M.J. and Roy, M.-J. (2001) ‘Sustainability in Action: Identifying and Measuring the Key Performance Drivers’, Long Range Planning, 34: 585–604.
Fineman, S. (1997) ‘Constructing the Green Manager’, British Journal of Management, 8: 31–8. Fineman, S. and Clarke, K. (1996) ‘Green Stakeholders: Industry Interpretations and Response’,
Journal of Management Studies, 33(6): 715–30. Florida, R. (1996) ‘Lean and Green: The Move to Environmentally Conscious Manufacturing’,
California Management Review, 39: 80–105. Forman, M. and Jorgensen, M.S. (2001) ‘The Social Shaping of the Participation of Employees in
Environmental Work within Enterprises: Experiences from a Danish Context’, Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 13(1): 71–90.
Fromm, E. (1964) ‘The Present Human Condition’. In The Dogma of Christ. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Fromm, E. (1976) To Have or to Be. New York: Harper & Row. Fromm, E. (1983) Über die Liebe zum Leben. Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt. Fundación Entorno (1998) Libro Blanco de la Gestión Medioambiental en la Industria Española.
Madrid: Mundi Prensa. Gerhart, B. and Milkovich, G.T. (1992) ‘Employee Compensation: Research and Practice’. In
Dunnette, M.D. and Hough, L.M. (eds) Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 3. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Getzner, M. (1999) ‘Cleaner Production, Employment Effects and Socio-Economic Development’, International Journal of Technology Management, 17(5): 522–43.
Ghobadran, A., Viney, H., James, P. and Liu, J. (1995) ‘The Influence of Environmental Issues in Strategic Analysis and Choice: A Review of Environmental Strategy among Top UK Corporations’, Management Decision, 33(10): 46–58.
Gioia, D.A. and Thomas, J.B. (1996) ‘Identity, Image and Issue Interpretation: Sensemaking during Strategic Change in Academia’, Administrative Science Quarterly, 41: 370–403.
Gladwin, T.N. (1993) ‘The Meaning of Greening: A Plea for Organizational Theory’. In Fischer, K. and Schot, J. (eds) Environmental Strategies for Industry: International Perspectives on Research Needs and Policy Implications. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Grant, R.M. (1991) Contemporary Strategy Analysis. Oxford: Blackwell. Greening, D.W. and Gray, B. (1994) ‘Testing a Model of Organizational Response to Social and
Political Issues’, Academy of Management Journal, 37: 467–98. Greeno, J.L. and Robinson, S.N. (1992) ‘Thinking Corporate Environmental Management’,
Columbia Journal of World Business, Winter: 222–7. Griffiths, A. and Petrick, J.A. (2001) ‘Corporate Architectures for Sustainability’, International
Journal of Operations and Production Management, 21(12): 1573–85. Groenegen, P. and Vergragt, P. (1991) ‘Environmental Issues as Threats and Opportunities for
Technological Innovation’, Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 3(1): 43–55. Gupta, M.C. and Sharma, K. (1996) ‘Environmental Operations Management: An Opportunity for
Improvement’, Production and Inventory Management Journal, 37(3) 40–6. Hall, R.B. (1992) ‘The Strategic Analysis of Intangible Resources’, Strategic Management Journal,
13: 135–44. Hallier, J. (2001) ‘Greenfield Recruitment and Selection. Implications for the Older Worker’,
Personnel Review, 30(3): 331–50. Handfield, R.B., Melnyk, S.A., Calantone, R.G. and Curkovic, S. (2001) ‘Integrating
Environmental Concerns into the Design Process: The Gap between Theory and Practice’, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 18(2): 189–208.
Hanna, M.D., Newman, W.R. and Johnson, P. (2000) ‘Linking Operational and Environmental Improvement through Employee Involvement’, International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 20(2): 148–65.
Fernández et al.: Organizational culture and HR in environmental issue 653
Hart, S.L. (1995) ‘A Natural Resource-Based View of the Firm’, Academy of Management Review, 20(4): 986–1014.
Ichniowski, C., Kochan, T.A., Levine, D., Olson, C. and Strauss, G. (1996) ‘What Works at Work: Overview and Assessment’, Industrial Relations, 35: 325–32.
Juran, J.M. (1988) Juran on Planning for Quality. New York: The Free Press. Keogh, P. and Polonsky, M.J. (1998) ‘Environmental Commitment: A Basis for Environmental
Entrepreneurship?’, Journal of Organizational Change Management, 11(1): 38–49. King, A. (1995) ‘Innovation from Differentiation: Pollution Control Departments and
Innovation in the Printed Circuit Industry’, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 42(3): 270–7.
Kitazawa, S. and Sarkis, J. (2000) ‘The Relationship between ISO 14001 and Continuous Source Reduction Programs’, International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 20(2): 225–48.
Klassen, R.D. (2000) ‘Exploring the Linkage between Investment in Manufacturing and Environmental Technologies’, International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 20(2): 127–47.
Klassen, R.D. (2001) ‘Plant-level Environmental Management Orientation: The Influence of Management News and Plant Characteristics’, Production and Operations Management, 10(3): 257–75.
Klassen, R.D. and McLaughlin, C.P. (1993) ‘TQM and Environmental Excellence in Manufacturing’, Industrial Management and Data Systems, 93: 14–22.
Koch, M.J. and MacGrath, R.G. (1996) ‘Improving Labor Productivity: Human Resource Management Policies Do Important’, Strategic Management Journal, 17: 335–54.
Lawler, E. (1986) High-involvement Management. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Lawrence, P.R. and Lorsch, J.W. (1967) Organization and Environments: Managing Differentiation
and Integration. Homewood, IL: Irwin. Ledgerwood, G., Street, E. and Therivel, R. (1992) The Environment Audit and Business Strategy:
A Total Quality Approach. London: Pitman. Lippman, S.A. and Rumelt, R.P. (1982) ‘Uncertain Imitability: An Analysis of Interfirm Differences
in Efficiency under Competition’, The Bell Journal of Economics, 13: 418–38. MacDuffie, J.P. (1995) ‘Human Resource Bundles and Manufacturing Performance: Organizational
Logic and Flexible Production Systems in the World Auto Industry’, Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 48: 197–221.
May, D.R. and Flannery, B.L. (1995) ‘Cutting Waste with Employee Involvement Teams’, Business Horizons, September–October: 28–38.
Meyer, J.P. and Allen, J.J. (1997) Commitment in the Workplace: Theory, Research and Application. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Milliman, J. and Clair, J. (1995) ‘Environmental HRM Best Practices in the USA’, Greener Management International, 10(April): 34–48.
OECD (1995) Technologies for Cleaner Production and Products. Paris: OECD. O’hEocha, M. (2000) ‘A Study of the Influence of Company Culture, Communications and
Employee Attitudes on the Use of 5Ss for Environmental Management at Cooke Brothers Ltd’, The TQM Magazine, 12(5): 321–30.
Ohio Manufacturer’s Association (1991) Case Studies in Team Excellence in Manufacturing. Ohio: Ohio Manufacturer’s Association.
Penrose, E.T. (1959) The Theory of the Growth of the Firm. New York: Wiley. Polonsky, M.J., Rosenberger III, P.J. and Ottman, J.A. (1998) ‘Developing Green Products:
Learning from Stakeholders’, The Journal of Sustainable Product Design, April: 7–21. Porter, M.E. (1985) Competitive Advantage. New York: The Free Press. Portugal, E. and Yukl, G. (1994) ‘Perspectives on Environmental Leadership’, Leadership
Quarterly, 5: 271–6. Purcell, J. and Ahlstrand, B. (1994) Human Resource Management in the Multidivisional Company.
Oxford: Oxford University Press. Quinn, R.E. (1988) Beyond Rational Management: Mastering the Paradoxes of Competing
Demands of High Performance. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
654 The International Journal of Human Resource Management
Ramus, C.A. (1997) ‘Employee Empowerment at GE Plastics: An Example of a Successful Environmental Change Process’, Corporate Environmental Strategy, 4(13): 38–47.
Ramus, C.A. (2001) ‘Organizational Support for Employees: Encouraging Creative Ideas for Environmental Sustainability’, California Management Review, 43(3): 85–105.
Ramus, C.A. and Steger, U. (2000) ‘The Roles of Supervisory Support Behaviors and Environmental Policy in Employee Ecoinitivatives at Leading-Edge European Companies’, Academy of Management Journal, 41(4): 605–26.
Reed, R. and DeFillippi, R.J. (1990) ‘Causal Ambiguity, Barriers to Imitation, and Sustainable Competitive Advantage’, Academy of Management Review, 15: 88–102.
Rondinelli, D.A. and Berry, M.A. (1997) ‘Case Study: Sonoco’s Materials Reclamation Improves Environmental Performance through Quality-Based Management’, Total Quality Environmental Management, Summer: 1–9.
Russo, M.V. and Fouts, P.A. (1997) ‘A Resource-Based Perspective on Corporate Environmental Performance and Profitability’, Academy of Management Journal, 40: 534–59.
Sanderlands, G. (1994) ‘3M Find Brass in Muck’, Management Decision, 32(5): 63–4. Sarkis, J. (2001) ‘Manufacturing’s Role in Corporate Environmental Sustainability: Concerns for
the New Millennium’, International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 21(5–6): 666–86.
Schein, E.H. (1990) ‘Organizational Culture’, American Psychologist, 45: 109–19. Sharma, S. (2000) ‘Managerial Interpretations and Organizational Context as Predictors of
Corporate Choice of Environmental Strategy’, Academy of Management Journal, 43(4): 681–97.
Sharma, S., Pablo, A. and Vredenburg, H. (1999) ‘Corporate Environmental Responsiveness Strategies: The Importance of Issue Interpretation and Organizational Context’, Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 35: 87–108.
Shrivastava, P. (1995) ‘The Role of Corporations in Achieving Ecological Sustainability’, Academy of Management Review, 20(4): 936–60.
Shrivastava, P. (1996) Greening Business: Profiting the Corporation and the Environment. Cincinnati, OH: Thomson Executive Press.
Spence, A.M. (1974) Marketing Signaling: Informational Transfer in Hiring and Related Screening Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Starik, M. and Rands, G.P. (1995) ‘Weaving an Integrated Web: Multilevel and Multisystem Perspectives of Ecologically Sustainable Organizations’. In Fischer, K. and Schot, J. (eds) Environmental Strategies for Industry. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Strebel, P. (1996) ‘Why Do Employees Resist Change?’, Harvard Business Review, 3: 86–92. Sugiyama, T. (1991) El Libro de las Mejoras. Madrid: Tecnología de Gerencia y Producción. Taylor, G. and Welford, R. (1993) ‘An Integrated Systems Approach to Environmental
Management: A Case Study of IBM UK’, Business Strategy and the Environment, 2(3): 1–11. Thompson, B.C. and Rauck, A.C. (1993) ‘Applying TQEM Practices to Pollution Prevention at
AT&T’s Columbus Works Plant’, Total Quality Environmental Management, (2):373–81. Ulrich, D. and Lake, D. (1990) Organizational Capability: Competing from the Inside-Out. New
York: Wiley. van Berkel, R., Willems, E. and Lafleur, M. (1997) ‘Development of an Industrial Ecology Toolbox
for the Introduction of Industrial Ecology in Enterprises, I’, Journal of Cleaner Production, 5(1–2): 11–25.
Weick, K.E. (1988) ‘Enacted Sensemaking in Crisis Situations’, Journal of Management Studies, 24: 305–17.
Welbourne, T. and Gómez-Mejía, L. (1995) ‘Gainsharing: A Critical Review and Future Research Agenda’, Journal of Management, 21: 559–609.
Welford, R. (1992) ‘Linking Quality and the Environment: A Strategy for the Implementation of Environmental Management Systems’, Business Strategy and the Environment, 1(1): 25–34.
Wilkinson, A., Hill, M. and Collan, P. (2001) ‘The Sustainability Debate’, International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 21(12): 1492–502.
Fernández et al.: Organizational culture and HR in environmental issue 655
Winn, M. (1995) ‘Corporate Leadership and Policies for the Natural Environment’. In Collins, D. and Starik, M. (eds) Research in Corporate Social Performance and Policy. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Wolfe, A. and Howes, H.A. (1993) ‘Measuring Environmental Performance: Theory and Practice at Ontario Hydro’, Total Quality Environmental Management, Summer: 355–66.
Wood, D. (1991) ‘Corporate Social Performance Revisited’, Academy of Management Review, 16(4): 691–718.
Wright, P.M., McCormic, B., Sherman, S. and McMahan, G. (1999) ‘The Role of Human Resource Practices in Petro-Chemical Refinery Performance’, International Journal of Human Resource Management, 10(4): 551–71.
656 The International Journal of Human Resource Management
