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Organizational-Behaviourbook8thedition.pdf
•
Concepts, Controversies, ·
Eighth Canadian
Edition
• • an1za 1ona
• e av1our
Concepts, Controversies, Applications
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Concepts, Controversies, Applications
Nancy Langton Un iversity of British Columbia
Stephen P. Robbins San D iego State University
Timothy A. Judge University of Notre Dame
1) Pearson •
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9780134645858
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Li bra r y and Archives C ana d a Cataloguing in Public ation
R o bbins, Stephen P., 1943- , autho r O rganizational behaviour : concepts, controversies, applications I N ancy Langton (U niversity o f British Columbia), Stephen P. R obbins (San Diego State U niversity), Timothy A. J udge (U niversity o f Notre D aine) - 8th Canadian ed.
Includes index. ISBN 978-0 - 13 -464585-8
1. O rganizational behavior-Textbo oks. 2. M anagem ent-Textbooks. l. Lan gton, N a ncy, author II. Judge, Tim, author Ill. Title.
Q E28 .2.T37 201 1 550 C 2010 - 905691- 4
'i> Pearson •
BRIEF CONTENTS
PART 1 Understanding the Workplace
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3
What Is Organ izationa l Behaviour? Perception, Personal ity, and Emotions Va lues, Attitudes, and Divers ity in the Workplace
OB ON THE EDGE Stress at Work
PART 2 Striving for Performance
PART 3
CHAPTER 4 Theories of Motivation CHAPTER 5 Motivation in Action CHAPTER 6 Groups and Tea mwork OB ON THE EDGE Trust
Interacting Effectively
CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 8 CHAPTER 9
Com munication Power and Pol itics Conflict and Negotiation
OB ON THE EDGE Workplace Bu llying
PART 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
CHAPTER 10 Organizationa l Culture CHAPTER 11 Leadership CHAPTER 12 Dec ision Making, Creativity, and Ethics OB ON THE EDGE Sp iritua lity in the Workplace
PART 5 Reorganizing the Workplace
CHAPTER 13 Organizationa l Structure CHAPTER 14 Organizationa l Change
ADDITIONAL CASES ENDNOTES GLOSSARY/SUBJECT INDEX NAME AND OR GANIZATION IND EX LIST OF CANADIAN COMPANIES, BY PROVINCE
520 548 610 629 638
2
2 36 80
116
124 124 162 198 240
246 246 274 310 344
350
350 382 414 450
456 456 490
CONTENTS
PART 1
PREFACE ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Unde rstanding the Workplace
CHAPTER 1 What Is Organ izational Behaviou r? The Importance of Interpersonal Skills Defining Organizational Behaviour
What Do We Mean by O rga niz atio n? OB Is for Eveiyone
Complementing Intuition with Systematic Study Big Data
Discip lines That Contribute to the OB Field The Building Blocks of OB The Rigour of OB
OB Has Few Absolutes OB Taf1es a Contingency Approach
Challenges and Opportun ities in the Canadian Workplace Economic Pressures Continuing Globalization Understanding Worf1force Diversity Customer Service People Skills Networked Organizations Social Media Enhancing Employee Well-Being at Work Creating a Positive Work Environment Ethical Behaviour
Coming Attractions: Developing an OB Model An Overview Inputs Processes Outcomes
Summary 08 at Work FOR REVIEW • FOR MANAGERS • FOR YOU
POINT/COUNTIRPOINT: The Battle of the Texts BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Manag ing the OB \,\fay
ETHICAL DILEMMA: There's a Drone in Your Soup CASE INCIDENT: Apple Goes Global CASE INCIDENT: Big Data for Dummies FROM CONCEPTS TO SKILLS: Developing /111erpersonal Skills
XVII
XXIX
2
2
4
s s 6
6 7
9 9
11
11 11
12 12 13 14 16 16 16 17 17 18 19 19 20 20 20 2 1
25 27 28 29 29 30 31 31 32
Contents vii
CHAPTER 2 Perception , Personality, and Emotions 36 Perception 38
Factors That Influence Perception 38 Perceptual Errors 39 Why Do Perception and Judgment Matter? 46
Person ality 47 What Is Personality? 47 Measuring Personality 47 Personality Determinants 48 Personality Traits 48 The Dark Triad 54 Other Personality Attributes That Influence OB 56 Situation Strength Theory 59
Emotions 60 What Are Emotions and Moods? 60 Moral Emotions 6 1 Choosing Emotions: Emotional Labour 62 Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace? 63
Global Implications 68 Perception 68 Attributions 69 Personality 69 Emotions 69
Summary 70 OB at Work FOR REVIEW • FOR MANAGERS • FOR YOU 72
POINT/COUNTIRPOINT: Sometimes Yelling Is for Everyone's Good 73 BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES 74 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: \,\'ho Om Catch a Liar? 74 ETMICAL DILEMMA: Happiness Coaches for Employees 74 CASE INCIDENT: The Power of Quiet 75 CASE INCIDENT: Tall Poppy Syndrome 76 FROM CONCEPTS TO SKILLS: Rending Emotions 77
CHAPTER 3 Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 80 Va lues 82
Rokeach Value Survey 82 Hodgson's General Mora l Principles 83
Assess ing Cultural Va lues 83 Hofstede's Framework for Assessing Cultures 83 The GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures 86
Va lues in the Canadian Workplace 86 Generational Differences 86 Cultural Differences 88
Attitudes 89 Job Satisfaction 90 Organizational Comm itment 96 Job Involvement 96 Perceived Organizational Support 97 Employee Engagement 98
Managing Divers ity in the Workplace 99 Effective Diversity Programs 100 Cultural Intelligence 103
v iii Contents
PART 2
Global Implications 106 ls Job Satisfaction a North American Concept? 106 Are Emplo)'ees in Western Cultures More Satisfied with Their Jobs? 106 ls Diversity Managed Different!)' across Cultures? 107
Summary 107 08 at Work
DB ON THE EDGE Stress at Work
Striving for Performance
FOR REVIEW • FOR MANAGERS • FOR YOU POINT/COUNTIRPOINT: Millem,ials Haiie Inflated Images
of 11,emselves Compared to Their Parents
BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Feel ing Excluded ETMICAL DILEMMA: Tell-All Websites
CASE INCIDENT: Job Crafting CASE INCIDENT: Walking the Walk FROM CONCEPTS TO SKILLS: Changing Attitudes
CHAPTER 4 Theo ries of Motivation What Is Motivation? Needs Theories of Motivation
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory Trvo· Factor Theory McClelland's Theory of Needs Summarizing Needs Theories
Process Theories of Motivation Expectancy Theor)' Goal-Setting Theory Self-Efficacy Theory Reinforcement Theory
Respon ses to the Reward System Equity Theory Fair Process and Treatment Self-Determination Theory Increasing Intrinsic Motivation
Motivation for Whom? Job Engagement Putting It All Together
Global Implications Needs Theories Goal-Setting Theory Equity Theory and Fairness Justice Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Cross-Cultural Consistencies
Summary 08 at Work FOR REVIEW • FOR MANAGERS • FOR YOU
POINT/COUNTIRPOINT: Coals Get You to ~\'here You Want to Be BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: OrganiZlltional Justice ETHICAL DILEMMA: The New CPA CASE INCIDENT: &Juity and Executi,ie Pay CASE INCIDENT: Wage Reduction Proposal FROM CONCEPTS TO SKILLS: Setting Coals
109
llO lll lll ll2 ll2 ll3 ll4
116
124
124
126 127 128 128 130 13 1 133 134 137 140 141 143 144 146 148 149 150 15 1 15 2 15 2 15 2 153 153 153 154 154 154
156 157 158 158 158 159 160 160
Content s ix
CHAPTER 5 Motivation in Action 162 From Theory to Practice: The Role of Money 164 Creating Effective Reward Systems 164
What to Pay: Establishing a Pay Structure 164 How to Pay: Rewarding Individuals through Variable-Pay Programs 165 Flexible Benefits: Developing a Benefits Package 170 Intrinsic Rewards: Employee Recognition Programs 171 Beware the Signals That Are Sent by Rewards 172
Motivating by Job Redesign 17 4 The Job Characteristics Model 17 4 Job Redesign in the Canadian Context: The Role of Unions 177 How Can Jobs Be Redesigned? 177 Relational Job Design 178 Alternative Work Arrangements 180 Flextime 180
Employee Involvement and Participation 184 Examples of Employee Involvement Programs 185 Linf1ing Employee Involvement Programs and Motivation Theories 186
Motivation: Putting It All Together 186 Global Implications 186
Variable Pay 18 7 Flexible Benefits 18 7 Job Characteristics and Job Enrichment 187 Telecommuting 188 Employee Involvement 188
Summary 188 OB at Work FOR REVIEW • FOR MANAGERS • FOR YOU
POINT/COUNTIRPOINT: 'Face-Time' Matters BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Anal)'zing and Redesigning Jobs ETMICAL DILEMMA: Are CEOs Paid Too Much? CASE INCIDENT: Motivation for Leisure CASE INCIDENT: Pay Rnises Every Day FROM CONCEPTS TO SKILLS: Designing Enriched Jobs
CHAPTER 6 Groups and Teamwork Teams vs. Groups: What Is the Difference?
Why Have Teams Become So Popular? Types of Teams
From Individual to Team Member Roles Norms
Stages of Group and Team Develop ment The Five-Stage Model The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model
Creating Effective Teams Context Composition Team Processes
Beware! Teams Are Not Always the Answer Global Implications
Team Cultural Diversity and Team Performance Group Cohesiveness
Summary
190 19 1 192 192 193 194 194 195
198
200 200 200
204 206 207
211 211 213
216 218 221 226
230
230 230 231
231
x Contents
PART 3
OB at Wo rk FOR REVIEW • FOR MANAGERS • FOR YOU 233 POINT/COUNTIRPOINT: To Get 11ie Most Out of Teams, Empower Them 234 BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES 235 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: 71ie Paper Tower Exercise 235 ETMICAL DILEMMA: Dealing wi1h Shirkm 235 CASE INCIDENT: Tongue-Tied in Teams 236 CASE INCIDENT: lntragroup TniSI and Suroival 237 FROM CONCEPTS TO SKILLS: Omducting a Team Meeting 238
OB ON THE EDGE Trust 240
Interacting Effectively
CHAPTER 7 Com mun ication The Commun ication Process
Choosing a Channel Barriers to Effective Commu nication
Filtering Selective Perception Information Overload Emotions Language Silence Lying
Organizationa l Communication Direction of Communication Small-Group Networks The Grapevine
Modes of Co mm un ication Oral Communication Written Communication Nonverbal Communication
Global Implications Cultural Barriers to Communication Cultural Context A Cultural Guide
Su mmary OB at Wo rk FOR REVIEW • FOR MANAGERS • FOR YOU
POINT/COUNTIRPOINT: Employees' Social Media Presence
246
246
248 248 25 1 25 1 25 1 25 2 25 2 25 2 253 253 25 4 25 4 255 256 257 257 258 262 263 263 264 264 266
267
Should Matter 10 Managers 268 BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES 269 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: An Absence of Nonverbal Comm1mica1ion 269
ETHICAL DILEMMA: BYOD 269 CASE INCIDENT: Organiza1ional Leveraging of Social Media 270 CASE INCIDENT: PowerPoi111 Purga1ory 271 FROM CONCEPTS TO SKILLS: Effective LiSlening 272
CHAPTER 8 Power and Politics A Definition of Power Bases of Power
Formal Power Personal Power Which Bases of Power Are Most Effective?
274
276 277 277 278 279
Dependence: The Key to Power The General Dependence Post11late What Creates Dependence?
Influence Tactics Abo11t Infl11ence Tactics Applying Infl11ence Tactics
How Power Affects People Power Variables Harassment: Une411al Power in the Workplace
Empowerment: Giving Power to Employees Definition of Empowerment
Politics: Power in Action Definition of Political Behavio11r The Rea.lity of Poli tics Impression Management The Ethics of Behaving Politically
Global Implications Views on Empowerment Preference for Infl11ence Tactics
Su mmary OB at Work FOR REVIEW • FOR MANAGERS • FOR YOU
POINT/COUNTIRPOINT: EVl!T),me Wants Power BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Comparing Influence Tactics CTHICAL DILEMMA: How Much Should You Defer to Those in Power! CASE INCIDENT: Delegate Power; or Keep It Close! CASE INCIDENT: Barry's Peer Becomes His Boss FROM CONCEPTS TO SKILLS: Politicking
CHAPTER 9 Conflict and Negotiation Conflict Defined
F11nctional vs. Dysf11nctiona.l Conflict Types of Conflict Loci of Conflict So11rces of Conflict
Conflict Resolution Conflict Management Strategies Based on Dual Concern Theory What Can lndivid11als Do to Manage Conflict? Resolving Persona.lity Conflicts
Conflict Outcomes Negotiation
Bargaining Strategies How to Negotiate
Individual Differences in Negotiation Effectiveness Personality Traits in Negotiation Moods/Emotions in Negotiation Gender Differences in Negotiation
Negotiatin g in a Social Context Reputation Relationships
Third-Party Negotiations Mediator Arbitrator
Contents xi
280 280 281 282 283 283 284 285 285 288 289 291 291 292 294 298 299 300 300 301
302 303 304 304 304 305 306 306
310
312 312 312 314 315 317 317 318 320 320 321 323 325 327 327 329 330 332 332 333 333 333 334
xii Contents
PART 4
Conciliator Global Implications
Conflict Resolution. and Culture Cultural Differences in. Negotiating Style Culture, Negotiations, and Emotions
Summary OB at Work FOR REVIEW • FOR MANAGERS • FOR YOU
334 334 334 335 335 335
337 POINT/COUNTIRPOINT: Pro Sports Strikes Are Caused by Greedy Owners 338 BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES 339 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: A Negot iation Role Play 339 ETMICAL DILEMMA: The Lowba/1 Applicant 340 CASE INCIDENT: Disorderly Conduct 340 CASE INCIDENT: The Pros and Cons of Collective Bargai11ing 341 FROM CONCEPTS TO SKILLS: Negotiating 342
OB ON THE EDGE Worf1place Bullying 344
Sharing the Organizational Vision
CHAPTER 10 Organiza tional Cu lture What Is Organizational Cu lture?
Culture Is a Descriptive Term Do Organizations Have Uniform Cultures? Strong us. Weak Cultures Culture us. Formalization
What Do Cultures Do? Culture's Functions Culture Creates Climate The Ethical Dimension of Culture Culture and Sustainability Culture and Innovation Culture as a Liability
Creati ng and Sustaining an Organization's Culture How a Culture Begins Keeping a Culture Alive
How Employees Learn Cu lture Stories Rituals Material Symbols Language
Changing Organ izational Culture Creating an Ethical Organizationa.l Culture Creating a Positive Organizational Culture
Global Implications Su mmary
OB at Work FOR REVIEW • FOR MANAGERS • FOR YOU POINT/COUNTIRPOINT: Orga11izntiom Should Stri,ie to Create
350
350
352 352 353 354 354 354 354 355 355 357 358 359 360 361 361 366 367 367 367 367 368 369 370 372 373
374
a Positive Organizatio11al Cul111re 375 BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES 376 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Greeting Newcomers 376 ETMICAL DILEMMA: Culture of Deceit 377 CASE INCIDENT: The Place Makes the People 377 CASE INCIDENT: Active Cul111res 378 FROM CONCEPTS TO SKILLS: How to ' Read' a11 Organization's Culture 379
CHAPTER 11 Leadership What Is Leaders hi p? Leadershi p as Supervision
Trait Theories: Are Leaders Different from Others? Behavioural Theories: Do Leaders Behave in Particular Ways? Summary of Trait Theories and Behavioural Theories Contingency Theories: Does the Situation Matter?
Inspirational Leadership Charismatic Leadership Transactional and Transformationa.l Leadership
Responsible Leadership Authentic Leadership Ethical Leadership Servant Leadership Mentoring
Challenges to Our Understanding of Leaders hip Leadership as an Attribution Substitutes for and Neutralizers of Leadership Online Leadership
Global Implications How to Lead Servant Leadership
Summary OB at Work FOR REVIEW • FOR MANAGERS • FOR YOU
POINT/COUNTIRPOINT: Heroes Are Made, Not Bom BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: \,\'hat ls Leadership! CTHICAL DILEMMA: Smoki11g Success CASE INCIDENT: Leaders/tip Mettle Forged i11 Battle CASE INCIDENT: Leaders/tip by Algorithm FROM CONCEPTS TO SKILLS: Practising to be Charismatic
CHAPTER 12 Decis ion Making, Creativity, and Ethics How Should Dec isions Be Ma de?
The Rational Decision-Making Process How Do Individuals Actua lly Make Decisions?
Bounded Rationality in Considering Alternatives Intuition Judgment Shortcuts
Group Decision Making Groups vs. the Individ ua.l Groupthink and Groupshift Group Decision-Making Techniques
Creativity in Orga nizational Decision Making Creative Behaviour Causes of Creative Behaviour Creative Outcomes (Innovation)
What About Ethics in Dec ision Making? Four Ethical Decision Criteria Making Ethical Decisions
Global Implications Decision Making
Contents xiii
382
384 384 384 386 387 388 392 392 394 398 399 399 400 401 403 403 404 404 405 405 405 406
407 408 409 409 409 410 410 411
414
416 416 417 418 420 421 425 425 426 429 430 431 432 434 435 435 437 440 440
x iv Contents
PART 5
Creativity Ethics
Summary OB at Work FOR REVIEW • FOR MANAGERS • FOR YOU
440 440 441
442 POINT/COUNTIRPOINT: People Are More Creative W/Je11 T/Jey \,\fork Alo11e 443 BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES 444 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: \.Vildemess Survival 444 ETHICAL DILEMMA: Five Ethical Decisiom: Wltat Would You Do! 446 CASE INCIDENT: T/Je You11gest Female Self-Made Billio11aire 446 CASE INCIDENT: lf1ivo Heads Are Better 11ia11 011e, Are Four Eve11 Better! 447 FROM CONCEPTS TO SKILLS: Solvi11g Problems Creative/)' 448
OB ON THE EDGE Spirituality in the Workplace 450
Reorganizing the Workplace
CHAPTER 13 Organizational Structure What Is Organizational Structure?
Work Specialization Departmentalization Chain of Command Span of Control Centralization and Decentralization Formalization Boundary Spanning
Common Organizational Designs The Simple Structure The Bureaucracy The Matrix Structure
Alternate Design Options The Virtual Structure The Team Structure The Circular Structure The Leaner Organization: Do111nsizing
Why Do Structures Differ? Organizational Strategies Organizational Size Technology Environment Institutions
Organizational Designs and Employee Behaviour Global Implications
Culture and Organizationa.l Structure Culture and Emplo)'ee Structure Preferences Culture and the Impact of Downsizing
Summary OB at Work FOR REVIEW • FOR MANAGERS • FOR YOU
456
456
458 458 459 461 462 463 464 464 465 466 466 468 469 470 471 473 473 474 475 476 476 477 478 478 480 480 481 481 481
483 POINT/COUNTIRPOINT: Tlte E11d of Ma11ageme11t 484 BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES 485 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: 71te Sa11dwiclt Sltop 485 ETHICAL DILEMMA: Post·Mille1111ium Te11s io11s i11 tlte Flexible Orga11izatio11 486 CASE INCIDENT: Creative Deviance: Bucking tlte Hieran;ltyl 486 CASE INCIDENT: 'l Detest Bureaucracy' 487 FROM CONCEPTS TO SKILLS: Delegating Autltorit)' 488
CHAPTER 14 Organiza tional Change Forces for Change
Opportunities for Change Change Agents
Approaches to Managing Change Lewin's Three-Step Model Kotter's Eight-Step Plan for Implementing Change Action Research Appreciative Inquiry
Resistance to Change Individual Resistance Organizational Resistance Overcoming Resistance to Change The Politics of Change
Creating a Culture for Change Managing Paradox Stimulating a Culture of Innovation Creating a Leaming Organiza.tion
Global Implications Su mmary
OB at Work FOR REVIEW • FOR MANAGERS • FOR YOU
Contents xv
490
49 2 493 494 494 495 496 497 498 500 500 501 502 sos 506 506 507 509 51 1 51 2
513 POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Orga11izational Clia11ge Is Like Saili11g Calm Waters 514 BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES 515 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Strategizing Change 515
ETHICAL DILEMMA: Cha11ges at the Television S1atio11 516 CASE INCIDENT: Sprnci11g Up Walmart 517 CASE INCIDENT: When Compa11ies Fail 10 C/Ja11ge 517 FROM CONCEPTS TO SKILLS: Carryi11g 0111 Organizatio11al Cha11ge 518
ADDITIONAL CASES 520 ENDNOTES 548 GLOSSARY/SUBJECT IN DEX 610 NAME AN D ORGAN IZATION IND EX 629 LIST OF CANADIAN COMPANI ES, BY PROVINCE 638
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PREFACE
Welcome lo the eighth Canadian edition of Organizacional Behaviour. Since its arrival in Canada, Organizational Behaviour has enjoyed widespread acclaim across the country for its rich Canadian con tent and has q uickly established iL~elf as the leading text in the field.
Organizational Behaviour, Eighth Canadian edition, is truly a Canadian product. Whi le it draws upon the strongest aspects of its American cous in, it expresses its own vision and voice. It provides the context for understanding organ izational behaviour {OB) in the Ca nadian workplace and high lights the many Canadian contributions to the field. Indeed, it goes a step further than most OB texts prepared for the Canadian marketp lace.
Specifically, il asks, in many instances:
• How does th is theory apply in the Canadian \vorkplace of today?
• What are the implications of the theory for managers and employees working in the twenty-first century?
• Wha t are the implica tions of the theory for everyday life? OB, after all, is not someth ing that applies only in the workplace.
Th is text is sensitive to important Canad ian issues. Subject matter refl ects the broad m ulticultural flavo ur of Canada a nd also h ighlights the ro les of women and v isible minorities in the workplace. Examples reflect the broad range of organizations in Canada : large, small, public and private sector, unionized and non-union ized.
Organizational Behaviour continues lo be a vibrant and relevant text because it's a product of the Canadian classroom. It is used in Canada by the first author and her col- leagues. Thus, there is a •front-line" approach to considering revisions. We also solicit considerable feedback from OB instructors and studenL~ throughout the country. While we have kept the features of the previous edition that adopters continue lo say they like, there is also a grea t deal that is new.
Key Changes to the Eighth Canadian Edition The eighth edition was designed to evolve with today's students. There are more relevant examples, updated theory coverage, and a co ntinued emphasis on providing the latest research findings. Based on reviews from numerous instr uctors and students across Canada, we have found that many potential users want chapters that have the right bal- ance of theory, research, and appl ication material, wh ile being relevant lo student learning.
• NEW feature in every chapter' Career Objectives offers advice in a question- and-answer format to help students think through issues they may face in the workforce today.
• NEW Opening Vigneue in every chapter brings current b us iness trends and events to the forefront.
• NEW key terms presented in bold throughout the text highlight new vocabu- lary pertinent lo today's s tudy of organizational behaviour.
• NEW photos and cap tio ns in every chapter link the chapter content to con- temporary real-life worldwide situations to enhance the student's understand- ing of hands-on app lication of concepts.
xviii Preface
• NEW These fea tures are either completely n e,v o r s ubstantially updated with in each chapter as applicab le to reflect ongoi ng challenges in b us iness worldwide an d focus the student's attention on new topics:
• Learning Objectives
• Exhibits
• Point/Counterpoint
• NEW The followi ng end-of-chapter material is eith er completely ne,v or sub- stantially r evised and updated for each chapter to b ri ng the most contempo- rary thi nking to the attentio n of students:
• Summary
• OB at Work: For Review
• OB at Work: For Managers
• Experiential Exercise
• Ethical Dilemma
• Case Incidents
Chapter-by-Chapter Changes Chapter 1: What Is Organizational Behaviour?
• Revised Lean1ing 011tco1nes
• New Opening Vigneue (Target's fa ilure in Canada)
• New research in Th e Importance of Interpersonal Skills
• New research in Big Data
• New feature! Career Objectives (What Do I Say About My Terminatio n?)
• New Point/Counterpoint (The Bat tle of the Texts)
• New Experiential Exercise (Managing the OB Way)
• New Ethical Dilemma (There's a Drone in Your Soup)
• Updated Case Incident (Apple Goes Global)
• New Case Incident (Big Data for Dumm ies)
Chapter 2: Perception, Personality, and Emotions
• New Opening Vigneue (Michele Roman ow)
• New section in The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
• New research and d iscussion in The Big Five Personality Model
• New sections on Big Five perso nality tra it research: Conscientious ness, Emotiona l Stabi lity, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, and Agreeableness
• New research in The Dark Triad
• New major section: O ther Tra its ( on traits that are socially undesirab le)
• New research and d iscussion in Moral Emotions
Preface xix
• New research and d iscussion in Choosing Emo tions: Emo tional Labour
• New section: Emotion Regulation Techniques
• New feature! Career Objectives (So What If I'm a Few Minutes Late to Work?)
• New Point/ Counterpoint (Sometimes Yelling Is for Everyone's Good)
• New Case Incident (The Power of Quiel)
• New Case Incident (Tall Poppy Syndrome)
Chapter 3: Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace
• New Opening Vigneue (Lad ies Learning Code)
• New research in Wha t Causes Job Satisfaction?
• New section: Job Cond itions
• New section: Personality
• New section: Pay
• New section: Life Satisfaction
• New ma jor section: Counterproductive Work Behaviour (CWB)
• New feature! Career Objectives (Is ll Okay lo Be Gay at Work?)
• New Point/ Counterpoint (M illennia ls Have Inflated Images ofThemselves Compared lo Their Parents)
• New Ethical Dilemma (Tell-All Websites)
• New Case Incident (Job Crafting)
• New Case Incident (Walking lhe Walk)
OB on the Edge: Stress at Work
• New Opening Vignette (workspaces are not for ea ting)
• Updated list of The Most and Least Stressful Jobs
• New research in Causes of Stress
• New research and d iscussion in Organizational Approaches
Chapter 4: Theories of Motivation
• Revised Lean1ing 011tco1nes
• New Opening Vigneue (Lee Valley Too ls)
• New research and d iscussion in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory
• New international research and d iscussion in McClelland's Theory of Needs
• New feature! Career Objectives (Why Won't He Take My Advice?)
• New research and d iscussion in Self-De term ination Theory
• New Global Impl ications section: Justice
• New Ethical Dilemma (The New GPA)
xx Prefac e
Chapter 5: Motivation in Action
• New Opening Vignette (G Adventures)
• New research and d iscussion in Job Rotation
• New section and research in Relational Job Design
• New research in Flextime
• New feature! Career Objectives (How Can I Get Flextime?)
• New research and d iscussion in Telecommuting
• New in ternational research and discussion in Emp loyee Invo lvement and Participation
• New research in Participative Management
• New research in Representative Participation
• New international research and new d iscussion in How lo Pay: Reward ing Ind ividual Employees through Variable-Pay Programs
• New research in Merit-Based Pay
• New international research in Bonuses
• New research in Profit-Sharing Plans
• New research in Emp loyee Stock Ownership Plans
• New material and international research in Flexible Benefits: Developing a Benefits Package
• New research in Intrinsic Rewards: Employee Recognition Programs
• New Case Incident (Pay Raises Every Day)
Chapter 6: Groups and Teamwork
• New Opening Vignette (Summerlunch+)
• New research and d iscussion in Why Have Teams Become So Popular?
• New d iscussion in Problem-Solving Teams
• New research in Cross-Functional Teams
• New research in Virtua l Teams
• New research and d iscussion in Mult iteam Systems
• New international research in Cl ima te ofTrust
• New material in Composit ion (of teams)
• New research and d iscussion in Personal ity of Members
• New section: Cu ltural Differences
• New section: Posit ive Norms and Group O utcomes
• New section: Negative Norms and Group Outcomes
• New section: Team Identity
• New section: Team Cohesion
• New in ternational research and discussion in Mental Models
• New international research and d iscussion in Conflict Levels
• New fea ture! Career Objectives ( Can I Fudge the Numbers and Not Take the Blame?)
• Revised Ethical Dilemma (Deal ing with Sh irkers)
• New Case Incident (Intragroup Trust and Survival)
OB on the Edge: Trust
• Revised section: What Can Leaders Do to Increase Trust?
• New d iscussio n in Bui lding Team Trust
• New ma jor section: The Need to Prevent Lying
Chapter 7: Communication
• Revised Lean1ing 011tco1nes
• New Opening Vigneue {Slack)
• New research in Downward Communication
• New research and d iscussion in The Grapevine
• New ma jor section: Modes of Communication
• New section: Oral Communication
• New section: Meeti ngs
• New section: Videoconferencing and Conference Call ing
• New section: Telephone
• New section: Wriuen Commu nication
• New section: Letters
• New section: PowerPo inl
• New research in Social Media
• New section: Apps
• New research in Biogs
• New feature! Career Objectives (Isn't This Disability Too Much to Accommodate?)
• New Ethical Dilemma (BYOD)
• Updated Case Incident {Organ izational Leveraging of Social Med ia)
Chapter 8: Power and Politics
• Revised Lean1ing 011tco1nes
• New Opening Vigneue (Jian Ghomeshi)
• New international research and d iscussion in Sexual Harassment
• New research in Impression Management
• New feature! Career Objectives {Should I Become Po litical?)
• New Experiential Exercise {Comparing Influence Tactics)
Pref ac e xxi
xxii Preface
Chapter 9: Conflict and Negoti ation
• New Opening Vignette (GM Canada and Unifor)
• New international research in Personal Variables
• New major section: Negotiating in a Social Context
• New research and d iscussion in Gender Differences in Negotiation
• New research in Conflict Resolution and Culture
• New feature! Career Objectives (How Can I Get a Better Job?)
• Revised For Managers
• New Point/ Counterpoint (Pro Sports Strikes Are Caused by Greedy Owners)
• New Case Incident (Disorderly Conduct)
OB on the Edge: Workplace Bullying
• New Opening Vignette (The Vancouver School Board)
• New research in Workplace Violence
• New research in the box Do You Have a Bad Boss7
• Updated statistics in What Are the Effects of Incivi lity and Toxici ty in the Workplace?
Chapter 10: Organizational Culture
• Revised Lean1ing 011tco1nes
• New Opening Vignette (Hyatt Hotels)
• New d iscussion in What Is Organ izationa l Culture?
• New section: Cu lture and Sustainab ility
• Updated research in Culture and Innovation
• New section: Strengthening Dysfunctions
• New research in Barriers to Acquisitions and Mergers
• New feature! Career Objectives (How Do I Learn to Lead?)
• New Experiential Exercise (Greeti ng Newcomers)
• New Echical Dilemma (Culture of Deceit)
• New Case Incident (The Place Makes the People)
• New Case Incident (Active Cultures)
Chapter 11 : Leadership
• New Opening Vignette (Kelly Lovell)
• New international research in Tra il Theories: Are Leaders Different from Others?
• New research in What Is Charismatic Leadership?
• New research in Transactional and Transformational Leadersh ip
• New research in How Transformalional Leadership Works
• New section: Transformalional vs. Charismatic Leadersh ip
• New research in Servant Leadership
• New fealure! Career Objectives (How Can I Get My Boss to Be a Beiler Leader?)
• New Experiential Exercise (What Is Leadersh ip?)
• New Ethical Dilemma (Smoking Success)
• New Case Incident (Leadersh ip Mettle Forged in Battle)
Chapter 12: Decision Making, Creativity, and Ethics
• New Opening Vignette (TD Bank)
• New sections created wilh new research and d iscussion: Intell igence and Creativity, Personality and Creativity, Expertise and Creativity, and Elhics and Creativity
• New section: Crea tive Environment
• New international research and d iscussion in Four Elhica l Decis ion Criteria
• New fealure! Career Objectives (How Can I Make My Job Beller?)
OB on the Edge: Spirituality in the Workplace
• New Opening Vigneue (The Good Spiril)
• New research in Sp iriluality and Mindfulness
• New d iscussion in Achieving a Spiritual Organizalion
Chapter 13: Organizational Structure
• Updated Leaming Outcomes
• New Opening Vignette (Precis ion Nutrilion)
• New section: Boundary Spanning
• New section: The Functional Slructure
• New section: The Divisional Structure
• New section: The Team Slructure
• New section: The Circular Structure
• New section: Institutions
• New feature! Career Objeccives (Whal Slructure Should I Choose7)
• New Experiential Exercise (The Sandwich Shop)
• New Ethical Dilemma (Post-Millenn ium Tensions in lhe Flexib le Organization)
Chapter 14: Organizational Change
• New Opening Vigneue (Cirque du Soleil)
• New d iscussion in Forces for Change
Preface xxiii
• We have continued to integrate a series of relevant and helpful questions throughout the chapters to encourage st udents to think about how OB appl ies to their everyday lives and engage students in their reading of the ma terial. These questions first appear as a bullet list in the chapter opener, under the head ing OB Is fo r Everyone, and then appear throughout each chapter.
• The Global Imp lications section addresses and h ighl ights how OB principles vary across cultures.
• Summary provides a review of the key points of the chapter, whi le the Snap shot Summary provides a study tool that helps students to see the overall connections among concepts presented with in each chapter.
• Each chapter concludes with OB a t Work, a set of resources designed to help students app ly the lessons of the chapter. Included in OB a l Work are the fo l- lowing features:
• Fo r Revie,v poses a series of questio ns that are linked to the learning outcomes identi fied in the chapter opener.
• Fo r Man agers o utlines ways that managers can apply OB in the workp lace.
• Fo r You outlines how OB can be used by individ uals in their daily lives.
• Point/Counterpoint promotes debate on contentious OB issues. This feature presents more focused arguments.
• Breakout Group Exercises, Experiential Exercise, and Ethical Dilemma are valuable application exercises for the classroom. The many new exer- cises included here are ones that we have found particularly stim ulating in our own classrooms. Our s tudents say they like these exercises and they learn from them.
• Case Incidents (two per chapter) dea l with real-world scenarios and require studen ts to exercise their decis ion-making skills. Each case enab les an instructor to quickly generate class d iscussion o n a key theme within the chap ter.
• From Concepts to Skills provides a wide range of appl ications for stu- dents. The section begins w ith a practical set of tips on topics such as read ing emotio ns, setting goals, and so lving problems creatively, wh ich demonstrate real-world applica tions of OB theories. These tips are fol- lowed by the fea tures Practising Skills and Reinforcing Skills. Practising Sliills presents an additional case or group activity to apply the chapter's learn ing outcomes. Reinforcing Skills asks students to talk about the ma terial they have learned with others, or to apply it to their own per- sonal experiences.
• Exclusive to the Canadian edition, OB o n the Edge (followi ng each part) takes a close look at some of the hottest topics in the field: work-related stress, trust, behavioural pathologies that can lead to workplace bullying, and sp iri- tua lity in the workplace. Since this is a stand-alone fea ture, these topics can be introduced at the instructor's discretion.
• Our reviewers have asked for more cases, and more comprehensive and inte- grated cases. To address this request, we have included 10 Addi tional Cases that feature a variety of challenges and organ izations. All of these cases requ ire students to apply material from a variety of chapters.
Prefac e xxv
xxvi Preface
Supplements Mylab Management My Lab Management is an onl ine study tool for students and an online homework and assessment Loo i for faculty. MyLab Management lets students assess their understand- ing through auto-graded tests and assignments, develop a personal ized study plan to address areas of weakness, and practise a variety of learning tools to master management princip les. New and updated MyLab Managemen t resources include the fo llowing:
• Personal Inventory Assessment (PIA). Students learn beuerwhen they can con- nect what they are learning to their personal experience. PIA is a collection of online exercises designed lo promote self-refl ection and engagement in students, enhancing their ab ility lo connect with concepts taught in principles of management, organizational behavio ur, and h uma n resource management classes. Assessments can be assigned by instructors, who can then track stu- dents' completions. Student results include a wrillen explana tion along with a graphic d isplay that shows how their results compare to the class as a whole. Instructors will also have access to this graph ic representation of resu lts lo pro- mote classroom d iscussion.
• Updated Personalized Study Plan. As students work through MyLab Man age- ment's Study Plan, they can clearly see wh ich topics they have mastered- an d, more importantly, which they need lo work on. Each question has been care- fully wrillen to match the concepts, language, and focus of the text, so students can get an accurate sense of how well they've understood the chapter content.
• MediaShare. Consisting of a curated collection of videos and customizable, auto- scored assignments, MediaShare h elps students u nderstand why they are learn- ing key concepts and how they will apply those in their careers. Instructors can also assign favorite YouTube clips or original content and employ MediaShare's powerful repository of tools to maximize student accountabi lity and interac- tive learning, and provide contextualized feedback for students and teams who upload presentations, media, or business plans.
• NEW Mini-Simulations. New Mini-Simulations walk students through key business decision-maki ng scenarios to help them understand how manage- ment decisions are made. Students are asked to make important decisions relating to core business concepts. Al each point in the simulatio n, students receive feedback to help them understand the implications of their cho ices in the ma nagement enviro nment. These simulatio ns can now be assigned by instructors and graded directly through MyLab Management.
• Learning Catalytics. learn ing Calalytics is a "bring your own device• student engagement, assessment, an d classroom intelligence system. IL allows instruc- tors to engage s tudents in class with a variety of q uestion types designed lo gauge student understa nd ing.
• Assignable l111ini-Cases and Video Cases. Instructors have access to a variety of case-based assessment material that can be assigned to students, with multiple-choice q uizzes or wrillen-response format in MyLab Management's Writing Space.
• Lesson Presentations. Students can study key chapter top ics and work through in teractive assessments to test their knowledge and mastery of concepts. Each presentation all ows students to explore through expertly designed s teps of read ing, practising, a nd testing lo ensure that s tuden ts not only experience the
content but a lso truly engage with each topic. Instructors also have the abil ity to assign quizzes, projects, and follow-up d iscussion questions relating lo the online lessons to further develop the valuable learning experiences from the presentations.
• Dynamic Study Modules. These study modules allow s tudents to work through groups of questions and check their understanding of foundat ional manage- ment topics. As studen ts work through questions, the Dynamic Study Modules assess their knowledge and only show questions that s till require practice. Dynamic Study Modu les can be comp leted online using a computer, tab let, or mobile device.
• Pearson eText: My Lab Management also includes an eText version of Organi- zational Behaviour, including a complete Glossary and Index. This dynamic, online version of the lexl is integrated throughout MyLab Management to cre- ate an enriched, interactive learning experience for students. Users can create notes, h ighl ight text in d ifferent co lours, create bookmarks, zoom, and cl ick hyperl inked words and phrases to view defin itions and go directly lo web- links. The Pearson eText allows qu ick navigation to key parts of the eText using a tab le of contents and provides full-text search.
Most of the follow ing materials are available for download from a password-protected section of Pearson Canada's onl ine catalogue (hllp://www.pearsoncanada.ca/ highered) . Navigate lo your text's catalogue page to view a list of those supplements that are avail- able. Contact your local sales representative for details and access.
• Instructor's Resource Manual . Each chapter of the Inslructor's Resource Manual includes a chapter outl ine, learning outcomes, chapter synopsis, study ques- tions, suggested teaching plan, annotated lecture outl ines, answers toques- tions found under OB at Work's For Review, a summary and analysis of Point/ Counterpoint features, comments on end-of-chap ter exercises, notes on lhe Case Incidents and From Concepts to Skills, and key terms.
• Computerized Test Bank. The Test Bank contains over 1800 items, includ ing multiple-choice, true/ false, and d iscussion questions that relate not only to the body of the text bul to From Concepts to Shills, Point/Counterpoint, and case materials. For each question, we have provided the correct answer, a refer- ence to the relevant section of the text, a d ifficu lty rating, and a classification (recall/ appl ied) . Pearson's compu terized test banks allo\v instructors to filter and select questions lo create quizzes, tests, or homework. Instructors can revise questions or add their own, and may be able to choose print or online options. These questions are also available in Microsoft Word formal.
• PowerPoint Presentation. A ready-lo-use PowerPoint slideshow designed for classroom presentation. Use it as is, or edit content to fit your ind ividua l class- room needs.
• Image Gallery. This package provides instructors with images lo enhance their teaching.
Learning Solutions Managers. Pearson's Learning Solutions Managers work with faculty and campus course designers lo ensure that Pearson technology products, assessmen t tools, and online course materials are tailored to meet your specific needs. This highly qual ified team is dedicated to helping schools take full advantage of a wide range of educational resources, by assisting in the integration of a variety of instructional materi- als and media formats. Your local Pearson Education sales representative can provide you with more details on th is service program.
Preface xxvii
xxvii i Preface
Acknowledgments A number of peop le worked hard lo give this eighth Canad ian edition of Organizational Behaviour a new look.
I received incredible support for this project from a variety of people at Pearson Canada. The three people who worked hardest to keep this project on track were Jenn ifer Murray, Content Developer, Claudia Forgas, Production Ed itor, and Jess ica Mifsud, Project Manager. All three were extremely supportive and helpful. Jennifer sup- plied a number of great ideas for examples and vigneues, never complained when I was late with chapters, and she provided much needed cheerfulness at some of the most d ifficu lt parts of th is project. I can't thank her enough for her dedication lo the task.
Claud ia Forgas was the Production Ed itor for the project. Claud ia has worked on a number of my projects and s till continues lo amaze for how well she makes sure everything is in p lace and written clearly. Claudia provided a wealth of support, great ideas, and goodwill throughou t the production process. Turn ing the manuscript into the text you ho ld in your hands could not have happened without her inspired leader- sh ip. She was extremely diligent about checking for consistency throughout the text and performed a number of helpful fact-checking activities. Her keen eyes helped lo make these pages as clean as they are. I am grateful for the opportunity lo work with her again.
There are a variety of other people al Pearson who also had a hand in making sure that the manuscript wou ld be transformed in to th is book and then delivered to you. To all of them I extend my thanks. I know the Pearson sales team will do everything possible lo make this book successful.
I a lso wanl to acknow ledge my d iv is ional secretary, Nancy Tang, who helps keep me on track in a variety of ways. I cou ld nol ask for a beuer, more dedicated, or more cheerful assistant. She really helps keep things together.
In our continuing effort to improve the text, we have conducted many reviews to el icit feedback over the years and editions. Many thanks to severa l students from the Northern Alberta Institute ofTechnology (NAIT) who provided us with suggestions for improving the text The students are Barb Kosak, Prudence Musinguzi, Andres Sarrate, and Robert Tucci . Student input helps keep the materia l fresh and alive.
Finally, I wanl to acknowledge the many reviewers of this text for their detailed, helpful commen ts. I appreciate the lime and care that they pu l into their reviewing. The reviewers include Nancy Breen (Nova Scotia Community College), Sabrina Deutsch Salamon (York Un iversity), Harold Ekstein (George Brown College), Leah Hami lton (Mount Royal University), Shari Ann Herrmann (Kwanllen Polytechnic University), Puneet Luthra (Seneca Co llege), Jody Merrill (University of Windsor), John Predyk (Vancouver Island Univers ity), Wayne Rawcliffe (Univers ity of British Co lumb ia), Sandra Steen (University of Regina), and SujayVardhmane (George Brown College) .
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Nancy Langton received her Ph.D. from Stanford Un iversity. Since completing her graduate studies, Dr. Langton has taught at the Un iversity of Oklahoma and the University of British Col umbia. Currently a member of the Organ izational Behaviour and Human Resources d ivision in the Sauder School of Business, UBC, she teaches at the undergraduate, MBA, and Ph.D. leve ls and conducts executive programs on attracting and retaining employees, lime managemen t, fami ly business issues, as well as women and management issues. Dr. Langton has received several major three-year research grants from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Counci l of Canada, and her research interests have focused on human resource issues in the workplace, including pay equity, gender equity, and leadership and commun ication styles. Her articles on these and ot her top ics have appeared in such journals as Adm.inistrative Science Quarterly, American Sociological Review, Sociological Quarcerly, Journal of Man - agement Education, and Gender, Work and Organizations. She has won Best Paper com- mendations from both the Academy of Management and the Adm inistrative Sciences Association of Canada.
Dr. Langton routinely wins high marks from her students for teach ing. She has been nominated many times for the Commerce Undergraduate Society Awards, and has won several honourable mention p laques. She has also won the Sauder Schoo l of Business's most prestigious award for teaching innovation, The Talking Stick. The award was given for Dr. Langton's redesign of the undergraduate organ izational behaviour course as well as the many activities that were a sp in-off of these efforts. She was also part of the UBC MBA Core design team that won the Alan Blizzard award, a national award tha t recognizes innova tion in teaching. More recently, she was acknowledged by the Sauder School of Business for her development of the Sauder Africa Initiative, which took her to Kenya with UBC students to help young people in the s lums of Nairobi write busi- ness plans.
In Dr. Langton's • other life: she engages in the artistry of quiltmaking, and one day hopes 10 win firs t prize at Visions, the juried sho\v for quilts as works of art. More recently, she has been working at mastering the art of photography, creating abstract art using segments of real objects. When she is not designing qu ills or taking photographs, she is e ither reading novels recommended by her book club colleagues or studying cookbooks for new ideas. All of her fr iends would say that she makes the best p izza from scra tch in all of Vancouver, and one has even offered to supp ly venture cap ita l to open a p izza parlour.
xxx About the Authors
Stephen P. Robbins
Education Ph .D., Un iversity of Arizona
Professional Experience Academ ic Positio ns : Professor, San Diego Stale University, Southern Ill inois University al Edwardsville, University of Ba ltimore, Co ncord ia Un iversity in Montrea l, and University of Nebraska at Omaha.
Research : Research in terests have focused o n co nflict, power, and po litics in organ i- zatio ns; behavioural decision maki ng; an d the developmen t of effective interpersonal ski lls.
Boo ks Published : World's best-selli ng author of textbooks in both management and organizational behaviour. His books have sold more than 5 mill io n copies and have been translated into 20 languages; editions h ave been adapted for Canada, Austral ia, South Africa, an d Ind ia, such as these:
• Essentials of Organizational Behavior, 14th ed. (Pearson, 2017)
• Management, 14th ed. with Mary Coulter (Pearso n, 2017)
• Fundamentals of Human Resource Management, 11th ed., with David Decenzo (Wiley, 2012)
• Prentice Hall's Self-Assessment Library 3.4 (Prentice Hall, 2010)
• Fundamentals of Managenient, 9th ed., with David DeCenzo and Mary Coulter (Pearson, 2014)
• Supervision Today! 8th ed ., with David Decenzo a nd Robert Wolter (Pearson, 2014)
• Training in Interpersonal Skills: TIPS for Managing People at Worli, 6th ed., with Phill ip Hunsaker (Prentice Hall, 2012)
• Managing Today! 2nd ed. (Prentice Hall, 2000)
• Organization Theory, 3rd ed . (Prentice Hall, 1990)
• The ThJth About Managing People, 4th ed. (Pearson Ff Press, 2014)
• Decide and Conquer: Make Winning Decisions and Take Control of Your Life (Fi nancial Times/Prentice Hall, 2004)
Other Interests In his •other l ife,• Dr. Robb ins actively participates in masters' track competition. After t urning 50 in 1993, he won 18 national champ ionsh ips a nd 12 world titles. He is the current world record h older at 100 metres ( 12.37 seconds) a nd 200 metres (25 .20 seconds) for men 65 and over.
Timothy A. Judge
Education Ph.D., University of Illino is al Urbana-Champaign
Professional Experience Academic Positions: Franklin D. Schurz Cha ir, Departmen t of Management, Mendoza College of Business, University of Notre Dame; Visiting Distinguished Adjunct Profes- sor of King Abdu laziz University, Saudi Arabia; Vis iting Professor, Divis ion of Psychol- ogy & Language Sciences, Un iversity College London; Matherly-McKethan Em inent Scholar in Management, Warrington College of Business Administration, University of Florida; Stan ley M. Howe Professor in Leadersh ip, Henry B. Tippie College of Business, University of Iowa; Associate Professor ( with tenure), Deparunent of Human Resource Studies, School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Cornell University; Lecturer, Charles University, Czech Republic, and Comen ius University, Slovakia; Instructor, Indus- trial/Organizational Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Il lino is at Urbana-Champaign.
Research: Dr. Judge's primary research interests are in {l) personality, moods, and emo tions; (2) job altitudes; (3) leadership and influence behaviours; and {4) careers (person-organization fit, career success) . Dr. Judge has published more than 145 articles on these and other ma jor top ics in journals such as Journal of Organizational Behavior, Person11el Psychology, Academy of Management Journal, Jo11n1al of Applied Psychology, Euro- pean Journal of Personality, and Eu.ropea11 Journal of Work and Organizat.ional Psychology.
Fellowsh ip : Dr. Judge is a fellow of the American Psychological Association, the Academy of Management, the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, and the American Psychological Society.
A,vards: In 1995, Dr. Judge received the Ernest J. McCorm ick Award for Distinguished Early Career Contributions from the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychol- ogy. In 2001, he received the Larry L. Cummings Award for mid-career contributions from the Organ izational Behavior Division of the Academy of Management. In 2007, he received the Professional Practice Award from the Inslilule of Industria l and Labor Relations, University of Illino is. In 2008, he received the University of Florida Doctoral Mentoring Award. And in 2012, he received the Editorial Board of the European Jounial of Work and Orga11izatio11al Psychology (EJWOP) best paper of the year award.
Oth er Books Pub lished : H. G. Heneman Il l, T. A. Judge, and J. D. Kammeyer- Mueller, Staffi11g Organizatio11s, 8th ed. (Mishawaka, IN: McGraw-Hill Education, 2014 ).
Other Interests Although he canno t keep up (literally!) with Dr. Robbins' accomplishments on the track, Dr. Judge enjoys gol f, cooking and baking, literature (he's a particu lar fan of Thomas Hardy and is a member of the Thomas Hardy Society), and keeping up with his three ch ildren.
A bout th e Aut hors xxxi
2
What Is Organizational Behaviour?
PA RT 1
UNDERS TAND I NG
THE WORKP LACE
How can people skills help you run a
successful business?
O Demonstrate the importance of interpersonal skills in the workplace. f) Define organizational behaviour (OB). f) Understand the value of systematic study to OB. C, Identify the major behaviou ral science disciplines that contribute to OB. 0 Demonstrate why few absolutes apply to OB. O Identify workplace challenges that provide opportunities to apply OB concepts. f) Describe the three levels of analysis in this book's OB model.
n 2011 , American retail giant Target
0
bought the leases REUTERS/llen Nelms of the entire Zellers chain, with the goal to open 124 locations in Canada during 2013.1 There was much excitement among Canadian
consumers who had been to Target in the States, and who wished something like it existed in Canada. Target was very successful in the United States, and apparently thought it could bring that success easily to Canada.
The first stores were set to open in March 2013. Almost from the beginning things did not go well. The shelves were often empty, and the items advertised for sale in weekly flyers were nowhere to be found.
Consumers became frustrated almost from the start. In the rush to get stores opened, new staff did not receive enough training, the software for monitoring stock supplies was not working properly, and the
company had not adequately assessed how quickly the company would be able to adjust to having a Canadian presence.
The challenges that organizations such as Target face illustrate several concepts you will learn about as you study the field of organizational behaviour. Let's take a look, then, at
what organizational behaviour is.
• Does job satisfaction really make a difference?
\ I I ' , : ;, : ,V, , '
TI-IE BIG IDEA
• Why do some people do well in organizational settings while others have difficulty?
• Do you know what a "typical" organization looks like? • What people-related challenges have you noticed in the workplace?
• Why should you care about understanding other people?
• Are you ready to take on more responsibility at work?
OB helps 1nanagers and employees 1nake sense of the ,vorkplace and
also applies to \vork in groups of all kinds.
3
4 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
O Demonstrate the impor- tance of interpersonal skills in the workplace.
The Importance of Interpersonal Skills Unti l the late 1980s, business schoo l curricula emphasized the techn ica l aspects of management, focus ing on economics, accounting, finance, and quantitative techniques. Course work in human behaviour and people skills received less attention. Since then, however, business schoo ls have realized the significant role interpersona l ski lls play in determ ining a manager's effectiveness. In fact, a survey of over 2100 CFOs across 20 industries ind icated that a lack of interpersonal skills is the lop reason why some employees fai l to advance.2
Incorporating OB principles into the workplace can yield many important organi- zational ou tcomes. For one, companies known as good p laces lo work in 2017- such as Toronto-based Royal Bank of Canada (RBC); SL John, New Brunswick-based Irving O il; Bedford, Nova Scotia-based Clearwater Seafoods; Winnipeg-based Aboriginal Peoples Te levision Ne twork; Regina-based SaskTel; Calgary-based Agrium, and Vancouver-based West FraserTimber3- have been found to generate superior financia l performance.4 Second, developing managers' interpersonal skills helps organizations attract and keep h igh-performing emp loyees, which is important since outstanding employees are always in short supply and are costly lo replace. Th ird, there are s trong associations between the qual ity of workplace rela tionships and employee job satisfac- tion, stress, and turnover. One very large survey of hundreds of workp laces and more than 200 000 respondents showed that social relationships among co -workers and supervisors were strongly related to overall job satisfaction. Positive socia l relation- sh ips were also associated w ith lower stress at work and lower intentions to quit.5
Further research indicates that employees who relate lo their managers w ith sup- portive dia logue and proactivity find that their ideas are endorsed more often, which improves workplace satisfaction.6 Fourth, increasing the OB e lement in organizations can foster social respons ibil ity awareness. Accordingly, universities have begun to incorporate socia l entrepreneurship education into their curriculum in order to train future leaders to address social issues within their organizations. 7 This is especially important because there is a growing need for understanding the means and outcomes of corporate social responsibility, known as CSR.8
Indigo CEO Heather Reisman has the interpersonal skills required to succeed in management. Communi-
cation and leadership skills d istinguish managers such as Reisman, who rise to the top of their profession.
Chapter 1 What Is Organizational Behaviour? 5
We understan d that in today's competilive and demand- ing workp lace, managers can't succeed on their techn ical ski lls alone. Succeedi ng in the workplace also takes good people skills. Th is book has been written to help managers and emp loyees develop those people ski lls. To learn more about the kinds of people skills needed in the workplace, see the Experient.ial Exercise o n page 29 and From Concepts to Skills-Developing Inrerpersonal Shills on pages 32 - 35 .
Defining Organizational Behaviour
Does job satisfaction
really 1nake a difference'?
As Target tried to deal with the failure of running its new stores in canada, problems within the organization became increasingly obvious.9 While the Target Canada president was optimistic
throughout, he and his team suffered from groupthink. The CEO, based in Minneapolis, Min-
nesota, did not want to pay rent on empty stores longer than necessary. This put pressure on senior management to keep going, rather than slow down and try to solve very real problems.
"Nobody wanted to be the one person who stopped the Canadian venture," says a former
employee. " It wound up just being a constant elephant in lhe room ." Better knowledge of organiza tional behaviour might have helped management adj ust
to some of the problems Target was facing in Canada. Let's look at what organizational
behaviour is.
Organizational b eh aviour ( often abbreviated as OB) is a field of study that looks at the impact that indiv iduals, groups, and s tructure have on behaviour with in organ iza- tio ns for the purpose of app lying such knowledge toward improving an orga nization's effectiveness. Because the organ izations studied are often b us iness organizations, OB is often applied lo top ics such as job satisfaction, absenteeism, employment turnover, productivi ty, human performance, and management. OB also exam ines the follow ing core top ics, although debate exists about their relative importance: ID
• Motivation
• Leader behaviour and power
• Interpersonal communication
• Group structure and processes
• Altitude development and perception
• Change processes
• Conflict and negotiatio n
• Work design
Much of OB is relevant beyond the workplace. The study of OB can cast light on the interactions among fam - ily members, students working as a team on a class project, the vol untary group that comes together to do someth ing about reviving the downtown area, the parents wh o sit on the board of their ch ildren's daycare centre, or even the members of a lunchtime pickup basketb all team.
What Do We Mean by Organization?
\>Vhy do sorne people do ,Yell
in organiza- tional settings
~vhile others have di · culty'?
An organization is a consciously coordinated socia l unit, composed of a group of people, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to ach ieve a common goal or set of goals. Ma nufacturing a nd service firms are organizations, and so are schools,
f) Define organizational behaviour (OB).
organizational behaviour A field of study lhat investigates lhe impact of indi\/iduals, groups, and structure on behaviour within 0<ganizations; ijs purpose is to apply such knowledge toward improving an organization's effectiveness.
organization A consciously coor- dinated social unij, composed of a group of people, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal Of set of goals.
6 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
f) Understand the value of systematic study to OB.
hospi ta ls, churches, mi litaiy un its, retai l stores, pol ice departments, volunteer organiza- tions, start-ups, and local, provincial, and federal government agencies. Thus, when we use the term organization in this book, we are referring no t on ly to large manufacturing firms but also to small mom-and-pop stores, as well as to the variety of other forms of organization that exis t. Small businesses with less than 100 people made up 98 percent of the employers in Canada in 2015, and they employed 70 percent of the private sector workforce. Only 0 .3 percent of businesses have more than 500 employees, and they employ just under 10 percent of the workforce. Most of these large organizations are in the public sector. 11
The examp les in this book present various organizations so t hat you can gain a better understanding of the many types of organizations that exist. The college or university you attend is every b it as much a •real" organizatio n as is Lu lulemon Athletica, Ai r Canada, or the Vancouver Canucks. A small for-profit organ ization that h ires unskilled workers to renovate and bui ld in the inner city of Winnipeg is as much a real organ ization as is London, Ontario -based Ell isDon, one of North America's largest construction companies. Therefore, the theories we cover shou ld be considered in light of the variety of organizations you may encounter. We try to point out instances where the theoiy may be less applicable ( or especially applicable) to a par- ticular type of organ ization. For the most part, however, you should expect that the d iscussions in this book apply across the broad spectrum of organ izations. Throughout, we highlight applications to a variety of organizations in our fea ture OB in the Workplace.
OB Is for Everyone
Do you kno"'' \,vhat a "typical ~
organ ization looks like·?
It might seem natura l to think that the study of OB is for leaders and managers of organ izations. However, many organizations a lso have informa l leadership opportu- nities. In organ izations in which employees are asked to share in a greater number of decision-making processes rather than simply follow orders, the roles of managers and employees are becom ing blurred. 12 For instance, emp loyees in some retail opera tions are asked to make decis ions about when to accept returned items rather than defer the decision to the manager.
OB is not just for managers and employees. Entrepreneurs and self-employed individuals may not act as managers, bu t they certa inly interact wi th o ther ind iv idu- als and organizations as part of their work. OB applies equally well to all situations in wh ich you interact with others: on the basketball court, at the grocery store, in school, or in church. In fact, OB is relevant anywhere that people come together and share experiences, work on goals, or meet to solve problems. To help yo u understand these broader connections, you will find a feature called OB in the Street throughout the book.
Complementing Intuition with Systematic Study Whether you have expl icitly thought about it before or not, you have been "reading" people al most all your l ife by watching their actions and interpreting what you see, or by tiying to pred ict what peop le might do under different conditions. The casual approach to reading others can often lead to erroneous predictions, but using a system- atic approach can improve your accuracy.
Underlying the systematic approach in this text is the belief that behaviour is no t random. Rather, we can identify fundamental consistencies underlying the behaviour of all individuals and modify them to reflect ind ividual d ifferences.
Chapter 1 What Is Organizational Behaviour? 7
These fundamental consistencies are very important. Why? Because they allow predictability. Behaviour is generally pred ictable, and the systematic study of behav- iour is a means lo maki ng reasonab ly accurate predictions. When we use the term systematic s tudy, we mean looking at relationsh ips, attempting to allribute causes and effects, and basing our conclus ions on scientific ev idence- that is, on data gathered under controlled conditions and measured and interpreted in a rigorous manner.
Evi d e nce-b ased m a n ageme n t (EBM) comp lements systematic study by basing managerial decisions on the best available scientific evidence. For example, we want doctors Lo make decisions about patient care based on the latest available evidence, and EBM argues tha t managers should do the same, thinki ng more scientifically about management problems. A manager might pose a question, search for the best avai lable evidence, and apply the relevant information to the question or case at hand. You might wonder what manager would not base decisions on evidence, but the vast majority of management decisions are made "on the fly,• with little lo no systematic study of available evidence. J3
Systematic study and EBM add to intuition, or those "gut feelings• about wha t makes others (and ourselves) "tick." Of course, the things you have come lo believe in an unsystematic way are nol necessarily incorrect. Jack Welch (former CEO of General Elecuic) noted, "The trick, of course, is to know when to go with your gut• Bul if we make all decis ions wi th intuition or gut instinct, we are likely working with incomplete information- like maki ng an investment decis ion with on ly half the data about the potential for risk and reward.
Relying on intuition is made worse because we tend to overestimate the accuracy of what we think we know. Surveys of human resource managers have also shown that many managers hold "commo n-sense• op inions regarding effective management that have been flatly refuted by emp irical evidence.
We find a similar problem in chasing the business and popular med ia for manage- ment wisdom. The business press tends to be dominated by fads. As a writer for The New Yorker pul it, "Every few years, new compan ies succeed, and they are scrutinized for the underlying truths they might reveal. But often there is no underlying lrulh; the compan ies just happened lo be in the right place at the right time." 14 Although we try to avoid it, we might also fall into th is trap. It's not that the business press stories are all wrong; it's that without a systematic approach, it's hard lo separate the whea t from the chaff.
Big Data It's difficu lt lo believe now, bu t not long ago companies treated online shopp ing as a virtual point-of-sale experience: Shoppers browsed websites anonymously, and sellers tracked sales data only on what customers bought. "Big data" - the extensive use of statistica l comp ila tion and analysis- didn't become poss ible until comp uters were soph isticated enough lo both store and manipu late large amounts of information. Gradually, as a result, on line retailers began Lo track and act upon information about customer preferences that was uniquely ava ilable through the Internet shopping expe- rience, information that was far superior to data gathered in simple in-store transac- tions. This enabled them to create more targeted marketing strategies than ever before. See the Case Incident- Big Data for Dummies on pages 31-32 to learn more about how organ izations use b ig data.
The booksell ing industry is a case in point: Before on line selling, brick-and- mortar books tores could collect data about book sales only to crea te projections about consumer interests and trends. With the advent of Amazon, suddenly a vast array of in forma tion about consumer preferences became avai lable for t racking: what customers bought, what they looked at, how they navigated the s ite, and what
systematic study Looking at relatiooships, attempting to attribute causes and effects, and aawing ooo- clusioos based on scientific evidence.
evidence-based management (EBM) The basing of managerial decisions on the best available scientific evidence.
intuition An instinctive feeling not necessarily supported by research.
8 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
lhey were influenced by (such as promotions, reviews, and page presenlation). The challenge for Amazon lhen was lo identify wh ich slalistics were persistent, giv ing re lalively conslan l outcomes over l ime, and predictive, show ing sleady causal ity belween certa in inputs and oulcomes. The company used these slatistics lo develop algorilhms lo forecas t which books cuslomers would like lo read next Amazon then cou ld base ils who lesale purchase decisions on the feedback customers provided, bolh through these passive collection melhods and through sol ici ted recommenda- tions for upcoming Lilies.
Big data has been used by technology companies like Google and Facebook, who rely on adverlising dollars for revenue and thus need to pred ict user behaviour. Compa- nies like Nelflix and Uber similarly use big data lo predict where and when customers may want to use their virt ual services, although their revenue comes from subscribers to lheir services. Insurance firms pred ict behaviour to assess risks, such as the chance of lraffic accidents, in order lo set customer prem iums.
Online reta ilers like eBay and Amazon, which market tangible products through on line platforms, also re ly on big data to predie1 what w ill sell. For organ iza tions like Nielsen Holdings, which lracks television and radio wa tching, the results of data analyses are the product they sel l. Still other organ izations collect big da ta but do not d irectly use it. These are often organizations whose primary bus iness is not online. Think of the loyalty cards you carry around (Starbucks, Tim Hortons, Indigo-Chapters). These companies sell their data to vendors who stock shelves, and they use the data to identify lrends and new market possib ilities. 15 Sometimes even techno logy compan ies s imply sell their data; Twitter sells 500 mill ion tweets a day to four data assimilation compan ies. 16
It is good news for the future of business that researchers, the media, and company leaders have identi fied the potentia l of da ta-driven management and decision making. A manager who uses data to define objectives, develop lheories of causality, and lest those theories can determine which employee activities are relevant to the objectives.17
Big data has implications for correcting managemen t assumplions and increasing posi- live performance outcomes. Increasingly, it is applied toward making effective decisions (Chapter 12) and managing human resources. It is quite possible that the best use of b ig da ta in managing people will come from organ izationa l behaviour and psychol- ogy research, where it m ight even help employees with mental illnesses monitor and change their behaviour. 18
We must keep in mind that big data will always be limited in predicting behaviour, curLail ing risk, and preventing cataslrophes. In contrasl to the replicable results we can obta in in lhe sciences through big data analytics, human behaviour is often capricious and pred icated on innumerab le variables. O therwise, our decision making would have been taken over by artificial intelligence by now! But that will never be a worthy goal. 19
Management is more than the sum of data. We are not advising that you throw your intui Lion, or all the business press, out the
window. Nor are we arguing that research is always right. Researchers make m istakes, too. What we are advising is lo use evidence as much as possible lo inform your intu- ition and experience. That is the promise of OB.
Throughout this book, the Focus 011 Research fea ture will h igh light some of the care- fu l stud ies that form the bui lding b locks of OB.
If understanding behaviour were s imp ly common sense, we would not observe many o f the problems that occur in lhe workplace, because managers and employees wou ld know how to behave. Unfortunately, as you will see from examples lhroughout this book, many employees and managers exhibit less-than-desirab le behaviour in lhe workplace. With a slronger grounding in OB, you m ight be able to avo id some of these m istakes.
OB is even being adopted by other d iscipl ines, as OB in the Street shows.
Chapter 1 What Is Organizational Behaviour? 9
•
OB IN TH E STREET Is OB Just fo r t he Workplace?
Can finan ce learn anything from OB? It may surprise you to learn that, increasingly, other business discipl ines are employing OB concepts.20 Marketing has the closest overlap with OB. Trying to predict consumer behaviour is not tha t different from trying lo predict emp loyee behaviour. Both require an understanding of the dynamics and underlying causes of human behaviour, and there is a lot of correspondence between the disciplines.
What is perhaps more surprising is the degree to which the so-called hard d iscipl ines are using soft OB concepts. Behavioural finance, behavioural account ing, and behav- ioural econom ics (also called economic psychology) all have grown in importance and interest in the past several years.
On reflection, the use of OB by these d iscip lines shou ld not be so surprising. Your common sense will tell yo u that humans are not perfectly rationa l creatures, and in many cases, our actions don't conform to a rational model of behaviour. Although some elements of irrationality are incorporated into finance, accoun ting, and economics, researchers find it increasingly useful to draw from OB concepts.
For example, investors have a tendency to p lace more weight on private information ( information that only they, or a limited group of people, know) than on p ubl ic informa- tion, even when there is reason to bel ieve that the public information is more accura te. To understand th is phenomenon, finance researchers use OB concepts. In addition, behav- ioural accounting research might study how feedback influences auditors' behaviour, or the functional and dysfunctional impl ications of earnings warn ings on investor behaviour.
The po int is that while you take separate courses in various business disciplines, the lines between them are increasingly being blurred as researchers draw from common d isciplines to explain behaviour. We think that th is is a good th ing because il more
, accurately matches the way managers actually work, th ink, and behave . ............ .
Disciplines That Contribute to the OB Field One of the major problems Target canada had was making sure that items were on the shelves, available for customers to purchase.21 Products often went out of stock because of issues with the
company's new inventory management software. However, the problem turned out to be more than
just a software issue. Business analysts responsible for making sure that stock was available were j udged on
lhe percentage of their products that were in stock at any given time. If their percentage of
in-stock number was low, they would receive a call from a vice-president who would demand an explanation . Some analysts discovered that they could turn off a software feature that notified
distribution centres to ship more product. By disabling this feature, the vice-presidents would
not know stock was low, which meant the analysts would not be criticized . However, once lhis feature was fully activated, and analysts could no longer turn it off on their own, the company
could finally see the low in-stock percentages. The analysts may have been acting rationally by covering up the shortages so that they
would not get into trouble with their managers, but this was short-term thinking because it was
ultimately harmful to the stores. What might Target Canada have learned from OB to do a better job of managing communications and incentives for lhe analysts'
The Building Blocks of OB OB is an applied behavioural science that bu ilds upon contributions from a num- ber of behavioural disciplines: ma inly psychology, social psycho logy, sociology, and
C, Identify the major behaviou ral science disciplines that contrib· ute to OB .
1 O Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
anthropology. Psychology's contributions have been primarily at the individual, or m icro, level of analysis, whi le the other three disciplines have contributed to our under- standing of macro concepts, such as group processes and organization. Exh ib it 1-1 pres- ents an overview of the major contributions of behavioural science to the study of OB.
Psych ology Psychology seeks to measure, exp lain, and sometimes change the behaviour of humans and other animals. Contributors to the knowledge of OB are learning theorists, per- sona lity theorists, co unselling psychologists, and, most important, indust rial and organizational psycho logists.
Early industrial and organ izationa l psycho logists studied the problems of fat igue, boredom, and other working condi tions that could impede efficient work performance. More recently, their contributions have been expanded to include learning, perception, personal ity, emotions, training, leadersh ip effectiveness, needs and motivational forces, job satisfaction, individual decision making, performance appra isal, attitude measure- ment, emp loyee selection techniques, work design, and work stress.
Social Psyc hology Social psycho logy, generally considered a branch of psychology, blends concepts from both psychology and socio logy to focus on peop le's influence on one another. One
EXHIBIT 1-1 Toward an OB Disci pline
Behavioural science
Psychology
Contribution
Learning Motivation Personality Emotions Perception Training
- ~ ; Leadership effectiveness Job satisfaction Individual decision making Performance appraisal Attitude measurement Employee selection Work design Work stress
Social psy<:hology j~ Behavioural change Attitude change Communication
I _
Sociology
Anthropology
Group processes Group decision making
Communication Power Conflict Intergroup behaviour
f ormal organization theory Organizational technology Organizational change Organizational culture
Comparative values Comparative attitudes Cross-cultural analysis
Organizational culture Organizational environment Power
I
Unit of analysis
Individual
-•. -- Group
Output
I ~ Study of
J ~ organizational
behaviour
Organization system
Chapter 1 What Is Organizational Behaviour? 11
major s tudy area is change- how to implement it and how to reduce barriers to its acceptance. Social psychologists also cont ribute to measuring, understand ing, and changing attitudes; identify ing communication patlerns; and bu ilding trust. Finally, they have made importan t contributions to our study of communication, intergroup behaviour, power, and conflict.
Sociology Wh ile psychology focuses on the ind iv idual, socio logy s tudies people in relation to their social environment or culture. Sociologists have contributed to OB through their study of group behaviour in organizations, particularly formal and complex organ izations. Perhaps most important, sociologists have stud ied organizational culture and change, formal organizational theory and structure, organizational technology, communication, power, and conflict.
Anth ropology Anthropology is the study of societies to learn about human beings and their activi- ties. Anthropologists' work on cultures and environments has helped us understand d ifferences in fundamen ta l values, attitudes, and behaviour among people in d ifferent countries and within different organizations. Much of our current understand ing of organizational culture, organizational climate, and differences among national cu ltures is the resu lt of the work of anthropologists or those using their methodologies.
The Rigour of OB Whether you want to respond to the challenges of the Canadian workp lace, man- age well, or guarantee satisfying and rewarding emp loyment for yourself, it pays to understand organizational behaviour. OB provides a systematic approach to the study of behaviour in organizations. Underlying this systematic approach is the bel ief that behaviour is not random. It stems from and is d irected toward some end that the indi- vidual believes, rightly or wrongly, is in his or her best interest.
OB Has Few Absolutes Laws in the physical sciences- chem istry, astronomy, physics- are consistent and apply in a w ide range of situations. They allow scientists to generalize abou t the pull of grav- ity or to confidently send astronauts into space to repair satell ites. Human beings are complex, and few, if any, s imple and universal principles explain organizational behav- iour. Because we are not all alike, our ab ility to make s imple, accura te, and sweep ing generalizations about ourselves is limited. Two people often act very differently in the same situation, and the same person's behaviour changes in different s ituations. For example, not everyone is motivated by money, and peop le may behave d ifferently at a religious service than they do at a party.
OB Takes a Contingency Approach Just because people can behave differently at d ifferen t times does not mean, of course, that we cannot offer reasonably accurate explanations of human behaviour or make valid pred ictions. It does mean, however, that OB must consider behaviour within the context in wh ich it occurs- a strategy known as a contingen cy approach. In other words, OB's answers depend upon the situation. For example, OB scholars wou ld avoid stating that everyone likes comp lex and challenging work (the general concept). Why7 Because not everyone wants a challenging job. Some people prefer routine over varied work, or simple over complex tasks. A job that is appeal ing to one person may not appeal to another, so the appea l of the job is contingent on the person who holds it. Often, we'll find both general effects ( money does have some abil ity to motivate most of us) and contingencies
O Demonstrate why few absolutes apply to OB.
contingency approach An approach laken by OB thal considers behaviour within lhe conlext in which it occurs.
12 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
0 Identify workplace challenges that provide opportunities to apply OB concepts.
( some of us are more motivated by money than others, and some situations are more about money than others). We will best understand OB when we realize how both (gen- eral effects, and the contingencies that affect them) often guide behaviour.
Consistent w ith the contingency approach, Point/ Counterpoint debates are pro- vided in each chapter. These debates are included to h igh ligh t the fact t hat within OB there are disagreements. Through t he Point/ Counterpoint format, you w ill ga in the opportunity to explore different po ints of view, d iscover how diverse perspec- tives complement and oppose each other, and gain insight into some of the debates currently taki ng place within the OB field. Point/ Counterpoint on page 28 debates the quality of evidence offe red by popular books and academ ic research stud ies on organizational behaviour.
Challenges and Opportunities in the Canadian Workplace
In the United States, Target prides itself on its corporate cu lture of being a "fast, fun, and
friendly" place to work.22 Target hires people it thinks will fit well into the environment, and the
company worries less about new employees having experience. "Target's motto was they could
train you for the job, but they couldn't train culture," says a former employee. New employees
in the United States go through an extensive development program, and are assigned a mentor.
When Target canada had to hire quickly to staff more than 120 stores within one year, former
employees say that the company did succeed in hiring people with the right personalities. How-
ever, there was no time to train them. Most received a few weeks of training at best. According
to one employee, "Everyone was stretched thin . We didn't have the manpower to get everything
done in the time frame that was laid out."
Target was not ready to move to canada, and the results were costly. Within two years of
opening its first store, the company announced bankruptcy for the Canadian operation, and
shuttered all of its stores.
Understand ing OB has never been more important for managers. Take a quick look at the dramatic changes in organizations. The typica l employee is getti ng older; the work- force is becoming increasingly diverse; and global competition requires employees to become more flexible and cope with rapid change.
As a resu lt of these changes and others, employ ment options have emerged. Exhibit 1-2 details some of the options individuals may find offered to them by orga- n izations or for wh ich they would like to negotiate. Under each heading in the exhibit, you will find a grouping of options from which to choose- or combine. For instance, at one po int in your career you may find yourself employed full ti me in an office in a local ized, non-un ion setting with a salary and bonus compensation package, whi le at another po int you may wish to negotiate for a flextime, virtual posi- tion and choose to work from overseas for a comb ination of salary and extra paid time off.
In short, today's challenges bring opportunities for managers to use OB concepts. In th is section, \Ve review some of the most critical issues confronting managers for wh ich OB offers solu tions- or at least meaningfu l insights toward so lutions.
Economic Pressures
What people- r elated cha!-
lenges have you noticed in the
workplace'?
When the US economy plunged into a deep and prolonged recession in 2008, virtually all other large econom ies around the world followed sui t. Canada fared much better
Chapter 1 What Is Organizational Behaviour? 1 3
EXHIBIT 1-2 Employment Options
, Categories of Employment
Employed
Underemployed/ underutilized
Re-employed
unemployed~obless
Entrepreneur
Retired
Job seeking
Furloughed
Laid off
'
'I
,)
Types of Employment
Full-time
Part-time
Flextime
Job share
Contingent
Independent contractor
Temporary
Reduced hours
Intern
,
'
Places of Employment
Anchored (office/cubicle)
Floating (shared space)
Virtual
Flexible
Work from home
'I
I
,)
Conditions of Employment
Local
Expatriate
Short-term assignee
Flexpatriate
International business traveller
Visa employee
Union/non-union employee
r Compensation "' for Employment
Salary
Hourly
Overtime
Bonus
Contract
Time off
Benefits
- '- ,)
Sources: J. R. Anderson, "Action ttems: 42 Trends Affecting Benefits, Compensation, Training, Staffing and Technology," HR Magazjne, January 2013, p . 33; M. Dewhurst, B. Hanoock, and D. Ellsworth, "Redesigning Knowledge Work," Harvard Business Review, January-February 2013, pp. 58-64; E. Frauenheim, "Creating a New Contingent Culture," Worl<force Management, August 2012, pp. 34-39; N. Koeppen, "State Job Aid Takes Pressure off Germany," Wall Street Journal, February 1, 2013, p. AB; and M . A. Shaffer, M. L. Krairner, Y. -P. Chen, and M. C. Bolino, "Choices, Challenges, and Career Consequences of Global Work Experiences: A Review and Future Agenda,• Journal of Management, July 2012, pp. 1282-1327.
than the United Stales, but still faced widespread layoffa and job losses, and those who suivived the axe were often asked to accept pay cuts. When limes are bad, as they were during the recession, managers are on the fron t lines with employees wh o are asked to make do with less, and who worry abou t their futures, and who sometimes musl b e fired. The d iffere nce between good and bad man agement can be the d ifference between profi t an d loss or, ultimately, between b usiness suivival and failure.
Ma naging employees well when limes are tough is just as hard as when limes are good- if not harder. In good limes, understand ing how lo reward, satisfy, and retain emp loyees is at a premium. In bad times, issues such as stress, decision making, and copi ng come to the forefro nt.
Continuing Globalization Organizatio ns are no longer constrained by national borders. Samsung, the largest South Korean business conglomerate, sells most of its products to organizations in other coun- tries. Burger King is owned by a Brazi lian firm. McDonald 's sells hamburgers in more than 118 countries on six continents. All major automobile makers now manufacture cars ou tside their borders; Honda b ui lds cars in Al liston, Ontario, Ford in Brazil, Volkswagen in Mexico, and both Mercedes and BMW in South Africa. Apple has also moved almost all of its manufacturing overseas, as discussed in Case Incident- Apple Goes Global o n page 31.
In recent years, b usi nesses in Canada have faced tough competit io n from those in the Un ited Stales, Europe, Japan, an d Ch ina, as well as from other businesses with in our borders. To suivive, they have had to red uce costs, increase productivity, an d improve quality. A number of Canad ian compan ies have found it necessary to merge in order to suivive. For instance, Rona, the Boucheiville, Quebec-based home improvement store, bough t oul Lansing, Revy, and Revelstoke in recent years lo d efend its turf against th e
14 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
Atlanta, Georgia-based Home Depot Then as a counteroffensive, Lowe's bought out Rona in 2016, hoping to take market share from Home Depot. 23
Some employers have outsourced jobs to other countries where Jabour costs are lower lo remain profitable. For instance, Toronto-based Dell Canada's technical seivice lines are handled by technicians working in India. Toronto-based Wall & Associates, a full-seivice chartered accounting and management consulting firm, ouL~ources document management lo Uganda. Employees in Uganda are willing lo work for $1 an hour lo sort and record receipts. While these wages might seem low, on average, Ugandans make only $1 a day.
lwenty or 30 years ago, national borders protected most firms from foreign competi- tive pressures. This is no longer the case. Trad ing blocs such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the European Union (EU) have sign ificantly reduced tariffs and barriers to trade, and North America and Europe no longer have a monopoly on highly ski lled labour. The Internet has also enabled companies lo become more globally connected by opening up international sales and by increasing the opportun i- ties to carry on business across borders. Even small firms can bid on projects in d ifferent countries and compete with larger firms v ia the Internet
Even in your own country, you will find yourself working with bosses, peers, and other employees born and ra ised in different cultures. As mu lti nationa l corpora tions develop operations worldwide, as companies develop jo int ventures with foreign part- ners, a nd as employees increasingly pursue job opportun ities across national borders, managers and emp loyees must become capable of working with people from d ifferen t cul lures. To be successful, managers and employees need to know the cultural practices of the workforce in each country where they do business. The ever-changing globa l competitive environment means that not only ind ividuals but also organizations have lo become increasingly flexible by learning new skills, new ways of thinki ng, and new ways of doing business.
Understanding Workforce Diversity An important challenge for organ izations is worliforce diver.sity, a concept that recognizes the heterogeneous nature of employees in the workplace. Whereas globaliza tion focuses
Montreal-based Bombardier, a leading aerospace and transportation company in the wortd, takes global- ization seriously as part of its strategy. It helped build a bullet train for Italy, using Japanese technology,
and has designed award-winning trams for a number of European cities.
Chapter 1 What Is Organizational Behaviour? 15
o n differences amo ng people from different co untries, workforce d iversity addresses d ifferences among people with in given cou ntries. Workforce divers ity acknowledges that the workforce co nsists of women and men; many racial and e thnic groups; indi- viduals with a variety of physical or psychological ab ilities; an d people wh o differ in age, sexua l orien tation, and demographic characteristics. We discuss workforce diversi ty in Chapter 3.
O ne workforce diversity challenge in Canadian work- places is the mix of generations- members of th e Baby Boom, Generation X, an d Millenn ials- wh o work side by s ide. Due to their very different life experiences, they bri ng different values and different expectations to the workplace.
We used to assume th at people in organizatio ns who d iffered from the stereotyp ical employee would somehow s imply fit in. We now recogn ize that employees don't set aside their cultural values a nd lifestyle preferences when
v\lhy should you care about understanding other people'?
they go to work. The challenge for organ izations, therefore, is to accommodate diverse groups of people by addressing their differen t lifestyles, family needs, and work styles. 24
The Focus on Diversity fea ture fo und throughout this book h ighlights diversity mat- ters that arise in organizations. O ur first example looks al Regina-based SaskTel, wh ich values h aving a diverse workforce.
Does workforce diversity make business sense? Regina-based SaskTel was named one
of Canada's Best Diversity Employers in 2014 because of its commitment to diversity.25
It has d iversity programs for women, people with d isabilities, visible minorities, and Indig -
enous people. While the company received this award for a number of reasons, its work
with Indigenous people is particularly outstanding. Indigenous people are well represented in the SaskTel workplace: 10 percent of its employees and 8. 1 percent of its managers
are Indigenous. Indigenous people currently represent 15 percent of the Saskatchewan
population, and that number is expected to grow to 21 to 24 percent in 20 years. The number of Indigenous employees at SaskTel speaks to the effectiveness of the
company's Indigenous recruitment strategy, which was intended to increase the number of
Indigenous employees and address SaskTel's chronic labour shortages in information and communications technologies. SaskTel partners with First Nations bands, tribal councils,
and Indigenous employment agencies.
Sask Tel also keeps a database of Indigenous-owned and -operated businesses, which it consults when it is looking for new suppliers and partners.
SaskTel is not just a good employer. It also tries to be a good community member. Several years ago it started an initiative to bring Internet and wireless coverage to the
28 First Nations communities in Saskatchewan. "We have always believed in the impor-
tance of all Saskatchewan people benefitting from having access to the most powerful and extensive communications network available," said Don McMorris, MPP and cabinet
minister responsible for Sask Tel. "With inc reased access to technology, residents of these
communities will be able to take advantage of numerous educational and business oppor- tunities that were not available to them before.•
SaskTel strives to have a workforce that is as d iverse as its customers - a goal the
company finds makes good sense not only for the community but also for its own
future. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I workforce diversity The mix of people in organizations in terms of gender, race, elhnicity, ability, sexual orientation, age. and demographic characteristics such as education and socio-economic stalUs.
16 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
A Whole Foods Market customer learns how to grind flour with the help of the store's cooking coach, whose job is to provide information about cooking ingredients, methods, and techniques. Cooking
coaches embody the best of the retailer's customer-responsive cutture of serving people with competency, efficiency, knowledge, and flair.
Customer Service Today, the majority of employees in developed countries work in service jobs, including 78 percent in Canada.26 Service employees include technical support representa tives, fast-food counter workers, sales clerks, nurses, automobi le repair techn icians, consul- tan ts, financia l p lanners, and fligh t attendan ts. The shared characteristic of their jobs is substantial interaction with an organ ization's customers. OB can increase the suc- cess of these interactions by showing how emp loyee a ttitudes and behaviour influence customer satisfaction.
Many an organization has fa iled because its employees fa iled to please customers. Management needs lo create a customer-responsive cu lture. OB can provide consider- able gu idance in helping managers create cul lures that establish rapport \vith customers, put customers at ease, show genuine interest, and are sensitive to a customer's individual s ituation.2 7
People Skills Throughout the chapters of this text, we w ill present relevant concepts and theories that can help you explain and predict the behaviour of people al work. You will also gain insights into speci fic people skills that you can use on the job. For instance, you wi ll learn how to design motivating jobs, improve your listening skills, and crea te more effective teams.
Networked Organizations Networked organizations allow people to communicate and wo rk together even though they may be thousands of ki lometres apart. Independent contractors can te lecommute via computer and change employers as the demand for their services changes. Software programmers, graphic designers, systems analysts, techn ical writers, photo researchers, book and med ia ed itors, and med ica l transcribers are just a few examples of people who can work from home or o ther nonoffice locations.
Chapter 1 What Is Organizational Behaviour? 1 7
The manager's job is different in a networked organization. Motivating and leading people and making collaborative decisions onl ine require different techniques than when ind ividuals are physically present in a single location. As more emp loyees do their jobs by linking to others through networks, managers and employees must develop new skills. OB can provide va luable insights to help with improving those ski lls.
Social Media As we will discuss in Chapter 7, social media in the business world is here to stay. Desp ite its pervasiveness, many organizations continue to struggle with employees' use of social media in the workplace, which presents both a challenge and an opportunity for OB. Employees have been fired for tweeting unflanering comments about their employer. How much should HR look into a cand idate's social media presence? Should a hiring manager read the cand ida te's 'Jw itter feeds, or just do a quick perusal of her Facebook profile? We will discuss this issue later in the text.
Once employees are on the job, many organ izations have policies abou t accessing social med ia at work- when, where, and for what purposes. But what about the impact of socia l media on employee well-being? One recent study found that subjects who woke up in a positive mood and then accessed Facebook frequently found their mood decreased during the day. Moreover, subjects who checked Facebook frequently over a two-week period reported a decreased level of satisfaction with their lives.28 These are issues that organ izations have to deal with.
Enhancing Employee Well-Being at Work Employees are increasingly frustra ted as the definition of the workp lace has expanded to include anywhere a laptop or smartphone can go. However, even if employees work flexible hours at home or from half a continent away, managers need to consider their well -being at work.
One of the biggest challenges lo maintaining employee well-being is the new reality that many workers never get away from the virtual workplace. Communication tech- nology allows employees to do their work al home, in their cars, or on the ski slopes at Whistler- but it a lso means many fee l l ike they are never really part of a team. It is hard for employees to get a sense of belonging if they are working alone. Another challenge is that organizations are asking employees to be available in off-work hours via cellphones and email. According to one study, one in four emp loyees shows s igns of burnout, and two in three report high stress levels and fatigue. 29 These find ings may actually underestimate how common employee burnout is because many employees maintain "always on" access for their managers through ema il and texting. Finally, employee well-being is challenged by heavy outside commitments. Employees who are single parents or have dependent parents have even more significant challenges in balancing work and fam ily responsibil ities, for instance.
As a resu lt of their increased responsibilities in and out of the workp lace, employ- ees want jobs that give them flex ibi lit y in their work schedu les so they can beuer manage work-life confl icts.30 In fac t, 56 percent of men and women in a recent study reported that work-l ife balance was their defin ition of career success- more t han money, recogn ition, and autonomy.3 1 Most college and un iversity students say tha t attain ing a balance between personal life and work is a primary career goal; they want "a life• as well as a job. Organizations that don't help their people achieve work- life ba lance w ill find it increasingly d ifficu lt to attract and retain the most capab le and motivated emp loyees. As you will see in later chapters, the field of OB offers a number of suggestions for designing workplaces and jobs that can help employees deal with work- life confl icts. OB in the Workplace looks at how Habaflero helps its emp loyees manage work-l ife balance.
18 Pa rt 1 Understanding the Workplace
positive organizational scholarship An area of OB research 1hat concerns how organiza- tions develop human strengths, foster vitali1y and resilience, and unlock potential.
Habafiero's Employees Help Set Policies
What do empowered employees do? Steven Fitzgerald, president of Vancouver-based IT firm Habaiiero Consulting Group, believes in empowering h is employees.32 Employees share human resources duties by mentoring each other, encouraging career develop- ment, and making sure everyone understands their jobs.
Fitzgera ld knows that an •au work and no play• ethic is nol a good way to define the business. As a resu lt, he gives h is employees autonomy, telling them they will be "judged on the quality of their work- not the number of hours they put in.• Habaiiero allows telecommuting and flextime, and does not track s ick days.
More recently, Fitzgera ld's employees noted that Habaiiero's invo icing model, which was based on a target number of billable hours per month, contrad icted the company's commitmen t to work- life balance. The employees worked with manage- ment lo develop a new model of project-based billing that was more consistent with a truly flexible workp lace, wh ile still maintaining profitabi lity. Fitzgera ld is pleased with how empowerment has worked for Habaiiero. He says that knowing what employees want and acting on that knowledge can help you "attract people who are engaged for lhe righl reasons." . .. . .... .. .... .. .... . .... .. .... .. .... . .... .. .... .. .... . .... .. .
Creating a Positive Work Environment A real growth area in OB research is p o sitive o rganizational scholars h ip (also ca lled positive organizational behaviour), which stud ies how organizations develop human strengths, foster vitality and resilience, and unlock potentia l. Researchers in this area argue that too much of OB research and management practice has been targeted toward identifying what is wrong with organ izations and their employees. In response, they try to study what is good about organizalions.33 Some key independent variables in positive
Twitter employees rave about their company's culture, which creates a posijive wor1< environment where smart and friendly colleagues learn; share values, ideas, and information; and wor1< together to help the company grow and succeed. At Twitter's San Francisco headquarters, employees like Jenna Sampson, community relations manager, enjoy free meals, yoga classes, and a rooftop garden.
Chapter 1 What Is Organizational Behaviour? 19
OB research are engagement, hope, optimism, and resil ience in the face of strain . Researchers hope to help practitioners create positive work environments for employees.
Positive organizational scholars have studied a concept called • reflected best self" - asking employees to th ink about s ituations in which they were at their "personal best• to understand how to exploit their strengths. The idea is that we all have th ings at which we are unusually good, yet too often we focus on addressing our limitations and too rarely th ink about how to exp lo it our s trengths.34
Although positive organ izationa l scholarship does not deny the negative (such as cri tical feedback), it does challenge researchers to look at OB through a new lens and pushes organ izations to think abou t how to use their employees' strengths rather than dwell on their l im ita tions. One aspect of a positive work environment is the organiza- tion's culture, the top ic of Chapter 10. Organ izational culture influences employee behaviour so strongly that organizations have begun to employ a culture officer to shape and preserve the company's persona lity. 35
Ethical Behaviour In an organiza tional world characterized by cutbacks, expectations of increasing produc- tivity, and tough competi tion, it's not surprising that many emp loyees fee l pressured to cut corners, break ru les, and engage in other questionable practices. Increasingly they face e thical dilemma s and e thical choices, in wh ich they are required to identify right and wrong conduct. Shou ld they "blow the wh is tle" if they uncover illega l activities taking place in their compa ny? Do they follow orders with wh ich they don't personally agree? Do they "play politics" to advance their careers?
Ethics is the study of mora l val ues or principles that guide our behaviour and inform us whether actions are right or wrong. Eth ical principles help us "do the righ t thing," such as not padd ing expense reports, or not phoning in sick to attend the open- ing of Avengers 2: Age of Ultron.
As we show in Chapter 11, the study of ethics does not come with black and white answers. What constitutes good ethical behaviour has never been clearly defined, and, in recent years, the line differentiating right from wrong has blurred. We see people all around us engaging in unethical practices- elected officials pad expense accounts or take bribes; corporate executives inflate profits to cash in lucrative stock options; and university adm inistrators look the other way when winn ing coaches encourage scholar- ship athletes to take easy courses.
Nonetheless, ind ividua ls who strive hard to create their own set of ethical val ues will more often do the right thing. Moreover, companies that promote a strong eth ical m iss ion encourage employees to behave with in tegrity, and provide strong ethical lead- ership that can influence employee decisions to behave eth ically.36 Classroom train ing sessions in ethics have also proven helpful in maintain ing a h igher level of awareness of the impl ications of employee choices as long as the train ing sessions are given on an ongoing basis.37 The Ethical Di/em.ma on page 30 asks you to consider whether it's ever appropriate to engi neer corporate opportunities to your personal advantage. What are the ethics about receiving •gifts" from clients?
Throughout this book, you \v iii find references to e thical and unethica l behaviour. The Focus 011 Ethics feature will provide you with thought-provoking illustrations of how eth ics is treated in various organizations.
Coming Attractions: Developing an OB Model We conclude this chapter by presenting a general model that defines the field of OB, and stakes out its parameters, concepts, and relationships. By s tudying the model, you will have a good p icture of how the topics in th is text can inform your approach to organ izational issues and opportun ities.
ethical dil emmas and ethical choices Situalioos in which indi- viduals are required to define right and wroog 0011duct.
ethics The study of moral values or principles lhat guide our behaviour and inform us whether actions are right or wrong.
2 0 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
f) Describe the three levels of analysis in this book's OB model.
model An abstraction of reality. A simplified representation of some real-world phenomenon.
input Variables that lead to processes.
processes Actions that individuals, groups, and organizatioos engage in as a result of inputs and that lead to cer1ain outcomes.
EXHIBIT 1-3 A Basic OB Model
/ Inputs ' / Processes ' / Outco me s Individual Level Individual Level Individual Level • Diversity • Emotions and moods • Attitudes a nd stress • Personality • Motivation • Task performance • Values • Perception
I • Citizenship behaviour
• Decision making • W ithdrawal behaviour --
- -Group Level Group Level Group Level • Group structure • Communication • Group cohesion • Group roles . • leadership . • Group functioning • Team responsibilit ies • Power and polit ics
• Conflict and negotiat ion
Organizational Level Organizationa l Level Organizat ional Level • Structure • Change practices • Pro ductivity • Cu lture • Survival
'- " '- / '- -
/
An Overview A model is an abstraction of reality, a simpli fi ed representation of some real-world phe- nomenon . Exhib it 1-3 presents the skeleton o f our OB model. fl prop oses th ree types o f variables (inputs, processes, and outcomes) al three levels of analys is (ind ividua l, group, and orga nizationa l). In the chapters tha t follow, we will consider the individual level, group behaviour, and the organ izational system. The model ill ustrates that inputs lead lo processes, wh ich lead lo o utcomes; we wi ll discuss interrelatio nsh ips at each level of analysis. Notice that the model also sh ows that outcomes ca n in fl uence inputs in the fu ture, wh ich highligh ts the b road-reaching effect OB in itiatives can h ave on an organiza tion's fu t ure.
Inputs Inputs are the variab les like personal ity. group structure, and organizational culture that lead to processes. These variab les set the s tage for what will occur in an organ ization later. Ma ny are determined in advance of the employment relatio nship. For example, ind ividually d iverse characteristics, perso nality, and values are shaped by a combination o f an ind ividual's genetic inheritance an d ch ildhood e nvironment. Group structu re, roles, a nd team respo ns ibilities are typ ically assigned immed iately before or after a group is fo rmed. Finally, organizational structure an d culture a re usually the resu lt o f years of development and change as an organization adapts to its environment a nd builds up cus toms a nd norms.
Processes If inputs are l ike the nou ns in OB, processes are like the verbs. Processes are actions that individua ls, groups, and organ iza tio ns e ngage in as a resu lt o f inputs and that lead to certain o utcomes. At the individual level, processes include emotions and moods, motivation, perceptio n, and decisio n making. At the group level, they incl ude com- mun ication, leadership, power and politics, a nd conflict and negotiation. Finally, at the organizational level, processes includ e change practices.
Chapter 1 What Is Organizational Behaviour? 21
Outcomes Outcomes are Lhe key variables thal you want to exp la in or pred icl, and thal are affecled by some olher variables. What are Lhe primary oulcomes in OB? Scholars have emphasized ind ividua l-level outcomes such as alliludes and s lress, Lask per- formance, cilizenship behaviour, and wilhdrawa l behav iour. At Lhe group level, cohesion and functioning are lhe dependent variables. Finally, at lhe organ izational level, we look al overall productivity and survival. Because these outcomes w ill be covered in all the chapters, we w ill briefly d iscuss each here so you can understand Lhe •goa l" of OB.
Attitudes and Stress Emp loyee a ttitudes are lhe evaluations employees make, ranging from positive to nega- tive, abou t objects, people, or events. For example, lhe statement, ·1 really th ink my job is great,• is a positive job auitude, and •My job is boring and ted ious• is a negalive job attitude. Stress is an unpleasan t psychologica l process lhat occurs in response to environmental pressures.
Some people m ighl th ink lhal influencing employee alliludes and slress is purely soft stuff and not the busi ness of serious managers, bu t as we will show, altitudes often have behavioural consequences lhat direclly relate lo organ izationa l effectiveness. The belief lhat satisfied employees are more productive than dissa tisfied emp loyees has been a basic tenet among managers for years, although only now has research begun to support it. Ample evidence shows that employees who are more salisfied and lreated fairly are more w illing lo engage in lhe above-and-beyond ci tizensh ip behaviour so vital in lhe contemporary business enviro nment. For more informalion on lhe causes and consequences of stress as well as cop ing mechan isms, see OB on the Edge- Stress at Work on pages 116- 123.
Task Performance The combinalion of effectiveness and efficiency at doing your core job tasks is a reflec- lion of your level of task performance . If we th ink about lhe job of a factory worker, task performance could be measured by lhe number and quality of products produced in an hour. The task performance of a teacher wou ld be lhe level of education Lhal stu- dents obtain. The task performance of a consultant m ight be measured by lhe limeliness and quality of lhe presenta tions lhey offer lo lhe cl ient. All these types of performance relate lo lhe core du ties and responsib ililies of a job and are often direclly related to lhe functions listed on a forma l job description.
Obviously, task performance is Lhe most important human output conlributing to organizalional effectiveness, so in every chapter we devote considerable time Lo deta iling how Lask performance is affected by the topic in q uestion.
Organizational Citizenship Behaviour The discrelionary behaviour lhat is not part of an emp loyee's formal job require- ments, and that contributes Lo t he psychologica l and social environment of t he workplace, is called org anizational citizen sh i p b ehav- iour ( OCB), or s imply citizenship behaviour. Recen t research has also looked at expanding the work on OCB to team behaviour.
Successful organizations have emp loyees who will do more than Lheir usual job dulies- who will provide per- formance lhat is beyond expectations. In today's dynamic workplace, where tasks are increasingly performed by teams and flexibil ity is critical, emp loyees who engage in •good
Are you ready to take on rnore
r esponsibility at wo rk'?
I outcomes Key factors that are affected by some other variables.
attitudes Positive or negative feelings about objec1s, people, or even1s.
stress An unpleasant psychological process that occurs in response lo environmental pressures.
task perfonnance The oombina- tion of effectiveness and efficiency al doing your core job lasks.
organizational citizenship behaviour (DCB) Oiscrelion- ary behaviour that is not part of an employee's formal job requiremen1s, but 1hal nevertheless promotes the effective functioning of the organization.
22 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
withdrawal behaviour The set of actions employees take to separate themselves from the 0<ganization.
citizenship" behaviours help others on their team, volunteer for extra job activities, avo id unnecessary conflicts, respect the spirit as well as the letter of rules and regula- tions, and gracefully tolerate the occasional work-related impositions and nuisances.
Organizations want and need employees who will do those th ings tha t are not in any job description. Evidence indicates that organ izations that have such employees outperform those that don't.38 As a result, OB is concerned with organizational citizen- ship behaviour.
Withdrawa l Behaviour We have already mentioned behaviour that goes above and beyond task requ irements, but what about behaviour that in some way is below task requ irements? Withdrawal behaviour is the set of actions tha t emp loyees take to separate themselves from the organ ization. There are many forms of withdrawal, ranging from showing up late or fail ing to attend meetings to absenteeism and turnover.
Employee withdrawal can have a very negative effect on an organization. The cost of emp loyee turnover alone has been estimated to run into the thousands of dollars, even for entry- level pos itions. Absenteeism a lso costs organizations s ign ifi- cant amounts of money and time every year. For instance, a recen t survey found the average d irect cost to employers for absenteeism in Canada is $16 .6 bill ion.39
In Sweden, an average of 10 percent of the country's workforce is on sick leave at any give n time.40
It's obviously d ifficult for an organization to operate smoothly and attain its objectives if emp loyees fai l to report to their jobs. The workflow is d isrupted, and important decisions may be delayed . In organizations that rely heavily on assembly- line production, absenteeism can be considerably more than a disruption; it can drastically reduce the qual ity of out put or even shut down t he facil ity. Levels of absenteeism beyo nd the normal range have a direct impact on any organization's effectiveness and efficiency. A h igh rate of turnover can also d isrupt the efficient runn ing of an organization when knowledgeable and experienced personnel leave and replacements must be found to assume positions of responsibil ity. Research indicates that, in general, turnover is signi fi can tly harmful for organ izational performance.41
All organizations, of course, have some turnover. Turnover rates vary greatly by country and, in part, reflect the economy of that country. If the •right• people are leaving the organ ization- the marginal and submarginal employees- turnover can actually be pos itive . It can create an opportun ity to replace an underperforming individua l with someone who has h igher ski lls or motiva tion, open up increased opportun ities for promotions, and bring new and fresh ideas to the organ ization. In today's changing world of work, reasonable levels of employee-in itiated turnover improve organizationa l flexibility and emp loyee independe nce, and they can lessen the need for management- in itiated layoffs. Thus, wh ile it is reasonable to conclude that high turnover often ind icates h igh employee withdrawal (and thus has a nega- tive effect on organ izational performance), zero turnover is not necessarily the goal; it's also important for organizations to assess which employees are leaving, and why. Millennials have nearly doub le the turnover rates of Gen-Xers. Accord ing to a recent Gallup poll, 60 percent are open to new job opportunities and in 2016, 21 percent of m illennials changed jobs.42
So why do employees withdraw from work through counterproductive behav- iours or quilling? As we w ill show later in the text, reasons include nega tive job alti- tudes, emo tions, moods, and negative interactions w ith co-workers and supervisors. Despite these large turnover numbers for m illennia ls, Vancouver-based Hootsuite CEO, Ryan Holmes, does not see all of this as bad . He welcomes turnover in his company, because some of it simply reflects peop le moving into o ther jobs in the
Chapter 1 What Is Organizational Behaviour? 23
" 0 JI ~ CAREER OBJECTIVES
I ~ What Do I Say About My Term ination? I got fi re d ! When prospective e mploye rs find out, the y will neve r hire me. Is the re a nything I ca n sa y to tu rn th is a round?
-Matt
Dear Matt: Under this dark cloud, there are some silver linings: (1) firing, or involuntary
termination, happens to just about
everyone at least once in a career; and (2) there is a worldwide job shortage of
skilled workers. You might be amazed to know that, historically, individuals have changed jobs an average of 11
times over their early careers (from age
18 to 44). In fact, you can probably expect to stay in a job for less than
three years, which means you will have a lot of jobs in your lifetime.
Therefore, you should not feel
hopeless; you are likely to find your next job soon. ManpowerGroup's
recent survey of over 37 000 employers
in 42 countries found that 36 percent of organizations have talent shortages,
the highest percentage in 7 years.
Still, we know you are worried about how to present the facts of your
involuntary termination to prospective
employers. If you give a truthful, brief
account of the reason for your termina-
tion, you can position yourself well. Here
are some additional suggestions:
• Remember your soft skills count; in fact, they top the lists of employer requirements for all industries. According to Chuck Knebl, a com-
munications manager for the job
placement company WorkOne, use your resume and cover letter, inter-
views, and thank-you notes to show-
case your communication skills. Employers report they are also look-
ing for a teamwork attitude, positivity, personal responsibility, and punctual-
ity, so use every opportunity to dem-
onstrate these traits.
• Although your soft skills count, don't forget your technical skills;
employers agree they are equally important. Knebl advises you to use your resume to list your tech-
nical abilities and be prepared to elaborate upon request. Need
some more skills? Job training has
been shown to be helpful and can sometimes be free through colleges
and unemployment offices. • Emphasize your ongoing trajning and
education, especially as they relate to new technology; top performers
are known to be continuous Jeam- ers. Also, if you have kept up with recent trends in social media, show
it, but don't go on about your friend's
tweet to Rihanna.
Best w ishes for your success!
Sources: Bureau of Labor Statistics. United States Department of Labor, Employment Projec-
tions, http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_chart_ OCll .
htm; G. Jones, "How the Best Get Better and Bene,;• HBNard Business Review (June 2008): 123-127; ManpowerGroup, "The Talent Shortage Continues/2014," http://www.manpowergroup.
com/wps/wcm/connecVOb882c15-38bf -41 f3 -
8882-44c33d0e2952/2014 _ Talent_Short- age_WP_US2.pdf?MOO:AJPERES; J. Meister,
"Job Hopping Is the 'New Nonna!' for M l lennials:
Three Ways to Prevent a Human Resotree Night- mare," Fotbes (August 14, 2012), http://www. forbes.com/sites/jeannemelster/2012/08/14/,ob-
hopping-is-the-new-normal-for-mi lennials-three- ways-to-prevent-a-human-resource-nightmare/;
and N. Schulz, "Hard Unemployment Truths about 'Soft' Skils," Wall Street Journal, September 19, 2012, A15.
The opinions provided here are of the manag- ers and authors only and do not necessarily reflect those of their organizations. The authors or managers are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for the results obtained from the use of this information. In no event will the authors or managers, or their related partner- ships or corporations thereof, be liable to you or anyone else for any decision made or action taken in reliance on the opinions provided here.
company. In fact, he says that management made a goal "th at 2001o of our employ- ees, or aro und 200 people in total. aren't in the same seat by the end of 2017 . •43
Group Co hesion Although many outcomes in our model can be conceptua lized as indiv idual-level phenomena, some relate to the way gro ups operate. Group cohesion is the extent to which members of a group support and va lidate one a nother at work. In o ther words, a cohes ive group is one that sticks together. When employees trust one another, seek common goals, and work together to achieve these common ends, the group is cohes ive; when employees are divided among themselves in terms of wha t they want to achieve and have little loyalty to one another, the gro up is not cohes ive.
group cohesion The extent to which members of a group support and validate one anolher while at work.
24 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
group functioning The quantity and quality of a work group's output.
productivity The combination of the effectiveness and efficiency of an organization.
effectiveness The degree to which an organization meets the needs of its clientele 0< customers.
efficiency The degree to which an organization can achieve its ends at a low cost.
organizational survival The degree to which an organization is able to exist and grow over the long term.
Ample evidence shows that cohesive groups are more effective.4 4 These results are found both for groups studied in high ly controlled laboratory settings and for work teams observed in field settings. This finding fits with our intuitive sense that people lend to work harder in groups that have a common purpose. Compan ies attempt to increase cohesion in a variety of ways ranging from brief icebreaker sessions lo social events such as picnics, parties, and outdoor adventure team retreats. Throughout the text we will try to assess whether these specific efforts are likely lo increase group cohesive- ness. We will also consider how to enhance cohesion by p icki ng the right people lo be on the team in the first place.
Group Functioning In the same way that positive job attitudes can be associated with higher leve ls of task performance, group cohesion shou ld lead to positive group functioning. Group functioning refers to the quantity and qual ity of a group's work output In the same way that the performance of a sports team is more than the sum of individual play- ers' performance, group functioning in work organizations is more than the sum of individual task performances.
What does it mean to say that a group is func tioning effectively? In some organiza- tions, an effective group is one that s tays focused on a core task and achieves its ends as specified. Other organizations look for teams that are able to work together collab- oratively to provide excellent customer service. Still others put more of a prem ium on group creativity and the flexib ility to adapt to changing s ituations. In each case, different types of activities will be required to get the most from the team.
Productivity The h ighest level of analysis in OB is the organization as a who le. An organ iza tion is productive if it ach ieves its goals by transforming inputs in to outputs at the lowest cost Thus productivi ty requires both effectivenes s and efficiency.
A hospital is effective when it successfully meets the needs of its clientele. It is efficient when it can do so al a low cost If a hospital manages to achieve higher output from iL~ present s taff by reducing the average number of days a patient is confined to bed or increasing the number of staff- patient contacts per day, we say the hospi ta l has gained productive efficiency. A business firm is effective when il auains its sales or market share goals, but its productivity also depends on achieving those goals efficiently. Popular measures of organizational efficiency include return on investment, profi t per dollar of sales, and output per hour of labour.
Service organizations must include customer needs and requiremen ts in assessing their effectiveness. Why? Because a clear chain of cause and effect runs from employee attitudes and behaviour to customer attitudes and profitability. For example, a recent study of six hotels in China indicated that negative employee attitudes decreased cus- tomer satisfaction and ultimately harmed the organization's profitabil ity.45
Surviva l The final outcome we will consider is o r ganizational s urvival, which is simply evi- dence that the organ ization is able to exist and grow over the long term. The survival of an organ ization depends not just on how productive the organization is, but also on how well il fits with its environment. A company that is very productively making goods and services of little val ue lo the market is un likely to survive for long, so survival also relies on perceiving the market successfully, making good decisions about how and when to pursue opportuni ties, and successfully managing change lo adapt lo new business cond itions.
Having reviewed the input, process, and outcome model, we will group topics based on wh ether we study them at the individual, group, or organizational level. We will deal with inputs, processes, and ou tcomes at all three levels of analysis, but we group the
Chapter 1 What Is Organizational Behaviour? 25
EXHIBIT 1-4 The Plan of the Book
The Ind ivid ua l
Inputs • Personality (Ch. 2) • Val ues (Ch. 3) • Diversity in Organizations
(Ch. 3)
Processes • Perception (Ch. 2) • Emotions and moods (Ch . 2) • Motivation (Ch. 4 and 5) • Decision making (Ch. 6)
Outcomes • Attitudes (Ch. 3) • Stress (OB on the Edge:
Stress at Work) • Task performance (all) • Cit izenship behaviour (all) • Withdrawal behaviour (all)
"'\ / T h e Group
Inputs • Group structures
(Ch. 6) • Group roles (Ch. 6) • Team responsibilrties
(Ch. 6)
Processes • Communication (Ch. 7) • Power and polit ics (Ch. 8) • Conflict and negotiation
(Ch. 9) • Leadershi p (Ch . 11)
Outcomes • Group cohesion (Ch. 6) • Group functioning (Ch . 6)
/ The Org anization "'\
Inputs • Culture (Ch. 10) • Structure (Ch. 13)
Processes • Change practices
(Ch. 14)
Outcomes • Profitability (Ch. 1) • Survival (Ch. 1 and 10)
chapters as shown in Exhibit 1-4 to correspond with the typ ical ways th at research has been done in th ese areas. For examp le, it is easier lo u nderstand o ne unified presenta- tio n abou t how p erso nal ity leads lo mo tivation, wh ich leads lo performance, than to jump a round levels of an alysis. Because each level b uilds o n the o ne that p reced es it, after going thro ugh them in sequence you wi ll h ave a good idea o f how the h u man s ide of organ izatio ns functions.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ .... Summary Organ iza tional beh aviour (OB) investigates the imp act lhal individ uals, groups, an d organ iza tional structure have o n behaviou r with in an organization, and it applies that knowledge to make organiza tions work more effectively. Sp eci fica lly, OB focuses on how to improve productivity; reduce absenteeism, turnover, a nd deviant workplace beh aviour; and increase organ izational citizensh ip beh aviour and job satisfaction. Th e essential po ints of OB th at you sh ould keep in mind as you study this topic are listed in Exhibit 1-5 .
EXHIBIT 1-5 The Fundamentals of OB
• OB considers the multiple levels in an organization: individual, group, and organizational.
• OB is built from the wisdom and research of multiple disciplines, including psychology, sociology, social psychology, and anthropology.
• OB takes a systematic approach to the stud y of organizational phenomena. It is research-based.
• OB takes a contingency approach to the consideration of organizational phenomena. Recommendations depend on the situation.
LESSONS LEARNED
• OB is for everyone. • OB draws upon a rigorous
multidisciplinary research base.
26 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
Mylab Management
SNAPSHOT SUMMARY _
The Importance of OB Has Few Absolutes • Creating a Positive WOik Interpersonal Skills • OB Takes a Contingency Environment
Approach • Ethical Behaviour Defining Organizational Behaviour Challenges and Opportunities Coming Attractions: • What Do We Mean by in the Canadian Workplace Developing an DB
Organization? • Eoonomic Pressures Model • OB Is for Everyone • Continuing Globalization • An Overview
• Understanding Workforce • Inputs Complementing Intuition Diversity • Processes with Systematic Study
• Customer Service • Outcomes • Big Data
• People Skills
Disciplines That Contribute • NetwOlked Organizations
to the OB Field • Social Media
• The Building Blocks of OB • Enhancing Employee Well-
• The Rigour of OB Being at Work
Study, practise, and explore real business situations with these helpful resources:
• Study Plan: Check your understanding of chapter concepts with self-study quizzes.
• Online Lesson Presentations: Study key chapter topics and work through interactive assessments to test your knowledge and master management concepts.
• Videos: Learn more about the management practices and strategies of real companies.
• Simulations: Practise management decision-making in simulated business environments.
.,. for Review
1. What is the importance of inter- personal skills in the workplace?
2. What is organizational behaviour (OB)?
3. Why is systematic stud y of value to OB?
4. What are the major behavioural science disciplines that contrib·
ute to OB?
5. Why are there so few absolutes in OB?
6. What workplace challenges provide opportunities to apply OB concepts?
7. What are the three levels of analysis in this book's OB model?
for Managers
• Resist the inclination to rely on generalizations; some provide valid insights into human behav- iour, but many are erroneous. Get to know the person, and under- stand the context.
• Use metrics rather than "hunches" to explain cause-and- effect relationships.
• Work on your interpersonal skills to increase your leadership potential.
• Improve your technical skills and conceptual skills through train- ing and staying current with OB trends such as big data.
• OB can improve your employees' work quality and productivity by showing you how to empower your employees, design and implement change programs, improve customer service, and help your employees balance work-life conflicts.
for You
• As you journey through this course in OB, bear in mind that the processes we describe are as relevant to you as an individual as they are to organizations, m anag- ers, and employees.
• When you work together with stu- dent team s, join a student orga- nization, or volunteer time to a com munity group, know that your ability to get along with others has an effect on your interactions with the other people in the group and the achievem ent of the group's goals.
• If you are aware of how your per- ceptions and personality affect your interactions with others, you can be m ore careful in forming your initial impression of others.
• By knowing how to motivate oth - ers w ho are working w ith you, how to communicate effectively, and w hen to negotiate and com- promise, you can get along in a variety of situations that are not necessarily work-related.
0 ICll:I
"' -
28 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
THE BATTLE OF THE TEXTS -"' CCI 0 POI NT
Walk into your nearest major bookstore and you will see
a large section of books devoted to management whose
topics we apparently need to know about:
• The Secret (Berrett-Koehler, 2014)
• Tum the Ship Around! (Portfolio, 2013)
• The Way You Do Anything Is the Way You Do Every- thing (Wiley, 2014)
• Leadership Safari (Best Seller, 2014)
• Business Is a Baby (Amazon Digital Services, 2014)
• Think Like a Freak (William Morrow, 2014)
• Spiraling Upward (Amazon Digital Services, 2015)
• Retire! Don't Retire (Berrett-Koehler, 2015)
• Top Dog (Amazon Digital Services, 2015)
Popular books on OB often have cu1e titles and are
fun to read, but they make the job of managing people seem like it's just a matter of having a good slogan and
five easy steps. If you dig into the texts, you will find that
most are based on the au1hor's opinions rather than sub-
stantive research. Most become popular, in part, because
people largely agree with the opinions they are reading and enjoy the author's writing style. Often, the writers
are presentation speakers or consultants whose real
business is in delivering ideas to you. When the author
is a veteran from the business world, it is doubtful that
one person's experience translates into effective man-
agement practice for everyone. Even when the authors are numbers-oriented, as are the "Freak" authors Steven
Levitt and Stephen Dubner, their conclusions for man-
agement are not management-research based. So why
do we base our own management philosophies on these
books when, with a little effort, we can access knowl- edge produced from thousands of scientific studies on
human behaviour in organizations?
OB is a complex subject. Few, if any, simple state- ments about human behaviour are generalizable to all
people in all situations. Would you try to apply leadership
insights you got from a book about Star Wars or Break- ing Bad to managing software engineers in the twenty- first century? Surely not. Neither should we try to apply
leadership insights that are not based on research about
the type of workplaces in which we function.
COUNTERPOINT People want to know about management - the good, the bad, and the ugly. People who have experience or
high interest write books abou1 the topics that interest
readers. When books become popular, we know people
are finding good results by applying the author's man-
agement ideas. Isn't it better to learn abou1 management from people in the trenches, as opposed to the latest
obscure references from the "Ivory Tower"? Many of the
most important insights we gain from life aren' t neces-
sarily the product of careful empirical research studies.
"Fluffy" management guides sometimes do get pub-
lished, and once in a while they become popular. But do they outnumber the esoteric research studies pub-
lished in scholarly journal articles every year? Far from
it; sometimes it seems that for every popular business
text, there are thousands of scholarly journal articles.
Many of these articles can hardly be read by individuals in the workplace- they are buried in academic libraries,
riddled with strange acronyms and "insider" tenns, and
light on practical application. Often they apply to specific
management scenarios, so they are even less generaliz-
able. For example, a few recent management and OB
studies were published in 2015 with the following titles:
• Transferring Management Practices to China: A Bourdieusian Critique of Ethnocentricity
• Cross-Cultural Perceptions of Clan Control in Korean Multinational Companies: A Conceptual Investigation of Employees ' Fairness Monitoring
Based on Cultural Values
• The Resistible Rise of Bayesian Thinking in Manage- ment: Historical Lessons from Decision Analysis
• A Model of Rhetorical Legitimation: The Structure of Communication and Cognition Underlying Institu-
tional Maintenance and Change
We don't mean to poke fun at these studies, but our
point is that all ways of creating knowledge can be criti-
cized. Popular books can add to our understanding of how people work and how to best manage them; we
shouldn't assume they are not of value. There is no
one right way to learn the science and art of managing
people in organizations. The most enlightened managers
gather insights from multiple sources: their own expe-
rience, research findings, observations of others, and, yes, the popular business press. Authors and academics
have an important role to play, and it isn' t fair to con-
demn business books with catchy titles.
Chapter 1 What Is Organizat ional Behaviour? 29
BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES
Forn, small groups to discuss the following topics, as assigned by your instructor.
1. Consider a group situation in which you have worked. To what extent did the group rely on the technical skills of the group members vs. their interpersonal skills? Which skills seemed most important in helping the group func- tion well?
2. Identify some examples of "worst jobs." What conditions of these jobs made them unpleasant? To what extent were these conditions related to behaviours of individuals?
3. Develop a list of "organizational puzzles," that is, behaviour you have observed in organizations that seemed to make little sense. As the term progresses, see if you can begin to explain these puzzles, using your knowledge of OB.
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
Managing the OB Way Divide the class into groups of approximately four members each. Each group should consider the following scenario:
You will assume the role of a special committee of district managers at a large phannaceutical company. Your com-
mittee will be meeting to discuss some problems. The process set up by the company is as follows:
1. Each committee member should first review the problem privately and formulate independent ideas for what might be done.
2. At the start of the meeting, each member should spend one m inute addressing the group.
During the meeting, the committee must reach a consensus on both the best solution and supporting rationale to
each problem. How this is done is entirely up to the committee members, but you must come up with a consensus
decision and not a majority opinion achieved by voting.
Here is the problem your committee is to consider :
The company has no specific policy regarding facial hair. Tom, a pharmaceutical sales rep with a little more than a year's
experience and an average (but declining) sales record, has grown a ve,y long and ragged beard that detracts significantly
from his appearance. His hobby is playing bass in an amateur bluegrass band, and he feels that a ragged beard is an important part of the act. Tom says his beard is a personal fashion statement that has to do with his individual freedom .
There have been numerous complaints about Tom 's appearance from both doctors and phannacists. The manager
has talked to him on many occasions about the impact his appearance could have on his sales. Nevertheless, Tom still has the beard.
The manager is concerned about Tom's decreasing sales as well as the professional image of the sales force in the
medical community. Tom says his sales decrease has nothing to do with his beard. However, sales in the other territories in the district are significantly better than they were last year.
When the groups have reached their consensus decisions, the following questions will serve for class discussion:
1. What do you think are the concerns for the company regarding Tom's facial hair? Should they care about his appearance?
2. What was your group's consensus decision regarding the issue with Tom's facial hair?
3. Suppose Tom told you he grew a beard as part of his personal religion. Do you think that announcement would change how you talk to Tom about the issue?
30 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
-"' CCI 0
ETHICAL DILEMMA
There's a Drone in Your Soup It is the year 2020, and drones are everywhere. Alibaba
quadcopters have been delivering special ginger tea
to customers in Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou for
years; Amazon's octocopters finally deliver packages
in most major cities w ithin 30 minutes without knock-
ing down pedestrians; and college students everywhere
welcom e late -night nachos from Taco Bell Tacocopters.
Indoor drones are still in the pioneering phase- backyard
enthusiasts are building tiny versions, but no large-scale
commercial efforts have been put toward indoor utility
drones. That's all about to change.
You w ork for a multinational technology corporation on
a sprawling, 25-acre headquarters campus, with offices
in 2 m illion square feet o f interior space in one large build -
ing and four additional smaller (but still large) buildings.
The offic ial Head of Interior Spaces is your boss; you 're
the leader of the Consideration o f New Things team. In a
meeting w ith your team, your boss says, "I've just heard
from my friend at Right To Drones Too (R2D2) that his
group has perfected their inside drone. It 's small and light
but can carry up to 1 0 pound s. It includes a camera, a
speaker, and a recorder."
Your team expresses surp rise; no one even knew an
inside utility drone was under development, and govern-
ments worldw ide are still haggling over regulations for
drones. Your boss goes on enthusiastically, "I've seen the
little drones, and I think you'll be impressed - not only can
they scoot across the quad, but they can fetch things off
tables, grab me a latte, attend meetings for me, check
over your shoulders to see what you' re working on .. .
anything! They're really accurate, agile, and super quiet, so
you'll barely even know they're around. My friend wants us
to have the first 1 00 drones here for free, and he's w illing
to send them over tomorrow! I figure we can hand them
out randomly, although of course we'll each have one."
Your boss sits back, smiling and expecting applause.
You glance at your team members and are relieved to see
doubt and hesitation on their faces.
· sounds, uh , great," you reply. "But how about the
team takes the afternoon to set the ground rules?"
Questions
1. How m ight the R2D2 drones influence employee behaviour? Do you think they will cause people to act more or less ethically? Why?
2. Who should get the drones initially? How can you justify your decision ethically? What restrictions for use should these people be given, and how do you think employees, both those Who get drones and those w ho don't, will react to this change?
3. How will your organization deal with sabotage or m isuse of the drones? The value of an R2D2 drone is $2500.
4. Many organizations already use electronic monitor- ing of em ployees, including sifting through website usage and email correspondence, often without the employees' direct knowledge. In w hat ways might drone monitoring be better or worse for employees than covert electronic monitoring of web or email activity?
Chapter 1 What Is Organizational Behaviour? 31
CASE INCIDENTS
Apple Goes Global It was not long ago that products from Apple, perhaps
the most recognizable name in electronics manufactur-
ing around the world, were made entirely in the United
States.4 6 This is not so anymore. Now, almost all of the
approximately 70 million iPhones, 30 m illion iPads, and
59 million other Apple products sold yearly are manu-
factured overseas. This change represents more than
20 000 jobs directly lost by US workers, not to mention
more than 700 000 other jobs given to foreign companies
in Asia, Europe, and elsewhere. The loss is not temporary.
As the late Steve Jobs, Apple's iconic co-founder, told US
President Obama, "Those jobs aren't coming back."
Vancouver-based Lululemon Athletica has also trans-
ferred many jobs out of Canada to countries such as
Cambodia and Bangladesh. When the company first
started in 1998, all of its factories were located in Canada.
By 2007, only 50 percent of the factories were in Canada
and now that figure is only 3 percent.
At first glance, the transfer of jobs from one workforce
to another would seem to hinge on a difference in wages,
but Apple shows this is an oversimplification. In fact, some
S8if paying US wages would add only $65 to each iPhone's
expense, while Apple's profits average hundreds of dollars
per phone. Rather, and of more concern, Apple's lead-
ers believe the intrinsic characteristics of the labour force
available to them in China-which they identify as flexibility,
diligence, and industrial skills-are superior to those of the
North American labour force. Apple executives tell of shorter
lead times and faster manufacturing processes in China
that are becoming the stuff of company legend. "The speed
and flexibility is breathtaking," one executive said. "There's
no American plant that can match that.• Another said, "We
shouldn't be crtticized for using Chinese workers. The US
has stopped producing people with the skills we need."
The perception of an overseas advantage might sug-
gest that the North American workforce needs to be better
led, better trained, more effectively managed, and more
motivated to be proactive and flexible. If Canadian and US
workers are less motivated and less adaptable, it's hard
to imagine how that does not spell trouble for the future
of the North American workforce.
There is an ongoing debate whether companies such
as Lululemon and Apple serve as examples of the failure of
North America to maintain manufacturing plants at home
or whether these companies should best be viewed as
examples of global ingenuity.
Questions
1. What are the pros and cons for local and overseas labour forces for companies going global? What are the potential political implications for country relationships?
2. Do you think Apple is justified in drawing the obser- vations and conclusions expressed in the case? Why or why not? Do you think tt is good or harm- ful to the company that tts executives have voiced these opinions?
3. How could managers use increased worker flex- ibility and diligence to increase the competitive- ness of their manufacturing sites? What would you recommend?
Big Data for Dummies Do you need big data? Maybe the question is better
phrased as: Can you afford not to use big data? The age
of big data is here, and to ignore its benefits is to run the
risk of missed opportunities. 47
Organizations using big data are quickly reaping
rewards, as a survey of 2022 managers worldwide indi·
cated recently. In fact, 71 percent of respondents agreed
that organizations using big data will gain a "huge compel -
ttive advantage." These managers also saw the need for
big data: 58 percent responded that they never, rarely, or
only sometimes have enough data to make key business
decisions. Furthermore, they've witnessed the benefits:
67 percent agreed that big data has helped their organiza-
tion to innovate. So why did only 28 percent find that their
access to useful data significantly increased in a year?
According to Amy Braverman, a principal statistician
who analyzes NASA's spacecraft data, the problem is in
interpreting the new kinds and volumes of data we are
able to collect. "This opportunistic data collection is lead-
ing to entirely new kinds of data that aren't well suited to
32 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
-"' CCI 0
the existing statistical and data-m ining methodologies,"
she said. IT and business leaders agree: In a recent sur-
vey, "determining how to get value" was identified as the
number one challenge of big data.
With strong need combatting the high hurdle for usabil-
ity, how should a company get started using b ig data?
The quick answer seems to be to hire talent. But not just
anyone will do. Here are some points to ponder when hir-
ing data professionals:
1. Look for candidates with a st rong educational
background in analytics/ statistics. You want
someone who knows mo re than you do about han-
d ling copious amounts of data.
2. The ideal candidates will have specific expe- rience in your industry or a related industry.
"When you have all those PhDs in a roo m, magic
doesn't necessarily happen because they may not
have the business capability," said Andy Rusnak, a
senior executive at Ernst & Young.
3. Search for potential candidates from indust ry leader organizations that are more advanced
in big data.
4. Communication s kills are a must . Look for a candidate "who can translate PhD to English, " says
SAP Chief Data Scientist David Ginsberg. He adds,
"Those are the hardest people to find."
5. Find candidat es with a proven record of find-
ing useful information from a mess o f data,
including data from questionable sources. You
want someone who is analytical and discerning.
6. Look for people who can think in 8- to
10-week periods, not just long term. Most data
p rojects have a short-term focus.
7. Test candidates' expertise on real problems.
Netflix's Director of Algorithms asks candidates, "You have this data that comes from our users. How
can you use it to solve this particular problem?"
Quest.ions
1.
2.
3.
Let's say you work in a metropolitan city for a large
department store chain and your manager puts
you in charge of a team to find out whether keep-
ing the store open an hour longer each day would
increase profits. What data might be available to
your decision-making process? What data would be
important to your decision?
What kinds of data m ight we want in OB
applications?
As Braverman notes, one problem with big data is making sense of the information. How might a better
understanding of psychology help you sift through
all this data?
Developing Interpersonal Skills We note in this chapter that hav-
ing a broad range of interpersonal
skills to draw o n m akes us more
effective o rganizatio nal partici -
pants. So what kinds of interper-
sonal skills does an individual
need in today's workplace?
Robert Quinn, Kim Cameron, and their colleagues have developed a
model known as the "Co mpeting Values Framework" that can help us
identify some of the most useful skills. 48 They note that the range of issues
o rganizations face can be divided along two dimensions: internal-external
and flexibility-control. This idea is illustrated in Exhibit 1-6. The internal-
extemal dimension refers to the extent that o rganizations focus on one
of two directions: either inwardly, toward employee needs and concerns
and/or production p rocesses and internal systems; or outwardly, toward
such factors as the marketplace, government regulations, and the chang-
ing social, environmental, and technological conditions of the future. The
flexibility-contro l d imension refers to the competing demands of o rgani-
zations to stay focused on doing what has been done in the past versus
being more flexible in orientation and outlook.
Because organizations face the competing demands shown in Exhibit 1-6,
it becomes obvious that managers and employees need a variety of skills to
help them function within the various quadrants at cfifferent points in time. For
instance, the skills needed to operate an efficient assembly-line process are
not the same as those needed to scan the external environment or to cre-
ate opportunities in anticipation of changes in the environment. Quinn and his
EXHIBIT 1-6 Competing Values Framework Flexi bility
t
!l m x ~
~ .. ... ~ .; -- ii! c
~ ~ Cl) ~
.5 c "'
' Control Source: Adapted from K. Cameron and R. E. Quinn, Diagnosing and Changing Organizational Culture: Based on the Competing Values Framework, 2006, ISBN: 9780787982836, Fig 3.1, pg. 35. Copyright © John Wiley & Sons.
colleagues use the term master manager to indicate that successful managers learn and apply skills that will help them manage across the range of organiza-
tional demands; sometimes moving toward flexibility and other times moving
toward control, and sometimes being more internally focused and other times
being more externally driven. 49
As organizations increasingly cut their layers, reducing the number of
managers while also relying more on the use of teams in the workplace,
the skills of the master manager apply as well to the employee. In other
words, considering the Competing Values Framework, we can see that
both managers and individual employees need to learn new skills and
new ways of interpreting their organizational contexts. Continuing to use
traditional skills and practices that worked in the past is not an option. The
growth in self-employment also indicates a need to develop more inter-
personal skills, particularly for anyone who goes on to build a business
that involves hiring and managing employees.
Exhibit 1 -7 outlines the many skills required of today's manager. It gives
you an indication of the complex roles that managers and employees fill
in the changing workplace. The skills are organized in terms of four major
roles: maintaining flexibility, maintaining control, maintaining an external
focus, and maintaining an internal focus. Identifying your own strengths
and weaknesses in these skill areas can give you a better sense of how
close you are to becoming a successful manager.
On the flexibility side, organizations want to inspire their employees
toward high-performance behaviour. Such behaviour includes looking
ahead to the future and imagining possible new directions for the orga-
nization. To do these things, employees need to think and act like men-
tors and facilitators. It is also important to have the skills of innovators
and brokers. On the control side, organizations need to set clear goals
about productivity expectations, and they have to develop and implement
Chapter 1 What Is Organizat ional Behaviour? 33
34 Part 1 Under stan ding the W o rk p lace
-"' CCI 0
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Practising Skills
EXHIBIT 1-7 Skills for Mastery in the New Workplace Flexi bility
1. Understanding yoursel f and others
2. Interpersonal communication
1. Living w ith change 2. Creative t hinking
3. Developing subordinates
3. M anaging change ..--i--
1. Team building • 2. Participative '·,, Mento r Innovat o r.,.·
decisio n making , , •• ' . 3. Conflict ', , •
' .. management
Internal
I. Receiving and organizing information
2. Evaluating routine information
3. Responding to routine information
Facil it ato r ·,. •• . .· • • •• • • . '
Broker
Monitor ,;' .... Producer . ' . ' . ' . . • • . .
• • • • . . • •
,' Coordinator Director ...
1. Building and maintaining a power base
2. Negotiating agreement and comm itment
3. Negotiating and selling ideas
External
1. Personal productivity and motivation
2. Motivating others 3. Time and stress
managemen t
I. Planning ! 1. Taking initiative 2 . Organizing 2. Goal setting 3 . Con trolling 3. Delegating effectively
Control
Source: R. E. Quinn, Beyond Ratkmal Management (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988), p. 86. Copyright © J ohn Wiley & Sons.
systems to carry out the production process. To be effective on the pro-
duction side, employees need to have the skills of monitors, coordinators,
directors, and producers. The Experiential Exercise on page 29 helps you
better understand how c losely your views on the ideal skills of managers
and leaders match the skills needed to be successful in the broad range
of activities that m anagers and leaders encounter.
At this point, you may wonder whether it 's possible for people to learn
all of the skills necessary to becom e a master manager. More important,
you may wonder w hether we can change our individual style, say from
m ore controlling to more flexible. Here is what Peggy Kent, chair, former
president, and CEO of Century Mining Corporation (a mid -tier Canadian
gold producer), said about how her managerial style changed from con-
trolling to more flexible over time: "I started out being very dictatorial.
Everybody in head office reported to me. I had to learn to trust other exec-
utives so we could work out problem s together."50 So, while it is probably
true that each of us has a preferred style of operating, it is also the case
that we can develop new skills if that is something we choose to do.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
A s the father of two young children, Marshall Rogers thought that serv-
ing on the board of Marysville Daycare would be a good way to stay in
touch with those who cared for his children during the day. 51 But he never
dreamed that he would become involved in union-management negotia-
tions with daycare-centre employees.
late one Sunday evening, in his ninth month as president of the day-
care centre, Rogers received a phone call from Grace Ng, a union rep -
resentative of the Provincial Government Employees' Union (PGEU). Ng
informed Rogers that the daycare employees would be unionized the fol-
lowing week. Rogers was stunned to hear this news. Early the next morn-
ing, he had to present his new marketing plan to senior management at
T echtronix Industries, where he was vice-president of marketing . Somehow he made it through the meeting, wondering wrry he had not been aware of
the employees' unhappiness, and how this action would affect his children.
Following his presentation, Rogers received documentation from the
Labour Relations Board indicating that the daycare employees had been
working to unionize themselves for more than a year. Rogers immediately
contacted Xavier Breslin, the board 's vice-president, and together they
determined that no one on the board had been aware that the daycare
workers were unhappy, let alone prepared to join a union.
Hoping that there was some sort of misunderstanding, Rogers called
Emma Reynaud, the Marysville supervisor. Reynaud attended most board
meetings, but had never mentioned the union-organizing drive. Yet Reyn-
aud now told Rogers that she had actively encouraged the other daycare
employees to consider joining the PGEU because the board had not been
interested in the employees' concerns, had not increased their wages suf-
ficiently over the past two years, and had not maintained communication
channels between the board and the employees.
All of the board members had full-tim e job s elsewhere, and many
were upper- and middle-level m anagers in their own companies. They
were used to dealing with unhappy employees in their own workplaces,
although none had experienced a union-organizing drive. Like Rogers,
they had chosen to serve on the board of Marysville to stay informed
about the day-to-day events of the centre. They had not really thought of
themselves as the centre's employer, although, as board members, they
represented all the parents of children enrolled at Marysville. Their main
tasks on the daycare-centre board had been setting fees for the children
and wages for the daycare employees. The board members usually saw
the staff members several times a week, when they picked up their chil-
dren, yet the unhappiness represented by the union -organizing drive was
surprising to all of them. When they met at an emergency board meeting
that evening, they tried to evaluate w hat had gone wrong at Marysville.
Questions 1. If you were either a board member or a parent, how would you know
that the employees taking care of your children were unhappy w ith their jobs?
2. What might you do if you learned about their unhappiness?
3. What might Rogers have done differently as president of the board?
4. In w hat ways does this case illustrate that knowledge of OB can be applied beyond your own workplace?
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1. Talk to several m anagers you know and ask them w hat skills they think are most important in today's workplace. Ask them to specifi- cally consider the use of teams in their workplace, and w hat skills their team members most need to have but are least likely to have. How might you use this information to develop greater interper- sonal skills?
2. Talk to several managers you know and ask them what skills they have found to be most important in doing their job s. Why did they find these skills most important? What adVice would they give a would-be manager about skills worth developing?
Chapter 1 W hat Is Organizat ional Behaviour? 35
•••••••••••••
Reinforcing Skills
0 f)
9 e 0
36
Perception, Personality, and Emotions
Define perception, and explain the factors that influence it. Explain attribution theory, and list the th ree determinants of attribution.
Describe personality, the way it is measured, and the factors that shape it.
Describe the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator personality framework and its strengths and weaknesses.
Identify the key traits in the Big Five Personality Model.
Can a manager w ith a
hard -driving personality attract employees who
have the same kind of drive?
0 Demonstrate how the Big Five personality traits pred ict behaviour at work.
0 Differentiate between emotions and moods. 9 Show the impact of emotional labour on
employees.
0 Contrast the evidence for and against the existence of emotional intell igence.
Q) Identify strategies for emotion reg ulation and their likely effects.
ow does someone become a success- ful entrepreneur? 1 Some say it's a pro- cess of elimination-when people find through trial and error that there is no job that fits them, they create their own; the more trial and error, the more likely
the person will become successful. Others say success comes from a lengthy process of nurtur- ing and mentoring. Still others say it's about having the right stuff-the right personality.
Michele Romanow, co-founder of Buytopia.ca, an online marketplace for goods and services,
would say that her success is from all of the above: personality, nurturing/mentoring,
and experience. First, while working Michael Na!1ef~ images on her cMI engineering degree at
Queen's, she realized that she was not pursuing the life she wanted . Instead, she recognized that she wanted to become an entrepreneur, which
she did in her fourth year of university, in 2008. She opened the Tea Room (a zero-waste cafe) on campus and operated it while earning her MBA. She has long since graduated, but the Tea Room is still run by the
Queen's student government. Second, Romanow was nurtured by her parents. When she was debating whether to leave a corporate job at Sears to launch Buytopia, her parents urged her to do so. They recognized
that Romanow was meant to be a successful entrepreneur. Third, Romanow learned from the personal experience of both her business successes and failures. She did not let
her failures reduce her enthusiasm for entrepreneurship, though. "I think entrepre- neurship is, in many ways, luck and timing as well. I think it's really important to
look at where the economy is going and where the growth and trends are. You gotta have an online strategy. You certainly have to have a website,• said Romanow.
Romanow is passionate about entrepreneurship. At 32, she is the youngest dragon on Dragons' Den, a Canadian television program that now has spinoffs in
28 countries. The program gives her the opportunity to provide insight and support to entrepreneurs of the future. All of our behaviour is somewhat shaped by our perceptions, personalities, emotions,
and experiences. In this chapter, we consider the role that perception plays in affecting the way we see the world and the people around us. We also consider how personality characteris-
tics affect our attitudes toward people and situations. We then consider how emotions shape many of our work-related behaviours.
\ I I
:'o': , ' , '
• What causes people to have different perceptions of the same situation? 'l'IIE BIG IDEA • Can people be mistaken in their perceptions?
• Have you ever misjudged a person? Do you know why?
• Can perception really affect outcomes? • Are people born with their personalities?
• Ever wonder why the grocery clerk is always smi ling?
Individual differences can have a large
i1npacl on ho\,' groups and organizaLions
function.
37
38 Pa rt 1 Understanding the Workplace
O Define perception, and explain the factors that influence it.
perception The process by which individ\Jals organize and interpret !heir impressions in 0<der to give meaning to their environment.
Perception Percep tion is the process by \vhich we orga nize a nd interpret impressio ns to give mean ing to our enviro nment. However, what we perceive can be substantially different from objective reality. We often disagree about what is real. For example, all employees in a firm may view it as a great place to work- favo urable working co nd itions, inter- esting job assignments, good pay, excellent b enefits, u ndersta nd ing and responsible ma nagement- bu t, as most of us know, it's very un usual to find un iversa l agreement.
Perception is important to orga n izational behaviour {OB) because people's behavio ur is based on their percep- tion of what rea lity is, not on reality itself. The world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviourally important. In o ther words, our perception becomes the reality from which we act. To understand what all of us have in common in our interpretations of reality, we need to begin with the factors that in fl uence o ur perceptio ns.
Factors That Influence Perception
\.Vhat causes people to ha\'e different per-
ceptions of the same situatio n'?
A number of factors shape and sometimes d istort perception. These factors ca n reside in the perceiver; in the object, or target, being perceived; or in the situation in which the perceptio n is mad e. Exhib it 2-1 summarizes the factors that infl uence perceptio n.
The Perceive r When you ("the perceiver") look at a target, yo ur interpretatio n of what you see is heavily influe nced by your personal characteristics- attitudes, motives, interests, past experiences, an d expectations. In some ways, we hear wha t we wan t to hear2 and we see what we wa nt to see-no t because it's the truth, but beca use it conforms to our
EXHIBIT 2-1 Factors That Influence Percept ion
The Situation The Perceiver
• Time • Attitudes • Work setting • Motives • Social setting • Interests
• Experience • Expectations
Perception
+ The Target
• Novelty • Motion • Sounds • Size • Background • Proximity • Similarity
Chapter 2 Perception, Personality, and Emotions 39
Lhinking. For instance, recenl research indicated tha t supervisors perceived employees who started work ea rl ier in Lhe day as more conscienlious and Lherefore as h igher performers; however, supervisors who were nighl owls themselves were less likely to make Lhat erroneous assumption.3 Some perceptions created by attiludes like these can be counteracted by objective evalua tion, but olhers can be ins idious. Consider, for instance, observer perceptions of a recent shooting in New York. There were two eyewitnesses- one said a pol ice officer chased and shol a fleeing man; the other sa id a handcuffed man lying on the ground was shot. Neilher perceived lhe s ituation cor- rectly: The man was actually auempting lo attack a pol ice officer with a hammer when he was shot by anolher officer. 4
The Target A target's characteris tics also affect what we perceive. Because we don't look at targelS in isolation, lhe relalionsh ip of a targel to its background influences percep tion. For instance, we can perceive women, Indigenous peop le, Asians, or members of any other group lhal has clearly distinguishable characteristics as alike in o ther unre- lated ways as well . Often, these assumptions are harmful, as when people who have criminal records are prejudged in the workplace even when il is known they were wrongly arresled.5 Somelimes differences can work in our favour, though, such as when we are drawn to targe ts that are d ifferen t from what we expect. For instance, in a recent study participants respected a professor wearing a T-shirt and sneakers in the classroom more than the same professor dressed lraditionally. The professor stood out from the norm for the classroom selling and was Lherefore perceived as an individua list.6
The Situation Context mauers too. The time al which we see an object or evenl can influence atten- lion, as can localion, ligh t, heat, or any number of situational factors. For example, at a nightclub on Sat urday night, you may not nolice someone •decked out." Yet that same person so attired for your Monday morning management class would certainly catch your attention. Neither the perceiver nor the target changed between Saturday night and Monday morn ing, bul the silualion changed.
People are usually not aware of the factors tha t influ- ence their view of reality. In fact, people are nol even that perceptive about Lheir own abililies.7 Thankfully, aware- ness and objective measures can reduce our perceplion d is tortions. For instance, when people are asked lo ponder specific aspects of their ability, they become more realistic in their self-perceptions. 8 Let's next consider how we make perceptions of others.
Perceptual Errors
Can people be mistaken
in their percel)t ions'?
Perceiving and in terpreling why others do wha t Lhey do takes time. A~ a resu lt, we develop techniques to make this task more manageable. These techniques are frequently valuable- they allow us lo make accurate perceptions rapidly and provide valid data for making predictions. Many of our perceptions of others are formed by first impressions and small cues that have little supporting evidence. This is particularly lroublesome- bul common- when we infer anolher person's mora lity. Research indicates we form our slrongest impressions based on what we perceive about another's moral character, bul our in itia l informalion about th is can be sketchy and unfounded.9 Some of Lhe errors that distort the perceplion process are allribution theory, selective perception, halo effect, contrast effects, and s tereotyping.
4 0 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
I\ 0 l' ~ CAREER OBJECTIVES
L~ So What If I'm a Few Minutes Late to Work? I'm often late to work; some- thin g a lways comes u p at t he last mi nute . But my boss is such a jerk a bout it! He's threatenin g t o insta ll a t ime clock. Th is is so in su lt ing-I' m in ma nageme nt. I' m a professio na l, I'm on salary, a nd I do t he wo rk! Please t e ll me h ow t o ta lk some sense into him.
-Renee
Dear Renee:
This issue seems to be very frustrating
to you, and we'd like to help you elimi- nate that dissatisfaction. Let's start by
analyzing why you and your boss think
d ifferently on the issue. You and he cer- tainly perceive the situation differently-
he sees your lateness as a violation, and you see it as a natural occurrence.
In many other jobs, precise timing may
not be expected, valued, or needed. Perhaps your boss is trying to highlight
the value he places on punctuality. Or
maybe he sees your lateness as unethi- cal behaviour that cheats your organi-
zation of your valuable work time.
According to Ann Tenbrunsel, Director of the Institute for Ethical
Business Worldwide, the way we look
at our decisions changes our percep-
tion of our behaviours. You view your
tardiness as something that just hap- pens, not part of a decision process.
What if you looked at your tardiness
as a daily ethical decision? Your orga- nization has a start time to which you
agreed as a condition of your employ-
ment, so coming in late is a deviation from the standard. There are actions
you can take throughout your early
morning that contro l your arrival time. So, by this model, your behaviour is
unethical. Your situation is not uncommon;
we all have moral blind spots, or situa-
tions with ethical ramifications we don't see. Also, as we said earlier, other orga-
nizations may not care about your arrival
time, so it's not always an ethical situa- tion. But for situations where ethics are
in play, research indicates punishment
doesn't work. Reframing the decisions so we see the ethical implications does
work. Try these steps to gain insight:
• Look at the motives for your decisions during your morning routine. Can you see where you make choices?
• Consider your past actions. When you think back about your
Attri bution Theory
early-morning decisions, do you find yourself justifying your delays?
Justification signals that our deci-
sions might be suspect.
• Look at the facts. How do the reasons for your past delays reflect attitudes you have unconsciously acted on?
If you can see the ethical aspect
of your daily lateness, you can work to meet the expectation. Think briefly
about the ethics of your morning
choices when you first wake up, and you' II be much more likely to be on time.
Sources: C. fl/loore and A E. Tenbrunsel, .. Just Thnk About h'? Cognttive Complexity and Moral 01oice," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 123, no. 2 (2014), pp. 138- 49; A. Tenbrunsel, Ethical Systems, www.ethical- systems.org/oontenVann-tenbrunsel, accessed May 7, 2015; Review and podcast of Blind Spots: \ll,1)y We Fail to Do What's Right and What to Do about It, May 4, 2015, http://press.princeton.edu/ titles/9390.html, accessed May 7, 2015.
The opinions provided here are of the authors only. The authors are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for the results obtained from the use of this information. In no event will the authors or their related partnerships or corporations thereof, be liable to you or anyone else for any decision made or action taken in reliance on the opinions provided here.
f) Explain attribution theory, and list the three determinants of attribution.
Att ribution theory tries lo exp la in the ways we judge peop le differently, depend ing on the meaning we a ttribute to a given behaviour. 10 For instance, consider what you think when people smile at you. Do you think they are cooperative, explo itative, or competitive? We assign meaning to smi les and other expressions in many d iffere nt ways. 11
attribution theory The theory lhal when we ob5erve what seems like atypical behaviour by an individual, we attempt lo determine whether it is internally or externally caused.
Basically, the theory suggests that when we observe what seems like atypical behav- iour by an ind ividual, we try to make sense of il. We co nsider whether the individual is responsible for the behaviour (the cause is internal), or whether something outside the individua l caused the behaviour (the cause is extemal). /nremally caused behaviours are those an observer believes to be under the personal behavioural control of another individual. Externally caused behaviours are what we imagine the situatio n forced the ind ividual to do. For example, if a student is late for class, the instructor might attribu te his lateness to partying into the wee hours of the morn ing and then oversleep ing. Th is would be an internal attribution. But if the instructor assumes that a traffic jam occurred on the student's regular route to school, h e or she is making an externa l attribution.
Chapter 2 Perception, Personality, and Emotions 41
In trying lo determine whether behaviour is internally or externally caused, we rely on three rules abou t the behaviour: (1) distinctiveness, (2) consensus, and (3) consis tency. Let's d iscuss each of these in turn.
Disti nctiveness Distinctiven ess refers to whether an individ ual acts similarly across a variety of situations. Is the student who arrives late for class today also lhe one who is always goo fi ng off in team meetings an d nol answering urgent ema ils? If the b ehaviour is u nusual, we are likely to give il an external attribution. If it's nol, we will probably judge the behaviour to be in terna l.
Consensus If everyone who is faced with a similar s itua- tio n responds in the same way, we can say the beh avio ur shows consensu s . The tardy stude nt's behavio ur wou ld meet th is criterio n if all students who took the same route to school were also late. From an attribution perspective, if consensus is h igh, you would probably give an external attrib utio n Lo the student's tardiness. But if other s tudents wh o took the same ro ute made it to class on l ime, you
Have you e\'er ,nisjudged a
person'? Do you kno~v \·\'h{?
wou ld attrib ute lhe cause of lateness for the student in question lo a n interna l cause.
Consistency Fi nally, an observer looks for consistency in a person's actions. Does the person respo nd the same way over time? If a student is usually o n time for class, being 10 m in utes late wi ll be perceived d iffere ntly from the student who is late for almost every class. The more consistent lhe behaviour, the more we are incli ned to au ribule it to internal ca uses.
Exhibit 2-2 su mmarizes th e key elements in at tributio n theory. ll illustrates, for instance, how to evaluate a n employee's b ehaviour on a new task. To do th is, you might note that employee Emma generally performs al about the same level o n o ther related tasks as she does o n her current task (low distinctiveness). You see that oth er employees frequently perform d iffere nlly- bener or worse- than Emma does on lhal current task (low co nsensus) . Finally, if Emma's performa nce o n this current task is
EXHIBIT 2-2 Attribution Theory
Observation
..
Individual behaviour --+--
Interpretation -High Distinctiveness
(Seldom) -(How often does the ........ ---1 person do this in -other situations?)
Consensus (How often do other
people do this in similar si tuations?)
Consistency (How often did the person do this in
the past?)
•
tow (Frequently)
High (Frequently}
• -low
(Seldom)
High (Frequently)
- -low
(Seldom)
Attribution of cause
External
Internal
External
Internal
Internal
External
distinctiveness A behavioural rule that considers whether an individual acts similarly acr05S a variety of situatioos.
consensus A behavioural rule that considers whether everyone faced with a similar situalioo responds in the same way.
consistency A behaooural rule that considers whether the individual has been acting in the same WJJJ over time.
4 2 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
fundamental attribution error The tendency to underesti· mate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judg· ments about the behaviour of others.
self-serving bias The tendency ID< individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors.
selective perception People's selective interpretation of what they see based on their interests, back· ground, experience. and attitudes.
EXHIBIT 2-3 Percentage of Individuals Rating Themselves Above Average on Each Attribute
100%
80% 78%
60%
40%
20%
0% Performance
96% •
Sense of humou r
84%
Abil ity to get along w ith others
Source: Based on C. Mer1<1e and M. Weber, Ttue Overconfidence- The Inability of Rational Information Processing to Account for Overconfidence (March 2009). Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/ abstract= 1373675.
consistent over time (high consistency), you or anyone else who is judging Emma's work is likely lo hold her primarily responsible for her task performance ( internal attrib ution).
How Attributions Get Distorted Errors or biases distort at tributions. When we judge the behaviour of other peop le, we tend to underestimate the infl uence of externa l fac tors and overestimate the infl uence of internal, or personal, factors. 12 Th is fundamental attribution error can explain why a sales manager at tributes the poor performance of h is or her sales agents to laziness rather than ackn owledgi ng the impact of the innova- tive product line introduced by a competitor.
We use self-serving bias when we judge ourselves, h owever. 13 This means tha t when we are successfu l, we are more likely lo believe il \Vas because of internal factors, such as ab ility or effort. When we fail, however, we blame external factors, such as luck. In general, people tend to believe that their own behaviour is more positive than the behaviour of those around them. Research suggests, however, that ind ividuals tend to overestimate their own good behaviour, and underestimate the good behaviour of others. 14 Exhibit 2-3 ill ustrates th is po int.
Selective Perception Because it's impossible for us to see everything, any characteristic that makes a person, object, or event stand out will increase the probab ility that it will be perceived; th us, you are more likely lo notice cars that look like your own. ll also expla ins why some people may be reprimanded by their manager for doing something that goes unnoticed when other employees do it. Since we cannot observe everything going on about us, \Ve engage in selective perception.
How does selectivity work as a shortcu t in judging other people? Since we can- not take in all that we observe, we take in bits and pieces. But we do not choose randomly; rather, we select according to our interests, background, experience, and allitudes. Because we see what we want to see, we sometimes draw u nwarranted
Chapt er 2 Perception, Personality, and Emotions 43
concl usions from an amb iguo us situation. Selective perception led the Law Society of British Co lumbia lo discriminate against lawyers who s uffer from a menta l illness, as Focus on Diversity shows.
Should employees be required to reveal that t hey have a mental illness? In July 2011, the BC Human Rights Tribunal ruled that the Law Society of British Columbia had discrimi-
nated against a lawyer with a mental d isability. 15 The lawyer, Peter Mokua Gichuru, was
awarded almost $100 000 by the tribunal. Gichuru's problems started when he began applying for work as an articling student and
had to fill out a law society admission program form with the following question: "Have you
ever been treated for schizophrenia, paranoia, or a mood disorder described as a major affective illness, bipclar mood disorder, or manic depressive illness?" He answered "yes."
Gichuru had been suffering from bouts of depression for almost five years and was on antidepressants when he was faced with the law society's question. He felt that his
articles were delayed because he answered truthfully about his mental health. He also felt
that his difficulties in keeping his articling positions and finding others were a result of his answer to the question .
In making its determination, the tribunal found that the law society, while acting in good
faith, went beyond what was necessary to determine the fitness of someone to practise law. The law society changed the question related to mental health history on the admis-
sion form as a result of Gichuru's appeal. It now reads:
Based upon your personal history, your current c ircumstances , or any professional opinion or advice you have received, do you have any existing condition that is reasonably
likely to impair your ability to function as a lawyer or articled student? If the answer is "yes"
to the question above, please provide a general description of the impairment. Those who answer "yes" to this new question are followed on a case-by-case basis,
but the information is kept confidential and is not disclosed to potential employers. While Gichuru still has some concerns about the use of the information, he testified that it "is a
dramatic improvement ... and that on its face it does not discriminate between so-called
physical and mental illnesses." .................................................. .
Halo Effect When we draw a general impression of an ind ividual on the basis of a single charac- teristic, such as intell igence, likeability, or appearance, a halo effect operates. 16 The halo effect is easy lo demonstrate. If you knew someone was, say, gregarious, what else wou ld you in fer? You probably would not say the person was introverted, right? You migh t assu me the person was loud, happy, or qu ick-witted, when in fact gregario us does not incl ude those other at tribu tes. As managers, we need to be careful not lo draw inferences from small clues.
Contrast Effects There is an old saying among enterta iners: "Never fo llow an act that has ch ildren or an imals in it.• Why? Audiences love chi ldren and an ima ls so much that you will look bad in comparison.
Th is example demonstrates how contrast effects can distort perceptions. We don't evaluate a person in isolation. Our reaction is infl uenced by other people we have recently encountered.
halo effect Drav,;ng a general impression of an individual on the basis of a single characteristic.
contrast effects The concept that our reaction to one person is often influenced by other people we have recently encountered.
4 4 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
stereotyping Judging someone on the basis of one's perception of the group to which that person belongs.
heuristics Judgment shortcuts in decision making.
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colonialism to help build Halluci Nation, a collective of artists and activists.
In a series of job interviews, for instance, a candidate is likely to receive a more favourable evaluation if preceded by med iocre app lican ts, and a less favourable evalu- ation if preceded by strong appl icants. Thus, interviewers can make distortions in any given candidate's evaluation as a result of her or h is place in the interview schedule.
Stereotypi ng When we judge someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which he or she belongs, we are using the shortcut called s tereo typing.
We rely on general izations every day because they help us make decisions quickly. They are a means of simplifying a complex world. It's less d ifficult to deal with an unmanageab le number of s timuli if we use h euristics (judgment shortcuts in decision making) or stereotypes. For example, it does make sense to assume that Tre, the new employee from accounting, is going to know something about budgeting or that Al lie from finance will be able to help you figure out a forecasting problem. Stereotypes can be so deeply ingra ined and powerfu l that they influence life-and-death decisions. One study showed that, controlling for a wide array of factors (such as aggravating or miti- gating circumstances), the degree to \vhich black defendants in murder trials looked "stereotypically black" essentially doub led their odds of receiving a death sentence if convicted. 17 Another study found that students tended to assign higher scores for lead- ership potential and effective leadership to whites than to minorities, supporting the stereotype of whites as better leaders. 1 S
One of the problems of stereotypes is that they are widespread and often usefu l generaliza tions, desp ite the fact that they may not conta in a shred of truth when applied to a particular person or s it uation. So we have to check ourselves to make sure we are not unfairly or inaccura te ly applying a stereotype in our evalua tions and decisions. Stereotypes are an example of the warn ing, "The more useful. the more danger from m isuse.•
It shou ld be obvious by now that our perceptions, many of wh ich are near- instan- taneous and without conscious deliberation, colour our outlook. Sometimes they have li ttle impact on anyone, but more often our perceptions greatly influence our decisions.
Chapter 2 Perception, Personality, and Emotions 45
Muslim women in Canada often experience discrimination in being hired, or how their co-workers treat them, when they wear a hijab. In some cases, co-workers of Muslim women have been surprised when
they returned to work following maternity leave. The co-workers assumed that Muslim women would be expected by their husbands to stay at home to raise children rather than work.
The first step toward increasing the effectiveness of organiza tional decision making is to understand the percep tion process on an individualized level, discussed next.
.............. • ]] RESEARCH FINDINGS: Stereotyping A variety of recent studies show that even today we believe Germans are better
• workers, Ital ians and African Americans are more loyal, Jews and Ch inese are more intell igen t, and Japanese and English are more courteous.19 What is surprising is that posi tive stereotypes are not always positive.
Men are commonly believed to have s tronger math abilities than women. One st udy shows that when this stereotype is activated before men take a math test, their performance on the test actually goes down. Another study fo u nd that the belief that white men are better at science and math than women or visible m inorities caused wh ite men to leave science, techno logy, engineering, and math majors. Finally, a st udy used basketball to ill ustrate the complexity of s tereotypes. Researchers provided evidence to one gro up of undergraduates that wh ites were better free -throw shooters than b lacks. Another group was provided evidence that b lacks were better free-throw shoo ters than wh ites. A t hird group was given no stereotypical information. The undergraduates in all three groups then shot free throws wh ile observers watched. The people who performed the worst were those in the negative stereotype condition (b lack undergraduates who were told wh ites were better and wh ite und ergraduates who were told blacks were better). However, t he positive s tereotype group (black u ndergraduates who were to ld blacks were better and white undergraduates who were told wh ites were better) also did not perform well. The best performance was turned in by those in the no stereotyp ica l information group. In short, we are more likely to "choke" when we iden tify with positive stereotypes because they induce pressure to perform at the stereotypical level.
4 6 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
self -fulfilling prophecy A concept that proposes a person will behave in ways oonsistent with how he or she is perceived by others.
Why Do Perception and Judgment Matter? People in organ iza tions are always judging one another. Managers must appraise the ir employees' performances. We eva luate how much effort our co-workers are pulling into their jobs. When a new person jo ins a work team, the o ther members immed iately •s ize her up.• Individuals even make judgments about people's virtues based on whether they exercise, as a study by McMaster University professor Kathleen Martin Ginis showed .20 In many cases, judgments have important consequences for the organization. A recent s tudy found that in organizations that did not seem to value innovation, employees who wanted to see change were often afra id to speak out due to fear of negative perceptions from co-workers who valued the status quo.21 Another recent study found that positive employee percept ions of an organization have a positive impact on retention, customer loyalty, and financial outcomes.22 A study noted that individuals who m isperceive how well they have done on a task (positively or negatively) tend to prepare less and to perform poorly in subsequent tasks. 23
Can perception really affect
') outco1ncs .
Let's briefly look at a few of the most obvious applications of judgment shortcuts in the workplace: employment interviews, performance expectations, and performance evaluations.
Employment Interviews It's fa ir to say that few people are h ired without undergoing an interview. But interview- ers make perceptual judgments that are often inaccurate24 and draw early impressions that quickly become entrenched. Research shows we form impressions of others within a tenth of a second based on our firs t glance.25 Most interviewers' decisions change very little after the first four or five minutes of an interview. As a result, information that comes out early in the intervie\v carries greater weight than information that comes out later, and a "good appl icant" is probably characterized more by the absence of unfavour- able characteris tics than by the presence of favourable ones. Our ind ividual intuition about a job candidate is not reliable in pred icting job performance, so collecting input from mu ltip le independen t evaluators can be predictive.26
Performance Expectations People allempt to valida te their perceptions of rea lity even when they are faulty. 27
The te rms self-fulfilling prophecy and Pygmalion. effect describe how an individual's behaviour is dete rm ined by others' expectations. If a manager expects big things from her people, they are not likely to let her down. Similarly, if she expects on ly minimal performance, they will likely mee t those low expectations. Expectations become real- ity. The self-fulfilling prophecy has been found to affect the performance of students, soldiers, and even accountants.28
Performance Evaluations Performance evaluations very much depend on the perceptual process.29 An emp loyee's future is closely tied to the appraisal- promotion, pay raises, and continuation of employ- ment are among the most obvious ou tcomes. Although the appraisal can be objective (for example, a salesperson is appra ised on how many dollars of sales are generated in h is territory), many jobs are evaluated subjectively. Subjective evaluations, although often necessary, are problematic because all the errors we have discussed thus far - selective perception, contrast effects, halo effect, and so on- affect them. Ironically, sometimes performance ra tings say as much about the evaluato r as they do about the employee!
As you can see, perception plays a large ro le in how people are evaluated. Personal- ity, wh ich we review next, is ano ther major fac tor affecting how people relate to and evalua te one another in the workp lace.
Chapter 2 Perception, Personality, and Emotions 47
Personality By her own acknowledgment, Michele Romanow is a risk taker.JO She said that Buytopia was
late to launch a daily deal site. "We were a year behind our major competitors. We had competi-
tors that had already raised $60 million." That did not stop her from trying though. Romanow's
philosophy about launching businesses is that "You can't be scared when it isn't perfect. You've
just got to launch it. You'll figure it out. "
One of Romanow's strong personality traits is that she is a high self-monitor. She thinks
that a dream job is about having control: "Control over the types of problems you take on,
and you r approach to those problems. Control over the cu lture you bu ild ." In other words,
Romanow is a proactive person. She does not wait for things to happen, she makes them
happen .
While working at Buytopia, Roma now and her partners developed a mobile couponing app
called SnapSaves, that allowed consumers to get rebates from manufacturers by emailing
their receipts. Roma now realized the company needed investors in order to grow. She and her
partners ended up selling the app to Groupon, and it was renamed Groupon Snap. As part of
the acquisition, she promised that she would work with Groupon for a year and a half at its
headquarters in the United States. As soon as that time was up, she moved back to Canada,
to work on her next start-up.
Romanow can take these risks because she is open to experiences, one of the Big Five
personality traits that we discuss below. How do one's personality attributes influence OB?
Understanding the impact of individual personal ities on OB is important. Why are some people quiet and passive, wh ile others are loud and aggressive? Are certain personality ty pes better adapted to certa in jobs? Before we can answer these questions, we need to address a more basic one: What is personal ity ?
What Is Personality? When we speak o f someone's personality, we use many adjectives to d escribe how they act and seem to th ink; in fact, participants in a recent study used 624 d istinct ad jectives to d escribe people they knew. 31 As organizational behaviourists, however, we organize personality characteristics by overall traits, d escrib ing the growth and d evelopment of a person's personality.
Defining Personality For our purposes, we define p ers onality as the sum of the ways in which an ind iv idual reacts to and interacts with others. We most often describe personal ity in terms of mea- surable traits that a person exh ib its.
Measuring Personality Persona lity assessments have b een increasingly used in diverse organizationa l set- tings. In fact, many large companies use them,32 includ ing Xerox, McDonald's, and Lowe's,33 and schoo ls such as DePaul University have begun to use personality assessments in the ir ad missions process.3 4 A 2017 st udy by p rofessors from Western University, University of Guelph, University o f PEI, and Un iversity o f York, along wi th colleagues from elsewhere, suggested that based on their research , medical schools should start using personality tests for admiss ion dec is ions. Personal ity seemed to predict clinical performance more accu rately that either grades or medical exam scores.35
The most common means of measuring personal ity is th rough self-report surveys, with which ind ividuals evaluate themselves on a series of factors, such as "I worry a lot ab out the future.• In general, when peop le know that their personal ity scores are going
8 Describe personality, the way it is measured, and the factors that shape it.
personality The sum total of ways in which an in<ividual reacts to and interacts with others.
4 8 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
personality traits Enduring characteristics !hat describe an indivirual's behaviour.
to be used for h iring decisions, they rate themselves as about half a standard deviation more conscientious and emotionally stable than if they are taking the test just to learn more about themselves.36 Another problem is accuracy: A candidate who is in a bad mood when taking the survey may have inaccurate scores.
Observer-rating surveys provide an independent assessment of persona lity. Here, a co-worker or another observer does the rating. Although the results of self-reports and observer-rating surveys are strongly correlated, research suggests that observer ratings pred ict job success better than self-ratings alone.37 However, each can tell us something unique about an individual's behaviour in the workplace. A combination of self-reports and observer-reports pred icts performance better than any one type of information. The implication is clear: Use both observer ratings and self-report ratings of persona lity when making important employment decisions.
Personality Determinants An early debate in personality research centred on whether an individual's personality is predetermined at birth or is the result of the individual's environment. Clearly, there is no simple answer. Personali ty appears to be a result of both; however, research tends to support the importance of heredity over environment.
Heredity refers to those fac tors that were determ ined a t conception . Physical stature, fac ial allractiveness, gender, temperament, muscle compos ition and reflexes, energy level, and b iological rhythms are either com- pletely or substantially influenced by your biological parents' bio logical, physiological, and inherent psycho- logical makeup. The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual's personality is a person's genes.
Are people born ,,,,ith their
personalities·!
This is not to suggest that personality never changes. People's scores on depend- ab ility tend to increase over time, as when yo ung adults start families and establ ish careers. However, s trong ind ividual differences in dependabil ity remain; everyone tends to change by about the same amount, so their rank order stays roughly the same. Fu rthermore, personality is more changeable in adolescence and more stable among adults.38
Personality Traits The early work on personality tried to identify and label enduring characteristics that describe an ind ividual's behaviour, includ ing shy, aggressive, subm issive, lazy, ambi- tious, Joyal, and timid. Those characteristics, when they are exh ib ited in a large num- ber of situations and are relatively enduring, we call p e rsonality traits.39 The more consistent the characteris tic and the more frequently it occurs in diverse s ituations, the more important that trail is in describing the ind ividua l.
Throughout history, peop le have sought to understand what makes ind ivid u- als behave in myriad ways. Many of our behaviours stem from our persona lities, so understanding the components of personal ity helps us predict behaviour. Important theoretical frameworks and assessment tools help us categorize and s tudy the dimen- s ions of personality.
The most w ide ly used and best known personality frameworks are the Myers- Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and the Big Five Personality Model. Both describe a person's total personality through exploration of t he face ts of personality. Ot her frameworks, such as the Dark Triad, exp lain certa in aspects, but not the total, of an individua l's personal ity. We discuss each below, but let's begin with the dominant frameworks.
Chapter 2 Perception, Personality, and Emotions 49
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is the most widely used personal ity-assessment instrument i n the world. 40 It's a 100-question persona lity lest that asks people how lhey usually feel or act in particu lar s ituations. On the bas is of their answers, individuals are classified as ex1raverted or introverted (E or I), sensing or intuitive (Sor N), thinki ng or feeling (Tor F), and judging or perceiving (J or P). These terms are defined as follows:
• Extraverted/introverted. Extraverted individuals are outgoing, sociab le, and assertive. Introverts are qu iet and shy. E/1 measures where we d irect our energy when deal ing with people and th ings.
• Sensing/in111itive. Sens ing types are practical and prefer rou tine and order. They focus on de tails. lntu itives rely on unconscious processes and look at the •big p icture." This dimension looks at how we process information.
• Thinking/feeling. Th inking types use reason and logic to hand le prob lems. Feeli ng types rely on lhei r personal val ues and emotio ns.
• ]11dging/ perceiving. Judging types wan l cont rol and prefer their world to be ordered and structured . Perceiving types are llexible and spontaneous.
These classifications together describe 16 personali ty types by identifying one tra it from each of the four pairs. To illustrate, let's look at three examples:
• INT]s are visionaries. They usually have original minds and great drive. They are skeptical, critical, independent, determ ined, and often stubborn.
• EST]s are organizer.s. They are realistic, logical, analytical, decisive, and have a natural head for business or mechanics. They like to organize and run activities.
• ENTPs are concepu1alizers. They are innovative, ind ividua listic, versatile, and attracted Lo entrepreneurial ideas. They Lend to be resourceful in so lving challenging problems, but may neglect routine assignments.
The MBTI is used in a variety of organ izational settings. Evidence is mixed as to whether the MBTI is a valid measure of personality; however, much of the evidence is aga inst it.41
One problem with the MBTI is that the model forces a person into either one type or another (that is, you are either introverted or extraverted) . There is no in-between. Another problem is with the reliability of the measure: When peop le retake the assess- ment, they often receive different resu lts. An additiona l problem is in lhe difficulty of interpretation. There are levels of importance for each of the MBTI face ts, and separate meanings for certain combinations of facets, all of which requi re trained interpretation tha t can leave room for error. Finally, results from the MBTI lend lo be unrelated lo job performance. The MBTI can thus be a valuable tool for increasing self-awareness and providing career guidance. Bul because results tend lo be unrelated to job performance, managers should co nsider using the Big Five Personality Model, discussed next, as the personality selection Lest for job candidates.
The Big Five Personality Model The MBTI may lack va lid supporting evidence, but an impressive body of research supports t he Bi g Five Pers onality Mode l. The model proposes that five bas ic persona lity dimensions underlie all others and encompass most of the s ign ificant variation in human persona lity.42 Test scores of these tra its do a very good job of
C, Describe the Myers- Briggs Type Indicator personality framework and its strengths and weaknesses.
0 Identify the key traits in the Big Five Personality Model.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) A persooalily lest !hat laps four characteristics and classifies people inlo 1 of 16 personalilytypes.
Big Five Personality Model A personality-assessment model thal laps five basic dimensions.
50 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
0 Demonstrate how the Big Five personality traits predict behaviour at work.
conscientiousness A personal- ity fact0< that describes the degree to which a person is respon- sible, dependable, persistent, and achievement -Ofiented.
emotional stability A personal- ity dimension that characterizes someone as calm. self-confident, and secure (positive) vs. nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative).
extraversion A personality factor that describes the degree to which a person is sociable, talkative, and assertive.
openness to experience A personality factor that describes the degree to which a person is imagina- tive, artistically sensitive, and curious.
agreeableness A personality factor that describes the degree to which a person is good-natured. cooperative, and trusting.
predicting how people behave in a va riety of real-life situations,4 3 and remain rela- tively stable for an individ ual over time, with some daily variations.44 The Big Five personality tra its are:
• Conscientiousness. The conscientious ness d imension is a measure of rel i- ability. A highly conscientious person is responsible, organized, dependable, and persistent. Those who score low on this d imension are easily d is tracted, disorganized, and unreliable.
• Emocional st11bility. The emotional stability d imension taps a person's ability to w ithstand stress. People with emotional stabil ity tend to be cal m, self-confident, and secure. High scorers are more likely to be positive and op timistic and experience fewer negative emotions; they are generally happier than low scorers. Emotional stability is sometimes discussed as its converse, neuroticism. Low scorers (those with h igh neuroticism) are hypeivigilant and vulnerable to the physical and psychological effects of stress. Those with h igh neuroticism tend to be neivous, anxious, depressed, and insecure.
• Extraversion. The extraversion d imension captu res our comfort level with relationsh ips. Extraverts tend to be gregarious, assertive, and sociable. They are generally happier and are often ambi tious.45 They experience more posi- tive emotions than do introverts, and they more freely express these feelings. On the other hand, introverts (low extraversion) tend to be more thoughtful, reseived, timid, and qu iet. Read more abou t introverts and extraverts in Case Incident- The Power of Quiel on pages 75- 76.
• Openness to experience. The opennes s to experience d imension addresses the range of interests and fascination with novelty. Open people are creative, curious, and artis tically sensitive. Those a t the low end of the category are conventional and find com fort in the fam iliar.
• Agreeableness. The agreeableness d imension refers to an individual's propensity to defer to others. Agreeable people are coopera tive, warm, and trusti ng. You m ight expect agreeable people to be happier than disagreeable people. They are, but only s lightly. When people choose organizational team members, agreeab le individuals are usually their first cho ice. In contrast, peo- ple who score low on agreeableness are cold and antagonistic.
Researchers at the University of Toronto have recently created a "fake proof" per- sonality test to measure the Big Five personal ity tra its.4 6 Professor Jordan Peterson, one of the researchers, noted that it is common for peop le to try to "make themselves look better than they actually are on these questionnaires .. .. This sort of faking can distort the pred ictive val id ity of these tests, with s ignificant negative economic consequences. We wanted to develop a measure that cou ld predict real-world performance even in the absence of completely honest respond ing."4 7
Exhibit 2-4 shows the characteristics for the high and low d imensions of each Big Five personal ity trait.
[[ ]] RESEARCH FINDINGS: The Big Five There are many relationships between the Big Five personal ity dimen - sions and job performance,48 and we are learning more abou t them every
day. Let's explore one trail at a time, beginning w ith the s trongest predictor of job performance- conscientiousness.
Co nscientio us ness As researchers recently stated, •Perso nal attr ibutes related to conscientiousness and agreeableness are important for success across many jobs,
EXHIBIT 2-4 Big Five Personality Traits
Low
Reserved Timid Quiet
Cold Disagreeable Antagonistic
Easily distracted Disorganized Unrel iable
Hostile An.xious Depressed lr,secure
Unimaginative Inflexi ble Literal-minded Dull
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Emotional Stability
Openness to Experience
Chapter 2 Perception, Personality, and Emotions 5 1
High
Gregarious Assertive Sociable
Cooperative Warm Empathetic Trusting
Responsible Organized Dependable Persistent
Calm Self-<0nfident Secure
Creative Flexible Curious Artistic
spa nn ing across low to high levels of job complexity, training, and experience."49
Employees who are more conscientious provid e better service. 50 Employees who score h igh er in conscie ntious ness d evelop higher levels of job knowledge, probably beca use highly co nscientious people learn more ( co nscientious ness may be related to grade po int average).51 Higher levels of job know ledge th en contribute to h igher levels of job performa nce.52 Conscientio us people are also more able to ma intain th eir job performance \vh en faced with abusive supervisio n, according to a recent study in India. 53
Like any trai l, conscientiousness has pitfalls. High ly conscientious individuals can prioritize work over fa m ily, resulting in more confl ict between th eir work and fam - ily roles (termed work- family conjlici) .54 They may also become too foc used on their own work lo h elp o thers in the organ ization,55 and they don' t adapt well lo ch anging co ntexts. Furthermore, conscientious people may have trouble learning complex ski lls early in the tra ining process because th eir focus is on perform ing well rather than on learning. Finally, th ey are often less creative, especially artistically.56
The Big Five have also been found lo be related to characteristics needed for specific jobs. This is ill us trated in Exh ib it 2-5.
Although co nscientiousness is the trait most consistently related to job performance, the other Big Five perso nal ity traits are also related lo aspect~ o f performance and have other implications for work and for life. Exh ib it 2-6 summarizes the discussion.
Emotional Stability O f the Big Five personality traits, emotional stab ility is most strongly related to life satisfaction, job satisfactio n, and low s tress levels. People with h igh emo- tional stab ility can adapt lo unexpected or changing d emands in the workplace.57 Al the other end of the spectrum, neurotic individ uals, who may be u nab le to cope with these
52 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
EXHIBIT 2-5 Jobs in Which Certain Big Five Personality Traits Are More Relevant
Detail Orientation Required
Social Skills Required
Competitive Work
Innovation Required
Dealing w ith Angry People
Time Pressure (Deadlines)
Jobs scoring high (the traits listed below should predict behaviour in these jobs)
Air traffic controller
Accountant Legal secretary
Clergy
Therapist Concierge
Coach/scout Financial manager Sales representative
Actor Correctional officer
Systems analyst Telemarketer Advertising writer Flight attendant
News analyst
Editor Airline pilot
Jobs that score high m ake these traits more relevant to p redicting behaviour
Conscientiousness (+) Extraversion (+)
Agreeableness ( +)
Extraversion (+)
Agreeableness (-)
Openness(+) Extraversion ( +)
Agreeableness(+) Neuroticism (-)
Conscientiousness(+)
Neuroticism (-)
Note: A plus{+) sign means individuals who soore high on this trait should do better in this Job. A minus{- ) sign means Individuals who score low on this trait should do better in this job.
demands, may experience burnout.58 These people also te nd to experience work-fam ily conflict, which can affect work outcomes.59
Extraversion Extraverts perform b etter in jobs that require significant interpersonal interaction. Extraverts are socially dom inant, • take charge" people, who are usually more assertive than introverts.60 Extraversion is a relatively strong predictor of leader- sh ip emergence in groups. Some negatives are that extraverts are more impulsive than introverts; they are more likely lo be absent from work and may be more likely than introverts to lie during job inteiviews. 61
EXHIBIT 2-6 How the Big Five Personalit y Traits Influence OB
BIG FIVE TRAIT
Emotional stability
Exttaversion
Openness
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
WHY IS IT RELEVANT?
• Less negative thinking and fewer negative emotions
• Less hyper vigilant
• Better interpersonal skills
- - · • Greater social dominance • More emotionally expressive
• Increased learning • More creative • More flexible and autonomous
• Better liked ,..__..,_1 • More compliant and
conforming
• Greater effort and persistence • More drive and discipline • Better organized and planning
-
WHAT DOES IT AFFECT?
• Higher job and life satisfaction • Lower stress levels
• Higher performance•
--· • Enhanced leadership • Higher job and life satisfaction
• Training performance
- - · • Enhanced leadership • More adaptable 10 change
• Higher performance• i-- l • Lower levels of deviant
behaviour
• Higher performance • Enhanced leadership • Greater longevity
·1n Jobs requiring significant teamwork or frequent interpersonal interactions.
Chapt er 2 Perception, Personality, and Emotions 53
It's unusual for one person to be the CEO of a company and yet another person be the public face of the organization. But that is how ~ works for Ottawa-based Shopify's CEO Tobias Lutke and COO Harley Finkelstein (shown here). This arrangement works for the two because Lutke is an introvert, while Finkelstein is an extravert. Finkelstein says the two men play to their individual strengths, which makes for
a stronger company.
Openness to Experience Open people are more l ikely to be effective leaders- and more comfortable with ambigu ity and change. They cope beuer with organ izational change and are more adaptable. Wh ile openness is not related lo initial performance on a job, ind ividuals higher in openness are less susceptible lo a decline in perfor- mance over a longer time period.62 Open people also experience less work- family conflict. 63
Agreeableness Agreeab le indiv iduals are beuer liked than disagreeable peop le, which expla ins why they tend lo do beuer in interpersonally oriented jobs such as customer service. They are also more compliant and ru le abid ing, less l ikely to get into accidents, and more satisfied in their jobs. They also contribu te to organizational performance by engaging in organ izational citizensh ip behaviour (OCB) .64 Disagree- able people, on the other hand, are more likely to engage in counterproductive work behaviours ( also referred to as CWBs ), as are people low in conscientiousness. 65 Low agreeableness also predicts involvement in work accidents. 66 Lastly, agreeableness is associated with lower levels of career success ( especially earnings), perhaps because highly agreeable people consider themselves Jess marketable and are less willing to assert themselves. 67
Research indicates the Big Five tra its have the most verifiable links to important organizational outcomes, bu t they are not the only traits a person exhibits, nor the only ones with OB impl ications. Let's discuss some other traits, known collectively as the Dark Triad.
54 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
Dark Triad A group of negative personality traits consisting of Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy.
Machiavellianism The degree to which an ind ividual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means.
narcissism The tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of sett -importance, require excessive admiration, and have a sense of entitlement.
The Dark Triad W ith the excep tion of neuroticism, the Big Five persona lity traits are what we call socially desirable, mean ing that we would be glad to score high on them. Researchers have found three other socially undesirable traits, wh ich we all have in varying degrees, are also relevant to organizational behaviour: Machiavellian ism, narcissism, and psy-
chopathy. Owing to their negative nature, researchers have labelled these three traits the Dark Tria d - though they do not a lways occur together.68 See Case Incident- Tall Poppy Syndrome on page 76 for a discussion of how negative tra its can be manifested in the workplace.
The Dark Triad may sound sinister, but these traits are not cl inical pathologies hindering everyday funct ion ing. They m ight be expressed particularly strongly when an individual is under stress and unable to moderate any inappropriate responses. Sus- tained high levels of dark personality tra its can ca use ind ividuals to dera il their careers and personal lives.69
Machiavellianism Hao is a you ng bank manager in Shanghai . He has received three promotions in the past four years and makes no apologies for the aggressive tactics he has used. "My name means clever, and that's what I am- I do whatever I have to do to get ahead,• he says. Hao would be termed Mach iavell ian.
The personality characteristic of Machiavellian i s m (often abbreviated to Mach) is named after Niccolo Mach iavelli, who wrote in the sixteen th cent ury on how to
gain and use power. An individual h igh in Mach iavell ianism is pragma tic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means. •1f it works, use it" is consistent w ith a high-Mach perspective. H igh Machs manipulate more, win more,
are persuaded less by others but persuade others more than do low Machs. 70 They are more likely to act aggressively and engage in other counterproductive work behaviours as well . Surprisingly, Machiavellianism does not significantly predict overall job per- formance.7 1 H igh-Mach employees, by manipulating others to their advantage, w in in the short term at a job, but they lose those gains in the long term because they are not well-liked.
Mach iavell ianism tendencies may have ethical implications. One study showed that h igh-Mach job seekers were not positively affected by knowing that a potential employer engaged in a h igh level of corporate social responsibility (CSR),72 suggesting that h igh- Mach people may care less about sustainability issues. Another 2012 study found tha t Machs' eth ical leadership behaviours were less likely to translate into followers' work engagement because followers "see through• these behaviours and real ize it is a case
of surface acting.73
Narcissism Sabrina l ikes to be the cent.re of attention. She often looks at herself in the m irror, has
extravagant dreams abou t her fu ture, and considers hersel f a person of many talents. Sabrina is a narciss ist. The trail is named for the Greek myth of Narcissus, a yo uth so va in and proud he fell in love with his own image. In psychology, narcis s is m describes a person who has a grandiose sense of sel f-importance, requires excessive admiration, and is arrogant. Narcissists often have fan tasies of grand success, a ten- dency to explo it situations and people, a sense of entitlement, and a lack of empa- thy.74 However, narcissis ts ca n be hypersens itive and fragile people.75 They also may experience more anger.76
Whi le narcissism seems to have little relationship to job effectiveness or OCB,77 it is one of the largest predictors of increased counterproductive work behaviour in ind i- vidualistic cultures- but not in collectivist cultures that d iscourage self-promotion.78
Narcissists common ly think they are overqual ified for their positions. 79 When they
Chapt er 2 Perception, Personality, and Emotions 5 5
receive feedback about lheir performance, lhey often lune oul information lhat conflicts wilh lheir positive sel f-perception, but lhey will work harder if rewards are offered.80
A recent study found lhat the easiest way to identify a narcissist is lo ask them. The researchers used lhe following question, w ith lhe note, lo ask people whether they
were narcissists:
To what extent do you agree with lh is statement "I am a narcissist• (Nole: The word "narcissist" means ego tistical, self-focused, and vain.) Participants rated themselves on a scale of I (no t very true of me) lo 7 (very true of me) .
One of the study's authors noted that peop le who respond positively probably are more narcissistic than those who do no t. • People who are narcissists are almost proud of lhe fact,• said Brad Bushman.at
On the bright s ide, narcissists may be more charismatic lhan others. 82 They also might be found in business more ofte n than in other fie lds (see OB Poll). They are more likely lo be chosen for leadership positions, and medium ratings of narcissism (neither extremely high nor extremely low) are positively correlated with leadership effectiveness. 83 Some evidence suggests that narcissists are more adaptab le and make better business decisions than others when lhe issue is complex.84 Furthermore, a study of Norwegian bank employees found lhose scoring high on narcissism enjoyed their work more.85
Special auenlion has been paid to narcissistic CEOs who make more acquisitions, pay h igher premiums for lhose acquisitions, respond less clearly lo objective measures of performance, and respond lo med ia praise by making even more acqu isilions.86
Research using data comp iled over 100 years has shown that narcissistic CEOs of base- ball organizations generate higher levels of manager turnover, a l though members of external organizations see them as more influenlial.87
Narcissism and ils effects are not confined lo CEOs or celebrities. Like the effects of Mach iavell ianism, those of narcissism vary by context, bul are evident in all areas of life.
Does business school reinforce narcissism in the classroom? The results of a study lhal compared the level of narcissism in Millenn ial business and psychology s tudents appear in Exhibit 2-7.
EXHIBIT 2-7 Does Business School Make You Narcissistic?
Average levels of narcissism by university major and gend er
20~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-
19
18
17
16
15
Men Women
Business
Men Women
Psychology
Source: Based on J. W. Westerman, J . Z. Bergman, S. M. Bergman, and J . P. Daly, "Are Universities Creating M illennial Narcissistic Employees? An Empirical Examination of Narcissism in Business Students and tts Implications," Journal of Management Education 36 (2012), pp. 5-32.
56 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
psychopathy The tendency for a lack of concern fOf others and a lack of guilt °' remorse when one's actions cause harm.
core self-evaluation Bottom-line conclusions individuals have about their capabilijies, competence, and worth as a person.
l
Psychopathy Psychopathy is part of the Dark Triad, but in OB, it does no t connote cl inical menta l illness. In the OB context, p sychopathy is defined as a lack of concern for o thers and a Jack of guilt or remorse when actions cause harm.SS Measures of psychopathy attempt to assess the motivation to comply with social norms, impu lsivity, will ing- ness to use deceit to ob tain desired ends, and d isregard, that is, lack of empathetic concern, for others.
The literature is not consistent about whether psychopathy is important to work behaviour. One review found Jillie corre lation between measures of psychopathy and job performance or counterproductive work behaviours.89 Another s tudy found tha t antisocial personality, wh ich is closely related to psychopathy, was positively related to advancement in the organ ization bul unrelated to other aspects of career success and effectiveness.90 Sti ll other recent research suggests that psychopathy is related to the use of hard influence tactics (threats, manipulation) and bully ing work behaviour (physical or verba l threatening).9 1 The cunning displayed by people \vho score high on psychopathy may thus help them gain power in an organ ization but keep them from using that power toward healthy ends for themselves or their organizations.
Other Traits The Dark Triad is a helpful framework for studying the three dom inant dark-side trails in current personality research, and researchers are exp loring o ther traits as well. One emerging framework incorporates five additional aberrant compound tra its based on the Big Five. First, antisocial people are ind ifferent and callous toward others. They use their extraversion lo charm people, bul they may be prone 10 violent counterproductive work behaviours and risky decis ion making. Second, borderline people have low self. esteem and high uncertainty. They are unpred ictable in their interactions al work, are inefficient, and may have low job satisfaction. Their low self-esteem can lead to cl in ical depression.92 Th ird, schizctypal individuals are eccentric and d isorgan ized. In the work- place, they can be h ighly crea tive, although they are susceptible to work stress. Fourth, obsessive-compulsive people are perfection ists and can be s tubborn, yet they attend lo deta ils, carry a strong work ethic, and may be mo tivated by achievement. Fifth, avoidant ind ividuals fee l inadequate and hale criticism. They can function on ly in environments requiring little inleraction.93
Personal ity traits have both positive and negative aspects. The degree of each trait- the Big Five, the Dark Triad, and others- in a person, and the comb ination of traits, mauer a great deal to organizational outcomes. ll would be easy to make quick man- agement decis ions based on our observations, but il is important lo keep discussions on personality in perspective and to consider other theories.
Other Personality Attributes That Influence OB As we've d iscussed, s tudies of trail~ have much lo offer to the fie ld of OB. Now we will look at other attributes that are powerful predictors of behaviour in organizations: core self-evaluation, self-monitoring, and proactive personality.
Core Self-Evaluation Core s elf-evaluations (CSEs) are bouom-line conclusions ind ividuals have about their capab ilities, competence, and worth as a person. People who have positive CSEs like themselves and see themselves as effective, capab le, and in control of their environ- ment. Those with negative CSEs tend lo dislike themselves, question their capabilities, and view themselves as powerless over their environment.94
People with positive CSEs perform bener than others because they set more amb i- tious goa ls, are more commiued to their goals, and persist longer at anempting to
Chapter 2 Perception, Personality, and Emotions 57
Blake Mycoskie, founder of TOMS Shoes, is confident, capable, and effective. His high core se~-evaluations enabled him to realize his dream of a company that uses profits to give shoes to children in need.
reach these goals. People who have high CS Es provide better customer seNice, are more popu lar co-workers, and may have careers tha t begin on a better footing and ascend more rapid ly over time.95 They perform especially well if they feel their work provides meaning and is helpfu l to others.96 Therefore, people with high CSEs may thrive in organ izations with a high level of CSR.
Self-Mon itoring Zoe is ahvays in trouble at work. Al though she is competent, hard-working, and pro- ductive, she receives average ratings in performance reviews, and seems to have made a career out of irritating her bosses. Zoe's prob lem is that she is pol itically inept and unable to adjust her behaviour to fit changing sit uations. As she said, •1'm true to myself. I don't remake myself to please others." Zoe is a low self-moni tor.
Self-monitoring refers to an individual's ability to adjust his or her behaviour to external, s ituational factors. 97 High self-monitors show considerable adaptability in ad justing their behav iour to externa l situationa l factors. They are h ighly sensitive to external cues and can behave differently in varying s ituations, sometimes presenti ng striking contrad ictions between their publ ic personae and their private selves. low self- moni tors like Zoe cannot disgu ise themselves in the same way. They tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes in every si tuation. High behavioural consistency exists between who they are and what they do.
Research suggests that high self-monitors tend to pay closer attention to the behav- iour of others and are more capable of conform ing than are low self-monitors.98 High self-monitor employees show less commitment to their organizations, but receive better performance ratings and are more likely to emerge as leaders. 99 High self-mon itoring managers tend to be more mob ile in their careers and receive more promotions (both in ternal and cross-organizational) and are more likely to occupy central positions in an organization. 100
According to research, we can accurately judge others' personalities a few seconds after meeting them, as Focus on Research shows.
self-monitoring A personality trait that measures an indil/idual's ability to adjust behal/iour to external. situational factors.
58 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
proactive personality A person who identifies opportunijies. shows initiative, takes action, and perseveres until meaningful change occurs.
FOCUS ~NESEARCH First Impressions Count
How accurate are first impressions of people's personalit ies? Research indicates that individuals can accurately appraise others' personalities only a few seconds after first
meeting them, or sometimes even from a photo.101 This "zero acquaintance" approach 102
shows that regardless of the way in which people first meet someone, whether in person or online, their first judgments about the other's personality have validity. In one study, for
example, individuals were asked to introduce themselves, on average, in 7.4 seconds.
Observers' ratings of those individuals' extraversion were significantly correlated w ith the individuals' self-reported extraversion. Other research suggests personalities can be
surmised from online profiles at zero acquaintance as wen.100 One study even found that
participants were able to determine the personality traits of individuals at the ends of the trait spectrum from viewing only photos.
Some traits, such as extraversion, are easier to perceive than others upon initial
acquaintance, but less obvious traits like self-esteem are also often judged fairly accurately by others. Even being forced to make intuitive, quick judgments rather than deliberate
evaluations does not seem to undermine the accuracy of the appraisals.
Situations make a d ifference in the accuracy of the judgments for some personality traits. For example, although neuroticism is perhaps the most difficult trait to detect accu-
rately, a recent study found neuroticism could be judged much more accurately when the situation made the individual react nervously. This makes sense when you consider
that some situations activate or draw out a trait much more readily than others. Almost
everybody looks calm when they are about to fall asleep! The moderate accuracy of "thin slices" helps explain the moderate validity of employment
interviews. Specifically, research shows that interviewers make up their minds about can-
d idates within two minutes of first meeting them. While this is hardly an ideal way to make important employment decisions, the research on personality shows that these judgments
do have some level of validity. It is important to keep in mind, however, that though we can
ascertain people's personalities quickly, we should still keep an open mind and suspend
judgment. There is always more to people than first meets the eye. • .. . .. . .. ... ... ... .•
Proactive Personality Did you ever notice that some peop le actively take the initiative to improve their cur- rent circumstances or create new ones? These people have a proa ctive pers onality. w4
People with a proactive personal ity identify opportunities, show in itiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs compared lo others who generally react lo situations. Proactives have many behaviours that organizations desire. They have h igher levels of job performance 105 and do no t need much oversight. JOG They are receptive to changes in job demands and thrive when they can informally tailor their jobs lo their strengths. Proactive individuals often ach ieve career success. 107
Proactive personal ity may be important for work teams. One st udy of 95 R & D teams in 33 Chinese companies revealed that teams with high-average levels of proac- tive personal ity were more innova tive. 108 Proactive ind ividuals are also more likely to exchange information with others in a team, which bui lds trust relationsh ips. w9 Like other traits, proactive personality is affected by the context. One study of bank branch teams in China found that if a team's leader was not proactive, the benefits of the team's proactivity became dormant or, worse, was suppressed by the leader. 110 In terms of p it- falls, one study of231 Flemish unemployed individuals found that proactive individuals abandoned their job searches sooner. It may be that proactivity includes stepping back in the face of failure. 11 1
Chapter 2 Perception, Personality, and Emotions 59
Situation Strength Theory Imagine you are in a meeti ng with your department. How likely are you to walk out, shout at someone, or turn your back on everyone? Probably highly un likely. Now imagine working from home. You might work in your pyjamas, listen to loud music, or take a catnap.
Situation s tre n gth theory proposes that the way personality translates into behaviour depends on the s trength of the s ituation. By situation strength, we mean the degree to which norms, cues, or standards dicta te appropriate behaviour. Strong s itua- tions show us what the right behaviour is, pressure us to exhibit it, and discourage the wrong behaviour. In weak s ituations, conversely, "anyth ing goes,• and thus we are freer to express our personality in behaviour. Thus, personality tra its better predict behaviour in weak si tuations than in strong ones.
Researchers have ana lyzed situation strength in organizations in terms of four elements: 112
1. Clarity, or the degree to which cues about work duties and responsibilities are available and clear. Jobs h igh in clarity produce strong s ituations because individuals can readily determine what to do. For example, the job of jan itor probably provides higher clarity about each task than the job of nanny.
2 . Consistency, or the extent to which cues regarding work duties and responsi- b ilities are compatible with one another. Jobs with h igh consistency represent strong situations because all the cues point toward the same desired behaviour. The job of acute care nurse, for example, probably has higher consistency than the job of manager.
3 . Constraints, or the extent to wh ich individuals' freedom to decide or act is lim- ited by forces ouL~ide their control. Jobs wi th many constraints represent strong situations because an individual has limi ted ind ividual discretion. Bank exam- iner, for example, is probably a job with stronger co nstraints than fores t ranger.
4. Consequences, or the degree to which decisions or actions have important imp lications for the organization or its members, clients, suppliers, and so on. Jobs with important consequences represent strong situations because the envi- ronment is probab ly heavily structured to guard aga inst mistakes. A surgeon's job, for example, has h igher consequences than a foreign-language teacher's.
Some researchers have speculated organizations are, by definition, strong situa- tions because they impose rules, norms, a nd standards that govern behaviour. These co nstrai nts are usually appropriate. For example, we would not want an employee to fee l free to engage in sexual harassment, follow questionable accounting procedures, or come to work only when the mood strikes.
Beyo nd the basics, though, it is not always desirable for organizations to create strong situations for thei r employees for a number of reasons. First, the elements of s it uation strength are often determ ined by organiza tion rules and guidelines, which adds some objectivity to them. However, the perception of these ru les influences how the person w ill respond to the situa tion's strength. For instance, a person who is usu- ally self-directed may view step-by-step instructions (h igh clarity) for a simp le task as a lack of faith in h is ability. Another person who is a rule-follower m ight apprecia te the detailed instructions. Their responses ( and work attitudes) will reflect their perception of the s ituation.113
Second, jobs w it h myriad ru les and tightly co ntro lled processes can be dull or demotivating. Imagine that all work was executed with an assembly-l ine approach. Some people may prefer the routine, but many prefer having some variety and free- dom. Third, strong s ituations m ight suppress the creativity, ini tiative, a nd discretion prized by some organizational cultures. One recent study, for example, found that in
situation strength theory A 1heory indicating that the way personality translates into behaviour depends oo the streng1h of the situatioo.
60 Pa rt 1 Understanding the Workplace
f) Differentiate between emotions and moods.
affect A broad range of feelings 1hat people experience.
emotions Intense feelings that are directed at someone or some1hing.
moods Feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus.
weak organ izational situations, employees were more likely to behave proactively in accordance with their val ues. 114 Finally, work is increasingly complex and interrelated globally. Creating strong rules to govern d iverse systems might be no t only difficult but also unwise. In sum, managers need to recogn ize the role of situation strength in the workp lace and find the appropriate balance.
Emotions Each of us has a range of personality characteristics, but we also bring wi th us a range of emotions. Given the obvious role that emotions play in our everyday life, it might surprise you to learn that, unti l very recently, the topic of emotions was given little or no attention within the field of 08. 115 Why7 Generally, because emotions in the workplace were h istorically thought to be detrimental to performance. Although managers knew emotions were an inseparable part of everyday life, they tried to create organizations that were emotion-free. Researchers tended to focus on strong negative emotions- especially anger- that interfered with an employee's abi lity to work effectively. (Point/ Cou111erpoin1 on page 73 considers whether organizations should encourage the expression of nega- tive emo tions at work.)
Thankfully, this type of thinking is changing. Certainly some emotions, particularly when exhibited at the wrong time, can reduce employee performance. Other emotions are neutral, and some are constructive. Employees do bring their emotions to work every day, so no study of OB would be complete without considering their role in workplace behaviour.
What Are Emotions and Moods? Let's look at three terms that are closely in tertwined: affect, emotions, and moods. Affect is a generic term that covers a broad range of fee lings people experience, including both emotions and moods.116 Emotions are intense feelings that are d irected at someone or someth ing. 117 Moods are less intense feelings than emo tions and often (although not always) arise without a specific event acting as a stimulus. 118
Exhibit 2-8 shows the relationships among affect, emotions, and moods. As the exhibit shows, affect is a broad term that encompasses emotions and moods.
Second, there are differences between emotions and moods. Emotions are more likely lo be caused by a specific event and are more fleeting than moods. Also, some researchers
EXHIBIT 2-8 Affect, Emotions, and Moods
Affect
Defined as a broad range of feelings that people experience. Af fect can be experienced in the form of emotions or moods.
• Caused by specific event • Very brief in duration (seconds or minutes) • Specific and numerous in nature
(many specific emotions such as anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, surprise)
• Usually accompanied by distinct facial expressions
• Action-oriented in nature
• Cause is often general and unclear • Last longer than emotions (hours or days) • More general (two main dimensions-
positive affect and negative affect-that , ... ,. .... - .... ~ are composed of multiple specific emotions)
• Generally not indicated by distinct expressions
• Cognitive in nature
Chapter 2 Perception, Personality, and Emotions 6 1
•
speculate that emotions may be more action-oriented - they may lead us to some immed iate action- while moods may be more cogn itive, meaning that they may cause us to th ink or brood for a while.119
Affect, emotions, and moods are separable in theory; in practice the d is ti nction is not always defined. When we review the OB topics on emo tions and moods, you may see more information about emotions in one area and moods in another. Th is is simply the state of the research. OB in the Street d iscusses how our perception of emotions can affect our romantic relationships.
From Concepts to Sliills on pages 77 - 78 gives yo u some insight into read ing the emotions of others.
OB IN TH E STREET How Perception Causes Fights in Relationsh ips
What happens if you think your partner is neglecting you? A study found that how people perceive the emotions of their romantic partner during a conflict affected their overall view of and reactions to the conflict. 120 The researchers studied the arguments that 105 un iversity students had during an e ight-week period. They looked at two types of emotions: •hard" (asserting power) and •soft" (expressing vulnerabil ity) . They also looked al two types of perceptions: •perceived threat• (percep tion that the partner is being hostile, critical, b laming, or controll ing) and "perceived neglect" (perception that the partner does not seem comm itted to or invested in the relationship) .
The researchers found that when a person sees his or her partner react with hard emotion, that person perceives a threat to control, power, and status in the relationship. When a person sees his or her partner show liule emotion, or less soft emotion than desired, that person perceives partner neglect. The perceived threat and neglect increase the person's own hard and soft emotions.
One of the study's co-authors expla ined the resu lts as follows: "[W]hal you perceive your partner to be fee ling influences d ifferent types of thoughts, feeli ngs and reactions in yourself, whether what you perceive is actually correct. . .. If a person perceives the other as angry, they will perceive a threat so they will respond with a hard emotion like anger or b lame. Likewise, if a person is perceived lo be sad or vulnerable, they \viii perceive a
: neglect and will respo nd [with] e ither fla t or soft [emotions]." _ .....................•
Moral Emotions We may lend to think our interna l emotions are innate. For instance, if someone jumped out al you from beh ind a door, wouldn't you feel surprised? Maybe you would, but you m ight also feel any of the other five universa l emotions- anger, fear, sadness, happiness, or d isgust- depending on the circumstance. Our experiences of emotions are closely lied lo our interpretations of events.
Researchers have been studying what are called moral emotions; that is, emo tions that have moral implications because of our instant judgment of the situation that evokes them. Examp les of moral emo tions include sympathy for the suffering of oth- ers, gu ilt about our own immoral behaviour, anger about injustice done to others, and co ntempt for those who behave uneth ically.
Another example is the d isgust we fee l about violations of moral norms, called moral disgust. Moral disgust is d ifferent from disgust. Say you stepped in cow dung by mis- take- you might feel d isgusted by it, but not mora l disgust- you probably would not make a moral judgmen t. In contrast, say you watched a video of a police officer making
moral emotions Emotions that have moral implications.
62 Pa rt 1 Understanding the Workplace
e Show the impact of emotional labour on employees.
emotional labour When an employee expresses organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal interactions.
felt emotions An individual's actual emotions.
displayed emotions Emotions that are 0<ganizationally required and oon- sidered appropriate in a given job.
a sexist or racis t slur. You might fee l d isgusted in a different way because it offends your sense of right and wrong. In fact, you might feel a variety of emotions based on your moral judgment of the s ituation. 121
Interestingly, research indicates that our responses to moral emotions d iffer from our responses to other emotions. 122 When we feel mora l anger, for instance, we may be more likely to confront the situation that causes it than when we just feel angry. However, we cannot assume our emotional reactions to events on a moral level will be the same as someone else's. Moral emotions are learned, usually in chi ldhood, 123 and thus they are not un iversal l ike innate emotions. Because morality is a construct that d iffers among cultures, so do moral emotions. Therefore, we need to be aware of the moral aspects of situations that trigger our emotions and make certain we understand the con text before we act, especially in the workp lace.
You can think about this research in you r own life to see how moral emo tions operate. Consider a time when you have done something that hurt someone else. Did you feel angry or upset with yourself? Or think about a time when you have seen some- one else trea ted unfairly. Did you fee l contempt for the person acting unfa irly, or d id you engage in a cool, ra tional ca lcu lation of the justice of the sit uation? Most people who think about these s itua tions have some sense of an emotional stirring that might prompt them to engage in ethical actions like donating money to help others, apologiz- ing and attempting to make amends, or interven ing on behalf of those who have been m istreated. In sum, we can conclude that people who are behaving ethically are at least partially making decisions based on their emotions and feelings.
Emotions can be flee ting, but moods can endure .. . for quite a whi le. In order to understand the impact of emotions and moods in organizations, we next classify the many distinct emotions into broader mood categories.
Choosing Emotions: Emotional Labour If you have ever had a job worki ng in retail sales or waiting on tab les in a restaurant, you know the importance of projecting a friendly demeanour and smil ing. Even though there \Vere days when you did not feel cheerful, you knew management expected you to be upbeat when dealing with customers. So you faked it. Every employee expends physica l and mental labour by put ting body and mind into the job. But jobs also requ ire emotional labour, an employee's expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work. 124 Emo tional labour is a key componen t of effective job performance. We expect flight attendants to be cheerfu l, funera l directors to be sad, and doctors emotionally neutral. At the least, your managers expect you to be courteous, not hostile, in your interactions with co-workers.
Ever \vo nde r why the grocer y
clerk is a1~,·ays s,niling'?
The way we experience an emotion is obviously not always the same as the way we show iL To analyze emotional labour, we divide emotions into felt or displayed emotions. 125
Fell emotions are our actual emotions. In contrast, displayed emotions are those that the organ ization requires employees to show and considers appropriate in a given job. They are not nat ural; they are learned.
Effective managers have learned to be serious when giving an employee a nega tive performance evaluation and look ca lm when they are bera ted by their bosses, because the organization expects these d isplays. Of course, there are no display rules for many workplace situations. Does your emp loyer d ictate what emotions you display when you are, say, heading out for lunch? Probably not. Many workplaces have explici t display rules, but usua lly only for interactions that mauer, particu larly between employees and customers. Regard ing employee and customer interactions, you might expect that the more an employer dictates salespeop le's emotiona l d isplays, the higher the sales.
Chapter 2 Perception, Personality, and Emotions 63
Actually, employees under very high or very low display rules do not perform as well in sales s ituations as employees who have moderate display ru les and a high degree of d iscretion in their ro les_ 126
Disp laying fake emotions requ ires us to suppress real ones. Surfa ce acting is hid- ing one's inner fee lings and emotio nal expressions in response to disp lay ru les. For example, when an employee sm iles at a customer even when he does not fee l like it, he is surface acting. Deep a ctin g is trying to mod ify one's true inner feelings based on d isplay rules. A health care prov ider trying to genu inely feel more empathy for her patients is deep acting. 127 Surface acting deals with one's displayed emotions, and deep acting deals with one's felt emotions. Research in the Netherlands and Belgium ind icated that surface acting is stressful to employees, while mi ndfulness (learning to objective ly evaluate one's emotio nal situation in t he moment) is beneficial lo employee well -be ing_ 12a
Displaying emotions we don't really feel is exhausting. Surface acting is associ- ated with increased stress and decreased job satisfaction. 129 Surface acting on a daily bas is can a lso lead to emotional exhaustion a l home, work-family conflict, and insomnia. 130 On t he other hand, deep acting has a positive relationsh ip with job satisfaction and job performance. 131 We also experience less emotional exhaustion w ith deep acting. So, it is important to give employees who engage in surface acting a chance to relax and recharge. A study that looked at how cheerleading instructors spent their breaks from teaching found those who used the time to rest and relax were more effective after the ir breaks. 132 Instructors who d id chores during their breaks were only about as effective after their break as they were before. Another s tudy found that in hospita l work groups where there were heavy emotional disp lay demands, burnout was h igher than in other hospital work groups. 133 Although much of the research on emotional labour shows negative consequen ces for those disp laying fa lse positive emotions, one s tudy suggests that as people age, engaging in positive emo- tions and at ti tudes, even when the circumstances warrant otherwise, actually enhances emotiona l well-be ing. 134 The Experiential Exercise on page 74 asks you whether you can detect when someone is ly ing.
Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace? We have seen that emotions and moods are an important part of our persona l and work lives. Bul how do they influence our job performance and satisfaction? Affective events theory (AET) proposes that employees react emotionally lo th ings that happen to them at work, and this reaction influences their job performance and satisfaction. 135
Say you just found out your company is downsizing. You m igh t experience a variety of negative emo tions, causi ng you to worry that you will lose your job. Beca use il is out of your hands, you fee l insecure and fearful, and spend much of your Lime worryi ng rather than worki ng. Needless lo say, your job satisfaction will also be down.
Work events trigger positive or negative emotional reactions, to which employees' personalities and moods predispose them to respond with greater or lesser inlensity. 136
People who score low on emotional stabil ity are more likely to react strongly lo negative events, and our emotional response to a given event can change depending on mood. Finally, emotions influence a number of performance and satisfaction variab les, such as OCB, organ izationa l commitment, level of effort, intention to quil, and workp lace deviance.
In sum, AET offers two important messages. 137 First, emotions provide va luable insights into how workplace events influence employee performance and satisfaction. Second, emp loyees and managers should not ignore emotions or the events that cause them, even when they appear m inor, because they accumulate. Emo tional intell igence is another framework that helps us understand the impact of emotions on job perfor- mance, so we will look at that next.
surface acting Hiding ooe's inner feelings to display what is expected.
deep acting Trying to modify one's true inner feelings to match what is expected.
mindfulness Objecti'lely and deliberately evaluating !he emotional situation in the moment.
affective events theory (AETI A model that suggests that workplace e'len!s cause emotiooal reactioos oo the part of employees, which !hen influence workplace attitudes and behaviours.
64 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
0 Contrast the evidence for and against the existence of emotional intelligence.
emotional intelligence (Ell The ability to detect and to manage emotional cues and information.
EXHIBIT 2-9 A Cascading Model of Emotional Intelligence
Conscientiousness
Cognit ive
Emotional Stability
Emotional Intelligence
Perceive Emotions i n Self and Others
Understand the Mean ing of Emotions
Regulate Emotions
Diane is a n office manager. Her awareness of her own and o thers' emotions is almost zero. She is moody and unab le to generate much enth usiasm or interest in her employ- ees. She does not understand why employees get upset with her. She often overreacts to problems and chooses the most ineffectual responses to emotional situations. 138 Diane has low emotional intelligence. Emotional in telli gence ( EI) is a person's abi lity to ( 1) perceive emotions in the self and others, (2) understand the meaning of these emotions, and (3) regulate his or her own emotions accordingly in a cascading model. as shown in Exhib it 2-9. People who know their own emotions and are good at read ing emotional cues- for instance, knowing why they are angry and how to express themselves without violating norms- are most likely to be effective.139 Focus 011 Research looks at the issue of whether smi les are infectious. You may be surprised to learn the extent to which your mood ca n affect the mood of others.
FOCUS ~NESEARCH Smile, and t he Work World Smiles with You
Can you make another person smile? It is true that a smile usually creates an unconscious return smile from the person smiled at. 140 However, anyone who has ever smiled at an
angry manager knows that a smile does not always have a positive effect. In truth, the
giving and withholding of smiles is an unconscious power play of office politics. New research on the "boss effect" suggests that the amount of power and status a
person feels over another person d ictates who will sm ile. Subordinates generally smile
more often than their bosses sm ile back at them. However, the perception of power is complex and varies by national culture: In a recent study, Chinese workers reflexively
smiled only at bosses who had the power to give them negative job evaluations, while
US partic ipants smiled most to managers perceived to have higher social power. Other researchers found that when individuals felt powerful , they usually did not return even a
high-ranking individual's smile. Conversely, when people felt powerless, they returned
everyone's smiles. While we think of smiling as a choice, smiling (or concealing a smile) is often uncon-
scious. Researchers are finding that social pressure affects neurobiology. "It shapes your
neural architecture," said cognitive neuroscientist Sook-Lei Liew. Sm ile reactions are, therefore, partially involuntary; when smiling is a product of our attitudes, it can become
an unconscious process. Thus, "your feelings about power and status seem to d ictate how m uch you are willing to return a smile to another person," cognitive neuroscientist
: Evan Carr affirmed. . ........................................................... .
Chapter 2 Perception, Personality, and Emotions 6 5
A comprehensive study reviewed and analyzed most of lhe previous stud ies on EI and concl uded lha t El is strongly and posi tively correlated w ith job performa nce-
emotionally intell igent people are beuer wo rkers. 141 One study lhat used functional
magnetic reso nance imaging {fMRI) technology found lhal executive MBA students who performed best o n a strategic decision-maki ng task were more l ikely to incorporate
emotion centres of lhe brai n i nto lheir choice process. The students also de-emphasized lhe use of lhe more cogni tive parts of their b rains. 142 One simulation study showed that
students w h o were good at identifying and distinguishing among lheir own feelings
were ab le to make more profitable i nvestment decisions. 143
Al though the field is progressing in iL~ u nderstandi ng of El, many q uestions have
not been answered. One relates to proving what EI may pred ict. For exampl e, wh i le
evidence i ndicates that EI has some correlati on wilh job performance, the correlation is no t h igh, and il is explained lo a l arge degree by tra its such as emotional stabil ity. A
second questio n is ab out lhe reliabi l ity of El testi ng. For example, part of the reason El
has onl y a modest correl ati on w ith job effectiveness is that il is hard to measure- mostly il is measured w ith self-report inventories, which of course are often far from objective!
Thus, assessi ng exactly how EI shou ld be used in lhe workplace is unclear, as Focus on Ethics sh ows.
FD c us ~~ HICS An Ethical Choice
Shou ld managers use emotional intelligence t ests? Should El tests be used to select the best job candidate?144 Here are some ethical considerations:
• No commonly accepted test exists. For instance, researchers have recently used
the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEll), the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire, and the Situational Judgment Test of Emotional Intelligence
(SJT of El) in studies. Researchers feel El tests may need to be culturally specific because emotional displays vary by culture; thus, the interpretation of emotional
cues d iffers. For example, a recent study in India comparing the El scores for Indian
and North American executives using the Emotional Competence Inventory (ECl-2) test found the results similar but not the same, suggesting the need for modification.
• Applicants may react negatively to taking an El test in general, or to parts of it. The face
recognition test, for example, may seem culturally biased to some if the subject photos are not diverse. Also, partic ipants who score high on El tests tend to consider them
fair; applicants who score lower may not perceive the tests to be fair and can thus view
the hiring organizations unfavourably - even if they score well on other assessments. • El tests may not be predictive of performance for all types of jobs. In a study of 600
Romanian participants, results indicated that El was valid for salespeople, public
servants, and CEOs of public hospitals, but these were all roles requiring significant social interaction. El tests may need to be tailored for each position category or not
be used when the position description does not warrant.
• It remains somewhat unclear what El tests are actually measuring. They may reflect personality or intelligence, in which case other measures might be better. Also, mixed
El tests may predict job performance, but many of these tests include personality constructs and measures of general mental ability.
• Not enough research exists on how B affects counterproductive or desirable work behav- iours. It may not be prudent to test and select applicants who are rated high on El when we are not yet certain that everything about El leads to desired workplace outcomes.
These concerns suggest that El tests should be avoided in hiring decisions. However,
because research has indicated that El does predict job performance to some degree, managers should not be too hasty to dismiss them altogether. Rather, those wishing to
use El in hiring decisions should be aware of these issues to make informed and ethical
decisions about not only whom to hire but also how to hire. _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _
66 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
G) Identify strategies for emotion regulation and their likely effects.
Negative Workplace Emotions Negative emotions can lead lo a number of deviant workp lace behaviours. Anyone who has spent much time in an organization realizes that people often engage in voluntary actions that v io late established norms and threaten the organiza tion, its members, or both. These actions are called co11nterprod11clive work behaviour.s. 145 They can be traced lo negative emotions and can take many forms. People who feel negative emotions are more likely than others lo engage in short-term deviant behaviour al work, such as gossip ing or surfing the Internet, 146 though negative emotions can also lead lo more serious forms of counterproductive work behaviour.
For instance, envy is an emotion that occurs when you resent someone for hav- ing something you don't, and strongly desire- such as a belier work assignment, larger office, or higher salary. It can lead to mal icious deviant behaviours. An envious employee cou ld undermine other emp loyees and take all the cred it for th ings others accomplished. Angry people look for other people lo blame for their bad mood, inter- pret other people's behaviour as hosti le, and have trouble considering others' points of v iew. 147 It's not hard to see how these thought processes, too, can lead directly lo verbal or physical aggression.
Managing emotions in the workplace becomes important both lo ward off negative behaviour and lo encourage positive behaviour in those around us. Some managers have even hired happiness coaches for their employees, as discussed in Echical Di/em.ma on pages 74-75.
You may be surprised lo learn the extent lo wh ich your mood can affect the mood of o thers. A recent study in Pakistan found that anger correla ted with more aggres- s ive counterproductive work behaviours such as abuse against others and production deviance, while sadness did not In terestingly, ne ither anger nor sadness predicted workplace withdrawal, which suggests tha t managers need to take employee expres- s ions of anger seriously; employees may stay w ith an organ ization and continue lo act aggressively toward others. 148 Once aggress ion starts, it's likely that other people will become angry and aggressive, so the stage is set for a serious escalation of negative behaviour. Managers therefore need lo stay connected with their emp loyees lo gauge emotions and emotional intensity levels.
Emotion Regulation Have you ever tried to cheer yourself up when yo u are feeling down or calm yourself when you are feel ing angry? If so, you have engaged in emocion regulation.149 The cen- tral idea behind emotion regulation is lo identi fy and modify the emo tions you fee l. Recent research suggests that emotion management abi lity is a strong predictor of task performance for some jobs and organizational citizenship behaviours. 150 Therefore, in our study of OB, we are interested in whether and how emotion regulation should be used in the workplace. We begin by identify ing which individua ls m ight natura lly employ iL
Emotion Regulation Techn iq ues Researchers of emo tion regu lation often s tudy the strategies people may employ lo change their emotions. One technique we have dis- cussed in this chapter is surface acting, or literally •p ulling on a face• of appropriate response lo a given situation. Surface acting does not change emotions, though, so the regulation effect is min imal and the resu lt of daily surface acting leads lo exhaustion and fewer OCBs. 151 Perhaps due lo the costs of creatively expressing what we don't feel, individuals who vary their surface-acting response may have lower job satisfac- tion and h igher levels of work withdrawal than those who consistently give the same responses. 152
Deep acting, another strategy we have covered, is less psychologically costly than surface acting because the employee is actually tryi ng lo experience the emotion. Emo- tion regulation through deep acting can have a positive impact on work outcomes.
Chapt er 2 Perception, Personality, and Emotions 67
For example, a recent study in the Netherlands and Germany found that individua ls in service jobs earned significantly more direct pay {tips) after they received tra ining in deep acting.153
One technique of emotion regulation is emotional suppression, or suppressing initial emotional responses to situations. This response seems to facilita te practical th inking in the short term. However, it appears Lo be helpful only when a strongly negative event wou ld elici t a distressed emotional reaction in a cris is siluation.154 For example, a sol- d ier in baule may suppress in itial emotional distress after a shooting a nd thus be able to make clearer decis ions about how Lo proceed. A portfolio manager might suppress an emotiona l reaction to a sudden drop in the value of a s tock and therefore be able to clearly decide how Lo plan. Suppression used in cris is s ituations appears Lo help an individual recover from the event emotionally, while suppression used as an everyday emotion regulation technique can take a toll on menta l ab ility, emotional ability, health, and relationsh ips. 155
Thus, unless we are truly in a crisis situation, acknowledging rather than suppressing our emotional responses to situations, and re-evaluating evenL~ after they occur yield the best outcomes.156 Cognitive reappraisal, or reframing our outlook on an emotio nal s itua tion, is one way Lo effectively regulate emotions. 157 Cognitive reappra isal ability seems to be the most helpful to individuals in s ituations where they cannot contro l the sources of stress. 158 A recent study illustrates the potentially powerfu l effect of this techn ique. Israel i participants were shown anger-inducing information about the Israeli- Palestinian conflict; after they were primed to reappraise the s it uation they showed more willingness to co nsider conciliatory measures toward Pa lestine and less support for aggressive tactics against Palesti nians, no t just immediately after the study but up to five months later. Th is finding suggests that cogni tive reappraisal may allow people to change their emotional responses, even when the subject matter is as highly emo tionally charged as the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. 159 Mindfulness also has been shown to increase the abil ity Lo shape our behavioura l responses Lo emotions. 160 When people become non- judgme ntally aware of the emotions they are experiencing, they are beuer able to look at situations separately from their emotions.
Another technique with potential for emotion regulation is social sharing or ven ting. Research shows that the open expression of emotions can help the individuals regu- late their emotions, as opposed Lo keeping emotio ns •bo ttled up.• Socia l sharing can reduce anger reactions when people can talk about the facts of a bad situation, their feelings about the sit uation, or any positive aspects of the s ituation. 161 Caution must be exercised, though, because expressing your frustra tion affects other people. In fact, whether venting emotions helps the •venter" feel beller depends very much upon the listener's response. If the listener does not respond (many refuse to respond to ven ting), the venter actually feels worse. If the l istener responds with expressions of support or validation, the venter feels heller. Therefore, if we are go ing to vent to a co-worker, we need to choose someone who will respond sympathetically. Venting Lo the perceived offender rarely improves things and can result in heightening the negative emotions. 162
[[~ ]] RESEARCH FINDINGS: Emotion Regulation ;J}.,: Whi le emotion regu lation techniques can help us cope w ith difficuh work- ~ p lace s it uations, research indicates that the effect varies. A recent study in
Ta iwan found that participants who worked for abusive supervisors reported emo tional exhaustion and work withdrawal tendencies, but to different degrees based on the emo- tion regulation strategies they emp loyed. Employees who used suppression techn iques suffered greater emotiona l exhaustion and work withdrawal than employees who used cogn itive reappra isal. This suggests that more research on the application of techniques needs Lo be done to help employees increase their coping skills. 163
68 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
Thus, whi le there is much prom ise in emotion regulatio n techniques, the best route to a posi tive workplace is lo recruit posi tive-minded individuals and to tra in leaders to manage their moods, job attitudes, and performan ce. 164 The best leaders manage emo- tions as much as they do tasks and activities. The best employees can use their knowl- edge of emotion regulation to decide wh en to speak up and how to express themselves effectively. 165 With computers now being programmed lo read emotions, as OB in the Workplace indicates, it may be h arder to h ide emotions at work in the future.
Affective Com puti ng: Reading Your State of Mind
Can com puters really recognize a user's emotions? The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Med ia Lab is currently programming computers to use 24 fac ia l points from which they can infer an emotion. 166 Whal if computers could be made emotionally intelligent to help a person get past frustra tion into productivity? What if managers could automatically receive reports on virtual employees' emotions? What if sensors could help employees stay well by providing feedback on their emotional reactions to stress?
Affective computing can provide managers with in-the-moment help. At Mfrs lab, a tiny traffic light, visible only to the wearer, flashes yellow when a listener's face indicates lack of engagement in the conversation and red for complete disengagement. These cues could help a manager who is del ivering importan t safety information to an employee, for instance. The MIT team has also developed wristbands that sense emotiona l stales and activity levels. They could help managers work with employees who are on the Asperger's or autism spectrum. ·with th is technology in the future, we' ll be able to u nderstand things .. . th at we weren' t able to see before, things that calm them, things that stress them," said Rosalind Picard, the team's d irector.
With this possibil ity comes responsib ility, of course. Obvious ethical issues will only grow with the technology's increasi ng soph istication. Employees may not wanl comput- ers lo read their emotio ns either for their managers' use or for au tomatic feedback. 'We wanl to have some control over how we d isplay ourselves to others," said Nick Bostrom of the University of Oxford's Fu lure of Human ity Institute.
Organizations will eventually have to decide when it is appropriate lo read emp loy- ees' emotions, as well as wh ich emotions to read. In the meantime, according to affec- tive computing experts, people are s ti ll the best readers of emotions from facial cues. Perhaps managers can get lo know their employees' state of mind by paying closer allention to those cues. . ...................................................... .
Perception Several studies h ave examined how people observe the world around th em. 167 In o ne s tudy; researchers showed East Asian and US subject.~ a photo with a focal object (l ike a tra in) with a busy background and tracked their eye movements. They found that the US subjects were more likely to look a t the focal object, whereas the East Asian subjects were more likely to look at the background. Thus, the East Asians appeared
Chapt er 2 Perception, Personality, and Emotions 69
to focus more on the context or environmen t than on the most important object in it. As one of the researchers concluded, "If people are seeing different th ings, il may be because they are looking differently at the world." 168
Perceptual d ifferences across cu ltures have been found to be rooted in the brain's architecture. Using an fMRI device to scan subjects' brains, one researcher found lhat when Singaporeans were shown pictures where either the foreground or background was varied, their brains were less attuned to new foreground images and more auuned to new background images than were the bra ins of US subjects. 169 This finding suggests that perception is not universal, and that the cultura l tendency to focus on either an object/person or a context is part of the •hard wiring" of our brains.
Finally, culture affects what we remember as well. When asked to remember events, US subjects recall more about personal details and lheir own personal characteris tics, whereas Asians recall more about personal relationships and group activities. 170
As a set, these stud ies provide striking evidence lhat Eastern and Western cultures d iffer in one of the deepest aspects of organizational behaviour: how we see the world around us.
Attributions The evidence on cultural d ifferences in perception is mixed, bu t most stud ies suggest that lhere are d ifferences across cu ltures in the at tributions people make. 171 In one study, Asian managers were more l ikely to Jay blame on institutions or whole organizations when things went wrong, \vhereas Western observers believed indiv idua l managers should be lhe focus of blame or praise.172 Thal probably explains why Canadian and US newspapers prominently report the names of ind ividual execu tives when firms do poorly, whereas Asian media provide more coverage of how the firm as a whole has failed. This tendency to make group-based anributions a lso expla ins why ind ividua ls from Asian cultures, which are more collectivistic in orien tation, are more likely lo use group stereotypes. 173
Self-serving b iases may be less common in East Asian cultures, but evidence suggests that they still operate there. 174 Studies suggest lhat Ch inese managers assess blame for m istakes using the same d istinctiveness, consensus, and consistency cues Western man- agers use. 175 fl may just take more evidence for Asian managers to conclude someone else should be blamed.
Personality The five personality tra its identified in the Big Five model appear in almost all cross- cultural studies. 176 These studies have included a wide variety of diverse cu ltures- such as Ch ina, Israel, Germany, Japan, Spa in, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, and the United Stales. However, a study of illiterate Indigenous people in Bolivia suggested the Big Five framework may be Jess applicab le when studying lhe persona lities of small, remote groups.177
Emotions People vary in lhe degree to wh ich lhey experience emotions. In Ch ina, for example, people report experienci ng fewer positive and negative emotions than people in olher cu ltures, and lhe emotions they experience are less intense lhan what olher cu lt ures report_ Compared with ma in land Chinese, Taiwanese are more like Canadian employees in their experience of emotions: On average, Taiwanese report more posi tive and fewer negative emotions lhan their Chinese counterparts. 178 Peop le in most cultures appear to experience certain positive and negative emotions, bul lhe frequency of lheir experi- ence and their intensity vary to some degree. 179 Exhibit 2-10 illustrates the percentage of people who experience emotions on a dai ly basis across cul lures.
7 0 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
EXHIBIT 2-10 Emotional States Cross-Culturally
Percentage of people who reported experiencing emotions on a daily basis*
60% 60%
55%
50%
45%
40%
35%
Phi l ippines United States
United Ki ngdom
Taiwan India Russi a Si ngapore
Most Emoti o nal Societi es Most Emotio nless Societi es
' Respondents in 150+ countries worldwide over two years were asked whether they experienced live posttive emotions (well-rested, treated with respect, enjoyment, smling and laughing, learning or dong something interesting) and f,ve negative emotions (anger, stress, sadness, physical pain, worry) daJy.
Source: J . Clifton, "Singapore Ranks as Least Emotional Country in the World," Gallup World, November 21 , 2012, http:/ /www.gallup.com/ poll/158882/ singapore-ranks-least-emotional-country-world.aspx.
LESSON S LEARNED
• Peopl e act on the basis of their perception of reality.
• Personality attributes provide a framework for predicting
behaviour. • Peopl e who are good at read·
ing the emotions of others
are generally more effective in the workplace.
A recent st udy s uggested that people do no t inlerprel emotions the same way across cultures from vocalizations. Wh ile vocalizations (such as sighs or screams) conveyed meaning in all cultures, the specific emotions people perceived varied . For example, Himba participan ts (from northwestern Namibia) did not agree with Western participants that crying meant sadness or a grow l meant anger. 180 In add i- tion, cu ltures have norms tha t govern emo tional expression, so the way we experience an emotion is nol a lways the same as the way we show it. For example, people in the Middle East and Canada recognize a smile as indica ting happiness, but in the Middle East a sm ile is also often interpreted as a s ign of sexual at traction, so women have learned not to smile al men. In collectivist countries, people are more likely to believe another's emotional displays have someth ing lo do with the relationsh ip between them, wh ile people in individualistic cultures don't think o thers' emotional expres- s ions are directed at them.
- Summary Individuals base their behaviour not on the way their external environment actually is, but rather on the way they see il or believe it to be.
Personal ity matters to OB. ll does nol expla in all behaviour, but it sets the stage. Emerging theory and research reveal how personal ity matters more in some situa- tions than others. The Big Five Personality Model has been a particularly important advancement, although the Dark Triad and other trails mailer as well. Moreover, every trail has advantages and disadvantages for work behavio ur. No perfect constellation of tra its is idea l in every s ituation. Personality can help you understand why people (including yourself!) act, think, and feel the way they do, and the astute manager can
Chapter 2 Perception, Personality, and Emotions 71
pul lha l understanding to use by taking care lo place employees in s ituations that best fit lheir personalities.
Emotions and moods are sim ilar in lhat bolh are affective in natu re. They are also d ifferent- moods are more general and less contextual than emotions. The time of day, stressful events, and sleep pauerns are some of the factors that influence emotions and moods. OB research on emotional labour, affective events theory, emotional intel- ligence, and emotion regulation h elps us understand how people deal with emotions. Emotions and moods have proven relevant for vi rtually every OB topic we study, with impl ications for managerial practice.
SNAPSHOT SUMMARY j Perception
• Factors That Influence Perception
• Perceptual Errors • Why Do Perception and
Judgment Mattel'?
Personality
• What Is Personality? • Measuring Personality
Myl ab Management
• Personality Determinants
• Personality Traits
• The Dark Triad • Other Personality Attributes
That Influence OB
• Situation Strength Theory
Emotions
• What Are Emotions and Moods?
• Moral Emotions • Choosing Emotions: Emotional
Labour
• Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?
Study, practise, and explore real business situations with these helpful resources:
• Study Plan: Check your understanding of chapter concepts with self-study quizzes.
• Online Lesson Presentations: Study key chapter topics and work through interactive assessments to test your knowledge and master management concepts.
• Videos: Learn more about the management practices and strategies of real companies.
• Simulations: Practise management decision-making in simulated business environments.
-"' a:I C)
.,. tor Review
1. What is perception? What fac- tors influence our perception?
2. What is attribution theory? What are the three determinants of attribution? What are the impli· cations of attribution theory for explaining organizational behaviour?
3. What is personality? How do we typically measure it? What factors determine personality?
4. What is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator? What are its strengths
and weaknesses?
5. What are the key traits in the Big Five Personality Model?
6. How do the Big Five personality traits predict behaviour at work?
7. What is the difference between em otions and moods?
8. What impact does emotional labour have on em ployees?
9. What is the evidence for and against the existence of
em otional intelligence?
1 O. What are some strategies for em otion regulation and their likely effects?
for Managers
• Consider screening job candi- dates for the Big Five personality traits your organization finds most important. Other traits, such as core self-evaluation or narcissism, may be relevant as well.
• Know that the MBTI has been w idely criticized . Yet, it may be helpful for training and develop- ment; it can also help employees better understand themselves and one another, open up com- munication in work groups, and possibly reduce conflicts.
• Behaviour follows perception, so to influence behaviour at work, assess how people perceive their work. Often behaviours we find puzzling can be explained by understanding the initiating perceptions.
• Recognize that emotions are a natural part of the workplace and good management does not mean creating an emotion-free environment.
• To foster effective decision mak- ing, creativity, and motivation in employees, model positive emo- tions and moods as much as is authentically possible.
• Regulate your intense emotional responses to an event by recog- nizing the legitimacy of the emo- tion and being careful to vent only to a supportive listener who is not involved in the event.
• Don' t ignore co-workers' and employees' emotions; don' t assess oth ers' behaviour as if it were completely rational. As one consultant said, "You can' t divorce emotions from the work- place because you can't divorce emotions from people." 181 Under- standing emotions and moods w ill significantly improve your abil· ity to explain and predict others' behaviour.
for You
• The discussion of perception m ight get you thinking about how you view the world. When we per- ceive someone as a troublemaker, for instance, that may be only a perception and not a real charac- teristic of the person. It is always good to question your percep -
tions, just to be sure that you are not reading something into a situ- ation that is not there.
• One important thing to consider when looking for a job is whether your personality w ill fit the organi- zation to which you are applying . For instance, let's say that you are considering working for a highly structured company. If you, by nature, are m uch less formal, then that company may not be a good fit for you.
• Sometim es personalities get in the way when working in groups. You m ay want to see if you can figure out ways to get personality differences to work in favour of group goals.
• Emotions need not always be suppressed w hen working w ith others. While emotions can sometimes hinder performance, posit ive emotions can m otivate you and those around you.
Chapter 2 Perception, Personality, and Emotions
SOMETIMES YELLING IS FOR EVERYONE'S GOOD
POI NT Anger is discussed throughout this chapter for a rea-
son: It's an important emotion. i s2 There are benefits to
expressing anger. For one, research indicates that only
employees who are committed to their organizations
tend to express their anger, and generally only to lead- ers who created the situation. This type of expression of
anger could lead to positive organizational change. Sec-
ond, suppressed anger can lower job satisfaction and
lead to feelings of hopelessness.
Even with these findings, we hear a lot about not
responding emotionally to work challenges. Work cul- tures teach us to avoid showing any anger at all, lest we
be seen as poor workers or, worse, unprofessional or
even deviant or violent. While, of course, there are times
when the expression of anger is harmful or unprofes-
sional, we have taken this view so far that we now teach people to suppress perfectly normal emotions, and to
ignore the effectiveness of some emotional expression.
Emerging research shows that suppressing anger
takes a terrible internal toll on individuals. One Stanford
University study found, for example, that when individu-
als were asked to wear a poker face during the showing of a movie clip depicting the atomic bombings of Japan
during World War II, they were much more stressed in
conversations after the video. Other research shows
that college students who suppress emotions like anger
have more trouble making friends and are more likely to be depressed, and that employees who suppress anger
feel more stressed by work.
For the good of organizations and their employees,
we should encourage people not to hold back their emo-
tions, but to share them constructively.
COUNTERPOINT Yes, anger is a common emotion. But it's also a toxic one
for the giver and the receiver. Angry outbursts can com-
promise the heart and contribute to diabetes, among
other ill effects. The experience of another's anger and its close correlate, hostility, is also linked to many counter- productive behaviours in organizations. The US Bureau
of Labor Statistics estimates that 16 percent of fatal
workplace injuries result from workplace violence. That
is why many organizations have developed counterac-
tive techniques- to blunt the harmful effects of anger in
the workplace. To reduce outcomes, many companies develop
policies that govern conduct such as yelling , shouting
profanities, and making hostile gestures. Others insti-
tute anger management programs. For example, one
organization conducted mandatory in-house workshops that showed individuals how to deal with conflicts in the
workplace before they boil over. The director who insti-
tuted the training said it "gave people specific tools for
opening a dialogue to work things out ." MTS Systems, a
Minnesota engineering firm, engages an outside consult -
ing company to conduct anger management programs for its organization. Typically, MTS consultants hold an
8-hour seminar that discusses sources of anger, conflict
resolution techniques, and organizational policies. This is
followed by one-on-one sessions with individual employ-
ees that focus on cognitive behavioural techniques to
manage their anger. The outside trainer charges around $10 000 for the seminar and one-on-one sessions. The
financial cost, though, is worth it for the emotional ben-
efits the participants receive. "You want people to get
better at communicating with each other,• says MTS
manager Karen Borre. In the end, everyone w ins when organizations seek
to diminish both the experience and the expression of
anger at work. The work environment becomes less
threatening and stressful to employees and custom-
ers. Employees are likely to feel safer, and the angry
employee is often helped as well.
73
74 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES
Fonn sm all groups to discuss the follow ing topics, as assigned by your instructor. Each person in the group should first identify 3-5 key personal values.
1. Think back to your perception of this course and your instructor on the first day of class. What factors might have affected your perceptions of w hat the rest of the tenn would be like?
2. Describe a situation where your perception turned out to be wrong. What perceptual errors did you make that might have caused this to happen?
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
Who Can Catch a Liar? We mentioned earlier in the chapter that emotion researchers are highly interested in facial expressions as a w indow into
individuals' emotional worlds. 183 Research has also studied whether people can tell someone is lying based on signs
of guilt or nervousness in their facial expressions. Let 's see who is good at catching liars, but first consider this: How good you are at detecting lies by others is related to your own m ood. You are actually less likely to correctly detect a lie
if you are in a happy mood. Hint: If you are in a negative mood , concentrate m ostly on the message itself (Does it seem plausible?); if you are in a positive m ood , concentrate more on the nonverbal cues (such as fidgety or calm behaviour).
Split up into teams and follow these instructions.
1. Randomly choose someone to be the team organizer. Have this person write down on a piece of paper "T" for truth and "L" for lie. If there are, say, six people in the group (other than the organizer). then three people will get a slip w ith a "T" and three a slip w ith an "L." It's important that all team m embers keep what is on their paper a secret.
2. Each team member w ho holds a T slip needs to come up with a true statement, and each team member who holds an L slip needs to come up with a false statement. Try not to make the statement so outrageous that no one would believe it (for example, •1 have flown to the moon").
3. The organizer will have each m ember m ake his or her statement. Group members should then examine the person making the statement closely to try to detennine w hether he or she is telling the truth or lying . Once each person has made his or her statement, the organizer will ask for a vote and record the tallies.
4. Each person should now indicate whether the statement was the truth or a lie.
5. How good was your group at catching the liars? Were som e people good liars? What did you look for to deter- mine w hether someone was lying?
ETHICAL DILEMMA
Happiness Coaches for Employees We know there is considerable spillover from personal
unhappiness to negative em otions at work. 184 More-
over, those who experience negative emotions in life and at work are more likely to engage in counterpro-
ductive behaviours w ith customers, c lients, or fellow
employees.
Increasingly, organizations such as American Express,
UBS, and KPMG are turning to happiness coaches to
address this spillover from personal unhappiness to work emotions and behaviours.
Sr ikum ar Rao is a form er college p rofessor w ho
has t he nicknam e "the happiness guru." Rao teaches
people to analyze negative emotions to prevent them
from becoming overwhelming. If your job is restructured,
for example, Rao suggests avoiding negative thoughts
and feelings about it. Instead, he advises, tell yourself it
could tum out well in the long run, and there is no way
to know at present.
Beyond reframing the emotional impact of work situ-
ations, some happiness coaches attack the negative
emotional spillover from life to work (and from work to
life). A working mother found that a happiness talk by
Shawn Achor helped her stop focusing on her stressed-
out life and instead look for chances to smile, laugh, and
be grateful.
In so me cases , th e claims made by happ iness
coaches seem a bit trite. Jim Smith, w ho labels himself
"The Executive Happiness Coach,• asks: "What if I told
you that there are secrets nobody told you as a kid-or
as an adult , for that matter -that can unlock for you
all sorts of positive emot ional experiences? What if
the only thing that gets in the way of you feeling more
happiness is-YOU? ! What if you can chang e your
experience of t he world by shifting a few simple things
in your life, and then practising them until they become
second nature?"
Chapter 2 Perception, Personality, and Emot ions 75
If employees leave their experiences with a happiness
coach feeling happier about their jobs and their lives, is
that not better for everyone? Says one individual, Ivelisse
Rivera, who felt she benefited from a happiness coach,
"If I assume a negative attitude and complain all the time,
whoever is working with me is going to feel the same way.•
But what if you cannot afford a happiness coach and
your employer does not want to foot the bill? Recent
research suggests a do-it-yourself opportunity to increase
your good mood at home. The key is to lend a helping
hand . If you help others at work, you may find that later
at home, after you have had a chance to relax and reflect,
your mood will be improved.
Questions
1. Do you think happiness coaches are effective? How might you assess their effectiveness?
2. Would you welcome happiness training in your workplace? Why or why not?
3. Under what circumstances- if any- is it ethically appropriate for a supervisor to suggest a happiness coach for a subordinate?
CASE INCIDENTS
The Power of Quiet If someone labelled you an "introvert" how would it make you feel? 1 ss
Judging from research on social desirability, most of
us would prefer to be labelled extraverts. Normal distri-
butions being what they are, however, half the world is
more introverted than average. Earlier in the chapter we
discussed the upside of introversion, but in many ways, it's an extravert's world . So says Susan Cain in her best-
selling book Quiet.
Cain makes three arguments:
1. We see ourselves as extraverts. Introversion
is generally seen as undesirable, partly because extraverts like being in charge and are more apt to
shape environments to fit their w ishes. "Many of the most important institutions of contemporary life are
designed for those w ho enjoy group projects and
high levels of stimulation."
2. Introversion is driven underground. Thanks to
social norms and structures, introverts often are
forced to be "closet introverts"-acting according to an extraverted ideal, even if that is not their
personality at heart. Think about it. If someone
comments, "You're awfully quiet ," they nearly
always assume an underlying problem, as if not
being quiet is the norm.
3. Extraversion is not all it's cracked up to be. Because introversion is suppressed, we cause the
introverts of the world distress and fail to capitalize on
the many virtues of introversion. We may overlook the
quiet, thoughtful introvert w hen choosing a leader,
we may quell creativity by doing most of our work in
groups, and we may mistake appearance for reality ("Don't mistake assertiveness or eloquence for good
ideas," Cain writes). Society may unwittingly push
people to take risks more than is warranted, to act
before they think, and to focus on short-term rewards
above all else. Introverts prefer quiet conditions to concentrate on difficult tasks.
76 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
Cain is not anti -extravert. She simply thinks we should
encourage people to be who they truly are, and that
means valuing extraversion and introversion. Research
indicates happy introverts are every bit as happy as happy
extraverts. Cain concludes, "The next time you see a
person w ith a composed face and soft voice, remember
that inside her mind she might be solving an equation,
composing a sonnet, designing a hat. She might, that is,
be deploying the powers of quiet.•
Quest.ions
1. Would you classify yourself as introverted or extra- verted? How would people w ho know you describe
you?
2. Would you prefer to be more introverted, or more extraverted, than you are? Why?
3. Do you agree with Cain's arguments? Why or why not?
Tall Poppy Syndrome " ... the tall poppy syndrome, where the successful
are cut down to the same size as everyone else,
quic k smart. You're not supposed to stand out for
intelligence, achievement, or, worst of all, wealth."
- Peter Hartcher
You may be wondering w hat poppies have to do w ith
the w orkplace. 186 It's a reasonable question. The alle-
gory behind tall poppy syndrome goes back centuries,
but the emotions of envy and resentment toward strong
performers - and the desire to •cut them down to size" -
are timeless. So is the reality - evidence indicates that
indiv iduals w hose performance and status rise above
the rest (the tall poppies) sometimes find their careers
are decapitated by jealous co-workers (the shorter pop-
pies) w ho undermine their efforts. Tall poppies are more
likely to be victimized by group members, and group
members are often pleased if a tall poppy is "brought
down• by outsiders.
Tall poppy syndrome seems to be motivated by the
observer's personality traits, emotions, and percep tion
of justice. When individuals believe the high achiever
is undeserving of his or her status, or conversely when
individuals believe they deserve a higher status than they
have been given (called relative deprivation), resentment
and envy are heightened . The degree of tall poppy syn-
d rome also seems to relate to the trait s of the people
who judge their co-workers. People who have lower self-
esteem and who do not value power and achievement
tend to think high performers are undeserving and should
fall. Finally, the general likeability of the achiever seems
to influence the emotions of observers. If achievers are
popular, part of the in-group, work hard, and exhibit high
moral character, observers are less likely to feel resentful
and wish them ill.
Tall poppy syndrome may be universal, but there are
cultu ral d ifferences. Researc h has shown that in col-
lectivistic soc ieties like Japan, students in a study were
more inclined to cut down a high performer because they
resented distinguishing one person more than the rest of
the group. In contrast, students from the indiv idualistic
United States were more likely to reward high achievers
than were Australian students because the Americans did
not feel the same degree of envy.
To the extent that it cuts dow n those with legitimate
achievements, there is noth ing good about tall poppy
syndrome when high performers are victimized and work
performance is limited to a common denominator. Both
the high performer and the organization can employ some
countermeasures aimed at lessening the emotional reac-
tions of observers. For one, high performers can demon-
strate humbleness and humility. This may allow them to
boost the performance of co-workers, who then no longer
feel resentful of their success. Second, managers can
increase work group identity for the co-workers, so they
see the success of one individual as the success of the
group, rather than as an injustice.
Quest.ions
1. Have you observed tall poppy syndrome in your workplace or school? Which traits seemed to bother the observers the most?
2. In what specific ways do you think high performers can mitigate feelings of envy and resentment? Give examples.
The easiest way to find out what someone is feeling is to ask them. Saying something as simple as "Are you okay? What's the problem?" can often provide you with the information to assess an individual's emotional state. But relying on a verbal response has two drawbacks. First, almost all of us conceal our emotions to some extent for pri- vacy and to reflect social expectations. So we might be unwilling to share our true feelings. Second, even if we want to verbally convey our feelings, we may be unable to do so. As we noted earlier, some people have d ifficulty understanding their own emotions and, hence, are unable to express them verbally. So, at best, verbal responses provide only partial information.
Let's say you are talking with a co-worker. Does the fact that his
back is rigid, his teeth c lenched, and his facial muscles tight tell you
something about his emotional state? It probably should. Facial expres- sions, gestures, body movements, and physical distance are nonverbal
cues that can provide additional insights into what a person is feeling.
The facial expressions shown in Exhibit 2 - 11 , for instance, are a win- dow into a person's feelings. Notice the difference in facial features:
the height of the cheeks, the raising or lowering of the brow, the turn of
the mouth, the positioning of the lips, and the configuration of muscles
EXHIBIT 2-11 Facial Expressions and Emotions
Each picture portrays a different emotion. Try to identify them before looking at the answers.
Top, left to right: neutral, surprise, happiness. Bottom: fear, sadness, anger.
Source: Paul Ekman, PhD/ Paul Ekman Group, LLC.
Chapter 2 Perception, Personality , and Emot ions 77
Reading Emotions Understanding another person's felt emotions is very difficult. But we can learn to read others' dis- played emotions.18 7 We do this by focusing on verbal, nonverbal, and paralanguage cues.
Cl co "' -
78 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Practising Skills
•••••••••••••••••••••
Reinforcing Skills
around the eyes. Even som ething as sub tle as the distance at which
someone chooses to posit ion him - or herself from you can convey
how much intim acy, aggressiveness, repugnance, or w ithdrawal that
person feels.
When you speak w ith someone, you may notice a sharp change in the
tone of her voice and the speed at w hich she speaks. You are tapping into
the third source of information on a person's emotions- paralanguage.
This is communication that goes beyond the specific spoken words. It
includes pitch, amplitude, rate, and voice quality of speech. Paralanguage
reminds us that people convey their feelings not only in w hat they say, but
also in how they say it.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Part A. Form groups of 2. Each person is to spend a couple of minutes
thinking of a time in the past when he or she was emotional about some-
thing . Examples might include being upset with a parent, sibling, or friend;
being excited or disappointed about an academic or athletic achievement;
being angry with someone over an insult or slight; being disgusted by
something someone has said or done; or being happy because of some-
thing good that happened . Do not share this event w ith the other person in your group.
Part 8 . Now you will conduct 2 role plays. Each w ill be an interview. In
the first, 1 person will play the interviewer and the other will play the job
applicant. The job is for a summer management internship with a large
retail chain. Each role play will last no longer than 10 minutes. The inter-
viewer is to conduct a normal job interview, except you are to continually
rethink the emotional episode you envisioned in part A. Try hard to convey
this emotion while, at the same time, being professional in interviewing the
job applicant.
Part C. Now reverse positions for the second role-play. The interviewer
becomes the job applicant and vice versa. The new interviewer will con-
duct a normal job interview, except that he or she w ill continually rethink
the emotional episode chosen in part A.
Part 0 . Spend 10 minutes analyzing the interview, w ith specific atten-
tion focused on these questions: What em otion(s) do you think the other
person was conveying? What cues did you pick up? How accurate were
you in reading those cues?
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1. Watch the actors in an emotion-laden film, such as Death of a Sales- man or 12 Angry Men, for clues to the emotions they are exhibiting . Try to determine the various emotions projected and explain how you arrived at your conclusion.
2. Spend a day specifically looking for emotional cues in the people w ith whom you interact. Did paying attention to emotional cues improve communication?
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0 f)
e e e
80
Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace
Contrast Rokeach's terminal and instrumental values.
Describe Hofstede 's value dimensions for assessing cultures.
Identify unique Canadian values.
Understand the three components of an attitude.
Describe key attitudes that affect organizational performance.
Ladies Learning Code was
developed to teach adult women how to code. W ill
0 0
9 0
~
endeavours like this improve the diversity in
technology jobs?
Summarize the main causes of job satisfaction.
Identify the main consequences of job satisfaction.
Identify four employee responses to job dissatisfaction.
Describe how organizations can manage diversity effectively.
Identify the benefits of cultural intelligence.
onald Trump's travel ban for citizens from seven predominantly Muslim countries sparked an outcry from many Canadians.1 Justin Trudeau tweeted, "To those fleeing persecution, terror & war, Canadians will welcome you, regardless of your faith.
Diversity is our strength ." Canadian tech companies, including Black- Berry, Hootsuite, and Shopify, also spoke out,
and executives and employees signed an online letter calling on the federal gov-
ernment to issue visas to ind ividu- als affected by the ban. The tech Tara watton'lorontoS1ar1Gettylmages
community felt that diversity was the strength of their
industry, thus their strong support. However, tech companies are not as diverse as they imagine and they are sometimes criticized for their hosti le environments toward women. One of Uber's former female
engineers wrote a scathing review of the treatment of women in Uber's eng ineering department. There is also concern that fewer women go into the STEM subjects
(Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) , making them less likely to end up in the technology sector.
Toronto-based Lad ies Learning Code is training women and youth to become more engaged with technology (founders Melissa Crnic, Heather
Payne, Breanna Hughes, and Laura Plant are shown here). The com- pany was founded in 2011 by four young women who decided to run workshops for women who wanted to learn to code. Their mission
statement makes their values clear: "We are a not-for-profit organiza- tion with the mission to be the leading resource for women and youth to
become passionate builders-not just consumers-of technology by learning technical skills in a hands-on, social, and collaborative way." In this chapter, we look carefully at how values influence behaviour and consider
the relationship between values and attitudes. We also examine two significant issues that arise from our discussion of values and attitudes: how to enhance job satisfaction and
manage workforce diversity.
\ I I ' , :o:
~ ' , '
• How do countries differ in their values? 'l'IIE BIG IDEA • Are Millennials really different from their elders?
• What thi ngs affect your job satisfaction?
• Are you comfortable working with people from other cultures?
\"alues affecL our behaviours and
aLLiLudes, and can have a big impacL on ho\v people "vilh differenl
backgrounds gel along in tl1e \\'Orkplace.
81
82 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
O Contrast Rokeach's ter· minal and instrumental values.
values Basic convictions !hat a specific mode of conduct 0< end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an oppooite or converse mode of conduct 0< end-state of existence.
value system A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual's values in terms of their intensity.
terminal values Goals !hat indi- viduals would like to achieve during their lifetime.
instrumental values Preferable ways of behaving.
Values Is capital pun ishment right or wrong? Is a person's desire for power good or bad? The answers to these questions are val ue-laden.
Values represent basic convictions that "a speci fic mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of con- duct or end-state of existence. "2 They contain a judgmental element in that they carry an individua l's ideas as to what is r ight, good, or desirab le. Values have both content and intensity attributes. The content attribute says a mode of conduct or end-state of existence is import.ant. The intensity attribute specifies how important it is. When we rank an individua l's val ues in terms of their intensity, we discover that person's value sys- tem. All of us have a h ierarchy of values accord ing to the relative importance we assign to va lues such as freedom, pleasure, self-respect, honesty, obedience, and equality.3
Values tend to be relatively s table and enduring.4 Most of our values are formed in our early years- with input from paren ts, teachers, fr iends, and others. A~ ch ildren, we were told that certa in behaviours or outcomes are always desirable or always undesirable. There were few grey areas. It is this abso lute or "b lack-or-white" characteristic of values that more or less ensures their stab ility and endurance. If we question our val ues, they may change, but more often they are reinforced. There is also evidence linking personal- ity to values, implying our val ues may be partly determined by genetically transmined trai ts.5 Open people, for example, may be more pol itically libera l, whereas conscien- tious peop le may place a greater value on safe and eth ical conduct. Below we exam ine two frameworks for understanding val ues: Milton Rokeach's term inal and instrumental values, and Kent Hodgson's general moral principles.
Rokeach Value Survey Milton Rokeach created the Rokeach Value Suivey (RVS), wh ich consists of two sets of values, each conta ining 18 ind iv idual value items. One set, called terminal values, refers to desirable e nd-states of existence. These are the goa ls that ind ividuals wou ld like to achieve during their lifetime. They include
• A comfortable life (a prosperous life)
• An exciting life (a stimulating, active life)
• A sense of accomplishment (lasting contribution)
• Equality (brotherhood, equal opportunity for all)
• Inner harmony (freedom from inner conflict)
• Happ iness (contentedness)
The other set, called instrumental valu es, refers to preferable modes of behaviour, or means for ach ieving the terminal values. They include
• Ambitious (hard-working, aspiring)
• Broad-minded ( open-minded)
• Capable ( competent, effective)
• Courageous (stand ing up for you r beliefs)
• Imaginative ( daring, creative)
• Honest (since re, truthful)6
Each of us places value on both the ends (termina l val ues) and the means (instru- mental values) . A balance between the two is important, as well as an understanding of how to strike this balance.
Cha pter 3 Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 83
Hodgs on's General Moral Principles Ethics is the s tudy of moral principles that guide our behaviour and inform us whether actions are right or wrong. Thus, ethical principles are related to moral judgments about right and wrong.
~ OB ~c110N In recent years, there has been concern that individuals are
not grounded in moral principles. It is believed that this lack of moral roots has resulted in a n umber of b us iness scandals, such as those al WorldCom, Enron, Hollinger Internationa l, and even in the sponsorsh ip scanda l of the Canadian govern- ment. We d iscuss the issue of ethics further in Chapter 12.
The Magnificent Seven Principles
-+ Dignity of human life. The lives of p eo p le are to b e resp ected .
-+ A11tonomy. All persons are intrins ically val u - able and have the righ t to s elf-determinatio n .
Management consultant Kent Hodgson has identified seven general moral principles tha t individuals should follow when making decisions. He calls these "the Magn ificent Seven" and suggests that they are un iversal values that managers should use to make principled, appropriate, and defensible decisions.7 They are presented in OB in Action- The Magnificent Seven Principles.
-+ Honesty. The truth sh o uld be told to those who have a right to kn ow it.
-+ Loyalty. Pro mises, contracts, and commit- m ents sh ould be hono ured .
-+ Fairness. Peop le s hou ld b e treated justly.
Assessing Cultural Values -+ H11maneness. Our actio ns ought to accom-
p lish good, and we should avoid d oin g evil.
I As it develops its many workshops, Ladies Learning Code is com-
mitted to recognizing the d iversity of Canada.9 Ladies Learning
Code believes that "girls, people with disabilities, Indigenous youth
-+ The common good. Actions should accompl ish the greatest good fo r the grea test number of people.8
I
and newcomers [should be] given equal opportunity to build our
future." This belief reflects a dominant value of canada as a multi-
cultural country. The approach to diversity is very d ifferent in the United States, which considers
itself a melting pot with respect to d ifferent cultures. What do you know about the values of
people from other countries? What values make canadians unique'
Unlike personal ity, which is largely genetically determined, val ues are learned. They are passed down through generations and vary by cultures. As researchers have sought to u nderstand cultural val ue d ifferences, two important frameworks tha t have emerged are from Geert Hofstede and the GLOBE studies.
Hofstede's Framework for Assessing Cultures O ne of the most widely re ferenced approaches for analyzing variatio ns among cultures was developed in the late 1970s by Gee rt Hofstede. ID He surveyed more than 116 000 IBM emp loyees in 40 countries about their work-related values, and found that manag- ers and employees vary on five val ue dimensions of national cu lture:
• Power distance. Powe r d istance describes the degree to wh ich peop le in a country accept that power in institu tions and organizations is distrib uted unequally. A high rati ng on power distance means that large inequalities of power and wealth exist and are tolerated in the culture, as in a class or caste system that d iscourages upward mob ility. A low power-distance rating charac- terizes socie ties that stress eq ual ity and opportun ity.
• Individualism vs. collectivism. In d ividualism is the degree to wh ich people pre- fer to act as individuals rather than as me mb ers of groups and b el ieve in indi- vidual righ ts above all e lse. Collectivism emphasizes a tight social framework in wh ich people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after the m and protect them .
• Ma sculinity vs. femininity. Hofstede's construct of masculinity is the degree to which the culture favours trad itio nal mascu line ro les, such as ach ievement, power, and control, as opposed to viewing me n and women as equals. A
f) Describe Hofstede's value dimensions for assessing cultures.
ethics The study of moral values°' principles that guide our behaviour and inform us whether actions are right or wrong.
power distance A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.
individualism A national culture attribute that describes the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups.
collectivism A national culture attnllute that describes a tight social framewor1< in which people expect oth- ers in groups of which they are a part lo look after them and protect them.
masculinity A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which the culture favours traditional masculine w0<k roles of achievemen~ power, and control. Societal values are characterized by assertiveness and materialism.
84 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
femininity A national culture attribute that sees little dfferentia- tion between male and female roles; women are treated as the equals of men in all respects.
uncertainty avoidance A national culture attribute that descnbes the extent to which a society feels threat- ened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them.
long-term orientati on A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and tradition.
short-term orientation A national culture attribute that emphasizes the here and now and aocepts change m0<e readily.
indulgence A national culture attribute that emphasizes the gratifi- cation of basic needs and the desire to enjoy life.
restraint A national culture attribute that emphasizes the importance of controlling the gratification of needs.
h igh mascu linity rating ind icates the cul ture has separate ro les for men and women, with men dominating the society. A high femininity rating means the culture sees li ttle d ifferentiation between male and female roles and treats women and men equally in all respects.
• Uncertainty avoidance. The degree to which people in a country prefer structured over unstructured s ituations defines their uncertainty avoidance. In cultures that score h igh on uncertainty avo idance, people have an increased level of anxi- ety about uncertainty and ambiguity, and use laws and controls to reduce uncer- ta inty. Cultures low on uncertainty avo idance are more accepting of ambiguity and are less ru le-oriented, take more risks, and more readily accept change.
• Long-Lenn vs. short-term orientation. Th is more recent addition to Hofstede's typo logy measures a society's long- term devotion to trad itional values. People in a culture with long-term o r ientation look to the future and value thrift, persistence, and tradition. In a cu lture with s hort-t er m orientation, people value the here and now; they accept change more readily and don't see com- m itments as impediments to change.
More recently, Hofstede has added a sixth dimension, based on stud ies he has con- ducted over the past 10 years. 11
• Indulgence vs. restraint. Th is newest addition to Hofstede's typology measures society's devotion ( or lack thereof) to indu lgence. Cultures that emphasize indulgence encourage "relatively free grati fication of basic and natural human desires related to enjoying life." 12 Those that favour res traint empha- size the need to contro l the grati fication of needs.
How do d ifferent countries score on Hofstede's dimen- s ions? Exh ibit 3-1 shows the ratings for the countries for which data are ava ilable. For example, power d istance is h igher in Malaysia than in any other country. Canada is lied with the Netherlands as one of the top five individualistic countries in the \vorld, falling just behind the United States, Australia, and Great Brita in. Canada also tends to be short term in orientation and is low in power distance (people in Canada tend not to accept bu ilt-in class differences among
H0';\1 do COU il - tr ies differ in their va lues'?
people). Canada is also relatively low on uncertainty avoidance, meaning that most adults are relatively tolerant of uncertainty and ambiguity. Canada has a much higher score on masculinity in comparison with Sweden and Norway; although iL~ score is lower than that of the United States. Guatemala is the most colleclivislic nation. The country with the highest mascul inity rank by far is Japan, and the country with the highest fem ininity rank is Sweden. Greece scores the highest in uncertainty avoidance, while Singapore scores the lowest Hong Kong has one of the longest-term orientations; Pakistan has the shortest-term orientation.
RESEARCH FIND IN GS: Hofstede Research across 598 stud ies with more than 200 000 respondents has investigated the relationship of Hofstede's cu ltural va lues and a variety of
organizational criteria at both the individual and national levels of analysis.13 Overall, the five original cu ltural d imensions were found to be equally strong predictors of rel- evant outcomes. The researchers also found that measuring individual scores resulted in much beuer predictions of most outcomes than assigning all people in a country the same cultural values. In sum, th is research suggests that Hof.~tede's value framework may be a valuable way of thinking about differences among people, but we should be cautious about assuming that all people from a country have the same values.
Cha p ter 3 Values, A tt it udes, a n d Diver sity in th e Workplace 8 5
EXHIBIT 3-1 Hofstede's Cultural Values by Nation Long- versus
Individualism Masculinity Uncertainty Short-Term Power Distance versus Collectivism versus Femini nity Avoidance Orientation
Country Index Rank Index Rank Index Rank Index Rank Index Rank
Argentina 49 35-36 46 22-23 56 20-21 86 10-15 Australia 36 41 90 2 61 16 51 37 31 22-24
Austria 11 53 55 18 79 2 70 24-25 31 22-24 Belgium 65 20 75 8 54 22 94 ~ 38 18 Brazil 69 14 38 26-27 49 27 76 21-22 65 6 Canada 39 39 80 4-5 52 24 48 41--42 23 30 Chile 63 24-25 23 38 28 46 86 10-15 Colombia 67 17 13 49 64 11-12 80 20 Costa Rica 35 42--44 15 46 21 48--49 86 10-15 Denmark 18 51 74 9 16 50 23 51 46 10 Ecuador 78 8-9 8 52 63 13-14 67 28 El Salvador 66 18-19 19 42 40 40 94 ~ Finland 33 46 63 17 26 47 59 31-32 41 14 France 68 15-16 71 10-11 43 35-36 86 10-15 39 17 Germany 35 42--44 67 15 66 9-10 65 29 31 22-24 Great Britain 35 42--44 89 3 66 9-10 35 47--48 25 28-29 Greece 60 27-28 35 30 57 18-19 112 1 Guatemala 95 2-3 6 53 37 43 101 3 Hong Kong 68 15-16 25 37 57 18-19 29 49-50 96 2 India 77 10-11 48 21 56 20-21 40 45 61 7 Indonesia 78 8-9 14 47--48 46 30-31 48 41--42 Iran 58 29-30 41 24 43 35-36 59 31-32 Irela nd 28 49 70 12 68 7-8 35 47--48 43 13 Israel 13 52 54 19 47 29 81 19 Italy 50 34 76 7 70 4-5 75 23 34 19 Jamaica 45 37 39 25 68 7-8 13 52 Japan 54 33 46 22-23 95 1 92 7 80 4 Korea (South) 60 27-28 18 43 39 41 85 16-17 75 5 Malaysia 104 1 26 36 50 25-26 36 46 Mexico 81 5-6 30 32 69 6 82 18 The Netherlands 38 40 80 4-5 14 51 53 35 44 11-12 New Zealand 22 50 79 6 58 17 49 3~ 30 25-26 Norway 31 47--48 69 13 8 52 50 38 44 11-12 Pakistan 55 32 14 47--48 50 25-26 70 24-25 0 34 Panama 95 2-3 11 51 44 34 86 10-15 Peru 64 21-23 16 45 42 37-38 87 9 Philippines 94 4 32 31 64 11-12 44 44 19 31-32 Portugal 63 24-25 27 33-35 31 45 104 2 30 25-26 Singapore 74 13 20 39--41 48 28 8 53 48 9 South Africa 49 35-36 65 16 63 13-14 49 3~ Spain 57 31 51 20 42 37-38 86 10-15 19 31-32 Sweden 31 47--48 71 10-11 5 53 29 49-50 33 20 Switzerland 34 45 68 14 70 4-5 58 33 40 15-16 Taiwan 58 29-30 17 44 45 32-33 69 26 87 3 Thailand 64 21-23 20 39--41 34 44 64 30 56 8 Turkey 66 18-19 37 28 45 32-33 85 16-17 United States 40 38 91 1 62 15 46 43 29 27 Uruguay 61 26 36 29 38 42 100 4 Venezuela 81 5-6 12 50 73 3 76 21-22 Yugoslavia 76 12 27 33-35 21 48--49 88 8 Regions: Arab countries 80 7 38 26-27 53 23 68 27 East Africa 64 21-23 27 33-35 41 39 52 36 25 28-29 West Africa 77 10-11 20 39--41 46 30-31 54 34 16 33
Scores range from O = extremely low on d imension to 100 = ex1remely high.
Note: 1 = highest rank. LTO ranks: 1 = China; 15-16 = Bangladesh; 21 = Poland; 34 = lowest. Source: Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov, Cultures and Organizations, Software of the Mind, Third Revised Edition, McGraw- Hill 2010, ISBN 0-07- 16641 8-1.
86 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
9 Identify unique canadian values.
The GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures Begun in 1993, th e Glob a l Lead ership and Organizatio na l Behavior Effectiveness {GLOBE) research program is an ongoing cross-cultural investigation of leadersh ip and national culture. Using data from 825 organ izatio ns in 62 cou ntries, the GLOBE team identified nine dimensio ns o n which national cultures d iffer. 14 Some d imensions- such as power d istance, individualism/collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, gender d ifferentia- tion (simi lar to mascul inity vs. fem ini nity), and future orientatio n (sim ilar to long-term vs. short-term orientation ) - resemble the Hofstede dimensions. Th e ma in d ifference is that the GLOBE framework added d imensions, such as humane orientation ( the degree to wh ich a society rewards individuals for being altruistic, generous, and ki nd to others) and performa nce orientation ( the degree to wh ich a society encourages and rewards group members for performance improvement a nd excellence) .
Which framework is bener, Hofstede's or the GLOBE? That is hard to say, an d each has its supporters. We give more emphasis to Hofstede's d imensio ns here beca use they have s tood the test of lime and the GLOBE study confirmed them. For example, a review of the organ izational comm itment l iterature shows that b oth the Hof.~tede and GLOBE individual ism/collectivism d imensions operated sim ilarly. Speci fically, both frameworks showed that organ izatio nal commitment (which we discuss later in the chapter) tends to be lower in individual istic coun tr ies.15 Both frameworks h ave a great deal in com- mon, an d each has somethi ng to offer.
Values in the Canadian Workplace Studies have shown that when ind ivid ua l val ues align with organ izational val ues, th e results are positive. Individuals who have an accurate understanding of the job require- ments and the organ ization's val ues ad just better to their jobs an d have greater levels of satisfaction an d organ izatio nal comm itment. 16 In addition, shared values between the employee and the organ ization lead to more positive work attitudes, 17 lower turnover, 18
and greater productivity.19
Individ ual and organ izational values do not always align. Moreover, within organ i- zatio ns, ind ividua ls can have very different values. 1\vo major factors lead to a poten- tial clash of values in the Canadian workp lace: generationa l differences and cultural d ifferences.
Let's look at the findi ngs a nd implications of generatio nal and cu ltural d iffere nces in Can ada.
Generational Differences Research s uggests th at generationa l differences exist in the workplace amo ng th e Baby Boomers (born b etween the mid-1940s and the mid-1960s), Generation Xers (born between the mid-1960s and the late 1970s), and the Millen nials (born between 1979 through 1994) .20 Exhib it 3 -2 h ighligh ts th e different work values of the th ree
EXHIBIT 3-2 Dominant Work Values in Today's Workforce
Cohort
Baby Boomers
Entered t he Workforce
1965-1985
Approxi mate Current Age
Mid-40s t o mid-60s
Generation 1985-2000 Late 20s to early 40s Xers
Millennials 2000 t o present Under 30
Dominant Worl< Val ues
Success, achievement, ambition, d islike of authority; loyalty to career Work- life balance, team-orient ed, d islike of rules; l oyalty t o relationships
Confident, financial success, self- reliant but team-oriented; loyalty t o bot h sel f and relationships
Chapter 3 Values, A tt itudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 87
When Robert Dutton, former president and CEO of Boucherville, Quebec-based Rona, started working at
the company, senior managers often were his grandfather's age, while he was a young Baby Boomer. After working over 30 years at Rona, Dutton noticed that Millennials were starting to make up a larger portion of Rona's dealers. Dutton started the group Young Rona Business Leaders to help develop the Millennial talent that will be the future of Rona. 21
generations, and indicates when each entered the workforce. Because most people start
working between the ages of 18 and 23, the eras also correlate closely with employee age. Genera tion Xers are squeezed in the workplace between
the much larger Baby Boomer an d Mi llennial groups. With Millen nials s tarting lo cl imb the ladder in organizatio ns, and Boomers conti nuing lo hold on lo their jobs rather than retire, the impact of having these two large generations- one younger and o ne older- in the workplace is gai ning atten- tion. Bear in mind that our discussio n of these genera tions presents broad general izatio ns, and you should certai nly avoid stereotyp ing individuals on the basis of these general-
Ar e i\1ille nnials r eally differ-
ent fi·o1n their elders'?
izations. There are individual differences in values. For instance, there is no Jaw that says a Baby Boomer can not thi nk like a Millenn ial. Despi te these limitations, values do change
over generations.22 We can ga in some useful insights from analyzing values this way to understand how others might view things d ifferen tly from ourselves, even when they are exposed lo the same situation. The Pain1/Counterpoin1 on page 110 considers whether Mil- lennials have a more inflated view of themselves as compared with their paren ts.
An un derstanding that individuals' values differ but tend to reflect the societal values
of the period in wh ich they grew up can be a val uable aid in explaining and pred icting behaviour. The change in the demographic composition of the workplace will defi nitely have an impact. Mi llen nials edged out the Baby Boomers to become the largest cohort in the Canadian workplace in 2016. 23
]] RESEARCH FINDINGS : Generational Differences Although it's fascinati ng to th ink about generational val ues, remember that these classifications Jack solid research support. Early research was plagued
by methodological problems that made it difficul t to assess whether d iffere nces actually
88 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
exist. Reviews suggest many of the generalizations are either overblown or incorrect. 24
Differences across generations often don't support popu lar conceptions of how genera- tions differ. One study that used an appropriate longitud inal design did find the value placed on leisure has increased over generations from the Baby Boomers to the Millenni- als and work central ity has declined, but research did not find that Millennials had more altru is tic work values.25 Generational classifications may help us understand our own and other generations better, but we must also appreciate their limits. A new generation will be coming to the workplace soon, and researchers suggest that this new generation may be the cause of revolution in the workplace. OB in tile Street looks at Generation Z.
OB IN THE STREET Generat ion Z: Coming to Your Workplace Soon
Will the next generation of employees be rad ically different from t heir older sibl ings? Ann Makosinski, just 16 years old and from Victoria, is already trying to start her own company.26 A friend from the Phil ippines was having troub le getting homework done and fa iled a grade because she did not have access to electricity to study at nigh t. Makosinski won Google's annual international science fair in 2013 with her battery-free "Hollow Flashl ight: which is powered by body heat.
Makosinski is part of Generation Z, the group that comes after the Mi llennials, and was born starling in 1995. The oldest are in their early 20s and just starling to enter the workp lace. Makosinski's cohort is described by researchers as •educated, industrious, collaborative and eager to bui ld a better planet," exactly what she is al ready do ing.
Sparks & Honey, a New York City advertising agency, found that 60 percent of Gen Zers wan t jobs that have a social impact compared with 31 percent of Millennials. They are the first generation to have digital access from the crib, making them extremely comfortable in that world. Whi le their parents feel anxious abou t how multitasking m ight affect th inking, Gen Zers see it as a natural action.
It's probably too early to define where Gen Z will go, but Makosinski is representative of her generation thus far. "I'm just very glad I've been ab le to inspire a few people,• she says. "I th ink that's what really changed my life, now I'm more conscious of my actions
: a11d ho·w I spend my time." . ... ... .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. ... . .
Cultural Differences Canada is a mu lticu ltural country: In 2011, 20.6 percent of its population was foreign - born.27 It is projected that in 2036 that number w ill be between 24.S percent and 30 percent.28 Th is figure compares with 12.9 percent for the United States in 2013 .29
In 2011, 46 percent of Toronto's population, 40 percent of Vancouver's population, and 22 .6 percent of Montreal's population were made up of imm igrants.30 Tue 2011 Census found that 20 percent of Canada's population spoke a language o ther than the country's rwo officia l languages at home. This is expected to increase to between 26.1 percent and 30.6 percent in 2036 . In Vancouver and Toronto, th is rate was 31 percent and 32 percent, respectively, so nearly one-third of the population of those rwo cities does not speak e ither English or French as a firs t language.31 In Canada, of those who speak other languages, the dom inant languages are Punjabi, Chinese (not specified), Cantonese, and Spanish.32These figures ind icate the very different cu ltures that are part of the Canadian fabric of life.
Although we live in a multicultural society, some tension exists among people from different races and ethn ic groups. In a recent poll, 25 percent of Canadians reported that they had experienced racism. Hate crimes directed mostly at Muslims, Arabs, and West A~ians rose 5 percent between 2014 and 2015, with 1362 crim inal incidents reported.33
Cha pter 3 Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 89
Attitudes
I
I
The attitudes of management are reflected in how employees handle their jobs.34 The tech
industry is hard on women, and at least at Uber, the sexist attitude of i ts CED bubbled through
the company. In an interview in 2014, then-CED Travis Kalanick referred to Uber as " Boob-er"
because it helped him attract women. It is therefore not surprising that many of his senior
managers ignored women who complained about sexual harassment. Kalanick was forced to
resign in June 20 17. In this section we d iscuss how attitudes affect behaviour.
Attitudes are eval uative statements- either positive or negative- about objects, people, or events. They reflect how we feel about something. When I say, · 1 like my job; I am expressing my a ttitude about work. Typ ically, researchers have assumed that attitudes have three components: cognition, affect, and behaviour.35 Let's look at each .
The statement •My pay is low• is the cognitive comp onent of an altitude- a description of or belief in the way things are. It sets the s tage for the more critical part of an atti tude- its affective component. Affect is the emotional or fee ling segment of an attitude and is refl ected in the statement "I'm angry over how little I'm pa id." Affect can lead to behavioural outcomes. The be h avioural component of an attitude describes an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or someth ing, as in "I'm going to look for another job that pays better."
Viewing attitudes as having three components- cogn ition, affect, and behaviour- helps us understand their complexity a nd the po tentia l relationship between altitudes and behaviour. For example, imagine that you realized someone has just treated you unfairly. You are likely to have feelings about that, occurring virtually instantaneously with the realization. Th us, cognition and affect are intertwined.
Exhibit 3 -3 illustrates how the three co mponents of an attitude are related. In th is example, an employee did not get a promotion he thought he deserved. The emp loyee's altit ude toward his supervisor is illustrated as follows : The employee thought he deserved the promotion (cogn ition), he strongly d islikes his supervisor ( affect), and he has co mplained and taken action (behavio u r). Although we often th ink cognition ca uses affect, which then causes behaviour, in reality these compo- nents are difficu lt to separate.
EXHIBIT 3- 3 The Components of an Attitude
-0 Cognitive = evaluation ~ ~ My supervisor gave a promotion ~ to a co-worker who deserved it ~ .. ... 0 .:;
less t han me. My supervisor is unfair .
~ .. ... ::,
Negative 0 ·-"' Affective = feeling attitude .. .,: ... ... toward i I dislike my su pervisor! -0 supervisor <: .. .: ... ~ ..
Behavioural = action <:' 0 I'm looking for other work; I've ·.: ·- complained about my supervisor <: "' a to anyone w ho would list en.
C, Understand the three components of an attitude.
attitudes Positive or negative feel - ings about objects, people, or events.
cognitive component The opinion or belief segment of an attitude.
affective component The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.
behavioural component An inten- tion lo behave in a certain way toward someone or something.
9 0 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
9 Describe key attitudes that affect organiza- tional performance.
0 Summarize the main causes of job satisfaction.
job sati sfaction A po5itive feeling about a job resulting from an evalua- tion of its characteristics.
In organ izations, attitudes are importan t because they affect job behaviour.36 Employ- ees may believe, for example, that managers, auditors, and engineers are in a conspiracy lo make them work harder for less money. This may then lead lo a negative altitude toward management when an employee is asked lo stay late lo help on a special project.
Employees may also be negatively affected by the altitudes of their co-workers or cl ients. From Concepts 10 Skills o n pages 114- 115 looks al wh ether it's possible lo change someone's attitude, an d how that migh t happen in the workp lace.
A person can have thousands of altitudes, bu t OB foc uses our attentio n on a limited number of work-related a!litudes that tap positive or negative eval uations that employees hold about aspects of their work environments.37 Next we consider five important atti- tudes that affect organizational performance: job satisfactio n, organizational comm it- ment, job invo lvement, perceived organizational support, and employee engagement.
Job Satisfaction When people speak of employee altitudes, they usually mean jo b satisfaction, a posi- tive fee ling about a job resulting from a n eval uatio n of its characterislics.38 A su rvey conducted by Hays Canada in 2016 found that Canad ians are not all that satisfied: 4 7 percent said they were unhappy with th eir job.39 A person with high job satisfaction holds positive feel ings about the work, whi le a person with low satisfaction ho lds nega- tive feelings. Because OB researchers give job satisfaction high importance, we will review this altitude in detai l.
What Causes Job Satisfaction? Th ink about the best job you have ever had. Whal made il great? Chances are you liked the work you did and the people with wh om you worked. Interesting jobs tha t pro- vide training, variety, independence, a nd con trol satisfy most employees.40 A recent European study indicated that job satisfaction is positively correlated with life satisfaction, in that your attitudes and experiences in life spill over into your job approaches and experiences.41 Exh ibit 3-4 shows what jobs people fee l provide the worst job satisfaction.
EXHIBIT 3-4 The Worst Jobs for Job Satisfaction•
Full-year i ncome
Newsp aper reporter -...,. ,,.........-,--,'___, $36 000
Lumberj ack - ..... ·~=~,.,,. ....... T: ..., S3~ 870 Enlisted m ilit ary S41 998
I I I Actor l-=:E:':':=l":'=':':II--' Sj7.441ho~r
\.Vhat things affect your job
satisfaction'?
Oil rig worker "==:T:---' $37 640 .: I I I
Dairy f armer __
1
$60 750
Met er reader :.._...., f 36 400 I Mail carrier S53 090
Roofer :___. S3~ 220 I Fl igh t attendant S37 740
0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000 70 000
·Based on physical demands, work environment, income, stress, and hiring outlook.
Sources: L. Webe<, ' Best and Worst Jobs," Wall Street Journal, April 11 , 2012, In the Garee.Cast.oom Jobs Rated report, p. 86; and K. Kensing, "The Worst Jobs of 2013," GareerCast.com, 2013, http:// www.caree<cast.oomfJ(lbs-rated/worst-jobs-2013.
Cha pter 3 Values, A tt itudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 91
EXHIBIT 3-5 Average Job Satisfaction Levels by Facet
100
90
80
70
.. 60 a,
"' ~ c 50 QI v ~
- l 40 -
30 - 20 - 10 - - 0
Work Itself Pay Promotion Supervision Co-worke rs Overall
The facets of job satisfaction levels can vary widely. As shown in Exhibit 3-5, people have typically been more satisfied with their jobs overall, the work itself, and their super- visors and co-workers than they have been with their pay and promotion opportunities.
The reasons can differ grea lly. Let's d iscuss some characteristics that likely influence job satisfaction, starting with job conditions.
Job Conditions Generally, interesting jobs that provide training, variety, independence, and control satisfy most employees. Interdependence, feedback, social support, and in teraction with co-workers o utside the workplace are also stro ngly related to job sat- isfaction, even after accounting for characteristics of the work itself.42 As you may have guessed, managers also play a big role in emp loyees' job satisfaction. Employees who feel empowered by their leaders experience higher job satisfaction, one study of a large Hong Kong telecommunications corporation found. 43 Research in Israel suggested that a manager's auen tiveness, responsiveness, and suppon increase the employee's job sa tisfaction.44
Thus, job conditions- especially the intrinsic nature of the work itself, social inter- actions, and supervis ion- are important predictors of job satisfaction. Although each is imponan t and their relative val ue varies across emp loyees, the intrinsic nature of the work is most imponant.45
Persona lity As imponan L as job conditions are Lo job satisfaction, personality also plays an important role. People who have positive core self-evaluations {CSEs ) - who believe in their inner worth and basic competence- are more sa tisfied with their jobs than people w ith negative CSEs. Add itionally, in the context of career comm itmen t, CSE influences job satisfaction as peop le with high levels of both CSE and career com- m itment may rea lize particularly high job satisfaction.46
Pay You have probab ly noticed that pay comes up often when peop le discuss job sa tisfaction. Pay does correlate with job satisfaction and overall happiness for many people, bul the effect ca n be smaller once a n ind ivid ua l reaches a s tandard level of comfortable l iving. Money does motivate people, as we will discover in Chapter 4. But what motivates us is not necessarily the same as what makes us happy.
I core self-evaluation (CSE) Bottom-line conclusions individuals have about their capabilities, compe- tence. and worth as a person.
92 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
f) Identify the main consequences of job satisfaction.
organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) Discretionary behaviour that is not part of an employee's formal job requirements, but that nevertheless promotes the effective functioning of the organization.
Toronto-based Real Food for Real Kids makes food for 15 000 school-aged children each day. Co-found- ers Lulu Cohen-Farnell and David Farnell believe that making sure their employees connect w~h the work that they do increases motivation and reduces turnover of the caterers.
Job Satisfaction and Productivity As severa l studies have concluded, happy workers are more likely lo be productive workers. Some researchers used to believe the relationsh ip between job satisfaction and job performance was a myth. Bula review of more than 300 studies suggested the correlation between job satisfaction and job performance is qu ite strong, even across in ternational conlexts.47 Ind ividuals with higher job satisfaction perform beuer, and organizations with more sat isfied employees tend to be more effective than those with fewer.
Job Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship Behaviou r In Chapter l , we defined organizational citizenship behaviour {OCB) as d iscretionary behaviour that is not part of an employee's formal job requirements, and is not usually rewarded, bul that nevertheless promotes the effective functioning of the organization.48
It seems logical to assume that job satisfaction should be a ma jor determ inant of an employee's OCB.49 OCBs include people talking positively about their organ izations, helping others, and going beyond the normal expectations of their jobs. Evidence sug- gests job satisfaction is moderately correlated with OCB; people who are more satisfied with their jobs are more likely to engage in cit izensh ip behaviour.so
Why does job satisfaction lead to OCB1 One reason is trust. Research in 18 countries
suggests that managers reciprocate employees' OCB w ith trusting behaviours of their own.SI Individuals who feel their co-workers support them are also more likely to engage in helpful behaviours than those who have antagon istic co-worker relationships.s2
Personality mauers, too. Individuals w ith certa in personal ity traits (agreeableness and conscientiousness, see Chapter 2) are more satisfied w ith their work, wh ich in turn leads them to engage in more OCB.s3 Finally; individuals who receive positive feedback on their OCB from their peers are more likely to continue their citizensh ip activities.s4
Job Satisfacti on and Customer Satisfaction As we noted in Chapter l, employees in service jobs often interact with customers. Because service organ ization managers should be concerned with pleasing customers, it's reasonable to ask: Is employee satisfaction related to positive customer outcomes?
Chapter 3 Values, A tt itudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 9 3
IR CANADA@
Service firms like Air Canada understand that satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty. As front-line employees who have regular customer contact, the airline's ticket agents are friendly, upbeat, and responsive while greeting passengers and helping them with luggage check-in and seat assignments.
For front-line employees wh o h ave regular contact with customers, the answer is yes. Satisfied emp loyees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty.55
A n umber of compan ies are acting on this evidence. Online shoe reta iler Zappos is so commilled to finding customer service employees who are satisfied with t he job tha t it offers a $2000 bribe to quit the company after training, fig uring the least satisfied w ill take the cash and go.56 Emp loyees are empowered lo "create fun and a Jillie weirdness" and are given unusua l discretion in making customers satisfied, and it works: Of the company's more than 24 million customers, 75 percen t are repeat buyers. Therefore, for Zappos, employee satisfaction has a d irect effect on customer satisfaction.
Life Satisfaction Until now, we have trea ted job satisfaction as if it were separate from life sa tisfaction, bul they may be more rela ted than you think.5 7 Research in Europe indicated that job satisfaction is positively correlated with li fe satisfaction, and your auitudes and experi- ences in life spill over into your job approaches and experiences.58 Furthermore, life satisfaction decreases whe n peop le become u nemp loyed, accord ing to research in Germany, and not just because of the loss of income. 59 For most individuals, work is an important part of l ife, and therefore it makes sense that o u r overall happiness depends in no small part on our happ iness in our work (our job satisfaction).
How Employees Can Exp ress Dissatisfaction What happens when emp loyees like their jobs, and when they d isl ike their jobs? One theoretical model- the exit- voice- loyalty- neglect framework- is helpful in under- s tanding the consequences of dissatisfactio n. Exhib it 3 -6 illustrates the framework's four responses, which d iffer along two d imensions: constructive/destructive and active/ passive. The responses are as follows: 60
• Exit_ Actively au empting to leave the organ ization, including looki ng for a new position as well as resigning. Th is action is destructive from the point
9 Identify four employee responses to job dissatisfaction.
exit Dissatisfaction expressed by actively attempting to leave the organization.
94 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
voi ce Dissatisfaction expressed by actively and constructively attempting to improve oonditions.
loyalty Dissatisfaction expressed by passively waiting for condtions to improve.
neglect Dissatisfaction expressed by passively allowing conditions to worsen.
counterproductive work behavi our (CWB) Actions that actively damage the organization, including stealing, beha~ng aggressively toward co-workers, or being late or absent.
EXHIBIT 3-6 Responses t o Job Dissatisfactio n
Active
EXIT VOICE
Destructive ------+------- Constructive
NEGLECT LOYALTY
Passive
Source: "When Bureaucrats Get the Blues: Responses to Dissatisfaction among Federal Employees" by Caryl Rusbult, David Lowery. Journal of Applied Soc/at Psychology 15, no. 1, p. 83. Copyright© 1985, John Wiley and Sons.
of view of th e orga n ization. Researchers study individual terminations a nd collective turnover, the total loss to the organizatio n of emp loyee kn owledge, skills, ab ilities, and other characterislics.61
• Voice. Actively and constructively auempling to improve conditions, incl ud- ing suggesting improvements, d iscussing problems with superiors, and u nder- taking union activity.
• Loyalty. Passively b ut optim istically wa il ing for co nd itio ns lo improve, includi ng speaking up for the orga nizatio n in the face of external criticism and trusti ng the organization and its management lo •do the right th ing."
• Neglect. Passively allowing cond itions to worsen, including chronic absentee- ism or lateness, reduced effort, an d increased error rate. This action is destruc- tive from the point of view of the organization.
Exi l a nd neglect behaviours are linked lo performance variables such as productiv- ity, absenteeism, and turnover. But this model expands employee responses to include voice and loyalty- constructive behaviours that allow individuals lo to lerate unpleasant s ituations or improve working conditions.
This model helps us u nderstand various situations. For instance, union members often express d issa tisfaction thro ugh t he grievance procedure or through formal contract negotiations. These voice mechan isms allow them to continue in their jobs while acting to improve the s it uation. The Ethical Dilemma o n page 112 provides additional ways that employees can vo ice their v iews about the ir workplaces.
As helpful as this framework is, it's qu ite general. We will next address counterpro- ductive work behaviour, a behavioura l response to job dissatisfaction.
Cou nterproduct ive Wo rk Behaviour (CWB) Substance abuse, stealing at work, un due socializing, gossiping, absenteeism, and tardi- ness are examples of behaviours that are destructive to organ izations. They are indica- tors of a broader syndrome called counterproductive work behaviour {CWB), also termed deviant behavio ur in the workplace, or simply employee withdrawa l. 62 Like other behaviours we have discussed, CWB doesn't just happen- the behaviours often
Cha pter 3 Values, Att itudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 95
follow negative and sometimes longstand ing attitudes. Therefore, if we can identify the predictors of CWB, we may lessen the probab ility of its effects.
Generally, job dissatisfaction predicts CWB. People who are nol satisfied with their work become frustrated, wh ich lowers their performance63 and makes them more likely to commit CWB.64 Other research suggests that, in addition to vocational m isfit (being in the wrong line of work), lack of fi t with the organization (working in the wrong kind of organizational culture) also predicts CWBs.65 Our immediate social environ- ment also mailers. One German study suggests that we are influenced toward CWB by the norms of our immed iate work environment, such that individuals in teams with high absenteeism are more likely to be absent themselves. 66 CWB can, furthermore, be a response to abusive supervision from managers, which then increases the abuse, s tarting a vicious cycle.67
One important point about CWB is that d issatisfied emp loyees often choose one or more of these specific behaviours due to idiosyncratic factors. One worker m ight quit. Another might use work time to surf the Internet or take work supplies home for per- sonal use. In short, workers \vho don't like their jobs "get even• in various ways. Because those ways can be quite creative, controlling only one behaviour with policies and pun- ishments leaves the root cause untouched. Employers should seek to correct the source of the problem- the dissatisfaction- rather than try to control the d ifferen t responses.
According to UK research, someti mes CWB is an emo tional reaction lo perceived unfairness, a way to try 10 restore an employee's sense of equity exchange. 68 It therefore has complex ethica l implications. For example, is someone who takes a box of markers home from the office for his children acting ethically? Some peop le consider this steal- ing. Others may want to look at moderating fac tors such as the employee's contribu tion to the organization before they decide. Does the person generously give extra ti me and effort lo the organization, with little thanks or compensation? If so, they might see CWB behaviour as part of an auempl to "even the score."
As a manager, you can take steps lo mitigate CWB. You can poll emp loyee attitudes, for instance, and identify areas for workplace improvement. If there is no vocationa l fit, the employee will not be fu lfilled, 6 9 so you can screen for that. Tailoring tasks so a person's abilities and values can be exercised should increase job satisfaction and reduce CWB.7° Furthermore, creating strong teams, integrating supervisors with them, providing forma l ized team po licies, and introducing team-based incentives may help lower the CWB "contagion• that lowers the standards of the group.7 1
Absentee ism We find a consistent negative relationsh ip between satisfaction and absenteeism, but the relationsh ip is moderate to weak. 72 Generally, when numerous alternative jobs are available, dissatisfied employees have high absence rates, but when there are few alternatives, dissatisfied employees have the same (low) rate of absence as satisfied employees.7 3 Organizations that provide liberal sick leave benefits are encour- aging all their employees- including those who are highly satisfied- to take days off. You can find work satisfying yet s till want lo enjoy a three-day weekend if those days come free with no penalties.
Turnover The relationship between job satisfaction and turnover is s tronger than between satisfaction and absenteeism.74 Overall, a pattern of lowered job satisfaction is the best predictor of in tent to leave. Turnover has a workp lace environmen t connec- tion too. If the climate within an employee's immediate \vorkp lace is one of low job satisfaction leading to turnover, there will be a contagion effect. Th is suggests manag- ers consider the job satisfaction (and turnover) patterns of co-workers when assign ing workers lo a new area.75
The satisfaction- tu rnover relationsh ip is affected by alternative job prospects. If an emp loyee accepts an unsol icited job offer, job dissa tisfaction is less predictive of
96 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
organizational commitment The degree to which an employee identi- fies with a particular organization and ijs goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization.
affective commitment An indi- 1/idual's emotional attachment to and identification wijh an organization, and a belief in ijs values.
normative commitment The obli- gation an individual feels lo stay wijh an organization.
continuance commitment An indil/idual's calculation lo slay with an organization based on the perceived costs of leal/ing lhe organization.
j ob involvement The degree to which a person identifies with a job, actively participates in it, and considers performance important lo sett-worth.
turnover because the employee more likely left in respo nse lo "pull" (the lure of the oth er job) than •push• (the u nattractiveness of the current job). Sim ilarly, job dissatis- faction is more likely to translate into turnover when other emp loyment opportun ities are plentifu l. Furthermore, when employees h ave high "human cap ital" {high educa- tion, high abil ity), job d issatisfaction is more likely to translate into turnover because they have, or perceive, many ava ilable ah ernalives.76 Employees' embeddedness- connections to the job and community- can help lower the probab ility of t urnover, particularly in collectivist (group-oriented) cuhures.77 Embedded employees seem less likely to want to consider alternative job prospects.
Organizational Commitment In organizational commitment an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals, and wishes to remain a member.78 Most research has focused on emo- tional auachment to an organization and belief in its values as the "gold standard" for employee commitment.79
Pro fessor John Meyer at the Un iversity of Western Ontario and his co ll eagues have id entified and developed measures for three types of comm itment:80
• Affe ctive commi tment. An i ndividual's emotional auachmenl lo a n orga- nization and a belief in its values. For example, a PetSmart employee may be affective ly comm itted to the company because of ils involvement w it h animals.
• Nor mative commitmen t. The obliga tio n an individual feels to stay with an organizatio n for moral or eth ical reasons. An employee spearheading a new in itiative may rema in \vith an employer because she fee ls she would "leave the employer in the lurch• if she left.
• Contin u ance commitment. An individual's perceived economic value of rema ining with an organization. An emp loyee may be committed to an employer because she is paid well and feels il wou ld hurt her family lo q uit.
A positive relationship appears lo exist between organ izational comm itment and job productivity, b ut it is a modest one.81 A review of 27 studies found that the relationship between commitment and performance is strongest for new employees, and cons iderably weaker for more experienced emp loyees.82 Interestingly, research indicates that employees who feel their emp loyers fail lo keep promises to them feel less committed, and these reductions in commitment, in t urn, lead to lower levels of crea tive performance.83 And, as with job involvement, the research evidence demon- strates negative relationships between organ izational commit ment and both absentee- ism and t u rnover.84 Read the Ethical Dilemma on page 112 to see how social forums tell both employees and emp loyers about organ izational commitment.
Different forms of commitment have different effects on behaviour. One study found manageria l affective commitment was more strongly related to organizational performance than was continuance commitment.85 Another study showed that continu- ance commitment was related to a lower intention to qu it bul an increased tendency to be absent and lower job performance. These results make sense in that continuance comm itment is not really a comm itment at a ll. Rather than an allegiance (affective commitment) or an ob ligation (normative comm itment) to an employer, a conti nu- ance comm it ment describes a n employee "tethered" to an employer s imply because nothing better is available.86
Job Involvement Related to job satisfaction is j ob involveme n t,87 the degree to wh ich peop le iden- tify psychologically with their job and consider the ir perce ived performance level
Cha pter 3 Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 97
Developing the talents of women is a strategic diversity imperative for business success at Nissan Motor
Company in Japan. Attracted by Nissan's commitment to equality for women in the workplace and to developing their careers, Li Ning of China decided to join the company after graduating from Tokyo University.
important to their self-worth.88 Emp loyees with high job invo lvement stro ngly identify with an d really care about the kind of work they do. Another closely related concep t is ps ychological e mpowe rme nt, or employees' beliefs in the degree lo wh ich they infl uence their work environment, their competence, the mean ingfu lness of their job, and their perceived autonomy.89
Research suggests that empo\verment in itia tives need to be tailored to des ired behavioural o utcomes. Research in Singapore fou nd that good leaders empower their employees by fos teri ng their self-perceptio n of competence- th rough involving them in decisions, maki ng them fee l their work is important, and giving them discretion to "do their own thi ng:90
Perceived Organizational Support Pe rceived organ iza tional s upport {POS) is the degree to which employees believe the orga n ization values their contri b utions and cares about th e ir well-bei ng. An excellent example is R & D engineer Joh n Greene, whose POS is sky-high beca use when he was diagnosed with leukemia, CEO Marc Benioff and 350 fe llow salesforce. com employees covered all out-of-pocke t cos ts for his care, staying i n to uch w ith him th ro ugho ut his recovery. No doubt stories like this one are part of the reason salesforce.com was n umber eight of Fortune's 100 Best Companies to Work For list in 2015.91
People perceive their organ ization as supportive when rewards are deemed fair, when employees have a voice in decisions, and when employees view their supervi- sors as supportive.92 POS is a predictor, b ut there are some cullural in fl uences. POS is importan t in coun tries where power d istance is lower. In low power-distan ce countries like Ca nada, peop le are more likely to view work as an exchange rath er than a moral obl igation, so employees look for reaso ns to feel supported by their organ izatio ns. In high power-distance countries like Chi na, employee POS perceptions are nol as deeply based on demonstratio ns of fair ness, support, an d encouragement
psychological empowerment Employees' belief in the degree to which !hey affect their work environment, their competence, lhe meaningfulness of !heir job, and their perceived autooomy in !heir work.
perceived organizational support (POS) The d99ree to which employ- ees believe an organization values their contribution and cares about !heir well-being.
98 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
0
employee engagement An indi· vidual's involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the work he or she does.
Employee En gagement Empl oyee e ngagement is an individual's invo lvement with, satisfaction with, and enth usiasm for the work he or she does. To evaluate employee engagement, we m ight ask employees whether they have access to resources and the opportun ities to learn new skills, whether they feel their work is important and meaningful, and whether their interactions with co-workers and supervisors are rewarding.93 Highly engaged employees have a passion for their work and fee l a deep connection to their company; d isengaged employees have essentially •checked ou t"- putting time but not energy or attention into their work.94 Calgary-based Vista Projects, an engineering procurement and construction management firm, consults wi th its emp loyees for engagement ideas. Doing so has resulted in educational initiatives, opportun ities for company owner- ship, and time off for rel igious holidays.95 To encourage engagement, the pres ident of Charlottetown, PEI-based Holland College visits the college's 13 sites routinely to give employees an opportun ity to ra ise concerns.96 Read Case Incident- Job Crafting on pages 112-113 to see how one individual proactively improved her employee engagement.
Engagement becomes a real concern for most organ izations because surveys ind i- cate that few employees- between 17 percent and 29 percent- are high ly engaged by their work. A 2016 survey of Canadians conducted by the Conference Board of Canada found that on ly 27 percent of employees are high ly engaged.97 A 2013 po ll by Gallup, conducted in 142 countries, found that only 13 percent of employees worldwide are engaged at work.98 Most are d isengaged: 63 percent are not engaged, and 24 percent are actively d isengaged. Oakville, Ontario-based Ford Canada recently contracted with Charles "the Buller" MacPherson to help its employees develop more engaged customer service rela tionships, as OB in the Workplace illustrates.
OB IN THE :ii:!.. WORKPLACE Minding Manners, Helping Customers
Can a butler help sa lespeople engage more wit h t hei r customers? Ford Canada recently h ired Charles "the Butler" MacPherson to provide customer service train ing sessions to employees.99 His first s top was Ottawa, and then 23 more Ford locations across Canada.
MacPherson's role is to help employees in Ford's service departments engage more with their customers so that customers receive more personalized service. MacPherson exp lained why he was comfortab le help ing salespeople: "Whether you're serving food or whether you' re presenting someone a proposal on a repair in the car, you s till have to be able to do it in the same way about making sure that you're at ease, that we're listening to you, that you're able to speak your thoughts."
Ford Canada's national consumer experience manager, Gemma Giov inazzo, is enthusiastic about develop ing more engaged employees. "We know, based on statistical research, that a highly engaged employee will lead to a h ighly engaged customer. Highly engaged employees will bend over backwards for the company and its customers. In such a culture, there is no 'th is is just my job; I am only going to do that:•
Ford believes its investment in employees will also lead to more loyal customers . .... .
Engagement levels determine many measurab le outcomes. A s tudy of nearly 8000 business units in 36 companies found that units whose employees reported high- average levels of engagement achieved higher levels of customer satisfaction, were more productive, brought in h igher profits, and experienced lower levels of turnover and
Chapter 3 Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 99
accidents than at other business units. JOO Molson Coors, for example, found engaged employees were five times Jess likely to have safety incidents, and when an accident d id occur it was much Jess serious and less costly for the engaged employee than for a d isengaged one ($63 per incident versus $392) . Caterp illar set ou t to increase employee engagement and record ed a resu lting 80 percent drop in grievances and a 34 percent increase in h ighly satisfied customers. 101
Promising find ings have earned employee engagement a following in many business organizations and management consulting firms. However, the concept generates active debate about its usefu lness, partly because of difficulty in identifying what creates job engagemen t The two top reasons for job engagemen t that participants in one study gave recently were ( 1) having a good manager they enjoy working for and (2) fee ling appreciated by their supervisor. 102 Ho\vever, most of their other reasons d idn' t relate to the job engagement construct. w3 Another s tudy in Austral ia found that emotional intelligence is linked to employee engagement. 104 Other research suggested that engage- ment fluctua tes partially due lo da ily challenges and demands. JOS
One review of the job engagement literature concluded, "The meaning of employee engagement is ambiguous among both academ ic researchers and among practitioners who use it in conversations w ith clients." Another reviewer called engagement "an umbrella term for whatever one wants it to be."I06 Research on engagement has set out to identify the dimensions of employee engagement, but the debate is far from settled. For now, we can see that job engagement, in its various incarnations, yields important organ iza tional outcomes.
Some cri tics note that engagement may have a "dark side; as evidenced by positive relationships between engagement and work- fami ly confl ict. 107 Individuals might grow so engaged in their work roles that family responsibil ities become an unwelcome intru- s ion. Further research exploring how engagement relates to these negative outcomes may help clarify whether some h ighly engaged employees might be getti ng • too much of a good th ing."
Managing Diversity in the Workplace
I In the spring of 2017, CBC News decided to find out how much diversity there really is within the technology sector.108 it asked 31 canadian tech companies about their data-gathering process regarding employee diversity and whether the companies would share their data. Two companies agreed to share data: Clearpath Robotics and Wealthsimple, an investing app. Toronto-based
Hubba said it was in the process of collecting data .
Judging from CBC News' findings, it is not surprising that diversity is not handled well in tech compan ies. If companies do not collect statistics on their employees to help man-
agement understand diversity issues, it's hard to know whether improvement is needed .
Diversity consultants suggest that collecting data is not enough, however. "Reports done well should be part of a com pany's larger diversity and inclusion strategy-one that, like
any problem a business faces, requires data so that it can be understood and goals can be
set for improvement. " Ladies Learning Code expects to be a part of the solution for the tech industry's low diversity
numbers. The company has at least one chapter in every province, and in six years it has run
904 workshops that in total have reached more than 2 1 000 adult learners and more than 19 000 youth learners. The workshops are starting to make a difference, "(flrom the woman
who completely reinvented her career through our programs, to the young girl who created a game for her visually impaired sister when there were none, to the teen who aced her AP CS
class and is now on her way to university to major in computer science."
In this section we discuss why managing diversity well matters.
Although much has been sa id abou t diversity in age, race, gender, ethn icity, religion, and d isabi lity status, experts now recognize tha t these demographic characteristics are
1 00 Part 1 Understanding t he Workplace
0 Describe how organiza- tions can manage diver· sity effectively.
surface-level diversity Differ- ences in easily perceived character- istics, such as gender, race, ethnicity, age,°' disability, that do not neces- sarily reflect the ways people lhink or feel but that may activate certain stereotypes.
deep-l evel diversity Differences in values, personality, and work prefer- ences lhat become progressively more important for determining similarity as people get to know one another better.
jusl the tip of the iceberg. rn9 Demographics mostly reflect s u r face-level d ivers ity, not thoughts and feel ings, and can lead emp loyees to perceive one another through stereotypes and assumptions. However, evidence has shown that people are less con- cerned about demograph ic differences if they see themselves as sharing more important characteristics, such as personality and va lues, that represent d eep -level divers ity. 110
To understand the difference between surface- and deep-level diversity, cons ider an example. Lu is and Caro l are managers who seem lo have little in common. Luis is a young, recently hired male from a Punjab i-speaking neighbourhood in Vancouver with a business degree. Caro l is an o lder woman from rural Alberta who started as a customer service trainee after secondary school and worked her way up the hierarchy. Al firs t, these co-workers may no tice their surface-level d ifferences in education, ethnicity, regional background, and gender. However, as they gel lo know one another, they may find they are both deeply commilled to their families, share a common way of th ink- ing about important work problems, like to work collaboratively, and are interested in international assignments. These deep-level s imilarities can overshadow the more superficial differences between them, and research suggests they will work well together.
Many organiza tions have auempted lo incorporate workforce diversity in itiatives into their workplaces lo improve relations among co-workers. Toronto-based Corus Entertainment is one such company. Corus' policy on diversity states the following:
Corus is committed to promoting an equitable work environment based on the merit principle. Corus is also committed lo conducting business and provid- ing services in the commun ities where we operate in a manner that respects the dignity and independence of all employees and customers, includ ing those with varying abil ities.
Our collective commitment to respect and nurture a d iverse and accessible work environment promo tes Accountabi lity, Innovation, Initiative, Teamwork and Knowledge across the organizalion. 111
Corus' statement on diversity is typ ical of statements found in company annual reports and employee information packets to s ignal corporate values to those who interact with the company. Some corporations choose to signa l the value of diversity because they think it is an importan t strategic goal. Other organizations recognize that the purchasing power of diverse groups is substantial.
When companies design and then publicize statements abou t the importance of diversity, they are essentially producing value statements. The hope, of course, is that the s tatements will influence the behaviour of members of the organization, particu larly s ince preference for people who are ethnically like ourselves may be ingrained in us a t an early age. For example, researchers from Concordia Un iversity and the University of Montreal found that A~ian Canadian and French Canad ian preschoolers preferred to interact with kids of their own ethnic group.11 2
Little research ind icates that values can be changed successfully. Because values tend to be re latively stable, workplaces try lo address diversity issues through education aimed at changing altitudes. See Case Incident- Walking the Walk on pages 113-114 to learn about diversity at Google.
Effective Diversity Programs Joan Vogelesang, who \Vas CEO of Montreal-based animation software company Toon Boom, says that Canadian companies don't make use of the diversity in the employees they have. She thinks Canadian companies need to look beyond imperfect English and cultural customs when hiring. When she worked at Toon Boom, most of her executive team were first-generation immigrants. Her employees could speak 20 languages among them. "Tuo . . . staff members [could! speak Japanese. You can hard ly do business in Japan if you don't speak ii; she says.113
Chapter 3 Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 101
1' 0 )1 ~ CAREER OBJECTIVES
I ~ Is It Okay to Be Gay at Work? I'm gay, b ut no o ne at my work- place knows it . How m uch sho uld I be will ing to t ell? I wa nt t o be s u re to have a s hot at t he big posi- tions in t he f irm.
-Ryan
Dear Ryan: Unfortunately, you are right to be con- cerned. Here are some suggestions:
• Look for an inclusive company cul- ture. Apple CEO Tim Cook said, "I've had the good fortune to work at a company that loves creativity and innovation and knows it can only flourish when you embrace people's d ifferences. Not every- one is so lucky." Recent research has focused on d iscovering new methods to counteract a d is- crimination cultu re in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia.
• Choose your moral ground. Do you feel you have a responsibility to "come out" to help effect social change? Do you have a right to keep your private life private? The balance is a private decision. A recent study by the US Human Rights Campaign indicated that only half of LGBT employees nationwide disclose their status.
• Consider your future in top man- agement. Corporate-level lead- ers are urged to be open with peers and employees. As Ernst & Young global vice chairperson Beth Brooke said about her decades of staying closeted, the pressure to be "authentic" adds stress if you are keeping your gay status a secret.
• Weigh your options. The word from people at the top who are gay (some who have come out and others who have not) is mixed. Brooke said, "Life really did get better" after she announced her status in a company- sponsored video. Mark Stephanz, a vice chairman at Bank of America Merrill Lynch, agreed, remarking that "most people still deal with you the same way they always do." Yet Deena Fidas, deputy director for the largest LGBT civil rights group in the United States, reported that being gay in the workplace is still "far from being a 'nonissue.'"
• Be aware of international and national laws. Sadly, some nations and states are intolerant. You will
need to study the laws to be sure you will be safe from repercussions when you reveal your status.
So, think about your decision from both an ethical and a self-interested
Vogelesang's description of diversity as a compelilive
point of view. Your timing depends not only on what you think are your ethical responsibilities, but also on your con- text-where you work, the culture of your organization, and the support of the people within it. Thankfully, globaliza- tion is ensuring that the world becomes increasingly accepting and fair.
Good luck in your career!
Sources: M. D. Birtel. • 'Treating' Prejudice: An Exposure-Therapy Approach to Reducing Neg- ative Reactions Toward Stigmatized Groups," Psychological Science (November 2012): 1379- 86; L Cooper and J. Raspanti, "The Cost of the Closet and the Rewards of Inclusion,' Human Rights Gampalgn report (May 2014), http://hrc· assets.s3-website-us-east-1.amazonaws.oom/ I files/assets/resources/Cost_of_the_Closet_ May2014.pdf; N. Rumens and J. Broomfield. •Gay Men in the Police: Identity Disclosure and Management Issues," Human Resource Management Journal (July 2012): 283-98; and A. M Ryan and J. L Wessel, •Sexual Orienta- tion Harassment In the Workplace: When Do Obse,vers Intervene?" Journal of Organizational Behavior (May 2012): 488-509.
The opinions provided here are of the manag- ers and authors only and do not necessarHy reflect those of their organizations. The authors or managers are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for the results obtained from the use of this Information. In no event will the authors or managers, or their related partner- ships or corporations thereof, be liable to you or anyone else for any decision made or action taken in re/lance on the opinions provided here.
advantage speaks lo Lhe need for a variety o f d iversity programs in recruiting and selection policies, as well as training and development practices.
1\ r e you comfortable
Effective, comprehensive workforce programs encour- aging diversity have lhree dislincl components. Firsl, lhey leach emp loyees about Lhe legal framework for equal employment opportunity and encourage fair lrealmenl of all people, regardless of their demograph ic characteristics.
\·vorking ,Yith peop le rro1n
other cultures·?
Second, lhey leach employees how a diverse workforce will be beller able lo serve a d iverse market of customers and clients. Third, lhey foster personal development prac- tices lhal bring out lhe skills and abil ities of all workers, acknowledging how d ifferences
1 02 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
protected groups The four groups designated by the Employment Equity Act as the beneficiaries of employ- ment equity ~·romen, people with dis- abilities, Aboriginal people, and visible minorities).
in perspective can be a valuable way to improve performance for everyone. 114 A study by researchers at the University of Toron to Scarborough found that focusing on th e positive benefits of d iversity, rather than tell ing people what they should and should not do, was more likely to red uce people's prejud ices toward o ther groups. 115 The Experiential Exercise on page 111 considers what it feels like to be targeted or excluded based on demograph ic s tatus.
Most negative reactions lo employment d iscrim ination are based on the idea that discriminatory lreatment is unfair. Regardless of race or gender, peop le are generally in favour of d iversity-oriented programs if they bel ieve the pol icies ensure everyone has a fair opportunity lo show their skills and abilities.
Organizational leaders should examine their workforce to determ ine whether th e prote cted groups covered by Canada's Employment Equ ity Act (women, people with d isabilities, Ab original people, a nd visib le m inorities) have been u nderutilized. If groups of emp loyees are nol proportionally represented in top management, managers shou ld look for any h idden barriers to advancement They can often improve recru it- ing practices, make selection systems more transparent, and provide trai ning for those employees who h ave not h ad adequate exposure to necessary work-related experiences in the past Exhibit 3-7 presents examples of what some of the lead ing compan ies are
doing as part of their diversity initiatives. Management should also clearly commun icate the company's diversity policies and
their rationale to employees so they can understand how and why certain practices are followed. Commun ications should focus as much as possible on qualifications and job performance; emphasizing that certain groups need more assistance could well backfire.
To ensure the top-level management team represents the diversity of its workforce and client base, Safeway implemented the Retai l Leadersh ip Development (RLD) pro- gram, a formal career development program. This program is open lo all employees, so it is inclusive, but women and underrepresented racial or ethnic groups are particu larly
-----------i:r-...------·""l'r1111~• .. •- ""# 1_ ~· ~, foundation ~" .....
Toronto-based AccessNow founder Maayan Ziv speaks up about the need for more diversity in the tech- nology sector. AccessNow lets its users know whether buildings are accessible throughout many places in the world. She says that when she builds events, she want them to be ind usive, and asks herself about that: "Is it inclusive? Is the messaging inclusive? Does it support other people's perspectives being brought to the table?" Ziv believes that having people surrounded with people who are d ifferent than themselves helps improve the perspectives that can be shared.11 6
Chapter 3 Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 103
EXHIBIT 3-7 Practices Used by a Selected Sample of Canada's Most Welcoming Places to Work, 2017
Company Number of (Location) Industry Employees Diversity Activities
Jazz Aviation Aviation 4266 Has an LGBTA employee resource group and (Dartmouth, NS) launched a Safe Space campaign to promote an
inclusive work environment
Cameco Corp. Mining 3040 Works w ith Women in Mining and the Mining Human (Saskatoon) Resource Council to research employment barriers
faced by women in the mining industry
Telus (Vancouver) Telecommunications 23328 Maintains "Eagles," a dedicated resource group to provide professional development and networking opportunities for Indigenous employees
CIBC (Toronto) Commercial bank 36 215 Updated its board of directors' goal for the representation of women to no less than 30 percent
Manitoba Hydro Hydroelectric 6001 Provides work placements to grade 12 high school (Winnipeg) power generation students with intellectual disabilities
Ontario Public Government 62080 Launched the Accessibility@Source campaign to Service (OPS) support help staff integrate accessibility considerations into (Toronto) everything they do
Sodexo Canada Food services 5961 Offers internships to Vancouver Community College (Burlington, ON) students with intellectual disabilities, in partnership
with the Vancouver School Board's Life Skills Program
Northwest Government 5950 Established a Diversity and Inclusion Unit, composed Territories services of a manager of diversity and inclusion, an Indigenous Government HR specialist, and two workforce diversity officers (Yellowknife)
Agrium Inc. Agricultural 3440 Piloted a Women's Leadership Development program (Calgary) products to develop women candidates with high potential for
and fertilizer senior management positions manufacturing
Source: Based on D. Jermyn, "Canada's Best Diversity Employers," March 28, 2017, https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/ careers/lop-employers/canadas-best-diversity-employers-welcome-new-voices/artlcle34434138/.
encouraged lo participa te. Interested individ uals take tests lo determ ine whether they
have management potenti al. Safeway managers are charged with providing promising
RLD parti cipants with additional training and development opportuniti es to ensure they
have the skills needed for advancement, and are given performance bonuses if they meet
concrete diversity goals. The RLD program has increased the number of white women
store managers by 31 percent since its inception, and the n umber of women-of-co lour
store managers by 92 percent. 117 OB in the Street l ooks at what corporate boards in Canada can do to recruit more diverse members.
Just because a company's managers val ue diversity does not mean that all employees
will share that value. Consequently, even if they are requ ired lo attend d iversity training,
employees may exhibit negative attitudes toward ind ividuals because of their gender or
ethnicity. Additionally, what atti tudes are appropriately displayed outside of the work-
p lace may be questioned by some employers.
Cultural Intelligence Consider the cases of an I talian COO who can't motivate h is Indian employees al a
technology company in Mumbai, an Israeli consultant in the US having d ifficul ty givi ng
Q) Identify the benefits of cultural intelligence.
1 0 4 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
cultural intelligence (CO.) The ability to understand someone's unfa- miliar and ambiguous gestures in the same way as would people from that person's culture.
Why should corporate boards pay more attention to diversity? The Canadian Board Diver- sity Council together with KPMG recently published a study on the boards of 450 of the Financial Post 500 (FP500) companies. 118 The study found that women held 15 percent of board seats on the FP500 companies; visible minorities held 5.3 percent; persons with disab ilities held 2.9 percent; and Aboriginal peop le ( including First Nations, Inuit, and Melis) held 8 percent. With the exception of Aboriginal representation, the numbers were far fewer than the representation of these categories in society at large. Pamela Jeffery, founder and presiden t of the council, called the results •disappoi nting."
Does the lack of diversity hurt the bottom line7 Accounting firm Ernst & Young found that the lack of diversity on boards can make it difficult for companies to innovate. Directors who sat on FP500 boards that had more women, visible minorities, or Aboriginal d iversity believed that the boards made better decisions because the diversity led to better discussions with more perspectives. Board members expressed some frustration about finding new direc- tors and reported that "their own networks are almost exclusively made up of white men."
The council does not favour using quotas to change the situation. Instead, it recom- mends that with the large wave of reti rements from boards expected in the next several years, FP500 boards shou ld use rigorous, transparent recru iti ng processes "to replace
: one of every three retiring directors with a d irector of a diverse background.• ..... . . .
feedback, and a Korean software firm CEO worki ng in Shanghai who canno t reta in his Ch inese emp loyees. The Italian COO knows his Ind ian employees expect a more authoritarian style than he is used to; the Israel i knows her feedback should be softer, rather than so b lun t; and the Korean knows that Chinese bosses are more paternal istic than Korean ones. That is because they have cu ltural intelligence.119
Management professors Christopher Earley of the London School of Business and Elaine Mosakowski of the Un iversity of Colorado at Boulder introduced the idea of cultu ral in t elligence {CQ) to suggest that people vary in how they deal with other cultures. CQ is defined as "the seem ingly nat ural ab ility to interpret someone's unfa- m iliar and amb iguous gestures in just the way that person's compatriots and colleagues wou ld, even to mirror them." 120
Earley and Mosakowski suggest that CQ "picks up where emo tional inte ll igence leaves off." Those with CQ try to figure out whether a person's behaviour is representa- tive of all members of a group or just that person. Thus, for example, a person with h igh CQ who encounters two German engineers wou ld be able to determine which aspects of the engineers' conduct are explained by the fac t of being an engineer, by being Ger- man, or by behaviour that is simp ly particu lar to the individual. A recent study found tha t CQ is particularly helpful to expatriates on in ternational assignment because the ab ility to be confident about and interested in being in new cultura l environments makes it easier to adjust to the demands of fore ign assignments. 121
]] RESEARCH FI NDINGS: Cultural Intell igence Accord ing to researchers, "cu ltural intell igence resides in the body !the physical) and the heart [the emotional/motivational ), as well as the head lthe
cognitive).• 122 Individuals who have high cognitive CQ look for clues to help them identify a culture's shared understand ings. Specifically, an individual does this by looking for consistencies in behaviours across a variety of people from the same cultural background. Individuals with high physical CQ learn the customs and gestures of those from other cul- tures and therefore act more like them. This increases understanding, trust, and openness
Chap t er 3 Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 105
among people of different cultures. O ne study foun d that j ob cand idates who used some
of the mannerisms of recru iters who had different cultural backgroun ds from themselves
were more l ikel y to receive job offers than those who did not do so. 123 Those with h igh
emotional/motivational CQ believe that they are capable of understanding people from other cultures, and w ill keep trying to do so, even if faced w ith difficulties in doi ng so.
Based o n their research, Earley and Mosakowski have discovered that most managers fall in to the followi ng CQ profiles: 124
• Provincial. They wor k b est with people of simila r background, but have diffi - cu lties working w ith those from differen t backgrounds.
• Analyst. They analyze a foreign culture's rules and expectati ons to figure out how to i nteract w ith o thers.
• Natural. They use intuition rather than systematic study lo understand those from other cultural backgrounds.
• Ambassador. They commun icate convinci ngly that they fit i n, even i f they do not know much about the foreign culture.
• Mimic. They control actions and b ehaviours to match others, even if they do not understand the significance of the cultural cues observed.
• Chanieleon. They have high levels of all three CQ components. They could be m istak en as being from the foreign culture. According to research, onl y about
5 percent of managers fi t this profi le.
Exh ib it 3-8 can help you assess your own CQ.
EXHIBIT 3-8 Measuring Your Cultural Intelligence
Rate the extent to w hich you agree with each statement, using the following scale:
1 = strongly disagree 2 = disagree 3 = neutral 4 = agree 5 = strongly agree
__ Before I interact with people from a new culture, I ask myself what I hope to achieve. __ If I encounter something unexpected while working in a new culture, I use this experience to figure out new ways
to approach other cultures in the future. __ I plan how I'm going to relate to people from a different culture before I meet them. __ When I come into a new cultural situation, I can immediately sense whether something is going well or something is wrong.
Total + 4 = Cognitive CQ
__ It's easy for me to change my body language (for example, eye contact or posture) to suit people from a different a.ilture. __ I can alter my expression when a cultural encounter requires it. __ I modify my speech style (for example, accent or tone) to suit people from a different culture. __ I easily change the way I act when a cross-cultural encounter seems to require it.
Total + 4 = Physical CQ
__ I have confidence that I can deal well with people from a different culture. __ I am certain that I can befriend people whose cultural backgrounds are different from mine. __ I can adapt to the lifestyle of a different culture with relative ease. __ I am confident that I can deal with a cultural situation that is unfamiliar.
Total + 4 = Emotional/motivatio nal CQ
Interpretation: Generally, an average of less than 3 would indicate an area calling for improvement, w hile an average of greater than 4 .5 reflects a true CO strength.
Sourr:e: P. C. Earley and E. Mosakowski, "Cultural Intelligence; Harvard Business Review 82, no. 1 O {October 2004), pp. 139-146. Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review.
106 Part 1 Understanding t he Workplace
cultural code-switching The ability to modify beha'liour in specttic situations to accommodate varying cultural norms.
Cultu ral in tell igence may not be enough, however. Remember the Ital ian COO, the Israel i consultant, a nd the Korean CEO from the start of this section? Recent research suggests that they lack cultural code-switching - "the ab ility to modify beh aviour in specific situations to accommodate varying cul tural no rms." 125 ll can be difficult to act against the nor ms you're accustomed to wh en acting in new environments. Being culturally fl uent means b eing ab le to learn the norms of the new environment an d to feel comfortab le applyi ng them.
{i» ~~~!~~ n~~~e~~~~!il~~e~e covered in this chapter, we review only ~/ three in terms of their application beyond Can ada an d the United States.
First, we consider whether job satisfactio n is simp ly a US concep t. Seco nd, we exam ine wheth er employees in Western cultures are more satisfied with their jobs than people from other cultures. Finally, we look at internatio nal differences in how d iversity is ma naged.
Is Job Satisfaction a North American Concept? Most of the research on job satisfaction has been co nducted in the Uni ted States an d Canada. So, is job satisfaction just relevan t to those countries? The evidence stro ngly suggests it is not; people in other cultures can an d do form judgments of job satisfaction. Moreover, simi lar factors seem to cause, and resu lt from, job satisfaction across cultures: We noted earl ier that pay is positively, b ut relatively weakly, rela ted to job satisfaction. Th is relationsh ip appears to hold in other industrialized nations as well.
Are Employees in Western Cultures More Satisfied with Their Jobs? There are some cultural differences in job satisfaction. Exhib it 3 -9 provides the results of a global s tudy of job satisfactio n levels o f employees in 15 countries, with the h igh- est levels in Mexico and Switzerla nd. Do employees in these cul tures have better jobs? Or are they s imply more positive (a nd less self-critical)? Conversely, the lowest score in
EXHIBIT 3-9 Average Levels of Employee Job Satisfaction by Country
6.00 ~------------------------ 5.88
Source: Based on J. H. Westover, "The Impact o f Comparative State-Directed Development on Worki1g Cond ~ions and Employee Satisfaction," Journal of Management & Organization, July 2012, pp. 537-554.
Chapt er 3 Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 1 07
the study was for South Korea. Autonomy is low in South Korea, and businesses tend to be rigidly h ierarch ical. Do these factors make for low job satisfaction? 126 ll is d ifficult to d iscern all the factors influencing the scores, bu t considering how businesses are responding to changes brought on by globalization may give us clues.
The amount of exposure the cu lture gets to diverse ways of l ife may affect job sat- isfaction in South Korea. The country has the highest percentage of wireless Internet broadband subscrip tions of any country ( 100 percent, or 100 subscriptions per every 100 people), wh ich indicates that people have access to worldwide contemporary bus i- ness practices. South Korean employees may therefore know about autonomy, merit- based rewards, and benefi ts for workers in other countries that are unavai lable to them. In contrast, Mexico, which has one of the highest job sa tisfaction scores, has the lowest percentage of Internet subscriptions {7.7 percent) .127 The higher job satisfaction rate in Mexico could still indicate that it has better jobs or that emp loyees are more satisfied in lesser jobs because there is not as much opportunity for exposure to outside contempo- rary influences. As you can see, higher job satisfaction may somewha t reflect employee acceptance of the culture's busi ness practices, whether the practices are traditional or cun i ng-edge. There are also many other potential contributing factors.
Does organizational comm itment vary cross-nationally? A recent study explored this question and compared the organizational commilrnent of Ch inese employees with that of Canad ian and South Korean employees.128 Allhough results revealed that the three types of comm itment- normative, affective, and conti nuance- are present in all three cu ltures, they d iffer in importance. In add ition, the study fo und that Canadians and South Koreans are closer to each other in values than either is with the Chinese. Norma- tive commitment ( an ob ligation to rema in with an organization for moral or eth ical reasons) and affective commitment ( an emotional allachmenl lo the organization and bel ief in its values) were h ighest among Chinese employees. Continuance commi tment ( the perceived eco nomic va lue of rema ining w ith an organization) was lower among Chinese employees than among Canadian, Bri tish, and South Korean employees.
Is Diversity Managed Differently across Cultures? Besides the mere presence of diversity in international work settings, international d if- ferences exist in how diversity is managed. Each country has ils own legal framework for deal ing with diversity, and these frameworks are a powerfu l reflection of the diversity- related concerns of each country. Many countries require specific targets and quotas for achieving employment equity goals, whereas the legal framework in Canada speci fi- cally forb ids their use. The types of demograph ic differences considered important for d iversity management also vary across countries. For example, South Africa protects blacks through the Equal Employment Act; Ch ina has "preferential pol icies" that require ethnic minorities and women be appointed to top government positions; Israel has a class-based pol icy lo promote women, Arabs, blacks, and people with disabi lities; India has a pol icy of reservation lo reserve jobs for underrepresented castes; Sri Lanka has the Standardization pol icy to help those in areas with lower rates of education; Malaysia's New Economic Policy {NEP) provides advantage for the majority group, the Malays, who have lower income; Germany's Basic Law has an affirmative action plan for women and those with handicaps; and Russia has quotas for women and ethnic m inorities.
- Summary Why is it important to know an individual's values? Values often underlie and exp lain altitudes, behaviours, and perceptions. Values tend to vary internationally along dimen- s ions that can predict organizational outcomes; however, an individual may or may no t hold values that are consistent with the val ues of the national culture.
LESSONS LEARNED
• Values represent basic convic- tions abou t what is impor- tant, right, and good.
• Attitudes tend to predict behaviours.
• Job satisfaction leads to better performance.
1 08 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
Mylab Management
Managers should be interested in their employees' attitudes because altitudes in fl u- ence behaviour and indicate potential problems. Creating a satisfied workforce is hardly a guarantee of successful organizational performance, but evidence s trongly suggests that managers' efforts to improve employee aui tudes will likely resul t in positive out- comes, including greater organizational effectiveness, high customer satisfaction, and increased profits.
Diversity management must be an ongoing commitment that crosses all levels of the organization. Po licies lo improve the cl imate for d iversity can be effective, so long as they are designed to acknowledge all employees' perspectives.
SNAPSHOT SUMMARY
Values Values in the Canadian • Perceived Organizational
• Rokeach Value Survey Workplace Support
• Hodgson's General Moral • Generational Differences • Employee Engagement
Principles • Cultural Differences Managing Diversity in the
Assessing Cultural Values Attitudes Workplace
• Hofstede's Framework for • Job Satisfaction • Effective Diversity Programs Assessing Cultures • Organizational Commitment • Cultural Intelligence
• The GLOBE Framework for • Job Involvement Assessing Cultures
Study, practise, and explore real business situations with these helpful resources:
• Study Plan: Check your understanding of chapter concepts with sett-study quizzes.
• Online Lesson Presentations: Study key chapter topics and work through interactive assessments to test your knowledge and master management ooncepts.
• Videos: Learn more about the management practices and strategies of real companies.
• Simulations: Practise management decision-making in simulated business environments.
.,. for Review
1. What is the difference between Rokeach's terminal and instru- mental values?
2. What are Hofstede's value dimensions for assessing
cultures?
3. What values are unique to Canadian culture?
4. What are the three components of an attitude? Are these com- ponents related or unrelated?
5. What are the key attitudes that affect organizational perfor- mance? In what ways are these attitudes alike? What is unique
about each?
6. What causes job satisfaction? For most people, is pay or the work itself more important?
7. What outcomes does job sat- isfaction influence? What impli· cations do the consequences of job satisfaction have for management?
8. What are the four employee responses to job dissatisfaction?
9. How can organizations manage diversity effectively?
10. What are the benefits of cultural intelligence?
for Managers
• Of the major job attitudes - job satisfaction, job involvement, organizational commitment, per- ceived organizational support (POS), and employee engage- ment- remember that an employ- ee's job satisfaction level is the best single predictor of behaviour.
• Pay attention to your employees' job satisfaction levels as deter- minants of their performance, turnover, absenteeism, and with· drawal behaviours.
• Measure employee job attitudes objectively and at regular intervals in order to determine how employ- ees are reacting to their work.
• To raise employee job satisfac- tion, evaluate the fit between the employee's work interests and the intrinsic par1s of the job, then cre- ate work that is challenging and interesting to the employee.
• Consider the fact that high pay alone is unlikely to create a satis- fying work environment.
• Understand your organization's anti-dscrimination policies thor- oughly and share them with your employees.
• Look beyond readily observable biographical characteristics and consider the individual's capabili- ties before making management decisions; remain open and encouraging for individuals to dis- close any hidden disabilities.
• Fully evaluate what accommoda- tions a person with disabilities will need and then fine-tune a job to that person's abilities.
• Seek to understand and respect the unique biographical charac- teristics of each employee; a fair but individual-oriented approach yields the best performance.
for You
• You w ill encounter many people who have values different from yours in the classroom and in various kinds of activities in which you participate, as well as in the workplace. Try to understand value differences, and to figure out ways to work positively with people who are different from you.
• We indicated that a moderate number of Canadians are very satisfied with their jobs, and we mentioned the sources of some of the satisfactions. We also identified some of the reasons people are dissatisfied with their jobs. This information may help you understand your own feelings about whether you are satisfied w ith your job.
• You may be able to use some of the information on attitudes to think about how to better work w ith people from different cul - lures. An understanding of how cultures differ may provide insight when you observe people doing things differently from the way you
do them.
0 ICll:I
"' -
11 O Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
-"' CCI 0
MILLENNIALS HAVE INFLATED IMAGES OF THEMSELVES COMPARED TO THEIR PARENTS
POI NT Millennials have some great virtues: As a group, they are
technologically savvy, socially tolerant, and engaged. l29
They value their quality of life as equal to their career,
seeking a balance between home and work. In these
ways, Millennials surpass their Baby Boomer parents,
who are less technologically adept, less tolerant, more localized, and who have a history of striving to get ahead
at all costs.
Several large-scale, longitudinal studies found Mil-
lennials are more likely than Baby Boomers to have
seemingly inflated views of themselves. More Millenni- als rate themselves as above average on attributes such
as academic ability, leadership, public-speaking abil-
ity, and writing ability. Millennials are also more likely to
agree they would be •very good" spouses (56 percent,
compared to 37 percent among 1980 graduates), par-
ents (54 percent; 36 percent for 1980 graduates), and employees (65 percent; 49 percent for 1980 graduates).
Cliff Zukin, a senior faculty fellow at Rutgers Univer-
sity, believes the reason is in the childhood upbringing
of Millennials. "This is the most affirmed generation in
history,• he says. "They were raised believing they could
do anything they wanted to, and that they have skills and talents to bring to a job setting." Jean M. Twenge, author
of Generation Me, agrees. "People were not saying, 'Believe in yourself' and 'You are special' in the '60s."
Narcissism is bad for society, and particularly bad
for the workplace. "[Narcissists] tend to be very self- absorbed; they value fun in their personal and their work
life,• one administrator said. "I can't expect them to work
on one project for any amount of time without getting
bored."
COUNTERPOINT Wasn't "The Me Generation" generations ago? Honestly, every generation thinks they are better than the ones that
come after! "You can find complaints [about the younger
generation] in Greek literature, in the Bible, " Professor
Cappelli of the Wharton School obseNed. "There's no
evidence Millennials are different. They're just younger." While Millennials are the 20-somethings of today, what is universally true is that young people share certain char-
acteristics ... because they are young. A recent study shows the similarity between how Mil-
lennials and Baby Boomers thought about themselves
at the same stage of life. As college freshmen, 71 per- cent of Millennials thought they were above average aca-
demically, and 63 percent of Baby Boomers thought the
same thing when they were college freshmen. Similarly,
77 percent of Millennials believed they were above aver-
age in the drive to achieve, versus 68 percent for Baby Boomers. In other words, "Every generation is Genera-
tion Me."
In some ways, Millennials may be less narcissistic
than Baby Boomers today. As one manager observed,
"[Millennials] don't have that line between work and
home that used to exist, so they're doing Facebook for the company at night, on Saturday or Sunday. We get
incredible productivity out of them.• Millennials also may
be more altruistic. For example, 29 percent of Millen-
nials believe individuals have a responsibility to remain
involved in issues and causes for the good of all, while only 24 percent of Baby Boomers feel the same level of
responsibility.
Rather than comparing different generations, it is
more accurate to compare people at one life stage with
others at the same life stage. Research supports that
people in their 20s tend to be more narcissistic than people in their 50s. Since Millennials are in their 20s, and
many of their parents are in their 50s, Millennials are no
more narcissistic than Baby Boomers were in their youth.
Chapter 3 Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 1 1 1
BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES Cl co 0, -Forn, sm all groups to discuss the follow ing topics, as assigned by your instructo r. Each person in the group should first ~
id entify 3 to 5 key personal values. ;1-
1. Identify the extent to w hich values overlap in your group.
2. Try to uncover with your group mem bers the source of some of your key values (for example, parents, peer group, teachers, church).
3. What kind of w orkplace would be mo st suitab le for the values that you hold most closely?
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
Feeling Excluded This 6-step exercise takes approximately 20 minutes.
Individual Work (Steps 1 and 2)
1. All participants are asked to recall a time when they have felt uncomfortable or targeted because of their demo- graphic status. Ideally, situations at work should be used, but if no work situations com e to mind, any situation will work. Encourag e students to use any dem ograp hic characteristic they think is most app ropriate, so they can write about feeling excluded on the basis of race, ethnicity, gender, age, disability status, religion, or any other characteristic . They should briefly describe the situation, w hat p recipitated the event, how they felt at the time, how they reacted, and how they believe the other party could have made the situation better.
2. The instructor asks the stud ents to then think about a time w hen they might have either deliberately or accidentally d one someth ing that made someone else feel excluded or targeted because of their demographic status. Once
ag ain, they should briefly describe the situation, what precip itated the event, how they felt at the time, how the other
person reacted, and how they could have m ade the situation better.
Small Groups (Steps 3 and 4)
3. Once everyone has written their descriptions, divid e the class into small groups of not more than 4 people. If at all po ssible, try to compo se groups that are somewhat demographically diverse, to avoid intergroup conflicts in the class review discussion. Students should be encouraged to discuss their situations and consider how their expe- riences were sim ilar or different.
4. After reading through everyone's reactions, each group should d evelop a short list of principles for how they person-
ally can avoid excluding or targeting peop le in the future. Encourag e them to be as specific as po ssible, and also
ask each group to find solutions that work for everyone. Solutions should focus on both avoiding these situations
in the first p lace and resolving them when they do occur.
Class Review (Steps 5 and 6)
5. Members of each group are invited to p rovid e a very brief summary of the major princip les of how they have felt exclud ed or targ eted, and then describe their group's collective decisions regarding how these situations can be minimized in the future.
6 . The instructor should lead a discussion on how com panies m ight be able to develop com prehensive policies that will encourag e people to be sensitive in their interactions w ith one another.
1 1 2 Part 1 Understanding t he Workplace
ETHICAL DILEMMA
Tell-All Websites "Arrogant, condescending, mean -spirited, hateful . . . and
those traits describe the nicest people at Netflix," writes
one anonymous employee. 130 "Management is awful . ..
good old boys club," w rites a Coca-Cola market devel-
opment manager. And the reviews keep rolling in; Coca-
Cola has 1600 employee reviews and som e companies,
like Google, have double that number on Glassdoor,
one of the websites that allows employees to rate their
employers.
Websites like Glassdoor are thriving; employees
increasingly join the forums and seem to relish the chance
to speak freely. Ryan Janssen, former CEO of Memo (an
app that allowed users to talk honestly about work), said
that apps such as Whisper give bosses access to candid
feedback they can' t get otherwise. "The employee's nat - ural reaction lwhen managers ask for feedback directly) is
to tell you w hat you want to hear," he said. There is cer-
tainly truth to this - studies indicate that employees "put
on a happy face" for their bosses. When people know
their posts are not anonymous, "people put on this weird,
fake professional face," Janssen added.
Organizations are aware that employees watch what
they say w hen they can be identified, and many have used
anonymous job attitude surveys for this reason. Still, evalu-
ations from these surveys are often more glowing, and less
detailed, than anonymous website feedback. Some orga-
nizations have therefore altered the frequency and scope
of surveys to obtain more depth . Others have their own
intranet platforms to solicit concerns and complaints.
Beyond the personally unethical aspect of posting
scathing denouncem ents about people or organizations
online- sharing details w ith the world that you w ould
not share in person - issues of organizational ethics
com e into play. While som e companies try to discourage
employees from anonymously venting on websites and
apps, such mandates may violate the employees' right
to free speech. And how anonymous are anonymous
posts? Posts on Glassdoor and other forums eliminate
a person's name, but can't bosses sometimes deter-
mine which subordinate posted the comments? Manag-
ers everywhere need to decide how much management
sleuthing is ethical, and w hat consequences, if any, can
be forced on subordinates for anonymous posts.
Questions
1. Do you think employees have a right to say what they want to about their organizations online, as opposed to in private?
2. How w ould you react if you learned one of your employees posted unflattering comments about you as a manager? Would your reaction be any different if the employee posted unflattering comments about you as a person?
3. Do you feel it is acceptable to post comments anon- ymously, or do you think people should include their names? Why or why not?
CASE INCIDENTS
Job Crafting Consider for a moment a midlevel manager, Fatima, w ho
seem s to be doing well. 13 1 She consistently meets her
required benchmarks and goals, has built successful
relationships w ith colleagues, and has been identified by
senior m anagement as having "high potential.• But she
isn't satisfied in her job. For example, she is interested
in understanding how social media may be used in m ar-
keting efforts at all levels of the organization, but her job
does not allow her to work on this. She wants to quit and
find something that better suits her passions, but in her
economic situation, this may not be an option. So she has decided to proactively reconfigure her current job.
Fatima is part of a movem ent toward job "crafting,"
which is the process of deliberately reorganizing your job
so that it better fits your motives, strengths, and pas-
sions. How did Fatima craft her job? She first noticed
that she was spending too much of her time monitoring
her team's performance and answering questions, and
not enough time working on the creative projects that
inspired her. She then considered how to modify her rela-
tionship with her team so that her activities incorporated
her passion for social media strategies, while the team's
activities centred on developing new marketing. She also
identified members of her team who might be able to help
her implement her new strategies and directed her inter-
actions w ith these individuals toward her new goals. As a
result, not only did her engagem ent in her work increase,
but she also developed new ideas that were recognized
and advanced w ithin the organization. In sum, she found
that by actively and creatively examining her work, she
was able to shape her job into one that is truly satisfying.
Chapter 3 Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 1 13
As you may have noted, Fatima exhibited a proactive
personality- she was eager to develop her own options
and find her own resources. Proactive individuals are often
self-empowered and are, therefore, m ore likely to seek
workable solutions when they are not satisfied . Research
leads us to believe Fatima will be successful in her cus-
tomized job and that she will experience increased well-
being . To the extent possible, then, all employees should
feel encouraged to be proactive in creating their best work
situations.
Questions
1. Should organizations work to create jobs that are satisfying to individual employees?
2. Are the principles of job crafting described here rel- evant to your job or studies? Why or w hy not?
3. Are there any potential drawbacks to the job crafting approach? If so, how can they be minimized?
Cl co 0, -
Walking the Walk Do you want to work for Google? 132 In som e ways, w ho wouldn't? Sunny California, fabulous campus, free organic
meals, perks galore ... oh, and challenging work w ith
some of the brightest minds in the field. By all accounts,
Google is a class act, a symbol of modernization.
Does Google want you to work for it? Ah, that is
the question. Eric Sc hmidt, a former Google CEO, and
Jonathan Rosenberg, a former Google senior product
manager, say Google searches for a certain type of
person : a •sm art c reative." They say smart c reatives
are •a new kind of anim al" - and the secret ingredient to
Google's success.
Do you think you are a smart c reative? Are you an
impatient, outspoken, risk taker who is easi ly bored?
Do you change jobs frequently? Are you intellectually
flexible? Do you have technical know-how, business
knowledge, and creativity? Do you th ink analytically?
According to Schmidt and Rosenberg, answering yes to
these questions makes you a smart creative. As you can
see, being a smart c reative is not all positive. But it will
get you hired at Google.
One last question: Are you male or fem ale? Google
may be a symbol of the modernization of the workplace, but perhaps not of the workforce. The Google workforce,
w ith 48 600 individuals, is a man's world - 70 percent
m ale overall. On the technical side, a full 83 percent of
the engineering employees are male. In the management
ranks, 79 percent of the manag ers are m ale. On the
executive level, only three of the company's 36 execu-
tives are women.
Google officials say they are aware of the lack of diver-
sity, but that their diversity initiatives have failed. However,
others report that sexist comments go unchecked and
there is a frat-house atmosphere. In fact, an interviewer at
an all-company presentation insultingly teased a man and
woman who shared an office, asking them, "Which one of
you does the dishes?"
Thankfully, Google has begun to put its smart creatives to work on new thoughts about diversity. With the help of
social psychology research, the company sent all employ-
ees through training on unconscious bias - our reflexive
tendency to be biased toward our own groups - to force
people to consider their racist and sexist mindsets. So
far, the training seems to be m aking a bigger difference
than former init iatives, but the firm has a long way to go.
Laszlo Bock, Google's top HR executive, said, "Suddenly
you go from being completely oblivious to going, ' Oh my
god, it's everywhere."'
114 Part 1 Understanding t he Workplace
Critics are skeptical that Google and other large tech-
nology firms will ever count women in their ranks in num -
bers that reflect the population, though research continues
to indicate that men and women are highly similar employ-
ees. Once Google has achieved greater diversity than it
currently has, perhaps its execut ives can begin to work
on the pay differentials: A recent Harvard study indicated
that women computer scientists receive 89 percent of the
pay men earn for the same jobs.
Questions
1. Does this article change your perception of Google as an employer? How?
2. Why do you think men at Google continue to hire mainly men?
3. Would you do anything to address diversity issues at Google if you worked there? What might you try?
Changing Attitudes Can you change unfavourable employee attitudes? Sometimes!
It depends on who you are, the
strength of the employee's attitude,
the magnitude of the change, and
the technique you choose to try to
change the attitude.
• • • • • • • • • • • • •
Practising Skills
People are most likely to respond to changes suggested by som eone
who is liked, credible, and convincing. If people like you, they are more
apt to identify and adopt your message. Credibility implies trust , exper-
tise, and objectivity. So you are more likely to change someone's attitude
if that person views you as believable, know ledgeable about what you
are saying, and unbiased in your presentation. Rnally, successful atti-
tude change is enhanced w hen you present your arguments clearly and
persuasively.
It's easier to change a person's attitude if he or she is not strongly committed to it. Conversely, the stronger the belief in the attitude, the
harder it is to change it. Also, attitudes that have been expressed publicly
are more difficult to change because doing so requires admitting having
m ade a mistake. It's also easier to change attitudes w hen the change required is not
very significant. To get a person to accept a new attitude that varies greatly
from his or her current position requires more effort. It may also threaten
other deeply held attitudes .
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
All attitude-change techniques are not equally effective across situations.
Oral persuasion techniques are most effective w hen you use a positive,
tactful tone; present strong evidence to support your position; tailor your
argument to the listener; use logic; and support your evidence by appeal-
ing to the person's fears, frustrations, and other emotions. But people are
m ore likely to embrace change when they can experience it. The use of
training sessions where employees share and personalize experiences,
and practise new behaviours, can be a powerful stimulant for change.
Consistent w ith self-perception theory, changes in behaviour can lead to
changes in attitudes.
Form groups of 2. Person A is to choose any topic that he or she feels
strongly about and state his or her position on the topic in 30 words or
less. Person B's task w ill be to try to change Person P.:s attitude on this
topic. Person B will have 10 minutes to make his or her case. When the
time is up, the roles are reversed. Person B picks the topic and Person A
has 10 minutes to try to change Person B 's attitude.
Chapter 3 Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 1 15
Potential topics (you can choose either side of a topic) include the
following: politics; the economy; world events; social practices; or spe-
cific management issues, such as that organizations should require all
employees to undergo regular drug testing, there is no such thing as orga-
nizational loyalty anymore, the customer is always right, or layoffs are an
indication of management failures.
Questions
1. Were you successful at changing the other person's attitude? Why or why not?
2. Was the other person successful at changing your attitude? Why or why not?
3. What conclusions can you draw about changing the attitudes of your- self and others?
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1. Try to convince a friend or relative to go with you to see a movie or play that you know he or she does not want to see.
2. Try to convince a friend or relative to try a different brand of toothpaste.
Reinforcing Skills
•••••••
Cl co 0, -
1 1 6
Mackenzie Sharpe hardly ever left his desk.1 He was too busy. So eating lunch at his desk was a regu- lar part of his working life. He was worried when his employer, Vancouver-based CBRE, instituted a new policy: Workspaces were not for eat- ing. "I was concerned that I'd be distracted if I had to get up and move to a lunch room just to have a nibble," says Mr. Sharpe, a senior sales associ - ate.
CBRE introduced the pol- icy because studies indicated that this type of workplace behaviour leads to stress.
Sharpe came to appreci- ate the policy within several months. "I feel more produc- tive, because I realize when you're eating at your desk, you're not necessarily working at full attention to what you're doing," he says.
While not a common policy in Canada, Lisa Fulford-Roy, CBRE's managing director of workplace strategy, thinks it was the right thing to do. "We want people to take a break from their screens, relax, and connect with colleagues in an informal setting. Ultimately, we expect it will help lower stress and increase productivity."
Ashley O'Neill, vice -pres- ident of corporate strategy at CBRE. considers this new policy a wellness issue. She doesn't think eating at one 's desk really saves anyone any time. The policy is meant to promote physical and mental well-being. She also says it has benefited CBRE. "Since the move, we have recorded substantially more multidis- cipline business solutions being successfully executed for our clients - and that is a win on every front."
Are We Overstressed? Stress appears to be a majo r facto r in the lives of many Canad ians. A recent survey conducted by Statistics Canada found that Canadians exper ience a g reat d eal of stress, with those from Quebec topp ing the list.2 The survey also foun d tha t women we re mo re stressed th an men. The inset Stressed Quire a Lot, 2013 reports the find ings.
The impact of stress on the Canad ian economy is huge, costing an estimated $50 billion in lost productivity in 2016, w ith two-th irds of that com ing from depression,3 and cons id e rably more than that in medical costs.
Stntssed Quite a Lot8
An a d d it iona l pro bl em is that employees are worki ng longer hou rs than ever, according to Professor Linda Duxbury of Carleto n University' s Sprott School of Business and Professor C h r is Higg ins of the Richard Ivey School of Bus iness at the Un iversity of Weste rn Onta rio . Their survey of more than 24 000 Canadians found that a lmost two-thi rds of Canadians wo rk more t h an 45 hou rs a week, a sign ificant increase from 20 years ago.4
Canadian businesses have cut the num- ber of employees over time, but no t the amount of work. Duxbury notes that "Organizations a re foo ling themselves if they th in k they're getting increased productivity by expect ing th ose who they have left to d o more.' 5
Canad a Males (%)
Females(%) 21.3
Newtoundland and 24.6 Labrador 13.7 16.5 Prince Edward Island
12.8· Nova Scotia 22.7
N~ Brunswick 18.7
20.6
Ouebec 19.3
20.8 Ontario
23.8 27.1
Manitoba 21.6
25.5
Saskatchewan 19.3
20.9 Alberta
19.1 20.1
British Columbia 18.7
23.6 Yukon
21 .1 23. 1
Northwest Territories 16.9
23.8 12.6·
21.0 'Use with caution.
Note: Population aged 15 and Older Who extreme stress most days ol their lives. reported eJ<Peliencin9 Quite a lot or
Jobs and Stress Levels
How d o jobs rate in terms of stress? The inset Tire Most and Least Stressful Jobs on page 118 shows how selected occupat ions ranked in an evalua- tion of 250 jobs. Among the criteria used in th e rank ings were overtime, q uotas, deadl ines, competit iveness, phys ica l deman d s, envi ron mental con d itions, hazards encounte red, in itiative required, s tam ina requ ired, w in-lose situations, and working in the publ ic eye.
\Vhat Is Stress? Stress is a dynam ic condition in wh ich an individua l is confron ted with an op p ortunity, deman d , or resource related to what the ind ividual desires and for wh ich the outcome is perceived to be both u ncerta in and important. 7
Th is defin ition is com p licated . Let's look at its components more closely.
Alth ough s tress is typ ica lly d is- cussed in a nega tive context, it also has a positive va lue.8 In response to s tress, your nervous system, hypothal- amus, pitu itary, and a d rena l glands supply you w it h stress ho rmones to cope. Your h eartbea t and breathing accelerate to increase oxygen, wh ile your muscles tense for action. 9 Th is is a t ime when stress offe rs po ten- tial gain. Consider, for example, the supe rio r performance that an a th lete or stage performer g ives in ' clutch" situations. Such ind ividuals often use s tress positively to rise to the occas ion and perfo rm a t o r n ea r their maxi- mum . Sim ilarly, many professiona ls see the p ressures of heavy workloads and dead lines as pos itive challenges that enhance the quality of their work an d the sa tisfaction they ge t from their job. However, when the situa- tion is negative, stress is harmful and may h inder your progress by elevating your b lood p ressure uncomfortab ly
117
and creating an erra tic heart rhythm as you s truggle to speak and th in k logically. 10
Researchers have argued that clra/- /enge stressors-or stressors associated with workload, pressure to complete
tasks, and time urgency-operate quite differently from /Ji11dra11ce stressors-or stressors that keep you from reaching you r goals ( red tape, office politics, confus ion over job respons ibi lit ies) . Early evidence suggests that challenge stressors prod uce Jess s train than h in-
drance stressors. 11
Researchers have sought to clarify the conditions under wh ich each type of s tress exists. It appears that employ- ees who have a stronger affective com- mitment to their organ iza tion can transfer psychological stres.~ into greater focus and h ig h er sales performance, w hereas em ployees with low levels of comm itment perform worse under stress. 12 When challenge stress increases, those with high levels of organizational support have h igher role-based perfor- mance, but those w it h low levels of organizational suppo rt do not. 13
More typ ically, s tress is associated with demands and resources. Demands are respons ib ilities, p ressures, obli-
gations, and even uncerta in ties that in d ividua ls face in the workplace. Resou rces a re th ings with in an ind i- v idual's con tro l tha t can be used to resolve the demands. For exam p le,
when you w ri te an exam, you feel s tress because you confront op portu- n it ies and performance pressures. To the exten t that you can apply resources to the demands on you-such a~ being prepared fo r the exam-you will feel Jess stress.
Overall, social sup p o rt may be
more important on an ongoing bas is th an any other facto r in coping w ith stress. Acco rd ing to recent research, peo p le wi th emo tional support may fee l lower stress levels, Jess depressed from stress, and more likely to make
lifestyle ch anges that may reduce stress. 15 Overall, under the demands- resources perspective, having resources to co pe with stress is just as impor-
tant in offsetting it as d emands a re in increas ing it. 16
ost and Least S\l'ffstlll Jobs The Ill ? According to 2017 research by
. t · terms of stress· fol""" . 14 How do JObS ra e in stresSful jobs are as ..., .. s. the top 10 rrost and 1eaSt
careeceast.cxim, Ten Least StressfUI Jobs Ten Most Stressful Jobs 1. Diagnostic medical sonographef
1. Enlisted military personnel 2 _ Compliance officer
2. Firefighter 3_ Hair stylist 3. Airline pilot 4. Audiologist 4. Police office< 5. University professor ..
5_ Event coordinator 6 _ Medical reeords techn1caan
6. Newspaper reporter . 7 Jeweller 7. senior corporate execut: 8·. operations resear<:' analyst
8. Public relations coord,na 9 _ Pharmacy teehnic,an ..
9. Taxi driver Medical lal)O<a\ory teehn\Clarl 10. 1 o. Broadcaster
1 1 8
Causes of Stress
Workplace stres.~ can a rise from a vari-
ety of facto rs:
• Enviro11111enta/ factors. Just as envi- ronmen tal uncertainty influences the d esign of an organiza tion's structure, it a lso influences s tress
levels among emp loyees in that o rgan ization. Indeed, uncertainty is th e b iggest reason people have trouble cop ing with organizational c h anges . 17 T h ree common types of environmental uncertainty a re economic, pol it ica l, and techno-
logical. Changes in the bus iness cycle create eco110111ic uncertainties. When the economy is contract- ing, for examp le, people become
increas ingly anxious about thei r job securi ty. Poli ti cal uncertain ties don't tend to create as much stress
among North Americans as they do for employees in countries such as Haiti o r Venezuela . The obvious
reason is that the United States and Canada have s tab le political sys-
tems, in wh ich change is typically implemented in an o rde rly man- ner. Because innovations can make an employee's skills and experience obsolete in a very s hort time, keep-
ing up w ith new computer p ro- grams, robotics, automation, and
s imilar fo rms of tec/1110/ogica/ change are a lso a threat to many people at work that causes them stress.
• Organizational factors. T h ere is no sho rtage of facto rs wi th in an organization that can cause s tress. Pressures to avo id errors o r complete tasks in a lim ited time,
work overload , a demand ing and insensitive boss, and un p leasant co-wo rkers a re a few examples.
We have categorized these facto rs a round task, role, and in terpersonal
demands.
• Tas/1 demands relate to a person's job. They include the design of the individual 's job (includ- ing its degree of autonomy, task variety, and au tomation), work ing condit ions, and the physical work layout. The single factor most consistently related to stres.~ in the workplace is the amount of work that needs to be done, followed closely by the presence of looming deadlines. is \",fork ing in an overcrowded room or in a vis ible location where noise and in terruptions are constant can a lso increase anxiety and stress. 19 As customer
. . servJCe grows ever more impor- tant, emotional Jabour becomes a source of s tress .20 Do you th ink you could put on a happy face while working at Starbucks or WestJet when you are having a bad day?
• Role demands relate to pres.~ures p laced on a person as a function of the particular role he or she p lays in the organization .
• Interpersonal demands are pres- sures created by other employ- ees. Some pressures are expected, but a rap id ly growing body of research has shown that nega- tive co-worker and supervisor behav iours, includ ing fights, bullying, incivility, racial haras.~- men t, and sexual harassment, are especially strongly related to stress at work. 21 In terpersonal m istreatment can have effects at a physiologica l level, with one study find ing tha t unfa ir treatment in a con trolled se t- t ing triggered the release of cortisol, a hormone invo lved in the stress-reaction process. 22
Furthermore, individuals who bel ieve they are experiencing a social climate of d iscrimination
from multiple sources over t ime have h igher levels of psychologi- cal strain, even after accoun ting for d iffer ing baseline levels of well-being. 23 Social exclusion, perhaps as a form of interper- sonal mistreatment, can also be a sign ificant source of psycho- logical strain. One study found that experiences of ostracism may have even more negative effects than experiences of inter- personal confl ict. 24
• Personal factors. The typical individ- ual may work between 40 and SO hours a week. But the experiences and problems that people encoun- ter in the other 120-plus nonwork hours can spill over to the job. The fina l category of sources o f stres.~ at work includes factors of an employ- ee's personal life: family is.~ues and personal econom ic problems.
• Most people hold family and per- sonal relationsh ips dear. Family issues, even good ones, can cause stress that significantly impacts individua ls. Family issues are often closely rela ted to work- life conflict.
• Regardless of income level, some people are poor money manag- ers or have wants that exceed the ir earn ing capacity. People who make $100 000 per year seem to have as much trouble handl ing their finances as those who earn $20 000-a lthough recen t research indicates that those who make under $50 000 per year do experience more s tress. 25 The personal economic problems of overextended finan- cial resources create stress and take attention away from work.
When we review stressors individu- ally, it's easy to overlook that stres.~ is an add itive phenomenon- it bu ilds
•• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• ••••••••••••••••
FACTBOX How employees explained why
they were stressed at work in a
• recent survey: • • • • 59 percent said they feel • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
stressed and on edge .
• 67 percent said that their job expectations are too demanding .
• 60 percent reported problems of trust between employees and management at their workplace.
• 56 percent said their workplace culture isn't positive. 26
.. ..... .. ... .. .. .... .... .... + •••
up. 27 Each new and persistent stressor adds to an ind ividual's stress level. A s ingle s tressor may seem relatively un important in and of itself, but if it is added to an already high level of s tress, it can be too much. To appraise the total amount of stress an individual is under, we have to sum up all of the sources and severity levels of that per- son's s tress. Since this cannot be eas- ily quan tified or observed, managers should remain aware of the potential stress loads from organizational fac- tors in particular. Many employees are willing to express their perceived stress load a t work to a caring manager.
Consequences of Stress
Stres.~ shows itself in a number of ways, such as high blood pressure, irritability, difficulty in making routine decis ions, changes in appetite, acciden t prone- nes.~, and the like. These symptoms fi t in to three general categories: physio- logical, psychological, and behavioural symptoms.28
119
• Ph ysiological symptoms. Most early research concerned wi th stress was d irected a t physiological symptoms because most researchers in th is area were specialis ts in the hea lth and medical sciences. Their work led to the conclusion that stress could cre- ate changes in metabol ism, increase heart and b reathing rates, increase blood pressure, cause headaches, and induce heart attacks. Evidence now clearly indicates that stress may have harmful physiological effects. A long-term study conducted in the Un ited Kingdom found that job stra in was associated wi th h igher levels of co ronary heart d isease. 29
Still another study conducted with Dan ish human services workers found that h igher levels of psycho- logical bu rnout at the work-uni t level were re lated to sign ificant ly higher levels of sickness absence.Jo tvlany other studies have shown sim- ilar resul ts linking work s tress to a variety of indicators of poor health.
• Psyc/10/ogical symptoms. Job dis- satisfaction is an obvious cause of stress. But s tress also shows itself in o ther psychological s tates-for instance, tension, anxiety, irritabil- ity, boredom, and p rocrastination. One s tudy that tracked physiologi- cal responses of employees over time found that stress due to high work- loads was related to lower emotional well-be ing.JI Jobs that make mul- tiple and confl icting demands o r in which there is a lack of clarity as to the person's duties, authority, and respons ib ilities increase stress and d issatisfaction.J 2 Simi larly, the less contro l people have over the pace of their work, the greater their stress and d is.~atisfaction. Jobs that provide a low level of variety, sign ificance, autonomy, feedback, and iden tity create stress and reduce satisfaction and involvement in the job_JJ Not everyone reacts to autonomy in the
120
same way, however. For those with an external locus of control, increased job control increa~es the tendency to experience stres.~ and exhaustion.34
• Belra vioural symptoms. Resea rch on behaviour and stress has been conducted across several countries and over t ime, and the relation- sh ips appea r rela tively cons istent. Behaviourally related stress symp- toms include reductions in pro- ductivity, increases in absence and turnover, changes in eating habits, increased smok ing o r consump- tion of alcohol, rapid speech, fidg- e ting, and sleep d iso rders.JS Mo re recen tly, s tress has been linked to aggression and vio lence in the workplace.
Why Do Individuals Differ in Their Experiences of Stress? Some people thrive on stressful situ- a tions, wh ile others a re overwhelmed by them. What d ifferentiates people in terms of their ability to handle s tress7 What individual difference va riables modera te the rela tionship between potential stressors and experienced stres.~1 At least four variables-perception, job experience, social support, and person- a lity-are relevant.
• Perception. Indiv iduals react in response to their perception of real- ity ra ther than to rea lity itself. Percep tion, therefore, modera tes the relationship between a potential stress condition and an employee's reaction to it. Layoffs may cause one person to fear losing h is job, wh ile another sees an opportunity to get a large severance allowance and start her own business. So stres.~ potential does not lie in objective conditions;
instead it lies in an employee's inter- pretation of those conditions.
• Job experience. Experience on the job tends to be negatively related to wo rk stress. Two exp lanations have been offered.JG First is selec- tive w ithdrawa l. Voluntary turn- over is mo re p robable among people who experience more stress. Therefore, people who remain with the organization longer a re those wi th more stress-res istant trai ts or those who a re more res istant to the s tress characteris tics of the organi- zation. Second, people eventually develop coping mechanisms to deal with stres.~. Because this takes time, senior members of the organization are more likely to be fully adapted and should experience Jes.~ s tress.
• Social support. Collegia l relation- sh ips with co-workers o r supervisors can buffer the impact of stress.J 7
Th is is among the best-documented relationsh ips in the stress literature. Social support helps ease the nega- tive effects of even h igh-strain jobs.
• Personality. Stress symp toms expressed on the job may orig i- nate in the person's personality.JS Perhaps the most widely studied per- sona/it)' trait in research on stress is neuroticism, wh ich we d iscussed in Chapter 2. As you might expect, neu- rotic individuals are more prone to experiencing psychological strain.J9 Evidence suggests that neurotic indi- viduals are more likely to find stress- ors in their work environments, so they believe their environments are more th reatening. They also tend to select less adaptive coping mecha- nisms, relying on avoidance as a way of dealing with problems rather than attempting to resolve them.40
Workaho lism is a personal ity characteristic re lated to s tress levels. Workaholics are people obsessed w ith thei r work; they put in an enormous
number of hou rs, th ink abou t work even when not work ing, and create add it ional wo rk respons ib ilit ies to sa tisfy an inner compulsion to work more. In some ways, they might seem like ideal employees. That is p robably why when mos t peop le are asked in interviews wha t their grea test weak- ness is, they reflexively say. "I just work too hard .' However, work ing hard is d ifferent from working compulsively. \.Yorkahol ics are not necessarily more product ive than other emp loyees, despite their extreme efforts. The strain of putting in such a high level of work effort eventua lly begins to wear on the person, leading to h igher levels of work-life confl ict and psychological bumout.41
How Do We Manage Stress? Next we d iscuss ways that individuals can manage s tress, and the programs organ izations use to help employees manage s tress.
Individual Approaches
An employee can and should take per- sonal responsib ility fo r reducing h is or her stress level. Ind iv idual strate- g ies that have p roven effective include time-management techniques, physical exercise, relaxation techniques, and a close social support network
• Time-management techniques. t\>lany people manage thei r t ime poorly. The well-organ ized employee, like the we ll-organ ized s tuden t, can often accomplish twice as much as the person who is poorly organized. A few of t h e mo re well-known time-managemen t techniques are ( 1) main tain ing to-do lis ts, (2) scheduling activi ties based on p rio rities, not what you can accom- p lish, (3) doing the hard tasks first,
and (4 ) b locking out d istraction- free time to accomplish tasks. These t ime-management skills can help minimize procrasti nation by focus- ing efforts o n immediate goals and boosting motivation even in the face of tasks that are less en joyable.42
• Physical activit)'. Physicians have rec- ommended noncompetitive physical exercise, such as aerobics, walking, jogging, swimm ing, and rid ing a bicycle, as a way to deal with exces- sive stress levels. T h ese activities decrea~e the detrimental physiologi- cal responses to stress and allow us to recover from stress more quickly. 43
• Relaxation techniques. Individuals can teach themselves to reduce ten- sion through re laxation techniques such as med itation, hypnosis, and d eep breathing. The object ive is to reach a s ta te of deep relaxation, in wh ich you focus all you r energy on the re lease of muscle ten- sio n.44 Deep relaxa tion fo r 15 o r 20 m inutes a day releases tens ion and p rovides a p ronounced sense of peacefulness, as well as sign ifi- cant changes in heart rate, blood pressure, a nd o ther p hys iological factors. A growi ng body of research s h ows tha t s imp ly taking b reaks from work at routine intervals can facilitate psychological recovery and reduce stress significan tly and may improve job performance, and these
effects are even greater if relaxation techn iques are employed.45
• Social support. Having fr iends, fam- ily, or colleagues to ta lk to provides an outlet when s tress levels become excess ive. Expand in g you r socia l support network provides you w ith someone to lis ten to your problems a nd to offer a more ob jective per- s pective on the si tuation.
The inset Tips for Reducing Stress offers additional ideas fo r man aging stress.
Organizational Approaches
t\>lont real-based CGI, a glo b al IT com pany, delivers a comprehe nsive corpora te wellness p rogram to its 68 000 em ployees worldwide th rough iL~ Health Portal. Calgary-ba~ed Devon Energy bu ilt The Well, a 1400-square- metre well n ess and fi tness fac ility. Employees can use the state-of-the-art faci lity to ' improve overall wellness, increase energy levels, reduce absentee- ism, and effectively recruit and retain staff. The t\>lani toba Teachers' Society created a wellness program based o n teacher in put. The program helps teach e rs manage stress, and allows them to find time to take care of them- selves. Balance initiatives include chair massages, smooth ie delivery, a regular magazine, and learn ing opportunities on health and wellness topics.'46
Tlpe for Reducing Sbess
• SPend lime with supportive friends or family • Talk Yourself through it. ·
• Make sure to get enough sleep.
• Engage in exercise hobbi . . . tech . ' es. Pos1t1ve thinking, and reJaxar
niques such as meditation or yoga. 47 ion
121
tvlost fi rms that h ave in trod uced wel l ness p rograms have found sig- ni fi cant benefits. A recent join t study conducted by Sun Life Fi n ancial and the Richard Ivey Schoo l of Bus iness found that in companies wi th well- ness p rograms, employees m issed 1.5 to 1.7 fewer days due to absenteeism. Th is resu lted in estimated savings of $251 per employee per year. 48 Wh ile many Canadian busines.~es report hav- ing wellness in itiatives, only 24 percent have "fully implemented wellness strat- egies' (which includes multi-year goals and an evaluation of result~). accord- ing to a recent survey.4 9
So wh a t can organ iza tions d o to red uce emp loyee stress? In genera l, s trategies to re d uce stress inclu d e improved employee selection, p lace- ment of employees in app ro p riate jobs, realistic goal setting, design ing jobs w ith employee needs and skills in m ind, increased em ployee involve- ment, i mproved organ izat iona l commun ication, offering em p loyee sabbaticals, and, as mentioned, estab- lishment of corporate well ness pro- grams.
Certa in jobs a re more s tres.~ful than others, but ind ividua ls also d iffer in their response to s tressful s ituations. Vie know, fo r example, that ind ividu- als w ith little experience or an exter- na l locus of control tend to be more prone to stress. Selection and p lace- ment decisions should take these facts into consideration. Although manage- ment should not restrict hiring to only experienced individuals with an inter- nal locus of con trol, such ind ividuals may a d apt better to high-stress jobs and perfo rm t h ose jobs more effec- tively. Sim ila rly, training can increase an ind ividual's self-efficacy and thus lessen job strain.
Individ uals perfo rm better when they have spec ific and challenging
122
goals and rece ive feedback on h ow well they are progressing toward them. Goals can reduce stres.~ as well as pro- v id e mo tiva tion. so Em p loyees who are h ighly comm itted to t h e ir goals and see purpose in the ir jobs experi- ence Jess s tress because they a re more li ke ly to perce ive stresso rs as chal- lenges rather than hind rances. Specific goals that are perceived as atta inable clar ify pe rformance expectations. Add it ionally, goa l feedback reduces uncerta inties as to actual job perfo r- mance. The result is less em ployee frus- tration, role amb iguity, and stress.
Redesign ing jobs to give employ- ees more responsib ility, more mean- ingful work, mo re au tonomy, and increased feedback can reduce s tress because these factors give the em ployee greater contro l over work activ it ies and Jessen dependence on others. Of course, not all employees wan t jobs with increased responsib ility. The right design for em ployees with a low need fo r growth migh t be less responsib ility and increased specia lization. If individ- uals p refer structure and routine, more structured jobs should a lso reduce uncertain ties and s tres.~ levels.
Ro le stress is detrimental to a large extent because employees feel uncertain about goals, expectations, how they will be evaluated, and the like. By g ivi ng employees a vo ice in the decisions that d irectly affect thei r job performance, managemen t can increase emp loyee con tro l and reduce ro le stress. So managers s h ou ld consider increasing employee involvement in decision mak- ing because evidence clearly shows that increases in employee em powerment reduce psychological s train _s1
Increasing formal organ iza tiona l communica ti on wi th em pl oyees reduces uncertainty by lessening role amb igu ity and role confl ic t. Given the importance that percep tions play
,n mode rat ing the stress-response relations hip, managemen t can a lso use effective commun icat ion as a means to sha p e emp loyee percep- tions. Remember that wha t emp loy- ees categorize as demands, th reats, or o p po rtun it ies at wo rk are merely in te rp retations, and those in te rpreta- tions can be affected by the symbols and act ions commun icated by man- agement.
Some employees need an occa- siona l escape from the frenet ic pace of their work. In recent years, compa- nies such as American Express, Intel, General Mills, Microsoft, Morn ingstar, DreamWo rks Anima tion, and Adobe Systems have begun to prov ide extended voluntary leaves . 52 These sabbaticals-ranging in length from a few weeks to severa l months-allow employees to travel, re lax, or pu r- sue personal p ro jects tha t consume time beyond normal vacation weeks. Pro ponents say th a t these sabbaticals can revive and rejuvenate employees who might be headed fo r burnout.
Our final suggestion is to offer o rganiza tionally supported wellness programs. T h ese typ ically p rovide workshops to help people qu it smok- ing. control alcohol use, Jose weigh t, eat better, an d d eve lo p a regu la r exercise program; they focus on the employee' s total phys ica l and men- tal cond ition.53 A meta-analysis of 36 programs des igned to reduce stress (includ ing wellness p rograms) showed that in terventions to help employees reframe s tressful situa tions and use active co p ing s trategies appreciably red uced stress Jevels.5 4 tvlost wellness programs a~sume that employees need to take personal responsibil ity fo r their p hysical and men tal health and tha t the organization is merely a means to that end. The inset Toward Less Stressf ul \¥oril offers additional ideas.
F A C E O F F When organizations provide on-
site daycare facilities, they are fill - ing a needed role in parents' lives,
and making it easier for parents to
attend to their job demands rather than worry about child-care arrange-
ments.
RESEARCH EXERCISES
1. Look for data on stress levels in other countries. How do these data compare with the Canadian data presented in the Fact.box? Are the sources of stress the same in different countries? What might you conclude about how stress affects people in different cultures?
2 . Rnd out what three Canadian organizations in three differ- ent industries have done to help employees manage stress. Are there common themes in these programs? Did you find any unusual programs? To what
When employees expect organizations
to provide child care, they are shifting their responsib~ities to their employers,
rather than keeping their family needs
and concerns private. Moreover, it is unfair to offer child-care benefrts when
not all employees have children.
extent are these programs tai- lored to the needs of the employ- ees in those industries?
YOUR PERSPECTIVE
1. Think of all the technical avenues enabling employees to be con- nected 24/7 to the workplace: email, texting, company intranets. A generation ago, most employ- ees could go home after a day at w ork and not be "on call." What are the positive benefits of this change? What are the down- sides? As an employee facing the demand to "stay connected" to
Toward Less Sbesstu1 Wort(
• Avoid high-stress iobs - such as st complaint work01: POiice offi ockbroker. customer service/
. • icer, waiter mecfca/ · and air traffic controller I • ' intern, secretary h - un ess you are co f'd . · andle stress. n I ent in your ability to
• If you do exPerience stress at work t of control (so You can decide how . ry to find a job that has Plenty supportive co-workers. to perform your work) and
• Lack of money is the top stressor reporte 30, so pursue a career that d by People under age degree of stress. ss pays you well but does not have a high
your workplace, how would you try to maintain a balance in your life?
2. How much responsibility should individuals take for managing their own stress? To what extent should organizations become involved in the personal lives of their employ- ees when trying to help them manage stress? What are the pros and cons for whether employees or organizations take responsibility for managing stress?
WANT TO KNOW MORE?
If you want more tips on detecting
stress and coping with it, the Canadian
Heart & St rok e Fou nd at ion has c reated a helpfu l brochure: http:/ / www.heartandstroke.ca/-/media/ pdf-file.s/canada/health-information-
cata logu el e n-st ress- test-v3-0 . ashx . Th e site also offers tips o n
reducing stress. You can also take a
work-lffe balance quiz at the Canadian Mental Healt h Association website
(www.cmha.ca/mental_health/work-
life-balance-quiz/) and read more on the effects of mental illness and stress.
183
124
Theories of Motivation
PA RT 2
STR I VI NG FOR
PERFORMANCE
O Describe the three key elements of motivation.
Lee
Valley Tools founder Leonard
Lee decided to become
an entrepreneur at age 40.
He wanted his employees to
act as entrepreneurs too. How
d id he use motivation to build a very
successful
tool store?
f) Evaluate the applicability of early theories of motivation. f) Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivati ng employees. C, Demonstrate the differences among goal-setting theory, self-efficacy theory, and reinforcement theory. 0 Describe why equity and fairness matter in the workplace. O Demonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equ ity theory. f) Apply the pred ictions of self-determination theory to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. G Discuss the eth ics behind motivation theories. 0 Su mmarize the essence of what we know about motivating employees.
pproaching age 40, Leonard Lee was tir- ing of working for the federal government. 1 Though his grand- mother felt he had
won the lottery by get-
Jonathan Hayv,ardtrhe Canadian Press
ting a government job, Lee was not so sure. He was tired of the bureaucratic decision making, for one thing, and was troubled by the fact that some of his colleagues did not really seem motivated by their jobs. "But what was
drMng me crazy were the number of people who would say, 'I have 17 years, eight months, two weeks, two days, and seven hours before I retire."
Lee looked for something else to do, and he and his wife started a small mail-order business, selling cast-iron barrel stove kits. After doing this successfully for two years, Lee's confidence
built up, and he quit his government job to launch Lee Valley Tools. At first it was a cata- logue business. Then a long postal strike almost ruined the business. So Lee opened a
retail store, and then continued to open stores over the years. An investment partner explained why he had helped Lee start his business: "He was always full of energy, full of beans, full of ideas . . . he was constantly churning up new ideas and continued to do that right up until the end." In other words, Leonard Lee was very motivated in whatever he did: He found too much
responsibility in government work, without enough authority. Due largely to his personal moti- vation, there are now 19 Lee Valley stores from Halifax to Victoria, all family-owned. What motivates people? In this chapter, we review the basics of motivation, assess motivation
theories, and provide an integrative understanding of how the different theories apply to motivating employees in organizations.
• Are managers man ipulati ng employees when they link rewards to prod uctivity?
\ I I ' , : ;, : ,V, , '
'l'IIE BIG IDEA • Why do some managers do a better job of motivating people than others?
• How important is fairness to you? • What can you do if you th ink your salary is unfair?
Successfully 1notivaling individuals requires
identifying their needs and 1naking it possible
for thern lo achieve those needs.
125
126 Part 2 Striving for Performance
O Describe the three key elements of motivation.
motivation The intensity, directioo, and persistence of effort a person shows in reaching a goal.
Theory X The assumption that employees dislike work. will attempt to avoid it, and must be coerced, con- trolled, or threatened with punishment to achieve goals.
Theory Y The assumption that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility, and will exercise sett-direction and sett-control if they are committed to the objecti11es.
intri nsic motivators A person's internal desire to do something we to such things as interest, challenge, and personal satisfaction.
extrinsic motivators Motivatioo that comes from outside the person and includes such things as pay, bonuses, and other tangible rewards.
What Is Motivation? Motivation is one of the most frequently researched top ics in organizational behav- iour (OB).2 A 2013 Ga llup po ll suggests that employees are no t motivated. Seven ty percent of Canadian employees are no t engaged in their work, and another 14 percent are actively disengaged.3 In a 2014 survey, 89 percent of employees reported wasting time at work every day, and 62 percent sa id they waste between 30 and 60 m inutes each day. How? Surfing the Internet came in firs t with 26 percent of respondents (Google, Facebook, and Linkedln were the most popular ti me distractors); "too many meeti ngs/co nference calls and dealing with annoying co-workers tied for second place with 2401o each. "4
Motiva tion is the process that accounts for an ind ividual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward reaching a goal.5
The three key elements in our definition are intensity, direction, and persistence. lnrensity describes how hard a person tries. This is the elemen t most of us focus on when we talk about motivation. However, high intensity is unlikely to lead to favourable job- performance outcomes unless the effort is channelled in a direction that is beneficia l. Therefore, we consider the quality of effort as well as its intensity. Finally, the effort requires persistence. Th is measures how long a person can maintain effort. Motivated individuals stay with a task long enough to ach ieve their goal.
Many people incorrectly view motivation as a personal trait- someth ing some peo- ple have and others don't. Along these lines, Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct views of human beings. Theo ry X, which is basically negative, suggests that employees d is like work, will auempt to avo id it, and must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve goals. Theo ry Y, which is basically positive, suggests that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility, and will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are comm itted to the objectives.6
Our knowledge of motivation tells us that neither theory alone fully accounts for employee behaviour. What we know is that motivation is the result of the interaction of the individual and the situation. Certainly, individuals differ in their basic motivational drive. But the same employee who is quickly bored when pulling the lever on a drill press may enthusiastically pull a slot mach ine lever in Casino Windsor for hours on end. You may read the latest bestseller at one sitting, yet find it difficu lt to concentrate on a textbook for more than 20 m inutes. It's no t necessarily you- it's the s ituation. So as we ana lyze the concept of motivation, keep in m ind that the level of motivation varies both among individuals and within individuals at different ti mes.
You shou ld also rea lize that what motivates people will also vary among ind ividu- als and sit uations. Motivation theoris ts talk abou t intrinsic motiva tors and extrins ic motiva tors . Extrinsic motivators come from outside the person and include such things as pay, bonuses, and o ther tangible rewards. Intrinsic motivators come from a person's internal desire to do something due to such things as interest, challenge, and personal satisfaction. Individuals are intrinsically motivated when they genuinely care about their work, look for better ways to do it, and are energized and fulfilled by doing it well.7
The re\vards the individual gets from intrinsic motivation come from the work itself rather than from external factors such as increases in pay or compliments from the boss.
Are individuals primarily intrinsically or extrinsically motivated? Theory X suggests that people are almost exclusively driven by extrinsic motivators. However, Theory Y suggest.~ that people are more intrinsically motivated.
Intrinsic and extrinsic motiva tion may reflect the situation, however, rather than individua l personalities. For example, suppose that your mother has asked you or your brother to take her to a meeting an hour away. You may be willing to drive her, without any thought of compensation, because it will make you feel good to do something for her. That is intrinsic motivation. Bu t if you have a love-hate relationship with your brother, you may insis t that he buy you lunch for helping ou t. Lunch would then be an
Ch apter 4 Theories of Motivation 127
exlrinsic motivator- something that came from o uLSide yourself and motivated you lo do the task. La ter in the chapler, we review Lhe evidence regarding the s ignificance of exlrinsic vs. inlrinsic rewards, and also examine how lo increase in trinsic motivation. Meanwhile, you m ight consider whether you can motivale yourself th rough self-Lalk, an idea considered in Focus 011 Research.
FOCUS ~i sEARCH Talking to Yourself Ca n Be a Powerfu l Self-Motivator
How does internal d ialogue affect our mot ivat ion? In the child ren's book The Uttle Engine That Could , the title character says, " I t hink I can , I think I can," motivating itself
to do the job through positive self-talk . In a 201 O study, researchers exam ined whether this type of talk is the best way to motivate oneself, or whether it is better to ask, "Can
I do this?"8
Subjects were asked to spend one minute either "wondering whether they would com - plete a task or telling them selves they would. " Then they were asked to complete some
puzzles. Subjects who asked themselves whether they would comp lete the task were
more successful than those who said they would. Several similar studies were conducted , and the results of each of them indicate that intrinsic motivation increased when subjects
asked them selves a question about performance.
These findings suggest that asking yourself whether you will go to the gym three times next week will b e more effective than telling yourself that you will go to the gym three
times next week. One of the authors of the study summarized the results as follows: "The
popular idea is that self-affirmations enhance people's ability to meet their goals. It seems , however, that when it comes to performing a specific behaviour, asking questions is a more
promising way of achieving your objectives." ......................................•
Needs Theories of Motivation People vary in what lhey need to motivate themselves. Some need external support and guid- ance, while others are motivated intrinsically, relying on themselves.9 One of the things that
motivated Leonard Lee, founder of Lee Valley Tools, was sourcing and designing tools for his customers-in olher words, meeting the needs of other people. When Lee heard that an Ottawa-
based plastic surgeon was using Lee Valley woodworking knives, he started a new company to
sell medical instruments. The company made a number of specialized tools for the medical profession . Though he
eventually sold lhe rights to these tools, his son Robin Lee said that his father "was most proud
of and most disappointed by" the medical company because "selling to the canadian medical system proved frustrating." That said, Leonard Lee ran the business for almost 16 years.
In this section we discuss how needs can be used to motivate others.
Theories of motivalion generally fa ll into two categories: needs theories and process theories. Needs theories describe Lhe ly pes of needs thal musl be mel lo motivate indi- viduals. Process theories help us understand the actual ways in which we and others can be molivated. There are a variety of needs theories, includ ing Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Herzberg's motivation- hygiene theory (sometimes called the two-factor theory), and McClelland's theory of needs. We briefly review lhese lo illustrale the basic proper- lies of needs theories.
Needs Lheories are widely cril icized for nol standing up to scienlific review. How- ever, you should know them because ( 1) Lhey represent a foundation from wh ich
128 Part 2 Striving for Performance
f) Evaluate the applicabil- ity of early theories of motivation.
hierarchy of needs theory A hierarchy of five needs-physiologi- cal, safety, social, esteem, and seH- actualization-,n which, as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need beoomes dominant.
lower-order needs Needs that are satisfied externally. such as physi- ological and safety needs.
self-actualization The drive to become what a person is capable of becoming.
higher-order needs Needs that are satisfied internally. such as social (belonging), self-esteem, and self- actualization needs.
two-factor theory A theory that relates intrinsic faciOfs to job satisfac- tion and associates extrinsic factOfs with dissatisfaction. Also called the motivati01H1ygiene theory.
contemporary theories have grown, and {2) practis ing managers still regularly use these theories and their term ino logy in explain ing employee motivation.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory The best known theory of motivation is Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs . lO Maslow hypothesized that w ithin every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs:
• Physiological. Includes hunger, thirst, sheller, sex, and other bodily needs.
• Safety. Includes security and protection from physical and emotiona l harm.
• Social. Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and fr iendsh ip.
• Esteem. Includes internal esteem fac tors such as self-respect, autonomy, and ach ievement; and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention.
• Selfacuialization. Includes growth, achieving one's potential, and self-fulfillmen t. This is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming.
Recently, a sixth need has been proposed as the highest leve l- intrinsic val ues- wh ich is sa id to have originated from Maslow, but it has yet to ga in widespread acceptance.11
Although no need is ever fully met, a substantially satisfied need no longer moti- vates. Thus, as each need becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes domi- nant. This is what Maslow means by mov ing up the steps of the h ierarchy. So if you want to motivate someone, according to Maslow, you need to understand what level of the hierarchy that person is currently on and focus on satisfying needs at or above that level. Exhibit 4-1 identifies Maslow's h ierarchy of needs on the left, and then illustrates
how these needs are applied in the workplace. 12 Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower orders. Physio logica l and
safety needs, where people start, are lower-order needs; social (belonging), self-esteem, and self-actualization are higher-order needs. Higher-order needs are satisfied inter- nally (within the person), whereas lower-order needs are mainly satisfied externally (by rewards such as pay; union contracts, and tenure).
Maslow's theory has received long-s tand ing wide recogn ition, particularly among practising managers. It's intuitively logical and easy to understand, even though little research supports the theory. Maslow himself provided no empirica l evidence, and some research has val idated it. 13 Unfortunately, however, mos t research does not, especially when the theory is applied to d iverse cultures, 14 with the possib le exception of physiological needs. 15 But old theories, especially intui tively logical ones, die hard. It is thus importan t to be aware of the prevailing public accep tance of the hierarchy \vhen d iscussing motivation.
Two-Factor Theory Believing that an individual's relationship to work is basic and that attitude toward this work can very well determine success or failure, Frederick Herzberg wondered, "What do people want from their jobs1• He asked people to describe, in detail, s ituations in wh ich they felt exceptionally good or bad about their jobs. The replies people gave when they felt good about their jobs sign ificantly differed from when they fe lt bad, which led Herzberg to h is two-factor theory-also called motivation-hygiene theory, but this term is not used much today. I 6
As Exhibit 4-2 shows, intrinsic factors, such as achievement, recognition, the work iL~elf, responsibility, advancement, and growth, seem to be related to job satisfaction. Respondents who felt good about their work tended to attribute these factors to their
Chapter 4 Theories of Motivation 129
EXHIBIT 4-1 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Applied to the Workplace
Self-Esteem
Belonging
Safety
Physiological
Recognition
Culture
Job Security
Salary and Rewards
Source: C. Conley, Peak: How Great Companies Get Their Mojo from Maslow (San Francisco: Jessey-Bass, 2007). ISBN: 978- 0787988616. Copyright © John Wiley & Sons.
s ituations. On the other hand, dissatisfied respondents tended to cite extrinsic factors, such as company policy and admin istration, supervision, interpersona l relations, and work condi tions.
The data suggest that the opposite of satisfaction is no t dissatisfaction, as was tra- d itionally believed. Removing d issatisfying characteristics from a job does not neces- sarily make the job satisfying. As illustrated in Exhibit 4-3, Herzberg proposed a d ual
EXHIBIT 4- 2 Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers
Factors characterizing 1844 e vents on the job that
led to extreme dissatisfaction
Company policy ond administration
Supervision
Relationship with supervisor
Worlc conditions
50% 40
Solory
Relationship w ith peers
Personal life
Relationship with subordinates
Slalus
30 20 10 0
Factors characteriz:ing 1753 events on the job that
led to extreme satisfaction Achievement
Recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancemenl
Growth
10
All factors contributing
to job dissatisfaction
69 Hygiene
3 1
All factors contributing
to job sotisfoclion
19
I I I I I I I 80% 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80%
Ratio and percentage
20 30 40 50% Percentoge frequency
Source: Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from Frederick Herzberg, "One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees?" Harvard Business Review 81 , no. 1 (January 2003), p. 90.
130 Part 2 Striving for Performance
hygiene f actors Fact0<s-such as company policy and administration, supervision, and salary-that. when adequate in a job, placate employees. When these factors are adequate, people will no! be dissatisfied.
McClelland's theory of needs Achievemen~ power, and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation.
need for achievement (nAch) The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, and to strive lo succeed.
need for power (nPow) The need to make o1hers behave in a way that they would not have behaved o1hervnse.
EXHIBIT 4-3 Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
Tradit ional view
Dissat isfaction Satisfaction
Herzberg's view ------Hygiene Factors ---Dissatisfaction No Dissatisfaction Motivators
No Satisfaction Satisfaction
continuum: The opposite of "Satisfaction• is •No Satisfaction," and the opposite of "Dissatisfaction" is "No Dissatisfaction."
Under two-factor theory, the fac tors that lead to job satisfaction (motivators) are separate and d istinct from t hose that lead to job d issatisfaction (hygiene factors). Therefore, managers who seek to elim inate factors that create job dissatisfaction may bring about peace but not necessarily motivation. They will be placating rather than motivating their employees. Conditions such as qua lity of supervis ion, pay, company pol icies, phys ical work conditions, relationships \v ith others, and job security are hygien e fa ctors. When they are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; but nei ther will they be satisfied. lfwe want to motivate people in their jobs, we should emphasize factors associated with the work itself or with outcomes d irectly derived from it, such as promotional opportun ities, personal growth opportuni ties, recogni tion, responsibil- ity, and achievement. These are the characteristics people find intrinsically rewarding.
The two-factor theory has not been well supported in research. Criticisms centre on Herzberg's origina l methodology and his assumptions, such as the statement that satisfaction is strongly related to productivity. Subsequen t research has also shown that if hygiene and motivational factors are equally important to a person, both are capable of motivati ng.
Regard less of the criticisms, Herzberg's theory has been quite influential and cur- rently is very much in use in research in Asia. 17 Few managers worldwide are unfamil iar \vith its recommendations.
McClelland's Theory of Needs You have one beanbag, and five targets are set up in front of you, each farther away than the last. Target A si ts almost within arm's reach. If you hi t it, you get $2. Target B is a b it farther ou t and pays $4, but only abou t 80 percent of the peop le who try can h it it. Target C pays $8, and abou t half the people who try can hit it. Very few peop le can hit Target 0, but the payoff is $16 for those who do. Finally, Target E pays $32, bu t it's almost impossible to achieve. Which target would you try for7 If you selected C, you are likely to be a high achiever. Why? Read on.
McClelland's theo ry o f n eed s was developed by David McClelland and his associ- ates.18 As opposed to, say, Maslow's hierarchy, these needs are more like motivating fac- tors than strict needs for survival. The theory focuses on three needs, defined as follows:
• Need for achievem ent (nAch) is the drive to excel, to ach ieve in relation to a set of standards, and to strive to succeed.
• Need for power (nPow) is the need to make others behave in a way that they wou ld not have behaved otherwise.
Ch apter 4 Theories of Motivation 131
• Need for affiliation ( nAft) is the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationsh ips.
McClelland and subsequent researchers focused most of their auen- tion on nAch. High ach ievers perform best when they perceive their probabil ity of success as 0 .5- that is, a 50- 50 chance. 19 They disl ike gamb ling with high odds because they gel no achievement satisfaction from success that comes by pure chance. Similarly, they dislike low odds {h igh probabi lity of success) because then there is no challenge to their skills. They like to set goals that require stretch ing themselves a little.
Relying on an extensive amount o f research, we can predict some rela- tionsh ips between achievement need and job performance. First, when jobs have a high degree of personal responsibi lity, feedback, and an inter- mediate degree of risk, h igh achievers are strongly motivated. Second, a h igh need to achieve does not necessari ly make someone a good manager, especially in large organizations. People with a high achievement need are interested in how well they do personally and not in influencing others to do well. Th ird, needs for affi liation and power tend 10 be closely related to managerial success. The best managers may be high in their need for power and low in their need for affil iation.20
McClelland's theory has research support, particularly cross-culturally (when cul tural d imens ions including power distance are taken into account).21 The concept of the need for ach ievement has received a great deal of research attention and acceptance in a wide array of fields, includ- ing organizational behaviour, psychology, and general business.22 There- fore, in this text we utilize the concept descriptively. The need for power also has research support, bul it may be more fami liar to people in broad terms than in relation to the original definition.23 We wi ll d iscuss power much more in Chapter 13. The need for affilia tion is well establ ished and accepted in research. Although it may seem like an updated versio n of Maslow's social need, it is actually qui te separate. Many peop le take for granted the idea that human beings have a drive toward relationships, so none of us may comp letely lack this motivation. However, recent research
Alexandra Greenhill, co-founder and CEO of myBestHelper, is a high achiever. She has been named one of Vancouver's Top 40 under 40 and has also won a Cartier Women's Initiative Award, which is an international award for female entrepreneurs. myBestHelper is a website where people who need care providers (such as nannies, t utors, or babysit- ters) can connect with people who are looking to provide care. Greenhill, who was writing computer
code at an early age, is also a family physician and has helped the BC Medical Association w ith its work on electronic medical records. She envi-
sions that myBestHelper will be in every major c ity in Canada within five years.
of Cameroonian and German adults suggests we may be constrained by our personali- ties to the extent that we are high in neuroticism. Agreeableness supports our pursui t of affi liation, while extraversion has no s ignificant effect.24
The degree to wh ich we have each of the three needs is difficu lt lo measure, and therefore the theory is d ifficu lt to put in to practice. It is more common to find s itua- tions in which managers aware of these mo tivational drivers label employees based on observations made over lime. Therefore, the concepts are helpful, but not often used objectively.
Summarizing Needs Theories The needs theories we have just reviewed all propose a sim ilar idea: Ind ividuals have needs that, when unsatisfied, will result in motivation . For instance, if you have a need to be praised, you may work harder at your task in order 10 receive recognition from your manager or other co-workers. Sim ilarly, if you need money and you are asked to do something (within reason) that offers money as a reward, you will be motivated to complete that task.
Where needs theories d iffer is in the types of needs they consider and whether they propose a h ierarchy of needs (where some needs have lo be satisfied before others) or s imply a list of needs. Exhibit 4-4 illustrates the relationship among the three needs theories that we discussed, and Exhibit 4 -5 ind icates whether the theory proposes a hierarchy of needs, and the contribution of and empirical support for each theory.
need for affiliation (nAIO The desire for friendly and close in Lerper - sonal relationships.
132 Part 2 Striving for Performance
I\ 0 l' ~ CAREER OBJECTIVES
L~ Why Won't He Take My Advice? The new g uy in t he office is n ice enough, b ut he's st raig ht out of colleg e, and I have 20 years of experience in the fiel d. I'd l ike t o help h im o ut, but he won't take it no matter h ow I approach h i m. Is there anyth i ng I ca n do t o moti- v ate h im to accept my advice? He ba dly needs a f ew pointers.
-James
Dear James:
It's great that you want to help, and
surely you have wisdom to offer. But let's start with this: When is the last
time you took someone else's advice?
Chances are it's easier for you to remember the last time you did not take
someone's advice than when you did. That is because we want success on
our own tenns, and we don't like the
idea that a ready answer was out there all along (and we missed it). "When
somebody says, 'You should do some-
thing,' the subtext is: 'You're an idiot for not already doing it,"' said psychologist
Alan Goldberg . "Nobody takes advice
under those conditions." So under what conditions do pecple take advice?
There are two parts to the moti-
vation equation for advice: what your
co-worker wants to hear, and how you
can approach him. For the first part,
keep this rule in mind: He wants to hear that whatever decisions he has
made are brilliant. If he hears anything
d ifferent from that, he is likely to tune you out or keep talking until you come
over to his side.
For the second part, your co- worker's motivation to accept and,
more importantly, act on advice has a
lot to do with how you approach him. Are you likely to "impart your wisdom
to the younger generation?" Anything like "I wish I had known this when I
was just starting out like you" advice
will likely have him thinking you (and your advice) are out of date. Are you
going to g ive "if I were you, I would do this" advice? He may resent your intru- sion. According to research, what is
most likely to work is a gentle sugges-
tion, phrased as a request. Ravi Dhar, a director at Yale, said, "Interrogatives
have less reactance and may be more
effective." You might say, for instance, "Would you consider trying out this
idea?" Take heart, the problem is not that
we don't like advice-we do, as long
as we seek it. According to research,
we are more motivated toward advice when we are facing important deci-
sions, so good timing may work in your
favour. When he does ask, you may suggest that he write down the param -
eters of his choices and his interpre- tations of the ethics of each decision.
Researcher Dan Ariely has found that
we are much more motivated to make morally right decisions when we have
considered the moral implications in a
forthright manner. In this way, your co- worker may motivate himself to make
the right decisions.
Keep trying!
Sources: D. Ariely, "What Price for the Soul of a Stranger?" Wall Street Journal, May 10-11, 2014, p. C 12; J. Queenan, •A Word to the W'tse," Wall Street Journal, February 8-9, 2014, pp. C1-C2; and S. Reddy, 'The Trick to Getting People to Take the Stairs? Just Ask," WaN Street Journal, February 17, 2015, p. R4.
The opinions p rovided here are of the manag- ers and authors only and do not necessar- ily reffect those of their organizations. The authors or managers are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for the results obtained from the use of this information. in no event will the authors or managers, or their related partnerships or corporations thereof,
be liable to you or anyone else for any decision made or action taken in reliance on the opin- ions provided here.
EXHIBIT 4-4 Relationship of Various Needs Theories
M cClelland
Self-Actualization ~ Need f or Achi evement I ,-..- Motivators Est eem I
~ Need f or Power
Social
Hygiene Need f or Affi l iation I Saf ety Factors
Ph ysiol ogical r
Ch apter 4 Theories of Motivation 1 33
EXHIBIT 4-5 Summarizing the Various Needs Theories
Theory Maslow Herzberg McClelland
Is there a The theory argues Hygiene factors People vary in the hierarchy of that lower-order must be met if a types of needs they needs? needs must be person is not to have. Their motivation
satisfied before be dissatisfied. and how well they one progresses They will not lead perform in a work to higher-order to satisfaction, situation are related to needs. however. Motivators whether they have a
lead to satisfaction. need for achievement, power, or affiliation.
What is the The theory enjoys The popularity of The theory tells theory's impact/ wide recognition giving employees us that high-need contribution? among practising greater responsibility achievers do not
managers. Most for planning and necessarily make managers are controlling their work good managers, familiar with it. can be attributed since high achievers
to this theory (see, are more interested for instance, the in how they do job characteristics personally. model in Chapter 5). It shows that more than one need may operate at the same time.
What empirical Research has It is not really a It has mixed empirical support/ not validated theory of motivation: support, but the criticisms exist? the hierarchical It assumes a link theory is consistent
nature of needs. between satisfaction with our knowledge of However, a 2011 and productivity that individual differences study found that was not measured among people. Good the needs are or demonstrated. empirical support universally related exists on needs to individual for achievement in happiness. particular.
What can we concl ude from needs theories? We can safely say that ind ividuals do have needs, and that they can be highly motiva ted to achieve those needs. The types of needs, and their importance, vary by individual, and probably vary over time for the same individual as well. When rewarding individuals, you should consider their specific needs. Obviously, in a workplace, it would be d ifficu lt to design a reward structure that could completely take into account the specific needs of every employee.
Process Theories of Motivation Lee Valley Tools has a long history of paying its employees fairly.25 Senior managers are paid no more than 10 times the lowest-paid employee. Twenty-five percent of pre-tax profits are divided
evenly among all employees who have been with the company for at least two years. Leonard Lee believed that work was more than just about the money. He once counselled graduating
university students: "If you do work you love, it's much easier to excel than it is if you are work-
ing primarily for money. It is also easier to be more creative." Treating employees fairly and empowering them are some of the ways that organizations
can motivate their employees.
134 Part 2 Striving for Performance
EXHIBIT 4-6 How Does Expectancy Theory Work?
My professor offers me S 1 million if I memorize the textbook by tomorrow morni ng.
Expectancy I n st rumentality Valence
Effort- Performance Link
No matter how much effort
Performance- Rewards Link
My professor does not look like someone who has S 1 million.
Rewards- Personal Goals Link
There are a lot of wonderful things I could do with $1 million. I put in, probably not possible
to memorize the text in 24 hours.
E=O I = 0 V = 1
Conclusion: Though I value t he reward, I w ill not be mot ivated to do this task.
e Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating employees.
expectancy theory The theory that indiviruals act based on their evalua- tion of whether their effort will lead to good performance, whether good per- f0<mance will be follovred by a given outcome, and whether that outcome is attractive.
expectancy The belief that effort is related to perf0<mance.
Process lh eories go b eyond ind ividual needs and focus on lhe broader picture of how o ne molivales oneself and others. Process lheories incl ude expectancy theory, goal- selling Lheory (and its app lication, management by objectives), self-efficacy theory, and reinforcement lheory.
Expectancy Theory One of Lh e most widely accepted explanatio ns of motivatio n is Victor Vroom's exp e cta ncy theory.26 Altho ugh it has critics, most of t he ev ide nce supports Lh e Lh eory.27
Expectancy theory says that employees will be motivated to exert a h igh level of effort when lhey believe lhe following:
• That lhe effort will lead to good performance
• That good performa nce will lead to organizalional rewards, such as salary increases and/or intrinsic rewards
• That lhe rewards will satisfy employees' perso nal goals
The theory focuses on the three relationships ( expecta ncy, inslrumenta lity, a nd va lence) illuslrated in Exhib it 4-6 and described in lhe fo llow ing pages. Th is exhib it also provides an examp le of h ow you m ight apply lhe theory.
Effo rt- Performance Relationship The effort- performance relationship is common ly called exp ectan cy. fl answers the questio n: If I give a maximum effort, will it be recognized in my performance appraisal? For many em p loyees, lhe answer is no. Why? Their skill level may be deficient, wh ich means lhat no matter h ow hard lhey try, lhey are not likely to be high performers. The organ i- zatio n's performance appraisal syslem may be designed to assess nonperforma nce fac- tors such as loyalty, inilia tive, or courage, wh ich means more effort will not necessarily resu lt in a high er eval ualion. Anolher possib il ity is that employees, righ tly or wro ngly, lhi nk lhe boss does not l ike them. As a result, lhey expect a poor appraisal, regardless of effort. These examples suggest Lh at people wi ll on ly be motivated if Lh ey perceive a link between their effort and lheir performance. Expectancy ca n be expressed as a probabi lity, and ranges fro m O to 1. To further provoke your lh ough lS o n th is matter, lhe Ethical Dilemma on pages 158- 159 asks you to consider how grade inflation has affected the mean ing of grad es.
Ch apter 4 Theories of Motivation 135
Performance-Rewards Re lationship The performance- rewards rela tionship is commonly called ins trumentality. It answers the question: If I get a good perfonnance appraisal, will it lead co organizational rewards? Many organizations reward things besid es perfor mance. When pay is based on factors such as having seniority, being cooperative, or "kissing up" to the boss, emp loyees are likely to see the performance- rewards relationsh ip as weak and demotivating. Instrumentali ty ranges from -1 to + 1. A negative instrumentality indicates that high perfor- mance reduces the chances of getting the desired ou tcome. An instrumen tality of O indicates that no relationsh ip exists between performance and receiving the desired o utcome.
Rewards- Personal Goals Relationship The rewards- personal goa ls relationship is commonly called val en ce. It answers the q uestion: If I am rewarded, are the rewards auractive to me? The employee works hard in the hope of gelling a promotion bu t gets a pay raise instead. Or the employee wants a more interesting and challenging job but receives only a few words o f pra ise. Or the employee puts in extra effort to be relocated lo the Paris office b ut instead is transferred to Singapore. Unfor- tunately, many managers are limited in the rewards they can distribute, wh ich makes it difficu lt to tailor rewards to individual employee needs. Moreover, some manag-
1\ re managers manipulat-
ing em-ployees ,.vhen they link
r e,-rards to pr0olucti\ ity'!
\>Vhy do so1ne managers do
a better job of motivating
people than others'?
ers incorrectly assume that all employees want the same thing. They overlook the motivational effects o f d ifferent ia ting rewards. In e ither case, employee motivation may be lower because the specific need the employee has is no t being met through
J
f ----- ~
The performance-reward relationship is strong at Mary Kay Cosmetics, which offers a rewards and recognition program based on the achievement o f personal goals set by each salesperson. These inde-
pendent consultants are posing in front o f Mary Kay Career Cars, one o f many rewards that motivate Mary Kay's salesforce.
instrumentality The belief !hat performance is related to rewards.
valence The value or importance an individual places on a reward.
136 Part 2 Striving for Performance
Stock Analyst Recommenda ti ons and Valence
Cou ld rewa rds obscure making accurate recommendatio ns? Stock analysts make their l iving trying to forecast a stock's future price; the accuracy of their buy, sell, and hold recommendations is what keeps them in work or gets them fired. 28 Nevertheless, analysts place few sell ratings o n s tocks, although in a steady market, b y defin ition, as many stocks are falling as are ris ing.
Expectancy theory provides an explanation: Analysts who place a sell rating on a company's s tock have lo balance the benefits they receive by being accurate against the risks they run by drawi ng that co mpany's ire. Whal are these risks? They include p ublic rebuke, professiona l b lackball ing, and excl us io n from information. Their valence for this is - 1. When analysts place a buy rating on a s tock, lhey face no s uch trade-off because, obviously, companies love il when analysts recommend lhal investors buy their stock. Expectancy theory suggests that the expected rewards and lheir desirability is h igher for buy ratings lhan sell ratings, and that is why b uy ratings vastly outnumber sell ratings . . . .. . ... ... . .. . ... ... . .. . .. . ... ... . .. . ... ... . .. . ... ... ... . .. . ... ... .
the reward structure. Valence ranges from -I (very undes irable reward) lo + I (very des irable reward) . OB in the Worliplace shows lhal valence can drive stock analysts lo place more buy ratings than sell ratings.
Expectancy Theory in the Wo rkplace Does expectancy theory work? Al though il has its cri tics, 29 most of the research evidence supports the theory.30 Research in cross-cultural settings has also indicated support for expectancy theory. 31
Exhibit 4-7 gives some suggesti ons for what a manager can do lo increase the motivation of employees, using insights from expectancy theory. To appreciate how expectancy theory might apply in the workplace, see this chap ter's Case Incident- Wage Reduction Proposal on page 160 for a n example of what happens when expected rewards are withdrawn .
The Importance of Providing Performance Feedback People do beuer when they gel feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goa ls because il helps identify d iscrepancies between what they have done and what they wanl lo do- that is, feedback guides behaviour. But all feedback is not equally potent. Self-generated feedback- with which emp loyees are able lo monitor their own progress or receive feedback from the task process itself- is more powerful than externally generated feedback. 32 Recent research has also shown lhal people monitor
EXHIBIT 4- 7 Steps to Increasing Motivation, Using Expectancy Theory
Improvin g Expectancy
Imp rove t he abil ity of the individual to perform.
• Make sure employees have skills for the task.
• Provide training. • Assign reasonable tasks and goals.
Improving In stru m entality
Increase the individual's belief that performance will lead to reward.
• Observe and recognize performance. • Deliver rewards as promised. • Indicate to employees how previous
good performance led to greater rewards.
Improving Valence
Make sure that the reward is meaningful to the individual.
• Ask employees what rewards they value.
• Give rewards that are valued.
lh eir progress d iffe rently depending on how close they are to goal accompl ishment. When lhey have just begun pursuing a goal, lh ey derive molivalio n from believing that lh e goal is attai nable, so they exaggerate their level of progress in order to slay motivated. However, when they are close to accom- pl ishing their goal, they derive motivation from believing a d iscrepancy slill exists between where they are currently and wh ere they wou ld like to be, so they downplay their progress to da le to signa l a need for higher effort.33
Effec tive feedback- where the employee perceives t he appraisa l as fair, the manager as sincere, and the climate as constructive- can lead lh e employee to respond pos itively and become determined to correct his or h er performance deficiencies. 34 Th us, the performa nce review shou ld be more like a co unsell ing aclivity t han a judgment process, a llow- i ng the review lo evolve ou t of the employee's own self- evaluatio n. For more lips o n performance feedback, see OB in Action- Giving More Effeccive Feedback.
Goal-Setting Theory You have heard the phrase a number of limes: "J us t do your best. That's all anyone can ask for." But wh at does "do yo ur best• mea n? Do we ever kn ow whether we h ave ach ieved that vague goal? Might we do better with specific goals? Research on
Chapter 4 Theories of Motivation 1 37
~ OB~cr10N Giving More Effective Feedback
Managers can use the following tips to give more effective feedback:
-+ Relate feedback to exisling performa nce goals an d clear expectations.
-+ Give sp ecific feedback tied to observab le beh aviour or measurab le resullS.
-+ Channel feedback toward key res ult areas.
-+ Give feedback as s oon as possible.
-+ Give positive feedback for improvemen t, not jusl fina l resullS.
-+ Focus feedback on p erfo rman ce, nol perso nalities.
-+ Base feedback o n accurale and cred ible information. 35
goal-setting theo ry, proposed by Edwi n Locke, reveals the impressive effects of goal specificity, challenge, and feedback o n performance.
Demonstrate the differences among goal-setting theory, self-efficacy theory . and reinforcement theory.
The research on goal-sell ing theory by Locke and his colleague, Professor Gary Latham at lh e University of Toronto, shows that inlenlions to work toward a goal are
Co-founders Anthony Thomson (left) and Vernon Hill (right) launched their first Metro Bank in London, England, with a long-term goal of adding 200 new branches and capturing up to 10 percent of London's banking mar1<et. Metro Bank challenges employees to reach this high goal by giving customers excep- tionally friendly, convenient, and flexible service.
goal -setting t heory A theory that says that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance.
goal What an individual is trying to accomplish.
138 Part 2 Striving for Performance
management by objectives (MBO) An approach to goal set· ting in which specific measurable goals are jointty set by managers and employees; progress on goals is periodically reviewed: and rewards are allocated on the basis of this progress.
a major source of work moliva tion.36 Goals tell an employee whal needs to be done and how much effort is needed.3 7 Point/Counterpoint on page 157 considers the benefits of goal setting.
How do managers make goal-setting theo ry operational? That is often left up to the ind ividua l. Some managers set aggressive performance largels- whal General Electric calls •stretch goals.• Some senior execut ives, such as Procter & Gamble's former CEO Robert McDonald and Besl Buy's pres ident and CEO Hubert Jo ly, are known for demanding performance goals. But many managers don't set goals. When asked whether their job had clearly defined goals, only a m inority of employees in a survey sa id yes.38
A more systematic way to utilize goal setting is with managem ent by obje ctives (MBO), an initiative most popular in the 1970s but still used today. MBO emphasizes participatively set goals that are tangib le, verifiab le, and measurab le.39 Progress on
goals is period ically reviewed, and rewards are allocated on the basis of this progress. Four ingredients are common to MBO programs: goa l specificity, participation in
decision making ( includ ing the selling of goa ls or objectives), an exp licit lime period, and performance feedback. 40 Many elemenL~ in MBO programs match the propositions of goal-setti ng theory.
You will find MBO programs in many business, health care, educational. govern- ment, and nonprofit organizations.41 A version of MBO, called Management by Objec-
tives and Results (MBOR), has been used for 30 years in the governments of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.42 However, the popularity of these programs does not mean they always work.4 3 When MBO fails, the cu lprits lend to be unrealistic expectations, lack of commitment b y lop managemen t, and inab ility or unwillingness lo allocate rewards based on goal accomplishment
How Does Goal Setting Motivate? According to Locke, goal setting motivates in four\vays (see Exhibit 4-8):44
• Goals direct attention. Goals indicate where individuals shou ld direct their efforts when they are choosing among things to do. For instance, recognizing that an important assignment is due in a few days, goal setti ng may encourage you to say no when friends invite you to a movie this evening.
• Goals regulate effort. Goals suggest how much effort an individual should pul in to a given task. For instance, if earn ing a h igh mark in accounting is more important to you than earn ing a h igh mark in organ izationa l behaviour, you will likely put more effort into studying accounting.
• Goals increase persistence. Persistence represents the effort spent on a task over lime. When people keep goals in m ind, they will work hard on them, even in
the face of obstacles.
• Goals encourage the development of strategies and action plans. Once goals are sel, individuals can develop plans for achieving those goals. For instance, a goal lo become more fil may include plans lo jo in a gym, work out with fr iends, and change eating habits.
In order for goa ls lo be effective, they should be "SMART.• SMART stands for
• Specific: Individuals know exactly what is lo be achieved.
• Measurable: The goals proposed can be tracked and reviewed.
• Allainable: The goals, even if d ifficu lt, are reasonable and achievable.
• Resu lts-oriented: The goals should support the vision of the organization.
• Time-bound: The goals are lo be achieved within a stated lime.
Chapter 4 Theories of Motivation 139
EXHIBIT 4-8 Locke's Model of Goal Setting
i ... Directing attention Goals
motivate by . . .
Regulating effort
In creasing persistence
Task perform ance
Encouraging the developm ent of strategies and action plans
Source: Adapted from E. A. Locke and G . P. Latham, A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1980).
From Concepts co Skills on pages 160- 161 presents additional ideas on how lo effectively engage in goal setti ng.
Although goal setting has positive outcomes, it's not unequivocally benefi cial. For example, some goals may be too effeclive.45 When learning someth ing is importa nt, goals related lo performan ce may cause people lo become too foc used o n o utcomes an d ignore the learning process. Nor are all goa ls equally effective. For rote tasks with q uantifiable stan dards of prod uctivity, goals lhal reward qua ntity ca n b e h igh ly motivati ng. For o ther jobs thal require comp lex thinking and personal investmen t, goa ls and rewards for quantity may not be effeaive.46 Finally, individ uals may fail to give up on an u natta inable goal, even when il m ight b e benefi cial lo do so.
Research has found Lh al peop le differ in the way they regulate their th o ughts a nd b ehavio urs d uring goal pursu it.47 Generally, people fall inlo o ne of two categories, although they could belong lo both. Those w ith a promotion focus strive for advancement and accomp lishment and approach cond itions that move th em closer toward des ired goa ls . Those wilh a prevention focus strive to fulfill duties a nd ob ligations and avoid co nditio ns lh al p ull them away from desired goals. Aspects of t his co ncepl are s imi lar lo lhe avoida nce side of lh e approach- avo idance framework. Although bot h strategies work toward goal accompl ishment, the manner in wh ich th ey gel th ere is qu ite different. As a n example, cons ider studying for a n exam. You cou ld e ngage in promotion-focused activ ities such as read ing class materials, or you co uld engage in prevention-focused activities s uch as refra ining from do ing th ings that wo u ld gel in Lh e way of studying, s uch as playing video games.
You may ask, "Which is the beu er s trategy?" The a nswer depends on lhe o utcome yo u are strivi ng for. While a promotio n (bul nol a preven tion) focus is related to h igh er levels of Lask performance, organi- zationa l citizensh ip beh aviour, and innovation, a preventio n (but no t a promotion) foc us is related lo safety performance. Ideally, il's probably
Lilly Singh, born in Scarborough, Ontario, has her own You Tube channel. She started it in 2013, and by spring 2017 she had 11.5 million subscribers, putting her in the top 75 channels. By any measure,
she has been wildly successful with her videos. Singh is also promotion focused; she is driven to do still more because of her accomplishments. As she
explains, "I think once you get successful and you love what you do so much and get opportunities- I think that's why movie stars continue to make so
many movies. It's because success is the most addictive drug, you get addicted to this idea that: 'No, I want more. I want more experiences. I want
more of this."' So she keeps driving ahead.
best to be both promotion and prevention oriented.48 Keep in mind a person's job sa tisfactio n will be more heavily impacted by low success when that person has an avoida nce (prevention) ou tlook,49 so set achievable goals, remove distractio ns, a nd provide structure for th ese individ uals.so
promotion focus A self-regulation strategy that involves striving for goals through advancement and accomplishment. Goal-se lli ng th eory is consistent w ith expectancy theory. Th e goals can be co n-
s idered the effort- performance link- in other words, the goals determ ine what mus t be do ne. Feedback can be cons idered Lh e performance- reward re lationship, where Lh e ind iv idua l's efforts are recogn ized. Finally, the implicatio n of goal setting is thal
prevention focus AseH-regulatioo strategy that involves strilling for goals by fulfilling duties and obligations.
140 Part 2 Striving for Performance
self -efficacy theory Individuals' beliefs in their ability to perform a task influence !heir behaviour.
lh e achievemenl of the goals w ill resull in in lrinsic salisfaclion (and, o f course, may be Jinked lo exlernal rewards).
Self-Efficacy Theory The basic premise of self-efficacy the o ry, also known as social cognitive theory or social learning theory, is that individuals' bel iefs in their abi lity lo perform a Lask in fl uence their behaviour.51 The h igher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your abil ity lo succeed in a task. So, in d ifficu ll situations, people with low self-efficacy are more likely to lessen their effort or give up allogelher, wh ile those with high self-efficacy will lry harder to masler the challenge.52 Self-efficacy can create a posilive sp iral in wh ich those with high efficacy become more engaged in their tasks and then, in turn, increase performance, wh ich increases efficacy furlher. 53 One recenl s tudy inlroduced a furlher explanation, in that self-efficacy was associaled with a h igher level of focused attention, which led lo increased Lask performance.54
Feedback infl uences self-efficacy; individ ua ls h igh in self-efficacy a lso seem to respond to negalive feedback with increased effort and motivation, wh ile those low in self-efficacy are likely to lessen their effort after negat ive feedback. 55 Changes in self. efficacy over lime are related to changes in crealive performance as well .56 How can managers help their emp loyees achieve high levels of self-efficacy? By bringing goal- setting theory and self-efficacy theory together.
Goal-setling theory and self-efficacy theory don't compete: They comp lement each other. As Exhibit 4-9 shows, employees whose managers set d ifficult goa ls for them will have a h igher level of self-efficacy, and sel higher goals for their own performance. Why7 Selling d ifficult goals for people commun icates your confidence in them.
The researcher who developed self-efficacy lheory, Albert Bandura, proposes fo ur ways self-efficacy can be increased:57
• Enactive mastery. Ga ining relevant experience with the task or job. If you have been able to do lhe job successfu lly in the past, then you are more confident that you will be able to do it in the future.
• Vicarious modelling. Becoming more confidenl because you see someone else do ing the task. For example, if your friend loses weight, then it increases your confidence that you can lose weight, too. Vicarious modell ing is mosl effective when you see yourself as similar to the person you are observing.
EXHIBIT 4-9 Joint Effects of Goals and Self-Efficacy on Performance
Manager sets difficull, specific
goal for job or task
Individual has confidence that given level of periormance
will be attained (self -efficacy)
Individual sets higher personal
(self-set) goal for his or he< performance
Individual has higher level of job
or task performance
Source: Based on E. A. Locke and G. P Latham, "Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation: A 35-Year Odyssey,' American Psychologist, September 2002, pp. 705-717.
Chapter 4 Theories of Motivation 141
• Verbal persuasion. Becoming more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to be successful. Motivational speakers use th is tactic.
• Arousal. An energized state, so the person gets "psyched up• and performs bet- ter. But if the task is something that requires a steady, lower-key perspective (say, carefully ed iting a manuscript), arousal may in fact h urt performance even as it increases self-efficacy because we m ight hurry through the task.
Intell igence and personality are absent from Bandura's list but t hey too can increase sel f-efficacy.58 People who are intell igent, conscientio us, and emotionally stable are so much more likely to have high self-efficacy that some researchers argue that self-efficacy is less important than prior research wou ld suggest. 59 They believe it is partially a by-product in a smart person with a confident personality.
The best way for a manager lo use verbal persuasion is through the Pygmalion effect, a term based on a Greek myth about a sculptor (Pygmal ion) who fell in love with a s tatue he carved. The Pygmal ion effect is a form of self-fulfilling prophecy in wh ich bel ieving something can make il true. Here, it is often used to describe "tha t what one person expects of ano ther can come to serve a self-fulfill ing prophecy. "60 An example should make th is clear. In studies, teachers were told their students had very high IQ scores when, in fac t, they spanned a range from high to low. Consistent with the Pygmalion effect, the teachers spent more lime with the students they thought were smart, gave them more challenging assignments, and expected more of them- all of wh ich led to higher student self-efficacy and beuer ach ievement o utcomes. 61 Th is strategy has been used in the workplace too, \vith replicable results and enhanced effects when leader- subord inate rela tionships are strong.62
What are the OB imp lications of self-efficacy theory? Well, it's a matter of applying Bandura's sources of self-efficacy to the work setting. Training programs often make use of enactive mastery by having peop le practise and bu ild their skills. In fact, the reason tra ining works is because it increases sel f-efficacy, particularly when the tra ining is interactive and feedback is given after training.63 Individuals with h igher levels of self- efficacy also appear lo reap more benefits from tra ining programs and are more l ikely to use their training on the job. 64
Reinforcement Theory Goal-setting is a cognitive approach, proposing that an individual's purposes direct his or her actions. Reinfo rceme nt the o ry, in contrast, takes a behavio uristic view, arguing that reinforcement co nd itions behaviour. The two theories are clearly al odds ph ilosophically. Reinforcement theorists see behaviour as environmenta lly ca used. You need not be concerned, they would argue, with internal cognitive events; what controls behaviour is reinforcers- any consequences that, when immediately following responses, increase the probabil ity that the behaviour wi ll be repeated.
Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of the ind iv id ua l and co ncentrates solely on what happens when he or she takes some action. Because it does not concern itself with what initiates behavio ur, it is not, strictly speaking, a theory of motivation. But il does provide a powerful means of analyzing what controls behaviour, and this is why we typically consider it in discussions of motivation.65
Operant conditioning theory, probably the most relevant component of reinforce- ment theory for management, argues that people learn to behave to get something they want or to avo id someth ing they don't want. Unlike reflexive or u nlearned behav- iour, operant behaviour is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about by its consequences. Therefore, reinforcement strengthens a behaviour and increases the likelihood it will be repeated.66
B.F. Skinner, one of the most prominent advocates of operan t co nd itioning, dem- onstrated that people will most likely engage in desired behaviours if they are positively
reinforcement theory A theory that says that behaviour is a function of its consequences.
142 Part 2 Striving for Performance
behaviourism A lheo,y that argues that behaviour follows stimuli in a relalively unthinking manner.
continuous reinforcement A desired behaviour is reinforced each and every time it is demonstrated.
reinforced for doing so; rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired behaviour; and behaviour that is not rewarded, or is punished, is less likely to be repeated. The concept of operan t conditioning was part of Skinner's broader concept of behaviourism, which asserts that behaviour follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner. Skinner's form of radical behaviourism rejects feelings, thoughts, and other states of m ind as causes of behaviour. In short, people learn to associate stimulus and response, bu t their conscious awareness of this association is irrelevant. 67
You can see illustrations of operant conditioning everywhere. For instance, a com- missioned sa lesperson who wants to earn a high income must generate high sales in her territory. Of course, the linkage can also teach ind ividuals to engage in behaviours that work against the best interests of the organization. Assume that your boss says that if you will work overtime during the next three-week busy season, you will be compensated for it at the next performance appraisal. However, when performance appraisal time comes, you find that yo u are given no positive reinforcement for your overtime work. The next time your manager asks yo u to work overtime, yo u will probably decline '
Methods of Shaping Behaviour Behaviour can be shaped in four ways: through positive reinforcement, negative rein- forcement, punishment, and extinction.
Following a response with something pleasant is called positive reinforcement. Follow- ing a response with the termination or withdrawal of something unpleasant is called negative reinforcenienr. Punishnient is ca using an unpleasant cond ition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable behaviour. Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behaviour is called extinction. Exhibit 4-10 presents examples of each type of reinforce- ment. Negative reinforcement shou ld not be confused with punishment: Negative reinforcement strengthens a behaviour because it takes away an unpleasant situation.
Schedules of Re inforcement While consequences have an effect on behaviour, the tim ing of those consequences or reinforcements is also important. The two major types of reinforcement schedules are continuous and intermiuent. A continuous reinforcement schedule reinforces the desired behaviour each and every time it is demonstrated. Take, for example, the case of someone who has historically had trouble arriving at work on lime. Every lime he is not tardy, his manager m ight compliment h im on his desirab le behaviour. In an intermittent schedule, on the other hand, no t every instance of the desirable behaviour is reinforced, but reinforcement is given often enough to make the behaviour worth repeating. Evidence indicates that the intermiuent, or varied, form of reinforcement tends to promote more resistance to extinction than does the continuous form. 68
EXHIBIT 4-10 Types of Reinforcement
Reinforcement Type
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment
Extinction
Example
A manager praises an employee for a job well done.
An instructor asks a question and a student looks through her lecture notes to avoid being called on. She has learned that looking busily through her notes prevents the instructor from calling on her.
A manager gives an employee a two-day suspension from work without pay for showing up drunk.
An instructor ignores students who raise their hands to ask questions. Hand-raising becomes extinct.
Ch apter 4 Theories of Motivation 143
EXHIBIT 4-11 Schedules of Reinforcement
Reinforcement Nature of Schedule Reinforcement Effect on Behaviour Example
Continuous Reward given after each Fast learning of new Compliments desired behaviour behaviour but rapid
extinction
Rxed-interval Reward given at fixed Average and irregular Weekly time intervals performance with paycheques
rapid extinction
Variable-interval Reward given at variable Moderately high and Pop quizzes time intervals stable performance
with slow extinction
Rxed-ratio Reward given at fixed High and stable Piece-rate pay amounts of output performance attained
quickly but also with rapid extinction
Variable-ratio Reward given at variable Very high performance Commissioned amounts of output with slow extinction sales
An intermittent reinforcement schedule can be of a ratio or inteival type. Ratio schedules depend on how many responses the subject makes. The individual is rein- forced after giving a certa in number of specific types of behaviour. Inteival schedules depend on how much lime has passed since the previous reinforcement. With interval schedules, the individual is reinforced on the first appropriate behaviour after a par- ticular time has elapsed. A reinforcement can also be classified as fixed or variable. When these factors are combined, fo ur types of intermittent schedules of reinforcement result: fixed -interval schedule, variable-interval schedule, fixed-ratio schedule, and variable-ratio schedule.
Exh ibi t 4 - 11 summarizes the fi ve sched ules of reinforcement and their effects on behaviour.
Although reinforcers such as pay can motivate people, the process is much more comp licated than stimul us- response. In its pure form, reinforcement theory ignores feel ings, at titudes, expectations, and other cognitive variables known to affect behaviour. Reinforcement is undoubtedly an important in fl uence on behaviour, but few scholars are prepared to argue that it's the o nly one. The behaviours you e ngage in at work and the amount of effort you allocate to each task are affected by the consequences that fo llow. If you are consistently reprimanded for ou tproducing your colleagues, yo u will likely reduce your productiv ity. But we m ight also explain your lower productivity in terms of goals, inequ ity, or expectancies.
Responses to the Reward System Lee Valley Tools' system of paying its employees fairly has paid off in a number of ways.69 The
turnover rate is low. Employees feel empowered because they are encouraged to take action to
solve customer problems. They don't have to check in with the boss, they are simply expected
to do the right thing. Founder Leonard Lee disliked the nature of his previous job that gave him
responsibility but no authority, so he changed that dynamic for his employees. Even customers
appreciate the sense of fairness that echoes through the store, and how the employees share in the
profits. "That's something that our customers comment on a lot. They appreciate shopping here
because they know the money is not all being funnelled to the top," says Peter Gowdy, assistant
manager at Lee Valley Tools' store on King Street in downtown Toronto.
O Describe why equity and fairness matter in the workplace.
intermittent reinforcement A desired behaviour is reinforced often enough lo make !he behaviour worth repeating, but not every time ii is demonstrated.
fixed-interval schedule The reward is given at fixed time intervals.
variable-interval schedule The reward is given at variable time intervals.
fixed-ratio schedule The reward is given at fixed amounts of output
variable-ratio schedule The reward is given at variable amounts of output.
144 Part 2 Striving for Performance
equity t heory A theory !hat asserts that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of olhers and then respond to eliminate any inequities.
To a large extent, motivation theories are about rewards. The theories suggest that indi- viduals have needs and will exert effort in order to have those needs met. The needs theories specifically identify those needs. Goal-selling and expectancy theories portray processes by wh ich individuals act and then receive desirable rewards ( intrinsic or extrinsic) for their behaviour.
Three add itional process theories ask us to consider how ind ividuals respond to rewards. Equity theory suggests that individuals evaluate and interpret rewards. Fair process goes one s tep further, suggesting that employees are sensitive to a variety of fairness issues in the workplace that extend beyond the reward system but a lso affect employee motivation. Self-determina tion theory exam ines how individuals respond to the introduction of extrinsic rewards for intrinsically satisfying activities.
Equity Theory Ainsley is a student working toward a bachelor's degree in finance. In order to ga in some work experience and increase her marketability, she has accepted a summer internship in the finance department at a pharmaceutical company. She is quite pleased with the pay: $15 an hour is more than other students in her cohort receive for their summer internships. At work she meets Josh, a recent graduate of the same university working as a m iddle manager in the same finance department. Josh makes $30 an hour.
On the job, Ainsley is a go-getter. She is engaged, satisfied, and always seems will- ing to help others. Josh is the opposite. He often seems d isinterested in his job and thinks about qu itting. When pressed one day about why he is unhappy, Josh cites his pay as the ma in reason. Specifically, he tells Ainsley that, com- pared with managers at other pharmaceutical compan ies, he makes much less. "ll isn't fair,• he complains. "I work just as hard as they do, yet I don't make as much. Maybe I shou ld go work for the competition."
How important is fairness to
you'!
How could someone making $30 an hour be less satisfied wi th h is pay than someone maki ng $15 an hour and be less motivated as a result? The answer lies in equity theory and, more broad ly, in principles of organ izational justice. According to equity theory, employees compare what they get from their job (their "outcomes," such as pay, promotions, recogn ition, or having a bigger office) to what they pul into it (their "inpu ts,• such as effort, experience, and education). They take the ratio of their outcomes to their inputs and compare it to the ratio of o thers, usually someone s imilar, such as a co-worker or someone do ing the same job. This idea is illustrated in Exh ibit 4-12 . Ifwe believe our ratio is equal to those with whom we compare our- selves, a state of equity exists and we perceive our s it uation as fair.
To Whom Do We Compare Ou rselves? The referent that an employee seleClS when making comparisons adds lo the comp lex- ity of equity theory. 70 There are four referent comparisons that an emp loyee can use:
• Self-inside. An employee's experiences in a differen t position inside h is or her current organ ization.
• Self-0111side. An employee's experiences in a s ituation or position outside his or her current organ ization.
• Other-inside. Another individual or group of individuals inside the employee's organization.
• Otl1er-0111side. Another individual or group of individuals outside the employ- ee's organization.
Employees might compare themselves with fr iends, neighbours, co-workers, or col- leagues in other organiza tions. Allernatively, they might compare their present job with
[[
Chapter 4 Theories of Motivation 145
EXHIBIT 4-12 Equity Theory
Person 1 's Perception
Person 1
Inequity, underrewarded Person 2
Person 1
Equity
l ] Person 2 Person 1
Inequity, overrewarded
Person 2
previous jobs they have had. Which referent an emp loyee chooses wi ll be in fl uenced by the informatio n the emp loyee holds about referents, as well as by the auractiveness of the referent. Case Incident- Equity and Executive Pay on page 159 considers wh eth er executive compensation is equ itable when compared with the pay of the average worker.
What Happens When We Feel Treated Inequitably? Based on equity theory, employees who perceive an inequity w ill make one of six choices.7 1
• Change their inputs ( exert less effort if underpaid, or more if overpaid) .
• Change their outcomes (individ uals paid on a piece-ra te basis can increase their pay by producing a h igh er quantity of un its of lower q uality).
• Adjust percepti.ons of self ("I used to th ink I worked at a moderate pace, but now I real ize I work a lot harder than everyone else.")
• Adjust percepci.ons of others ("Mike's job isn't as desirab le as I thought.")
• Choose a different referent ("I may not make as much as my b rother-in-law, b ut I'm do ing a lot beuer than my Dad d id when he was my age.")
• Leave the field ( q uit the job).
]] RESEARCH FINDINGS: Inequitable Pay
\.Vhat can you do if you think your salar~· is
unfair .. ?
i:-• Equity th eory h as support from some researchers, but not from al l.72 There are some concerns with the propositions. First, inequities created by overpay-
ment do not seem to significantly affect beh aviour in most work situa tio ns. So don't expect an emp loyee who feels overpa id to give back part of h er salary or put in more hours to make up for the inequ ity. Although individuals may sometimes perceive tha t they are overrewarded, they restore equity by rationa lizing th eir situation ("I'm worth it because I work harder than everyone else"). Second, not everyo ne is equally equity- sensitive, for vario us reasons, incl ud ing feeli ngs of entitlement.73 A few actually prefer outco me- inpu t ratios lower than the referent compariso ns. Predictions from equity theory are not likely to be very accurate with th ese "benevolent types."74
146 Part 2 Striving for Performance
O Demonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equity theory.
organizational justice An overall perception of what is fair in the workplace, composed of distributive, procedural, informational, and inter- personal justice.
distributive justice Perceived fair- ness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals.
Fair Process and Treatment Although not all of equity theory's propositions have held up, the hypothes is served as an important precursor to the study of org anizational jus tice, or more s imp ly fairness, in the workplace.75 Organizational justice is concerned more broadly with how emp loyees feel authorit ies and decision makers at work treat them. For the most part, employees evaluate how fairly they are treated a long four dimensions, shown in Exhibit 4-13 .
Dis tributive jus tice is concerned with the fairness of the outcomes, such as pay and recogn ition, that employees receive. Outcomes can be allocated in many ways. For examp le, we could distribute raises equally among employees, or we could base them on which employees need money the most. However, as the earl ier discussion on equity theory suggests, employees tend lo perceive their outcomes are fairest when they are d istributed equitably.
Does the same logic apply to teams? At first glance, it would seem that distributing rewards equally among team members is best for boosting morale and teamwork- that way, no one is favoured more than another. A study of Nationa l Hockey League teams suggests otherwise. Differentiating the pay of team members on lhe basis of their inputs
EXHIBIT 4-13 Model of Organizational Justice
Distributive Justice
Definition: perceived fairness of outcome
Example: I got the pay raise I deserved.
Procedural Justice
Definition: percei'Jed fairness of process used to determine outcome
Example: I had input into the process used to give raises and was given a good explanation of why I received the raise I did.
Informational Justice
Definition: perceived truthfulness of explana~ons for decisions
Example: The raise I received was lower than I had hoped, but my manager explained that department cutbacks were the reason.
Definition: perceived degree to which one is treated with dignity and respect
Example: When telling me about my raise, my supervisor was very nice and complimentary.
Organi zational Justice
Defini rion: overall perception of what is fair in the workplace
Example: I think this is a fair place to work.
Chapter 4 Theories of Motivation 14 7
{how well they performed in games) attracted better players lo the team, made it more likely they would s tay, and increased team performance.76
The way we have described th ings so far, it would seem that ind ividuals assess distributive justice and equ ity in a rational, calculative way as they compare their outcome- input ratios to those of others. But the experience of justice, and especially of injustice, is often not so cold and calculated. Instead, peop le base distributive judg- ments on a feeling or an emotional reaction to the way they think they are being treated relative lo others, and their reactions are often "hot" and emotional rather than cool and rational. 77
Although employees care a lot about what outcomes are distributed ( distribu- tive justice), they also care about how they are d istributed. While distributive justice looks at what ou tcomes are allocated, proced u ral ju stice examines how outcomes are allocated.78 What makes procedures more or less fa ir? There are several factors. For one, employees perceive that procedures are fairer when they are given a say in the decision-making process. Having direct influence over how decisions are made, or at the very least being able to presen t your op inion to decision makers, creates a sense of control and makes us fee l empowered (we d iscuss empowerment more in Chapter 8). Employees a lso perceive that procedures are fa irer when decision makers follow several "rules." These include making decisions in a consistent manner (across people and over time), avo id ing bias (not favouring one group or person over another), using accurate information, considering the groups or people their decisions affect, acting eth ically, and rema ining open to appeals or correction.
If outcomes are favourab le and individuals gel what they want, they care less abou t the process, so procedural justice does nol mauer as much \vhen d is tributions are per- ceived to be fa ir. It's when outcomes are unfavourable that peop le pay close atLention to the process. If the process is judged to be fair, then employees are more accepting of unfavourable outcomes.79 Why is this the case? It's likely that employees believe that fa ir procedures, which often have long-lasting effects, will eventually result in a fair outcome, even if the immed iate ou tcome is unfair. Think about it. If you are hop ing for a raise and your manager informs you that you did not receive one, you will probably want to know how raises were determ ined. If il turns out that your manager allocated raises based on merit, and you were s imply outperformed by a co-worker, then you are more likely lo accept your manager's decision than if raises were based on favouri tism. Of course, if you get the ra ise in the first p lace, then you will be less concerned with how the decision was made.
Beyond outcomes and procedures, research has shown that emp loyees care about two other types of fairness that have to do with the way they are treated during interac- tions with others. The first type is info r mational ju stice, which reflects whether man- agers provide employees with explanations for key decisions and keep them informed of important organizational matters. The more deta iled and cand id managers are with employees, the more fa irly treated those employees feel.
Although il may seem obvious that managers should be honest with their employ- ees and not keep them in the dark about organizational matters, many managers are hesitant lo share information. Th is is especia lly the case w ith bad news, wh ich is uncomfortable for both the manager delivering it and the employee receiving it. Explanations for bad news are beneficial when they take the form of excuses after the fact ("I know this is bad, and I wanted to give you the office, but it wasn't my deci- sion") rather than justifications ("I decided lo give the office to Sam, bul having it isn't a b ig deal•)_so
The second type of justice relevant to interactio ns between managers and employ- ees is inter p e rs onal justice, which reflects whether emp loyees are treated with d ig- nity and respect. Compared w ith the three other forms of justice we have d iscussed, interpersonal justice is un ique in that it can occur in everyday interactions between
procedural justice The perceived fairness of lhe process used lo deter- mine lhe distribution of rewards.
informational justice The degree lo which employees are provided truthful explanations fDf decisions.
interpersonal justice The degree lo which employees are treated with dignity and respect.
148 Part 2 Striving for Performance
f) Apply the predictions of self-determination theory to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.
self-determination theory A theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation.
managers and employees.81 This quality allows managers to take advantage of ( or m iss out on) opportu nities to make their employees feel fairly treated. Many ma nagers may view treating employees pol itely and respectfully as too "soft,• choosing more aggres- s ive tactics ou t of a belief that doing so will be more motivating. Although displays of negative emotions such as anger may be motivati ng in some cases, 82 ma nagers sometimes take th is too far.
How much does justice really matter to employees? A great deal, as it turns o ut. When employees fee l fairly treated, they respo nd in a n umber of positive ways. All four types of justice discussed in th is section have been linked to higher levels of task perfor- mance and organ izational citizenship behaviours (such as helping co-workers) as well as lower levels of counterproductive beh aviours (such as shirking job duties). Distribu- tive an d procedural justice are more strongly associated with task performance, wh ile informational and interpersonal justice are more strongly associated with organizational ci tizensh ip behaviour. Even more physiological outcomes, such as how well employees s leep and the state of their health, have been linked to fa ir treatment.83
Why does justice h ave these posi tive effects? Fair treatment enha nces commitment to the organization and makes emp loyees fee l it cares about their well-being. In add i- tion, employees who feel fairly treated trust their supervisors more, \vh ich red uces uncertainty and fear of being exploited by the organization. Finally; fa ir treatment elicits positive emotions, which in turn prompts behaviou rs like organ izational citizensh ip behaviour.84 The Experiential Exercise on page 158 helps you understand how managers can foster fa irness in the workplace based on the four types of organizational justice.
Despite all auempts to enhance fairness, perceived injustices are still likely to occur. Fa irness is often subjective; what one person sees as unfair, another may see as perfectly appropriate. In general, people see allocations or procedures favour ing themselves as fair. 85 So, when addressing perceived injustices, managers need to focus their actions on the source of the problem. In add ition, if employees feel they have been treated u njus tly, having opportunities to express their frustrat ion h as been shown to reduce their desire for retribution.86
How can an organ ization affect the justice perceptions and rule adherence of its managers? This depends upo n the motiva tion of each manager. Some managers are likely to calculate justice by their degree of adherence to the justice rules of the organ iza- tion. These managers wi ll try to ga in greater subordinate compl iance with beh avioural expectations, create an identi ty of being fair to their employees, or estab lish norms of fa irness. Other ma nagers may be motivated in justice decisions by their emotions. When they have a high positive affect and/or a low negative affect, these managers are most likely to act fairly.
It m ight be tempting for organizations to adopt strong justice guidel ines in attempts to mandate managerial behaviour, b ut this isn't likely to be un iversally effective. In cases where managers have more ru les and Jess discretio n, those who calculate justice are more likely to act fairly, but managers whose justice behaviour follows from their affect may act more fairly when they have greater d iscretion.87
Self-Determination Theory "It's strange,• sa id Marcia. "I started work at the Humane Society as a vo lunteer. I p ut in 15 hours a week helping people adopt pets. And I loved coming to work. Then, three months ago, they h ired me full -time at $11 an hour. I'm doing the same work I did before. But I'm no t finding it as much fun."
Does Marcia's reaction seem cou nterintuitive? There is an explanation for it. It's called s elf-determination theo ry, which proposes that people prefer to feel they have control over their actions, so anything that makes a previous ly enjoyed task feel more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity will undermi ne motivation.88 The theory is widely used in psycho logy, management, education, and medical research.
Chapter 4 Theories of Motivation 149
Much research on self-determination theory in OB has focused on co gnitive evalu ation theo ry, wh ich hypothesizes that extrinsic rewards will reduce intrins ic interest in a task. When people are pa id for work, il feels less like something they want to do and more like something they have to do. Self-determination theory also proposes that in addition lo being driven by a need for autonomy, people seek ways to achieve competence and positive connections to others. A large number of studies support sel f-determination theory.89 Its major impl ications relate to work rewards.
Extri nsic vs. Intri nsic Rewards Historically, mo tivation theoris ts have generally assumed that intrinsic motivators are independent of extrinsic motivators. That is, the s timulation of one would not affect the other. But cognitive eva luation theory suggests otherwise. ll argues that when extr insic rewards are used by organizations as payoffs for superior performance, the in tr ins ic rewards, which are derived from individuals doing what they like, are reduced.
What does self-determination theory suggest about provid ing rewards? It suggests that some cau tion in the use of extrinsic rewards to motivate is wise, and that pursu- ing goals from intrinsic motives (such as a strong interest in the work itself) is more sustaining to human motivation than are extrinsic rewards. Similarly, cognitive evalua- tion theory suggests that providing extrinsic incen tives may, in many cases, undermine intrinsic mo tivation.
For examp le, if a computer programmer values writing code because she likes lo solve problems, a bonus for writing a certain number of Jines of code every day cou ld feel coercive, and her intrinsic motivation would suffer. She wou ld be Jess interested in the task and m ight reduce her effort. She may or may not increase her number of lines of code per day in response to the extrinsic motivator. In support, a recent meta- analysis confirms that intrinsic motivation contributes to the quality of work, while incen tives contribu te to the quantity of\vork. Although intrinsic motivation predicts performance whether or not there are incentives, il may be less of a predictor when incent ives are tied to performance directly (such as with monetary bonuses) rather than ind irectly.90
A more recent ou tgrowth of cognitive evaluation research is sel f-concordance, which considers how strongly peop le's reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core val ues.91 Across cultures, if ind ividua ls pursue goals because of intrinsic interest, they are more likely to a tta in goals, are happier when they do, and are happy even if they do not. 92 Why7 Because the process of striving toward goa ls is fun whether or not the goal is achieved. Recent research reveals that when people do not enjoy their work for intrinsic reasons (those who work because they fee l ob ligated to do so) can sti ll perform well, although they experience h igher levels of stra in as a result.93 In contrast, peop le who pursue goals for extrinsic reasons (money, status, or other benefits) are Jess likely to attain goals and less happy even when they do. Why1 Because the goals are less mean ingful to them. 94
What does all of this mean? For individuals, it means you shou ld choose your job for reasons other than extrinsic rewards. For organizations, it means managers should provide intrinsic as well as extrinsic incentives. Managers need lo make the work inter- esting, provide recogn ition, and support employee growth and development. Employees who feel that what they do is within their control and a result of free cho ice are likely to be more motivated by their work and committed to their employers.95
Increasing Intrinsic Motivation Our d iscussion of motivation theories and our d iscussion of how to apply motiva- tion theories in the workplace has focused more on improving extrins ic motivation. Professor Kenneth Thomas of the Nava l Postgraduate School in Monterey, Ca lifornia, developed a model of intrinsic mo tivation that draws from the job characteristics model
cognitive evaluation theory Offering extrinsic rewards ~°' example, pay} f0< w0<k effort that was previously rewarding intrinsically will tend to docrease the overall lMI of a persoo's motivatioo.
self-concordance The degree to which a person's reasons 10< pursu- ing a goal are coosistent with the person's interests and core values.
150 Part 2 Striving for Performance
O Discuss the ethics behind motivation theories.
(see Chapter 5) and cogn itive evaluatio n theory.96 He identified four key rewards that increase an ind ivid ual's intrinsic mo tivation :
• Sense of choice. The opportun ity to select wha t one wi ll do an d perform the way one thi nks best. Individuals can use their own judgment lo carry o ut the task.
• Sense of competence. The feel ing o f accomplishment for doi ng a good job. Ind i- viduals are more like ly to feel a sense o f accompl ishment when they carry ou t cha llenging tasks.
• Sense of meaningfulness. The opportu nity to pursue worthwhile tasks. Ind ividu- als feel good about what they are doing and believe that what they are doi ng matters.
• Sense of progress. The feeling of accomplishment that one is making progress on a task, and that it is moving forward. Ind ividuals feel that they are spend- ing their ti me wisely in doing their jobs.
Thomas also identified fo ur sets of behaviours managers can use to build in trinsic rewards for their employees:
• Leading for choice. Empowering employees an d delegati ng tasks.
• Leading for competence. Supporting and coaching employees.
• Leading for meaningfulness. Insp iring employees and modell ing desired behaviours.
• Leading for progress. Monitori ng and rewardi ng employees.
Exhibit 4 -14 describes what managers can do lo increase the likelihood that intrinsic rewards are motivatio nal.
Motivation for Whom? An o ngo ing debate amo ng organizationa l behavio ur sch olars is, Who benefits from the th eories of motivatio n?97 Some argue that motivation theories are o nly intended to help managers get more productivity o ut of emp loyees, a nd are little concerned with employees beyond improvements in productivity. Thus, needs theories, process
EXHIBIT 4-14 Building Blocks for Intrinsic Rewards
Leading for Choice Leadi ng for Competence
• Delegated authority • Knowledge
• ll'ust in workers • Positive feedbad<
• Security (no punishment) for honest mistakes • Skill recognition
• A clear purpose • Challenge
• Information • High, noncomparatlve standards
--Leading f or M ean ingful n ess Leading f or Progress • A noncynical climate • A collaborative climate
• Clearly identified passions • Milest ones
• An e xcitjng vision • Celebrations
• Relevant task purposes • Access to customers
• Whole tasks • Measurement of Improvement
Source: From Intrinsic Motivation at Work: Building Energy and Comm~ment. Copyright © K. Thomas. 1997. Berrett-Koehler Publishers Inc., San Francisco, CA. All rights reserved. www.bkconnection.com.
Chapter 4 Theories of Motivation 151
theories, and Lheories concerned with fa irness cou ld be interpreted not as ways lo help employees gel what they wanl or need, but ralher as means lo help managers gel what Lhey wanl from employees. In his review of "meaningful work" lileralure, professor Chrislopher Michaelson of New York University Slern finds Lhal researchers propose that organizations have a moral obligation 10 provide emp loyees wilh •free choice lo enter, honest communicalion, fair and respeclfu l treatment, intellectua l challenge, considerable independence to determine work methods, democratic participation in decis ion making, moral development, due process and justice, nonpalernalism, and fair compensation. •98
Michaelson suggests that scholars concerned with mean ingfu l work should focus on the cond ilions of the workplace and improving those cond itions. He also suggeslS lhal researchers have a mora l obligation to make workplaces bener for employees. While produclivity may be a by-product of belier work conditions, the importanl thing is for employers lo lreal employees well, and lo consider the needs of employees as an end in itself. By conlrast, he argues, mainslream motivation theory does nol consider lhe mora l obliga tion of employers lo their employees, but il does consider ways lo ensure employees are more productive.
Wh ile th is debate is nol easi ly resolved, and may well gu ide the elabora tion of moti- valion theories in years lo come, il does inspire a provocative analysis of why employers provide lhe workplace condilions they do.
Job Engagement When Joseph reporls lo h is job as a hospital nurse, il seems lhal everything else in h is life goes away, and he becomes complelely absorbed in whal he is doing. His emotions, thoughts, and behaviour are all d irected toward patienl care. In facl, he can gel so caught up in his work lhat he isn't even aware of how long he's been there. As a resu lt of lh is Lo ta! commilrnen t, he is more effeclive in providing patient care and feels upl ifled by his lime al work.
Joseph has a high level of job e nga gemen t, the investment of an employee's physi- cal, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance. 99 Praclising managers and scholars have become inleresled in facil itating job engagement, believing faclors deeper than liking a job or find ing it interesting drives performance. Studies altempt lo measure this deeper level of commitment.
The Gallup organ ization has been sludying the extent to which employee engage- ment is l inked to pos itive work outcomes for mill ions of employees over lhe pasl 30 years. •00 Toey have found there are far more engaged employees in h igh ly successful organizations lhan in average ones, and groups wilh more engaged emp loyees have higher levels of productivily, fewer safely incidents, and lower turnover. Academic slud- ies have also found positive oulcomes. For instance, one review found higher levels of engagement were associa ted with task performance and citizenship behaviour. 101
Wha t makes people more likely lo be engaged in their jobs7 One key factor is the degree 10 which an employee believes il is meaningfu l to engage in work. Th is is parlially delermined by job characteristics and access lo sufficienl resources to work effectively. 102 Another factor is a malch between the ind ividual's values and those of Lhe organ ization. !03 Leadersh ip behaviours tha t inspire workers lo a greater sense of m ission also increase employee engagement. 104
One of the critiques of lhe concept of engagement is that lhe conslruct is parlially redundanl wilh job alliludes l ike salisfaclion or stress_ !Os However, engagement queslionnaires usua lly assess motivalion and absorption in a task, qu ite unlike job sa tisfaclion queslionna ires. Engagement may also predicl importanl work oulcomes beller than trad ilional job attitudes. 106 Other cril ics nole lhere may be a "dark side" lo engagemen t, as evidenced by positive relalionships between engagement and work- fami ly conflict 1° 7 ll is possib le individuals m ighl grow so engaged in Lheir work roles
job engagement The investment of an employee's physical. cogni- tive, and emotiooal energies into job performance.
152 Part 2 Striving for Performance
0 Summarize the essence of what we know about motivating employees.
lha t fam ily respons ibil ities become an unwelcome intrusion. Also, an overly h igh level of engagemenl can lead to a loss of perspective and, ullimately, burnout Further research exploring how engagement relates to these negative outcomes may help clarify whether some highly engaged employees m ight be gelling "too much of a good th ing.•
Putting It All Together While it's always dangerous to synthesize a large number of comp lex ideas into a few s imple guidelines, the follow ing suggestions summarize the essence of what we know about molivaling employees in organ iza tions:
• Recognize individual differences. Employees have d ifferent needs and should nol be lreated alike. Managers should spend the lime necessary lo understand what is important to each employee and then align goals, level of involve- ment, and rewards with ind ividual needs.
• Use goals and feedback. Employees shou ld have challenging, specific goals, as well as feedback on how well they are doing in pursuit of those goals.
• Allow employees co participate in decisions chat affect chem. Employees shou ld contribute lo a number of decisions lhal affect them: selling work goals, choosing their own benefi ts packages, so lving productivity and qua lity prob- lems, and the like. Doing so can increase employee productivity, comm itment to work goals, molivalion, and job salisfaction.
• When giving rewards, be sure that they reward desired performance. Rewards should be Jinked to the type of performance expected. It's important that employees perceive a clear linkage. How closely rewards are actually correlated to perfor- mance criteria is Jess important than the perception of th is relationship. If indi- viduals perceive this relalionsh ip to be low, the results will be low performance, a decrease in job satisfaction, and an increase in turnover and absenteeism.
• Check the system for equity. Employees should be able to perceive rewards as equaling with the inputs they bring lo the job. Al a s implislic level, this means that experience, skills, abil ities, effort, and other obvious inputs should exp lain differences in performance and, hence, pay, job assignments, and olher obvious rewards.
(0) ~~.~!:~"'l::~:~~T!:~ wm d~eloped io <he Uoi<ed ""~ "'d ~ Canada. 108 Goal-selling and expectancy theories emphas ize goal accom- plishment as well as rational and individual thought- characterislics consisten t wi th Canadian and American cu lture. Let's look at several molivalion theories and consider their cross-cu ltural lransferabil ity.
Needs Theories Maslow's needs lheory says peop le start at the physiological level and progress up lhe hierarchy to safety, social (belonging), self-esteem, and self-actual ization needs. This h ierarchy, if it app lies al all, aligns with Canadian and US cu lture. In Japan, Greece, and Mexico, where uncertainty -avoidance characterislics are strong, security needs would be on lop of the h ierarchy. Countries that score high on nurturing characteristics- De nmark, Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, and Fin land- would have social needs on top. !09 Group work will motivate employees more when lhe country's culture scores high on the nurturing criterion.
Chapter 4 Theories of Motivation 153
The view that a high achievement need acts as an internal motivator presupposes two cu ltural characteristics- will ingness to accept a moderate degree of risk (wh ich excludes countries with strong uncertainty-avo idance characteristics) and concern with performance (wh ich applies lo countries with strong achievement characteristics). This combination is found in Anglo-American countries such as the United Stales, Canada, and Great Brita in 110 and much less so in Chile and Portugal.
Goal-Setting Theory Setting specific, difficult, individual goals may have d ifferent effects in different cul- tures. Most goal-setting research has been done in the United Stales and Canada, where individual ach ievement and performance are most h igh ly valued. To da te, research has not shown that group-based goals are more effective in collectivis tic than in individu- al istic cultures. There is evidence that in collectivistic and h igh power-distance cu ltures, achievable moderate goals can be more highly motivating than difficult ones. 111 Finally, ass igned goa ls appear to generate greater goal commitment in high rather than low power-distance cultures. 112 Much more research is needed lo assess how goal constructs m ight d iffer across cultures.
Equity Theory and Fairness Equi ty theory has gained a strong following in Canada and the United States because the reward systems assume that employees are highly sensitive to equity in reward allo- cations and equity is meant to closely tie pay to performance.
Meta-ana lytic evidence shows individuals in both individualistic and collectivistic cultures prefer an equitable distribution of rewards over an equal division ( everyone gets paid the same regard less of performance). 113 Across nations, the same basic principles of procedural justice are respected, and workers around the world prefer rewards based on performance and skills over rewards based on seniority. 114 However, in collectivistic cu ltures employees expect rewards lo reflect their individual needs as well as their per- formance.115 Other research suggests that inputs and outcomes are valued d ifferently in various cu ltures. 116 Some cu ltures emphasize status over ind ividual ach ievement as a basis for allocating resources. Materialistic cultures are more likely to see cash compen- sation and rewards as the most relevant ou tcomes of work, whereas relational cultures will see social rewards and s tatus as important outcomes. International managers must consider the cultural preferences of each group of employees when determining what is "fair• in d ifferent contexts.
Justice Across nations, the same basic principles of procedural justice are respected in that employees around the world prefer rewards based on performance and skills over rewards based on seniority. 117 However, inpu ts and outcomes are valued differently in various cu ltures. us
We may think of justice differences in terms of Hofstede's cultura l dimensions (see Chap ter 3). One large-sca le study of over 190 000 employees in 32 countries and regions suggested that justice perceptions are most important to people in coun- tries with individualistic, feminine, uncertainty avoidance, and low power-distance val ues.119 Organ izations can tailor programs to meet these justice expectations. For example, in countries that are highest in indiv idualism, such as Aus tralia and the United States, competi tive pay plans and rewards for superior ind ividual performance will enhance fee lings of justice. In countries dominated by uncertainty avoidance, such as France, fixed pay compensation and emp loyee participation may help employees fee l more secure. The dominant dimension in Sweden is femin inity, so relational con- cerns are considered important. Swed ish organizations may therefore want lo provide
154 Part 2 Striving for Performance
LESSONS LEARNED
• Recognize individual differences.
• Coals and feedback help motivate individuals.
• Rewards signal what is important to the en1ployer (or leader).
work-l ife balance initiatives and social recognition. Austria, in contrast, strongly values low power-distance. Ethical concerns may be foremost lo individuals in perceiving justice in Austrian organizations, so it will be important for organizations to justify inequality between leaders and workers and provide symbo ls of ethical leadership.
Intri nsic and Extri nsic Motivation A recent st udy found interes ting d ifferences in managers' perceptions of employee mo tivation. 120 The study examined managers from three distinct cultural regions: North America, Asia, and Latin America. The results of the study revealed that North Ameri- can managers perceive their employees as being motivated more by extrinsic factors (for example, pay) than intrinsic factors (for example, doing meaningful work). Asian managers perceive their employees as being motivated by both extr insic and intrinsic factors, while Latin American managers perceive their employees as being motivated by intrinsic fac tors.
Even more interesting, these differences affected evaluations of employee perfor- mance. As expected, Asian managers focused on both types of motivation when evaluat- ing their employees' performance, and Latin American managers focused on intrinsic motivation. Oddly, North American managers, though bel ieving that employees are motivated primari ly by extrinsic factors, actually focused more on intrinsic factors when evaluating employee performance. Why the paradox? One explanation is that North Americans val ue uniqueness, so any deviation from the norm- such as being perceived as being unusually high in intrinsic motivation- is rewarded.
Lalin American managers' focus on intrinsic motivation when evaluating employees may be related to a cultural norm termed simpat(a, a tradition that compels employees Lo d isplay their internal feelings. Consequently, Latin American managers are more sensitized lo t hese d isplays and can more easily notice their employees' intrins ic motivation.
Cross-Cultural Consistencies Don't assume that there are no cross-cultural consistencies. The desire for interesting work seems important to a lmost all employees, regardless of their national cu lt ure. In a study of seven countries, employees in Belgium, Britain, Israel, and the Un ited States ranked work number one among 11 work goa ls, and employees in Japan, the Netherlands, and Germany ranked il either second or th ird. 121 In a study comparing job-preference outcomes among graduate s tudents in the United States, Canada, Aus- tra lia, and Singapore, growth, achievement, and responsib ility had identical rankings as the top three. 122 Meta-analytic evidence shows that individuals in both individual istic and collectivistic cultures prefer an equitable distribution of rewards (the most effec- tive emp loyees get pa id the most) over an equa l division ( everyone gets paid the same regardless of performance). 123 Across nations, the same basic principles of procedural justice are respected, and employees around the world prefer rewards based on perfor- mance and skills over rewards based on seniority. 124
Summary The motivation theories in this chapter differ in their predictive strength. Maslow's h ierarchy of needs, Herzberg's two-factor theory, and McClelland's theory of needs focus on needs. None of these theories has found widespread support, although support for McClelland's is the strongest, particularly regard ing the relationsh ip between ach ieve- ment and productivity. Expectancy theory can be helpful, but it assumes that employ- ees have few constraints on decision maki ng, such as b ias or incomplete information,
Chapter 4 Theories of Motivation 155
which lim its its ap pl icability. Goal-selling theory can be helpful but does not cover absenteeism, turnover, or job satisfaction. Reinforcement theory can be helpful, b ut not regarding employee satisfaction or the decision to qu it. Equity theory's strongest legacy is that it provided the spark for research on organizational justice, which has more sup- port in the li terature. Self-determination theory and cognitive eval uation theory have meri ts to consider.
SNAPSHOT SUMMARY
What Is Motivation?
Needs Theories of Motivation • Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
TheCJIY
• Two-Factor TheCJIY • McClelland's TheCJIY
of Needs
• Summarizing Needs Theories
Mylab Management
Process Theories of • Fair Process and Treatment Motivation • Self-Determination Theory • Expectancy Theory • Increasing Intrinsic • Goal-Setting Theory Motivation
• Self-Efficacy Theory • Reinforcement Theory Motivation for Whom?
• Job Engagement Responses to the • Putting It All Together Reward System • Equity Theory
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-"' a:I C)
.,. for Review
1 . What are the three key elements of motivation?
2. What are some early theories of motivation? How applicable are
they today?
3. What are the key tenets of expectancy theory?
4. What are the key principles of goal-setting theory, self-efficacy theory, and reinforcement theory?
5. Why do equity and fairness mat- ter in the workplace?
6. How is organizational justice a refinement of equity theory?
7. How do the predictions of self- determination theory apply to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards?
8. What are some of the ethical issues with motivation theories?
9. What is the essence of what we know about motivating employees?
for Managers
• Consider goal-setting theory: Clear and difficult goals often lead to higher levels of employee productivity.
• Consider how reinforcement theory applies to the quality and quantity of work, persistence of effort, absenteeism, tardiness, and accident rates.
• Consult equity theory to help you understand productivity, satis- faction, absence, and turnover variables.
• Expectancy theory offers a pow- erful explanation of performance variables such as employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover.
• Make sure extrinsic rewards for employees are not viewed as coercive, but instead provide information about competence and relatedness.
for You
• Don't think of motivation as something that should be done for you. Think about motivating others and yourself as well. How can you motivate yoursett? After finishing a particularly long and dry chapter in a text, you could take a snack break. Or you m ight buy yourself a new album once that major accounting assignment is finished.
• Be aware of the kinds of things that motivate you, so you can choose jobs and activities that
suit you best.
• When working in a group, keep in m ind that you and the other members can think of ways to make sure everyone feels moti- vated throughout the project.
Chapter 4 Theories of Motivation 157
GOALS GET YOU TO WHERE YOU WANT TO BE
POI NT Of course this is a true statement. 125 Goal-setting theory
is one of the best -supported theories in all the motivation
literature. Study after study has consistently shown the
benefits of goals. Want to excel on a test, lose a certain
amount of weight, obtain a job w ith a particular income
level, or improve your golf game? If you want to be a
high performer, merely set a specific, difficult goal and
let nature take its course. That goal will dominate your
attention, cause you to focus, and make you try harder.
All too often, people are told by others to simply "do
their best.• Could anything be more vague? What does
"do your best" actually mean? Maybe you feel that your
"best• on one day is to muster a grade of 50 percent on
an exam, while your "best" on another day is an 80. But
if you were given a more difficult goal-say, to score a 95
on the exam-and you were committed to that goal, you
would ultimately perform better. Edwin Locke and Gary Latham, the researchers best
known for goal-setting theory, put it best when they said: "The effects of goal setting are very reliable." In short,
goal-setting theory is among the most valid and practical
theories of motivation in organizational psychology.
COUNTERPOINT Sure, a lot of research has shown the benefits of goal
setting, but those studies ignore the harm that is often
done by it. For one, how often have you set a •stretch"
goal, only to see yourself fail later? Goals create anxi-
ety and worry about reaching them, and they often cre-
ate unrealistic expectations as well. Imagine those who
had set a goal to earn a promotion in a certain period
of time (a specific, difficult goal), only to find themselves
laid off once the recession hit. Or how about those who
envisioned a retirement of leisure yet had to take on a
part-time job or delay retirement altogether in order to
continue to make ends meet. When too many things are
out of our control, our difficult goals become impossible.
Consider this: Goals can lead to unethical behav-
iour and poorer performance. How many reports have
you heard over the years about teachers who "fudged"
students' test scores in order to achieve educational
standards? Another example: When Ken O'Brien, as
a professional quarterback for the New York Jets, was
penalized for every interception he threw, he achieved
his goal of fewer interceptions quite easily-by refusing
to throw the ball even when he should have.
In addition to this anecdotal evidence, research has directly linked goal setting to cheating. We should heed
the warning of Professor Maurice E. Schweitzer- "Goal-
setting is like a powerful medication" - before blindly
accepting that specific, difficult goal.
158 Part 2 Striving for Performance
BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES
Form small groups to discuss the following topics, as assigned by your instructor:
1. One o f the m embers of your team continually arrives late for meetings and does not turn drafts o f assignm ents in on time. Choose one of the available theories and indicate how the theory explains the m em ber's current behaviour and how the theory could be used to mo tivate the group member to perform m ore responsibly.
2. You are unhappy with the performance of one of your instructors and w ould like to encourage the instructor to present more lively classes. Choose one of the available theories and indicate how the theory explains the instructor's current behaviour. How could you as a student use the theory to motivate the instructor to present more lively classes?
3. Harvard University recently changed its grading policy to recom mend to instructors that the average course mark should be a 8 . This was the result of a study showing that more than 50 percent of students were receiving an A or A- for coursework. Harvard students are often referred to as "the best and the brightest,• and they pay over US$36 000 per academic year for their education, so they expect high grades. Discuss the impact of this change in policy on the motivation of Harvard students to stud y harder.
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
Organizational] ustice Task Purpose
This exercise will highlight the four p rimary sources of organizational justice and help you understand what managers
can do to ensure fairness in the workplace.
Time
Approximately 20 to 30 m inutes.
Instructions Break into groups of 3 or 4.
1. Each person should recall an instance in w hich he or she was (a) treated especially fairly and (bl treated especially unfairly. Work-related instances are preferable, but nonwork exam ples are fine too. What do the stories have in common?
2. Spend several minutes discussing whether the instance was more distributive, procedural, informational, or interpersonal in nature. What was the source of the fair/ unfair treatm ent? How did you feel, and how did you respond?
3. Each group should develop a set of recommendations for handling the unfair situations in a fairer manner. Select a leader for your group who will briefly summarize the unfair instances, along with the group's recom mendations for handling them better. The discussion should reflect the four types of justice discussed in this chapter (distribu- tive, procedural, informational, and interpersonal).
ETHICAL DILEMMA
The New GPA In college and university classrooms, is an A the new
8 ?126 Grade inflation is of particular concern in graduate
program s, where it is not uncommon for 75 percent of
grades to be As. In fact, the most frequent grade given
in US universities is an A, by 43 percent. This percent-
age has risen from 30 percent 20 years ago, representing
a significant increase. At Harvard, the average grade is
an A- . While this may sound great to students, there is
a powerful downside to grade inflation. If an A- is the new class average, the crowding of grades at the top
end of the scale can sap students' motivation to work
hard. Organizations also find it harder to evaluate candi· dates' transcripts if grades are inflated. This means they
must rely more on results of standardized tests, which
were often taken in high school and may not reflect a stu-
dent's current or best capabilities. Professors, too, may
be less motivated to accurately assess and teach stu-
dents through strong grading feedback that would help
students learn.
There is no easy solution to the phenomenon of grade
inflation. In a culture where •everyone does it," schools
that take a stand against grade inflation produce students
with potentially lower grades- but no less education -
than their peers. These students may not be able to stand
out in the increasingly competitive job market even when
they are equally prepared. Over time, their schools will not
be able to boast of the accomplishments of their gradu -
ates in terms of grades and employment placements.
No longer will these schools look as attractive to poten-
tial students, so enrolment and thus revenue will suffer,
Chapter 4 Theories of Motivation 159
endangering the institution's ability to teach. Therefore,
eliminating grade inflation poses powerful disincentives,
and few (if any) post -secondary schools have successfully
tried it. There is much more motivation for organizations,
schools, professors, and students to continue grade infla-
tion practices, even though they may be wrong.
Quest.ions
1. How might forcing equitable grade distributions with C as average motivate students?
2. If around 75 percent of grades in graduate pro- grams are As, have grades become meaningless as motivators?
3. Provinc ial funding of many post-secondary schools has decreased dramatically over the years, increas- ing the pressure on administrators to generate revenue through tuition increases, recruiting more international students, and other means. How might this pressure create ethical tensions among the competing needs of generating revenue, retaining students, and providing accurate grading?
CASE INCIDENTS
Equity and Executive Pay Few topics in the business press grab headlines and
ignite the public like the compensation packages received
by top management, which continue to rise.12 7 CEOs in
Canada's 100 largest companies earned a median com-
pensation of $5.6 million in 2013, a level of compensation
just under that received before the economic downturn.
How do compensation committees set executive
compensation? In many cases, it comes down to equity
theory and depends on the referent others to which the
CEO is compared. To determine a "fair" level of pay for
a given CEO, members of a compensation board find
out how much CEOs with similar levels of experience in
similar firms (similar inputs) are being paid and attempt to
adjust compensation (outcomes) to be similar. So, CEOs
in large tech firms are paid similarly to CEOs in other large
tech firms, CEOs in small marketing companies are paid
similarly to CEOs in other small marketing companies,
and so forth. Proponents of this practice consider it to be
"fair" because it achieves equity.
However, critics of high CEO pay want to change the
perspective by comparing the CEO's pay to the pay of
the average employee. For example, Canada's 100 high-
est paid CEOs are paid 171 times more than the average
employee. From this perspective, CEO pay is grossly
inequitable and thus "unfair.•
In response, many CEOs, such as Mark Zuckerberg
of Facebook and Larry Page of Google, have taken $1
annual salaries, though they still earn substantial com-
pensation by exercising their stock options. In addition,
shareholders of some companies, such as Verizon, are
playing a greater role in setting CEO compensation by
reducing awards when the company underperforms.
Questions
1. How does the executive compensation issue relate to equity theory? How should we determine what is a "fair" level of pay for top executives?
2. Individuals generally think performance should be essential or very important in deciding pay. What might be the positive motivational consequences for average employees if CEO pay is tied to performance?
160 Part 2 Striving for Performance
Wage Reduction Proposal The following proposal was made to employees of Montreal -
based Quebecor's Videotron cable division: 12s
The employees, members of Canadian Union of Public
Employees (CUPE) Local 2815, were reluctant to agree to
these conditions. If they accepted, 300 to 400 employees
were likely to be laid off, and the company could still con -
sider outsourcing the work later.
Em ployees are asked to increase the number of
hours worked per week to 40 from 35, while receiv-
ing the same pay as working the shorter workweek.
In addition, they are asked to accept less paid holi-
day time. Quest.ions
Quebecor spokesman Luc Lavoie justified the request
made to the employees by saying, "They have the richest
work contract in the country, including eight weeks of
holiday and high absenteeism ."
1. Analy2e this proposal in terms of motivation concepts.
2. As an employee, how would you respond if you received this proposal?
3. If you were the executive vice-president of the com- pany, and a number of your non-unionized employ- ees asked you for a holiday cash gift, would you have responded differently? Why or why not?
The company made it clear that if this proposal were
not accepted, it would sell its cable television and Internet
installation and repair operations to Entourage Technology
Solutions.
Setting Goals You can be more effective at set - ting goals if you use the following
eight suggestions: 129
1. Identify your key tasks. Goal setting begins by defining what it is that you want to accomplish.
2. Establish specific and challenging goals for each key task. Identify the level of performance expected. Specify the target toward which you w ill work.
3. Specify the deadlines for each goal. Putting deadlines on each goal reduces ambiguity. Deadlines , however, should not be set arbitrarily. Rather, they need to be realistic, given the tasks to be completed.
4. Allow the employee to participate actively. When employees par- tic ipate in goal setting, they are more likely to accept the goals. However, it must be sincere participation. That is, employees must perceive that you are truly seeking their input, not just going through the motions.
5. Prioritize goals. When you have more than one goal, it's important for you to rank the goals in order of importance. The purpose of prioritiz- ing is to encourage you to take action and expend effort on each goal in proportion to its importance.
6. Rate goals for difficulty and importance. Goal setting should not encourage people to choose easy goals. Instead, goals should be rated for their difficulty and importance. When goals are rated, indi- viduals can be given credit for trying difficult goals, even if they don't fully achieve them.
7. Build in feedback mechanisms to assess goal progress. Feedback lets you know whether your level of effort is sufficient to attain the goal. Feedback should be frequent and recurring.
8. Unk rewards to goal attainment. Linking rewards to the achievement of goals will help motivate you.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
You worked your way through college while holding down a part-time job
bagging groceries at the Food Town supermarket chain. You liked working
in the food industry, and when you graduated, you accepted a position
with Food Town as a management trainee. Three years have passed, and
you have gained experience in the grocery store industry and in operating
a large supermarket. About a year ago, you received a promotion to store
manager at one of the chain's locations. One of the things you have liked
about Food Town is that it gives store managers a great deal of autonomy
in running their stores. The company provides very general guidelines to
its managers. Top management is concerned with the bottom line; for the
most part, how you get there is up to you. Now that you are finally a store
manager, you want to establish an MBO-type program in your store. You
like the idea that everyone should have clear goals to work toward and
then be evaluated against those goals.
Your store employs 70 people, although except for the managers, most
work only 20 to 30 hours per week. You have 6 people reporting to you:
an assistant manager; a weekend manager; and grocery, produce, meat,
and bakery managers. The only highly skilled jobs belong to the butchers,
who have strict training and regulatory guidelines. Other less-skilled jobs
include cashier, shelf stocker, maintenance worker, and grocery bagger.
Specifically describe how you would go about setting goals in your
new position. Include examples of goals for the jobs of butcher, cashier,
and bakery manager.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1. Set personal and academic goals you want to achieve by the end of this term. Prioritize and rate them for difficulty.
2. Where do you want to be in five years? Do you have specific five-year goals? Establish three goals you want to achieve in five years. Make sure these goals are specific, challenging, and measurable.
Chapter 4 Theories of Motivation 161
• ••••••••••••••••••••
Practising Skills
• ••••••••••••••••••••
Reinforcing Skills
162
Motivation in Action
How can a global travel company
keep its workforce motivated? It starts w ith
freedom, happiness, and community.
O Demonstrate how the different types of variable-pay programs can increase employee motivation. f) Show how flexible benefits can be used to motivate. 9 Identify the motivational benefits of intrinsic rewards. C, Describe the job characteristics model and the way it motivates. 9 Compare the main ways jobs can be redesigned. 0 Explain how specific alternative work arrangements can motivate employees. f) Describe how employee involvement programs can motivate employees. e Describe how knowledge of what motivates people can be used to make organizations more motivating.
oronto-based G Adven- tures' founder and CEO Bruce Poon Tip has spent nearly 30 years
chan
are the
building an international Jenn~er Roberts/Contour/Getty mages adventure tourism com-
' ar e
, ey can t wor \ d
ho dO.
pany where employees would be happy and motivated, and strive to do a good job every day.1 The company was named a platinum winner in 2017 for being one of Canada's Best Managed Companies. To earn platinum, com-
panies must have been named to the list for at least eight years in a row. G Adventures' 2017 award was in part due to a program it developed on a small island in Belize over the previous few years. However, local authorities complained that students there had dropped out of
school and taken jobs in the tourism industry, most often to lead bicycle tours for G Adventures. Critics in Belize scolded Poon Tip: "As your company grows, fewer and fewer kids are going to
school. " This was not Poon Tip's intent at all. This problem also conflicted with the company's desire to be a "great social enterprise." Poon Tip promised the students a job and the loan
of a bike to lead G Adventures tours if they stayed in school. It took some time for the students to believe this promise, but the local school attendance rate has gone from 35 percent to 90 percent.
Poon np takes equally innovative approaches to motivation when he is dealing with employees at corporate headquarters. The company's core values are freedom,
happiness, and community, which are put into practice by seeking employees who share the company's desire to do good in the world while also assisting people with their adventure
travel visions. "Tourism could be the greatest form of wealth distribution that the world has ever seen," says Poon np. In this chapter, we focus on how to apply motivation concepts. We review a number of reward pro-
grams and consider whether rewards are overrated . We also discuss how to create more motivating jobs and worl<places, both of which have been shown to be alternatives to rewards in motivating individuals.
• Ever wonder why employees do some strange things?
\ I I
:'; ,': ,V, , '
TII E BIG ID EA • When might job redesign be most appropriate?
• Do employers really like flexible arrangements?
• Would you fi nd telecommuti ng motivati ng? • How do employees become more involved in the workplace?
Organizations can use piece- rate "vages, 1nerit- hased pay, bonuses, profiL sharing, and stock options
Lo moli\'ale employees. Ho"vever, making jobs rnore moli\'aling is more effective.
163
164 Part 2 Striving for Performance
From Theory to Practice: The Role of Money Money can be an exlremely powerful motivator. For most individuals, though, pay is not the only motivator. It is a central means of motivation, b u t what you are actually do ing for the money matters, too. A 2017 study found that 40 percent of Canad ian employees would take a pay cu t to work for an emp loyer who would give them more professional development opportunities. About a quarter said they wou ld take a 5 percent cut, and 17 percent said lhey wou ld take a pay cut of 10 percent or more.2 The process of moti- vating employees is complex, and people feel strongly about the implications of changes to their extrinsic or intrinsic benefi ts.
The mo tivation theories we have presented on ly give us vague ideas of how money relates lo individual molivation. For instance, Theory X suggests that individuals need to be exlrinsically motivated. Money is certa inly one such exlrinsic molivator. Accord- ing to Maslow's h ierarchy of needs, ind iv iduals' basic needs must be met, including food, shelter, and safety. Generally, money can be used to satisfy those needs. Herzberg's motivalion- hygiene theory, on the other hand, suggests tha t money ( and other extrinsic motivalors) are necessary bul not sufficienl conditions for individuals to be motivated. Process theories are relalively silent about lhe role of money specifically, indicaling more how rewards molivate, withoul specifying particular types of rewards. Expectancy theory does note that ind ividuals need to value lhe reward, or it will not be very mo ti- vational. In this chapter, we apply mo tivation concepts to practices.
Creating Effective Reward Systems G Adventures' headquarters is an office workplace that is fun,3 because fun is someth ing
founder Bruce Poon lip wants for his employees. The company provides foosball tables, a ping- pong table, and popcorn machines, among other perks. Meeting rooms are creatively decorated.
On Friday afternoons there is beer, wine, and cider. There is a 2000-square-foot rooftop patio
where employees can go to meet, relax, think, or work. All of these benefits are meant to help employees be creative in their work. Poon lip believes employees are much more prod uctive if
they are not feeling pressured all of the time.
One of the really nice perks of working at G Adventures is the opportunity to travel for free (or nearly so). After being employed there for a year, employees can choose annually one of
the tours offered by the company. The company will pay up to $3000 for trips up to 17 days,
and $750 for flights. All of these actions signal to employees that they are valued as important contributors to the company's success. What else can a company do to make sure its employees
feel valued'
As we saw in Chapter 3, pay is not a primary factor driving job satisfaction. However, il does moliva te peop le, and companies often undereslimate the importance of pay in keeping top talent One s tudy fou nd lhal although on ly 45 percent of employers thought that pay was a key factor in losing top talenl, 7 1 percent of top performers called it a top reason.4
Given that pay is so important, will the organization lead, match, or lag the market in pay1 How will ind ividual con tr ibutions be recogn ized? In this seclion, we consider (1) what to pay emp loyees (which is decided by establ ishing a pay structure) and (2) how to pay ind ividual employees (for example, through variable-pay programs) .
What to Pay: Establishing a Pay Structure There are many ways to pay employees. The process of initially selling pay levels entai ls balancing intenial equity- the worth of the job to the organization ( usua lly established through a technical process called job evaluation )- and external equity- the compelitive- ness of an organization's pay relative to pay in its industry ( usually established through
Chapter 5 Motivation in Action 1 65
pay suiveys). Obviously, the best pay system reflects what the job is worth in ternally wh ile also staying competitive relative to the labour market. The Ethical Di/em.ma on page 193 d iscusses competitive compensation for top-level executives.
Some organizations prefer to pay above the market, whi le some may lag the market because they cannot afford to pay market rates, or they are willing lo bear the costs of paying below market (namely, higher t urnover as people are lured to bener-paying jobs). Some companies that have rea lized impressive ga ins in income and profit mar- gins have done so in part by holding down employee wages, such as Wa lt Disney and McDonald's.5
Pay more, and you may gel beuer-q ual ified, more highly motiva ted employees who will stay with the organization longer. A study covering 126 large organizations found employees who believed that they were receiving a competitive pay level had higher morale and were more productive, and customers were more satisfied as well .6 But pay is often the highest s ingle operating cost for an organization, which means paying too much can make the organization's products or seivices too expensive. It's a strategic decision an organization must make, with clear trade-offs.
In the case ofWalmart, it appears that its strategic decision to keep wages low has not worked. Sales at Canadian s tores open for more than a year, an important barometer of reta il health known as same-store sales, fell 1.3 percent and customer traffic al those stores declined 1.8 percent in 2013 .7 In 2015, Walman Canada increased its base wage to $9/hour, and ra ised the base wage again to $ 10/hour in 2016.8•9 Sales growth over that period increased, a lthough no t as quickly as that of one ofWalmart's larger com- petitors, Costco. The average employee at Costco makes approximately two-and-a-half times what the average employee at Wal mart earns. Costco's strategy is that they will get more if they pay more- higher wages have resu lted in increased employee productivity and reduced turnover. Perhaps the recent Wal mart decis ion to increase employee wages will help bring it closer in line with Costco's growth.
How to Pay: Rewarding Individuals through Variable-Pay Programs "Why should I put any extra effort into th is job?" asks a frustrated grade 4 teacher. "I can excel or I can do the bare minimum. ll makes no d ifference. I get pa id the same. Why do anyth ing above the minimum to get by?" Similar comments have been vo iced by schoolteachers (and some other union ized emp loyees) for decades because pay increases are tied lo seniority. The effect of pay increases is d iscussed in Case Incident- Pay Raises Every Day on pages 194-195.
A number of organizations are moving away from paying peop le based solely on credentials or length of seivice. Piece-rate, merit-based, bo nuses, and employee stock ownership plans are all forms of a variable-pay program ( also known as pay for per- formance) that bases a portion of an emp loyee's pay on some ind ividual, group, and/ or organizational measure of performance. Earnings therefore fluctuate up and down with the measure of performance, ID as Jason Easton, director of Strategy and Business Transformation at Toronto -based GM Canada, explains: "In any given year the variable pay can actually be zero, below the ta rget, or above the target, depending on how the company has performed." 11 When GM Canada gave performance-based bonuses to its salaried employees, it generated discontent among union employees who had no such provision in their collective agreement. 12 The variab le portion may be all or part of the paycheque, and it may be pa id annually or upon allainment of benchmarks. It can also be either optional for the emp loyee or an accepted condition of employment. 13
Variable-pay plans have long been used to compensate salespeople and executives, but the scope of variable-pay jobs has broadened.
Unfortuna tely, not all employees see a strong connection between pay and perfor- mance. The resu lts of pay-for-performance plans are mixed; the context and receptivity of the individual lo the plans play a large role. For instance, a study by researchers al the
O Demonstrate how the different types of variable-pay programs can increase employee motivation.
variable-pay program A pay plan that bases a portico of an employee's pay on some individual and/0< organi- zatiooal measure of performance.
166 Part 2 Striving for Performance
pi ece-rate pay plan An in<ividual- based incentive plan in which employ- ees are paid a fixed sum for each unit of productioo completed.
Universi te du Quebec a Montreal ind icated that variable-pay plans increase job satisfac- tion only if employee effort is rewarded as well as performance. 14 On the other hand, one study of 415 companies in South Korea suggested that group-based pay-for-performance plans may have a slrong positive effect on organizational performance. 15 Finally, secrecy pays a role in the motivational success of variable-pay plans. Although in some govern- ment and not-for-profit agencies pay amounts are e ither specifically or generally made public, many organizations encourage or requ ire pay secrecy. 16 Is this good or bad? Unfortunately, it's bad: Pay secrecy has a detrimental effect on job performance. Even worse, it adversely affects h igh performers more than other employees. Il very likely increases employees' perception that pay is subjective, which can be demotivati ng. Wh ile individual pay amoun ts may not need to be broadcast to restore the balance, if general pay ca tegories are made public and emp loyees feel variable pay is linked objectively to their performance, the motivational effects of variable pay can be retained.17
The fluctua tion in variable pay is what makes these programs at uactive to manage- ment. It turns part of an organization's frxed labour costs into a variable cost, thus reducing expenses when performance declines. When the economy fallers, as in 2008, companies with variable pay are able to reduce their labour costs much faster than others. 18 When pay is tied lo performance, the employee's earnings reflect their conuibulions rather than become a form of entitlement. Low performers find, over lime, that their pay stagnates, while high performers enjoy pay increases commensurate with their contributions.
Let's examine the different types of variable-pay programs in more detail.
Individual-Based Incentives There are three major forms of individual-based variable-pay programs: p iece-rate wages, merit-based pay, and bonuses.
Piece-Rate Wages The piece-r a te pay plan has long been popular as a means for compensating production employees with a fixed sum for each unit of production completed, but il can be used in any organizational setting where the outputs are sim ilar enough to be evaluated by quantity. A pure piece-rate p lan provides no base sa lary and pays the employee only for what he or she produces.
Ballpark workers selling peanuts and soft drinks frequen tly are paid p iece-rate. If they sell 40 bags of peanu ts at $1 each for their earnings, their take is $40. The more peanuts they sell, the more they earn. Allernatively, piece-rate plans are sometimes d isuibuted lo sales teams, so a ballpark worker makes money on a portion of the total number of bags of peanu ts sold by the group during a game.
Piece-ra te plans are known to produce higher productivi ty and wages, so they can be attractive to organizations and motivating for employees. 19 In fact, one major Chinese university increased its piece-rate pay for articles by professors and real ized 50 percent increased research productivity.20 In the workplace, employees most likely to be moti- vated by piece-rate plans are managers and more tenured employees. Low-performing employees are generally not interested in p iece-rate pay for obvious reasons- they will nol get paid much '
The ch ief concern of both individual and learn piece-rate employees is financial risk. A recent experimen t in Germany found that 68 percent of risk-averse individuals prefer an individual p iece-rate system, and that lower performers prefer team piece-ra te pay. Why? The authors suggested risk-averse and high-performing indiv iduals would rather take their chances on pay based on what they can contro l (their own work) because they are concerned others will slack off in a team setling.21 Th is is a valid concern, as we will discuss in the next chapter. Organizations, on the other hand, should verify that their piece-rate plans are indeed motivating lo individuals. European research has suggested that when the pace of work is determined by unconlrollable outside factors such as customer requests, rather than internal factors such as co-workers, targets, and machines, a p iece-rate p lan is not motivating.22 Either way, managers must be mindful
Chapter 5 Motivation in Action 1 67
of the mo tivation for workers to decrease q uality in order to increase their speed of output. They should also be aware that by rewarding vol ume, piece-rate plans increase the probab ility of workplace injuries.23
Thus, while p iece-rate plans can be a powerful motiva tor in many organizational sellings, an obvious l imitatio n is that they are not feas ible for many jobs. An emer- gency room (ER) doctor and nurse can earn significant salaries regard less of their patients' outcomes. Would it be beuer to pay them only if their patients fully recover? It seems u nlikely that most would accept such a dea l, and it might ca use unanticipated consequences as well ( such as ERs turning away patients with terminal diseases or life- threatening injuries). So, although incentives are motivating and relevant for some jobs, it is unreal is tic to th ink they work un iversally.
Merit-Based Pay A mer it-based p ay plan pays for ind ividua l performance based on performance appraisal ratings. A main advantage is that h igh performers can get big- ger raises. If designed correctly, meri t-based pay plans let individuals perceive a strong relationsh ip between their performance and their rewards.24
Most large organizations have merit-based pay p lans, especially for salaried employ- ees. Merit pay is slowly taking hold in the public sector. For example, most Canad ian government employees are unionized, and the unions that represent them have usually demanded that pay ra ises be based solely on seniority.
A move away from merit pay is com ing from some organizations that don't fee l it separates high and low performers enough. "There's a very strong belief and there's evidence and academic research that shows that variable pay does create focus among employees,• said Ken Abosch, a compensation manager at h uman-resource consulting firm Aon Hewitt. But wh en the annua l review and ra ise are months away, the motiva- tio n of this reward for h igh performers dimin ish es. Even compan ies that have reta ined merit pay are reth inking the allocation. 25
Although you migh t think a person's average level of performance is the key factor in merit pay decisio ns, recent research ind icates that the projected level of fu ture perfor- mance also plays a role. One s tudy fo und that Natio nal Basketball A~sociation (NBA)
Chinese Internet firm Tencent Holdings rewards employees with attractive incentives that include cash
bonuses for lower-ranking employees. The young men shown here were among 5000 employees who received a special bonus tucked in red envelopes and personally handed out by Tencent's CEO and co-founder Pony Ma.
merit-based pay plan An individual-based incentive plan based on performance appraisal ratings.
168 Part 2 Striving for Performance
bonus An individual-based incen- tive plan !hat rewards employees !Of recent perfO£mance rather lhan historical performance.
players whose performance was on an upward trend were paid more than their average performance would have pred icted. Managers of all organizations may unknowingly be basing meri t pay decisions on how they expect employees will perform, which may resu lt in overly optimistic ( or pessimistic) pay decis ions.26
Desp ite their intu itive appea l, merit-based pay plans have several limitations. One is that they are typically based on an annua l performance appraisal and thus are only as va lid as the performance rati ngs, which are often subjective. This brings up issues of discrim ination. Research indicates that African American employees receive lower performance ratings than white employees, women's ratings are higher than men's, and there are demograph ic differences in the distribution of salary increases, even with all other factors equal.27 Another limitation is that the pay-raise pool of avai lab le funds fluctua tes based on economic or other conditions that have little to do with an ind i- vidual employee's performance. For instance, a colleague a t a top university who per- formed very well in teach ing and research was given a pay ra ise of $300. Why? Because the budget for pay raises was very small. Yet that amount is hardly pay for performance. Lastly, unions typically resist merit-based pay plans. Relatively few teachers are covered by merit pay for th is reason. Instead, sen iority-based pay, which gives all employees the same raises, predomina tes.
The concept and intention of merit pay- that employees are paid for performance- is sound. For employee motivation purposes, however, merit pay should be only one part of a performance recognition program.
Bonuses An annual b onus is a significant component of total compensation for many jobs.28 But bonus p lans increasingly include lower-ranking employees; many companies now routinely reward production emp loyees with bonuses in the thousands of dollars when profits improve. The incentive effects should be h igher because, rather than pay- ing for previous performance now rolled into base pay, bonuses reward only recent performance (merit pay is cumu lative, bu t the increases are generally much smaller than bonus amounts) . Moreover, when limes are bad, firms can cut bonuses to reduce compensation costs.
Bonuses are not free from organizational pol itics (which we discuss in Chapter 8), and they can sometimes result in employees e ngaging in negative behaviours to ensure they will receive bonuses. Focus on Ethics raises the possib ility that part of the US finan- cial cris is that began in September 2008 was due to the way bonuses were awarded to execu lives.
FOCUS ~~ HICS Huge Bon uses, Disastrous Results for t he United States
Did bonuses help fue l a financial me ltdown? During a two-week period in September 2008, the American economy almost looked to be in free fall. 29 The US government bought up the assets of mortgage insurers Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae. Global financial services firm Merrill Lynch, founded in 1914, agreed to be bought by Bank of America for very little money. Global financial services firm Lehman Brothers, founded in 1850, went into bankruptcy. Morgan Stanley was in merger d iscussions. Major American insurance corporation AIG received an $85-billion bailout from the US government. Independent investment banks Goldman Sachs, founded in 1869, and Morgan Stanley, founded in 1935, announced that they would become bank holding companies. Investment banks issue and sell securities and provide advice on mergers and acquisitions. By becoming bank holding companies, the two companies became subjected to greater regulation than they had been previously.
Chapter 5 Motivation in Action 1 69
There is no simple answer to why all of these corporations faced collapse or near col- lapse all at once, but the role that bonuses played in the financial meltdown has been raised. The trigger for the economic crisis was the collapse of many subprime mortgages during 2007 and 2008. In the preceding years, numerous Americans had been given mortgages for homes, even though they had no down payments and sometimes did not even have jobs. The loan payments were low at the beginning, but eventually many of those given subprime mortgages started to default on their loans.
Why would someone give out a loan to an individual who did not have a job or did not provide clear evidence of earnings? The banking industry rewarded mortgage brokers for making loans, giving out bonus payments based on the s ize of loans. The loans were then bundled together to make new financial instruments. These resulted in commissions and bonuses for those packaging the instruments. Several Wall Street CEOs who lost their jobs because of the fallout from subprime loans earned "tens of millions in bonuses during the heady days of 2005 and 2006." •.... . .... . .... . .... . .... . .... . .... . .... . ........•
The collapse of so many financial institutions at once suggests that rewarding indi- viduals based on financia l performance can cause problems.
This example also highlights the downside of bonuses: Emp loyees' pay is more vulnerable to cuts. This is problematic when bonuses are a large percentage of total pay or when emp loyees take bonuses for granted. "People have begun to live as if bonuses were not bo nuses at all but part of their expected annual income; said Jay Lorsch, a Harvard Business School professor.
The way bonuses and rewards are categorized also affects peop le's motivatio n. Although it is a b it manipulative, splitting rewards and bonuses into categories- even if the categories are meaningless- may increase motivation.30 Why? Because people are more likely to feel they missed out on a reward if they don't receive one from each category, and then work harder to earn rewards from more categories.
Organizationa l-Base d Incentives There are two major forms of organizationa l-based pay-for-performance programs: profit-sharing and stock option plans, wh ich include employee s tock ownersh ip plans.
Profit-Sharing Plans A p r ofit-sharing p lan distributes compensation based on some established formula designed around a company's profitabil ity. Compensation can be d irect cash outlays or, particu larly for top managers, allocations of stock options. When you read about executives like Mark Zuckerberg, who accepts an absurdly modest $1 sa lary, remember t hat many executives are granted generous stock options. In fac t, Zuckerberg has made as much as $2 .3 b illion after cashing out some of his stock options.31 Although senior executives are most l ikely to be rewarded through profit-shar ing plans, emp loyees at any level can be recip ients. Burl ington, On tario-based O.C. Tanner Canada pays all of its emp loyees bonuses twice a year based on profits.
St udies genera lly support the idea that organizations with profit-sharing p lans have higher levels of profitabil ity than t hose without them. 32 These plans have a lso been l inked to h igher levels of employee commitment, especially in small organizations.33 Profit-sharing at t he organ izational level appears to have pos itive impacts on employee attitudes; employees report a greater feeling of psychological ownership.34 Recent research in Canada indicates that profit-sharing p lans motivate individuals to h igher job performance when they are used in combination with other pay-for-performance p lans.35 Obviously, profit-sharing does not work when there is no reported profit per se, such as in nonprofit organizations, or often in the pub lic sector. However, profit-sharing may make sense for many organizations, large or small .
profit-sharing plan An organization- wide incenti11e plan in which lhe employer shares profits wilh employees based on a predetermined formula.
170 Part 2 Striving for Performance
f) Show how flexible benefits can be used to motivate.
employee stock ownership plan {ESOP) Aoompany-established benefit plan in which employees acquire stock as part of their benefits.
Em ployee Stock Ownersh ip Plans An employee s tock o wnership p la n ( ESOP) is a company-established benefit plan in which employees acquire stock as part of their benefits. Research on ESOPs indicates they increase emp loyee satisfaction and innova- tion.36 ESOPs have the po ten tial lo increase job satisfaction only when employees psy- chologically experience ownership.37 Even so, ESOPs may not inspire lower absenteeism or greater motivation, 38 perhaps because the employee's actua l monetary benefit comes with cash ing in the stock at a later date. Thus, employees need to be kept regularly informed of the s tatus of the business and have the opportun ity to positively influence il in order to feel motivated toward higher personal performance.39
Canadian companies lag far behind the Uni ted Stales in the use of ESOPs because Canada's tax environment is Jess conducive lo such plans. Nevertheless, a s ignificant number of emp loyees at Winnipeg-based FWS Group of Companies, an integra ted design-bu ild construction services company founded 65 years ago, participate in the company's ESOP p lan. Brent Clegg, CEO ofFWS, explains the importance of this partici- pation: "We strongly believe that broad employee ownership through an ESOP encour- ages a high performance culture which leads to operational excellence and the creation of outstanding value for all of our stakeholders."40 Calgary-based West)et, Toronto-based I Love Rewards, Edmonton-based Cybenech Automation, and Winnipeg-based Great- West Life are other examp les of companies that have employee stock ownersh ip plans.
ESOPs for top management can reduce unethical behaviour. For instance, CEOs are less likely to manipulate firm earnings reports to make themselves look good in the short run when they have an ownersh ip share.41 Of course, not all companies wan t ESOPs, and they won't work in all situations, but they can be an important part of an organization's motivational strategy.
[[ • )] RESEARCH FINDINGS: Variab le- Pay Program s Do variable-pay programs work? Generally yes, but that does not mean everyo ne is equally motivated by them.42 Many organizations have more
than one variable-pay element in operation, such as an ESOP and bonuses, so manag- ers should evaluate the effectiveness of the overall plan in terms of the emp loyee moti- vation gained from each element separately and from all elements together. Managers shou ld monitor their employees' performance-reward expectancy, s ince a combina- tion of elements that makes emp loyees fee l that their greater performance w ill yield them greater rewards will be the most motivating.43
Flexible Benefits: Developing a Benefits Package Now that we have discussed what and how to pay employees, let's discuss two other motivati ng factors organizations must decide: (I) what benefits and choices lo offer (such as flexib le benefits), and (2) how to construct employee recognition programs. Like pay, benefits are both a provision and a motivator. Whereas organizations of yes- teryear issued a standard package to every employee, contemporary leaders understand that each employee values benefits d ifferently. A flexible program turns the benefits package into a motivational tool.
Alain Boudreau and Yasmin Murphy have very different needs in terms of employee benefits. Alain is married and has three young children and a wife who is at home full lime. His colleague Yasmin, too, is married, but her husband has a h igh-paying job with the federal government, and they have no children. Ala in is concerned about having a good dental plan and enough life insurance lo support his fami ly in case it's needed. In contrast, Yasmin's husband already has her dental needs covered on his plan, and life insurance is a low priority for both Yasmin and her husband. Yasmin is more interested in extra vacation lime and long-term financia l benefits such as a tax-deferred savings p lan.
Chapter 5 Motivation in Action 1 71
A standard ized benefits package for all employees at an organization would be unlikely to satisfactorily meet the needs of both Alain and Yasmin. The organ ization they work for could cover both sets of needs by offering flexible benefits.
Consis tent w ith expectancy theory's thesis that organizational rewards should be linked to each employee's personal goals, flexible benefits ind ividualize rewards by allowing each employee to choose the compensation package that best sa tisfies his or her current needs. Flexible benefits can be uniquely tai lored to accommodate differences in employee needs based on age, marital s tatus, partner's benefit status, and number and age of dependants.
Benefits in general can be a motivator for a person to go to work, and for a person to choose one organization over another. But are flexible benefits more motivating than trad itional p lans? It's difficult to tel l. Some organ izations that have moved to flexible plans report increased employee retention, job satisfaction, and productivity. However, flexible benefits may not substitute for h igher sa laries when it comes to motivation.44
Furthermore, as more organ izations worldwide adopt flexible benefits, the individ ual motivation they produce will likely decrease ( the plans will be seen as a stand ard work provision) . The downsid es of flexib le benefit p lans may be obvious: They may be more costly to ad m inistrate, and id entifying the motivational impact of different provisions is challenging. A recent survey of 211 Canadian organizations found that 60 percent offer flexible benefits, up from 41 percent in 2005.45 They are becoming the norm in other countries, too. Case lncide11t-,"1otivatio11 for Leisure on page 194 demonstrates the trad e-off between d ifferent benefits.
Intrinsic Rewards: Employee Recognition Programs We have d iscussed motivating employees thro ugh job des ign and by the extrinsic rewards of pay and benefits. On an organiza tional level, are those the on ly ways to motivate emp loyees? Not at a]J I We would be remiss if we overlooked intrinsic rewards organ izations can provide.
Laura makes only $11.60 per hour working at her fas t-food job, and the job is not very challenging or interesting. Yet Laura talks enthusiastically about the job, her boss, and the company th at employs her. "What I like is the fact that Guy [her supervisor] appreciates the effort I make. He compl iments me regularly in front of the other people on my sh ift, and I've been chosen Employee of the Month twice in the past six months. Did you see my p icture on that p laque on the wall?"
Organ izations are increasingly real izing what Laura knows: Recognition programs and other ways of increasing a n emp loyee's intri nsic motivation work. An employee recognition program is a p lan to encourage specific beh aviours by formally appreciat- ing specific employee contributions. Employee recognition programs range from a spontaneous and private •thank you• to widely p ublicized formal programs in which the procedures for attaining recogn ition are clearly identified.
A 2016 study by the Conference Board of Canada fo und that recogn ition programs are common in Canad ia n firms. 46 Recognition takes the form of both monetary and non-monetary rewards. The most prevalent recognition reward is for long service at an organization. Unfortunately, this is not a motivator for millennials, who on average work for five different employers in a 10 -year period. The survey also found that only a th ird of organ izations consider the different generations in the workplace when des igning recogn ition programs. IL found only 37 percent of organizations take today's mu ltigenerational workforce into accou nt when designing their rewards and recognition programs.
Brian Scudamore, CEO of Vancouver-based 1-800 -GOT-JUNK?, understands the importance of showing employees that they are apprecia ted. "I believe that the best way to engage someo ne is with heartfelt thanks. We have created a culture of peer rec- ognition, a nd ' thank yous' have become contagious. Whether it's a card, kudos at the
8 Identify the motivational benefits of intrinsic rewards.
flexible benefits A benefits plan that allows each employee to put together a benefi1s package indillidu- ally tailored lo his or her own needs and sijuation.
172 Part 2 Striving for Performance
hudd le, or basic one-on-one thanks, grati tude goes a Jong way toward bu ilding team engagement, loyalty and, of course, happiness."4 7 Scudamore says that actions like these keep the company growing, and employees having fun.
Some Canadian firms recognize individual or group achievements w ith cash or merchandise. For example, Toronto-based software developer RL Solutions developed a formal program for employees to recognize co-workers who go above and beyond in working with clients or in other aspects of their work. Those recogn ized by thei r co- workers receive cash and/or other rewards. Employees are also recognized with bonuses when they refer good job candidates to the company.48
Other ways of recognizi ng performance include send ing employees personal thank- you notes or emails for good performance, pulling employees on prestigious comm it- tees, send ing employees for training, and giving an employee an assistant for a day to help clear backlogs. Recognition and praise, however, need to be meaningful.49
RESEARCH FINDINGS: Ince ntives Research suggests financia l incentives may be more motivati ng in the short term, but in the Jong run nonfinancial incentives work best.50 Surpris ingly,
there is not a lol of research on the motivational outcomes or global usage of employee recogn ition programs. However, recent studies indicate that employee recogn ition programs are associated with self-esteem, self-efficacy, and job satisfaction, 51 and the broader outcomes from intrinsic motivation are well documented.
With or without financ ial rewards, recogni tion programs can be high ly motivating to employees. Desp ite the increased populari ty of such programs, though, critics argue they are h ighly susceptible lo political manipu lation by managemen t. When applied to jobs for which performance factors are relatively objective, such as sales, recogn ition programs are likely lo be perceived by employees as fair. In most jobs, however, perfor- mance criteria are not self-evident, which allows managers lo man ipulate the system and recognize their favourites. Abuse can underm ine the value of recognition programs and demoral ize emp loyees. Therefore, where forma l recognition programs are used, care must be taken to ensure fairness. Where they are nol, it is important to motivate employees by consistently recognizing their performance efforts.
Beware the Signals That Are Sent by Rewards Perhaps more often than we would like, organ izations engage in what has been called "the folly of rewarding A, \vh ile hoping for 8";52 in other words, managers may hope employees will engage in one type of behaviour, bul they reward another. Expectancy theory suggests that individuals will generally perform in ways that ra ise the probabil ity of receiving the rewards offered. Exhibit 5-1 provides exam- ples of common management reward foll ies. By signalling
Ever ,,·ondcr vvhy emplo~·ecs
do some strange things'?
wha t gets rewarded, organizations imp licitly determine whether employees engage in organizational citizenship behaviour
Research suggests that there are three major obstacles to ending these fo llies:53
1. Individuals are unable w breah out of old ways of thin/ring about reward and recognition practices. Management often emphasizes quantifiable behaviours to the exclusion of nonquantifiable behaviours, management is sometimes reluctant to change the existing performance system, and employees some- times have an entitlement mentality (they don't want change because they are comfortable with the current system for rewards) .
EXHIBIT 5-1 Management Reward Follies
We hope for ...
Teamwork and collaboration
Innovative thinking and risk-taking
Development of people skills
Employee involvement and empowerment
High achievement
Long-term growth; environmental responsibility
Commitment to total quality
Candour; surfacing bad news early
Chapter 5 Motivation in Action 1 73
But we reward ...
The best team members
Proven methods and not making mistakes
Technical achievements and accomplishments
Tight control over operations and resources
Another year's effort
Quarterly earnings
Shipping on schedule, even with defects
Reporting good news, whether it's true or not; agreeing with the manager, whether or not (s)he is right
Sourr:es: Constructed fro m S. Kerr, "On the Fo lly o f Rewarding A, While Hoping for B ," Aca<femy of Management Executive 9, no. 1 (1995),
pp. 7-14; and "More on the Folly," Aca<femy of Management Executive 9 , no. 1 (1995), pp. 15-16. Cop yright© Academy of Management, 1990.
2 . Organizations often don't Jooli at the big pict11re of their performance system. Consequently, rewards are allocated at subun it levels, with the result that un its
often compete agai nst each other.
3 . Both management and shareholders often foc11s on short-term res11/rs. Th ey don't reward employees for longer-range planning.
Organ izations would do well lo ensure that they do not send the wrong message when offering rewards. When organizations outline an organizational objective of "team performance," for examp le, b ut reward each employee accordi ng to individ ual
productivity, this does not send a message that teams are val ued. When a retai ler tells commissioned employees that they are responsib le for monitoring a nd replacing stock, those employees will nevertheless concentrate on making sales. Employees motivated by the prom ise of rewards will do those things that earn them the rewards they value.
OB in the Street offers additional evidence that what is rewarded guides people's focus of activity.
OB IN THE STREET ~ Rewarding Gym Attendance Wh ile Wanting Weight Loss •
Will offering incentives for goi ng to t he gym prevent fi rst-year university students from
gaining weight? University students are notorious for gaining several ki lograms in their first year, as they adjust to living away from home and being more responsible for food choices wh ile uy ing lo keep up with their stud ies.54 Researchers wondered if provid ing monetary incentives for students to go to the gym would help them keep off weight.
Students were assigned lo experimental or control groups. In the experimen tal group, s tudents were paid between $10 and $38.75 weekly if they met the goals researchers set for going to the fitness centre. Studen t activity was mon itored through ID cards used to check in and check out of the ce ntre.
The monetary incentives did make a difference in whether s tudents went to the fi tness centre weekly: 63 percent of those receiving incentives met the weekly goals on average, while only 13 percent of those in the control group did so. However, the
rate of quilting going to the fitness centre dropped off at about the same rate for both
(contin11ed)
17 4 Part 2 Striving for Performance
O Describe the job char· acteristics model and the way it motivates.
job design The way lhe elements in a job are organized.
job characteristics model (JCM) A model lhat proposes that any job can be described in terms of five core job dimensioos: skill vari- ely, !ask identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.
skill vari ety The degree to which the job requires a variety of different activities.
task identity The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work.
task significance The degree to which lhe job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of olher people.
autonomy The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion lo lhe individUal in scheduling lhe work and delermining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.
f eedback The degree to which car- rying out the work activities required by the job results in the individual oblaining direcl and clear informalioo about lhe effectiveness of his or her performance.
the contro l and incentive groups. Wh ile the control group ga ined a bit more weight than did the group receiving incentives for go ing to the fi tness centre, the d ifference was not sign ifican t.
The resu lts indicate that the monetary rewards did in fact increase the likel ihood that students wou ld meet their weekly goa ls for go ing to the fi tness centre. However, the students were not given rewards for maintain ing or losing weight over the same period. The researchers had assumed that a link existed between go ing to the fi tness centre and weight fluctuat ions. The students might have been more successful at m inding their weight had the researchers rewarded weight loss rather than going to lhe fi tness cen tre . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .
As we have seen from this discussion, understanding what motivates individuals is u ltimately key to organizational performance. Employees \vhose differences are recog- n ized, who feel valued, and who have the opportunity to work in jobs tailored to their s trengths and interests will be motivated to perform at the highest levels. Emp loyee participation also can increase emp loyee productivity, commitment to work goals, motivation, and job satisfaction. However, we cannot overlook the powerful role of organiza tional rewards in influencing motivation. Pay, benefits, and intrinsic rewards must be carefully and thoughtfully designed in order to enhance employee motivation toward positive organizational outcomes.
Motivating by Job Redesign The way work is structured has a bigger impact on an individual's motivation than m ight first appear. Job des ign suggests that the way elements in a job are organized can influence employee effort, and the job characteristics model, d iscussed next, can serve as a framework to identify opportunities for changes to those elements
The Job Characteristics Model Developed by OB researchers J. Richard Hackman from Harvard University and Greg Oldham from the Universi ty of Ill inois, the job character istics model (JCM) describes jobs in terms of five core job dimensions:55
• Skill varie ty . The degree to which the job requ ires a variety of different activi- ties so the employee can use specia lized skills and talents.
• Tas k identity . The degree to which the job requ ires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work.
• Tas k s ignificance. The degree to which the job has an impact on the lives or work of other people.
• Autonomy. The degree to which the job provides the emp loyee freedom, independence, and discretion in schedul ing work each day and determining the procedures for carrying it out.
• Feedba ck. The degree to which carrying ou t work activi ties generates d irect and clear information about the emp loyee's own performance.
Jobs can be rated as h igh or low on these dimensions. Examples of jobs with high and low ra tings appear in Exhibit 5 -2.
Exhibit 5-3 presents the job characteristics model (JCM). Note how the first three dimensions- skill variety, task identity, and task sign ificance- comb ine to create mean- ingful work the employee will view as important, valuab le, and worthwhi le. A recent study found that religious workers, social workers, counsellors, and medical profession- als rated their jobs as h igh ly meaningful, while those who held jobs as food service and
Cha p ter 5 Motiva tio n in Action 175
EXHIBIT 5-2 Examples of High and Low Job Characteristics
Skill Variety
High variety
Low variety
Task Ident ity
High identity
Low identity
Task Sig nificanc e
High significance
Low significance
Auto no my
High autonomy
Low autonomy
Feedback
High feedback
Low feedback
The owner-operator of a g arage who d oes electrical repair, reb uild s engines, does body work, and interacts with customers
A body shop w orker who sprays paint eight hours a d ay
A cabinet m aker w ho designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood, bu ilds the object, and finishes it to perfection
A worker in a furniture factory w ho operates a lathe solely to make tab le legs
A nurse w ho cares for the sick in a hospital intensive care unit
A custodian who sweeps hospital floors
A salesperson who schedules his or her own work each day, and decides on the sales approach for each custom er without supervision
A salesperson who is given a set of leads each d ay and is required to follow a standardized sales script w ith potential customers
A factory employee w ho assembles iPads and tests them to see whether they operate properly
A factory employee w ho assem bles iPad s and then routes them to a quality-control inspector for testing and adjustments
Source: Based on G. Johns, Organizational Behavior: Understanding and Managing Ufe at Work, 4 th ed. Copyright © 1997. Adapted by
permission of Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ.
EXHIBIT 5-3 The Job Characteristics Model
Core job dimensions
Skill variety Task identity Task significance
A utonomy
Feedback
t
]1--~)lr
Critical psychological states
Ex peri enced meani ngful ness of the work
Ex peri enced responsibi lity for outcomes of the work
Knowledge of t he actual results of the work activities
Em ployee growth- need strength
-
-
Personal and work outcomes
High i nternal work motivation
High-qual ity work performance
High satisfaction with the work
Low absenteeism a nd turnover
J
Source: J. R. Hackman, G. R. Oldham, Work Redesign (excerpted from pages 78-80). Copyright © 1980 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. ISBN: 978-0201027792.
176 Part 2 Striving for Performance
hosp itality workers rated them as being very low in meaningfulness. Fast-food cooks were at the bouom of the list of mean ingfulness. 56
Jobs w ith high a utonomy give employees a feel ing of personal responsib ility for results; feedback will show them how effectively they are performing. The JCM proposes that individuals obtain internal rewards when they learn (knowledge of results) tha t they personally have performed well ( experienced responsib ility) on a task they care about (experienced meaningfulness).57 The more these three psychological stales are present, the greater will be emp loyees' motivation, performance, and satisfaction, and the lower thei r absenteeism and likelihood of leaving. As Exhibit 5-3 indicates, indi- viduals with a high growth need are more likely lo experience the critical psychological s tates when their jobs are enriched- and respond to them more posi tively - than are their counterparts with a low growth need. Autonomy does not mean the same thing to every person, as Focus 011 Research shows.
FOCUS ~NESEARCH Autonomy and Productivity
• Can autonomy rea lly make a difference? Research published by professors Marylene Gagne and Devasheesh Shave of Concord ia's John Molson School of Business found that
every culture values autonomy, and that the perception of autonomy has a positive impact
on employees.58 "However, managers can' t simply export North American methods of granting autonomy anywhere and expect them to work. Even in Canada, approaches to
giving workers more autonomy need to be constantly rethought as the country becomes more multicultural," says Gagne.
The researchers found that how autonomy is applied makes a difference in how it is
perceived. In some cultures, too m uch freedom in the workplace can be viewed as man- agement disorganization. However, if em ployees feel they have some control over their
activities, they generally show more commitment and productivity, particularly when the
work is complex or demands creativity. • ... .. .... .. .... .. .... .. .... . ..... . ..... . .•
RESEARCH FI NDINGS: JC M Much evidence supports the JCM concept that the presence of these job characteristics gener-
ates h igher job satisfaction and organ izational commit- ment through increased motivation.59 In general, research concurs with the theory beh ind the JCM, although studies have introduced potential mod ifiers. One s tudy suggested that when employees were •other oriented" (concerned with the welfare of others al work) , the relatio nship between intri nsic job characteristics and job satisfaction
When might job redesign
be most appropriate'?
was weaker, 60 meaning that our job satisfaction comes less from these characteristics when we care about others. Another study proposed that the degree of psychologica l ownersh ip we fee l toward our work enhances our motivation, particularly if the fee l- ings of ownership are shared among a work group. 61 O ther research has explored the )CM in un ique settings such as in v irtual work s it uations, finding that if ind ividuals work together onl ine but not in person, their experience of meaningfulness, responsi- b ility, and knowledge of results can suffer. Thankfully, managers can mitigate these for employees by consciously developing personal relationsh ips with them and increasing their sense of task significance, autonomy, and feedback. 6 2
Chapter 5 Motivation in Action 1 77
Motivating Potential Score We can combine the core dimensions of the )CM into a s ingle predictive index, called the motivating potential score (MP S), wh ich is calculated as follows:
Motivating [ Skill + . Task + . Task ] Potential = vanety 1denuty s1gn1ficance x Autonomy x Feedback Score (MPS) 3
To be h igh on mo tivating potential, jobs must be h igh on at least one of the three factors that lead lo experienced meaningfulness and high on both autonomy and feedback. If jobs score h igh on motivating potential, the model predicts motiva tion, performance, and satisfaction will improve, while absence and turnover will be reduced. But we can better calcu late motivating potential by simply adding characteristics rather than using the form ula. Th ink about your job. Do you have the opportu nity to work on d ifferent tasks, or is your day routine? Are you able lo work independently, or do you constantly have a supervisor or co-worker looking over your shoulder? Your answers indicate your job's motivating potential.
The first part of the Experient.ial Exercise on page 192 provides an opportun ity for you to apply the )CM to a job of your cho ice. You will also calcula te the job's MPS. In the second part of the Experiential Exercise, you can redesign the job to show how you m ight increase its motivating potential. From Concepts w Shills on pages 195- 196 pro- vides specific guidelines on the kinds of changes that can help increase the motivating potential of jobs.
Job Redesign in the Canadian Context: The Role of Unions Labour unions have been largely resistant to participa ting in discussions with manage- ment over job redesign issues. Redesigns often resu lt in loss of jobs, and labour unions try lo prevent job loss.63 Union head offices, however, can sometimes be al odds with their membership over the acceptance of job redesign. Some members value the oppor- tunity for skill development and more interesting work.
Whi le managers may regard job redesign as more d ifficu lt under a collective agree- ment, the real ity is that for change lo be effective in the workplace, management mus t gain employees' acceptance of the plan whether or not they are un ionized.
How Can Jobs Be Redesigned? "Every day was the same thing,• Frank said. "Stand on that assembly line. Wail for an instrument panel lo be moved into p lace. Unlock the mechanism and drop the pa nel into the Jeep Liberty as il moved by on the line. Then I plugged in the harness- ing w ires. I repeated that for eight ho urs a day. I don't care tha t they were paying me $24 an ho ur. I was go ing crazy. Finally, I just said this isn' t going lo be the way I'm go ing to spend the rest of my life. My bra in was tu rning to JELL-0. So I quit. Now I work in a print shop and I make less than $ 15 an hour. But let me tell you, the work I do is really interesting. The job changes all the time, I'm conti nually learning new things, and the work really cha llenges me! I look forward every morning to going to work again."
The repetitive tasks in Frank's job at the Jeep plant provided liule variety, autonomy, or mo tivation. In con trast, his job in the print shop is cha llenging and stim ulating. From an organizational perspective, the failure of Frank's first employer to redesign his job into a more satisfying o ne led to increased turnover. Redesign ing jobs therefore has important practical impl ications- reduced turnover and increased job satisfaction among them. Let's look al some of the ways lo p ut )CM into practice to make jobs more motivating.
O Compare the main ways jobs can be redesigned.
motivating potential score {MPS) A predictive index suggesting the motivation potential in a job.
178 Part 2 Striving for Performance
job rotati on The periodic shifting of an employee from one !ask to another.
relational job design Constructing jobs so employees see lhe positive difference they can make in the lives of olhers directly lhrough their WOfk.
Job Rotation If employees suffer from overroutinization, one alternative is j ob rotation, or the periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another with s imi lar skill require- ments at the same organizational level (also called cross-training) . Manufacturers also use job rotation as needed to respond more flexibly to the vo lume of incom ing orders. New managers are sometimes rotated through jobs, too, to help them get a picture of the whole organiza tion.64 For these reasons, job ro tation can be applied in any selling where cross-training is feasible, from manufacturing floors to hospital wards. At Singapore Airlines, for instance, a ticket agent may temporarily take on the du ties of a baggage handler, both to be cross-trained and get exposure to different aspects of the organ iza tion. Extensive job rotation is among the reasons Singapore Airl ines is rated one of the best a irlines in the world.65 Al McDonald's, this approach is used as a way to make sure that the new employees learn all of the tasks associated with making, packaging, and serving hamburgers and other items.
International evidence from Italy, Britain, and Turkey shows that job rotation is associated with higher levels of organ izational performance in manufacturing set- tings.66 ll reduces boredom, increases motivatio n, and helps employees understand how their work contributes to the organization. It may also increase safety and reduce repetitive-based work injuries, but this is currently a top ic of much s tudy and debate, with mixed find ings.67
Job rotation does have drawbacks. First, training costs increase when each rotation necessitates a round of tra ining. Second, moving a worker into a new position reduces overall productivity for that role. Th ird, job rotation creates disruptions when members of the work group have to adjust to new employees. Finally, a manager may have to spend more time answering questions and monitoring the work of the recently rotated employee.
Relational Job Design Whi le redes ign ing jobs on the bas is of job characteristics theory is likely to make work more intrinsica lly motivating, research is focusing on how to make jobs more pro-socially motivating to people. In other words, how can managers design work so employees are motivated to promote the well-being of the organ ization's beneficiaries ( customers, cl ients, patients, and employees). Th is view of relational job design shifts the spotlight from the employee to those whose lives are affected by the job that the employee performs.68 ll also motivates individuals toward increased job performance.69
One way to make jobs more pro-socially mo tiva ting is to bener connect emp loy- ees with the beneficiaries of their work by relating stories from customers who have found the company's products or services to be helpful. Medical device manufacturer Medtronic invites people to describe how its products have improved, or even saved, their lives and shares these stories with employees during annua l meetings, providing the employees a powerfu l rem inder of the impact of their work. For another example, researchers found that when university fundraisers briefly in teracted with the undergrad- uates who would receive the scholarsh ip money they ra ised, they persisted 42 percent longer than and raised nearly tw ice as much money as fundraisers who did not interact with potential recipients.70 The positive impact was apparent even when fundraisers met w ith just a single scholarship recip ient.
Personal contact with beneficiaries may not always be necessary. One study found that radiologists who saw photographs of patienL~ whose scans they were exam ining made more accurate diagnoses of their medical prob lems. Why? Seeing the photos made it more personal, wh ich elicited feelings of empathy in the radiologists.71
Why do these connections have such positive co nsequences? Meeti ng beneficia- ries firs t-hand- or even just seeing pictures of them - allows employees to see that their actions affect a rea l person and that their jobs have tangible consequences. ll
Chapter 5 Motivation in Action 179
Research suggests that ha~ the organizations in Canada actively encourage employee volunteering. As a resutt, fully one-quarter of all the volunteer w ork in the country is done by employee volunteers. Here we see employees from Lowe's and Bank of Montreal working together to build social housing for people
living in p overty.
makes customers or cl ients more memorable and emotiona lly v ivid, which leads employees to consider lhe effects of the ir work actions more. Finally, connections allow employees to easily take the perspective of beneficiaries, which fos ters h igher levels of comm itment.
You might be wondering whether connecting emp loyees wilh the beneficiaries of their work is a lready covered by the idea of task s ignificance in lhe JCM. However, some d ifferences make beneficiary contact unique. For one, ma ny jobs might be perceived to be h igh in significance, yet employees in those jobs never meet the individuals affected by their work. Second, beneficiary contact seems to have a distinct relationsh ip with prosocial behaviou rs such as helping others. For example, one study fo und that life- guards who read stories abou t how their actions benefited swimmers were rated as more helpful by their bosses; this was nol the case for l ifeguards wh o read stories about the personal benefits of their work for themselves.7 2 The upshot7 There are many ways you can design jobs to be more motivating, and your choice should depend on the outcomes you would like to achieve.
Relational job design, \vilh its focus on prosocial motivation, is an especially salient top ic for organizations wilh corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives. As we d iscussed in earlier chapters, CSR efforts often include invitations for employees lo vol unteer their t ime and effort, someti mes using the skills lhey gained on the job (like Home Depot emp loyees when they help rebuild homes) b ut often nol (such as when bank employees help rebu ild homes wilh groups like Habitat for Humanity). In both cases, the employees may be able to interact wilh lhe beneficiaries of their efforts, and research indicates that corporate-sponsored vol unteer programs enhanced in the JCM d imensions of meaningfulness an d task significance motivate employees to volunteer.73
But wh ile this motivation for prosocial behaviour is noteworthy, it is not the same as relational job design: For one, the CSR efforts are through volunteering ( not on the job); and for another, lhe work lhey are provid ing is not usually the same work they do at their jobs (Home Depot workers do not bu ild h omes on lhe job). However, relatio nal job design holds intrigu ing possibil ities for CSR initiatives.
180 Part 2 Striving for Performance
e Explain how specific alternative work arrangements can motivate employees.
flextime Flexible wor1< hours.
Alternative Work Arrangements As you sure ly know, there are many approaches toward motivating people, and we have d iscussed some of them. Another approach lo mo tivation is to consider alternative work arrangements such as flexti me, job sharing, or tele- commuting. These are likely lo be especially important for a d iverse workforce of dua l-earner couples, s ingle parents, and employees caring for a s ick or aging relative.
Do employ·ers really like
flexible arrangement<;'?
Flextime Flextime is short for "flexible work time." Flextime employees must work a specific number of hours a week, but they may vary the hours of work within certa in limits. As shown in Exhibit 5-4, each day consists of a common core, usually six hours, with a flexibility band surrounding it The core may be 9 a.m. lo 3 p.m., with the office actu- ally opening at 6 a.m. and closing at 6 p.m. Employees must be al their jobs during the common core period, but they may accumu late their other two hours before and/ or after the core lime. Some flextime programs allow employees lo accumu late extra hours and turn them into days off.
EXHIBIT 5-4 Examples of Flext ime Sc hedules
Percent Time:
Core Hours:
Work Start Time:
Work End Time:
Percent Time:
Work Hours:
Work Start Time:
Work End Time:
Percent Time:
Work Hours:
Work Start Time:
Work End Time:
Percent Time:
Work Hours:
Work Start Time:
Work End Time:
Schedule 1
100% = 40 hours per week
9:00 a.m.-5:00 p.m., Monday through Friday (1 hour lunch)
Between 8:00 a.m. and 9:00 a.m.
Between 5:00 p.m. and 6:00 p.m.
Schedule 2
100% = 40 hours per week
8:00 a.m.-6:30 p.m., Monday through Thursday (1/ 2 hour lunch)
Friday off
8:00 a.m.
6:30 p.m .
Schedule3
90o/o = 36 hours per week
8:30 a.m.-5:00 p.m., Monday through Thursday (1/2 hour lunch)
8:00 a.m.- Noon Friday (no lunch)
8:30 a.m. (Monday-Thursday); 8:00 a.m. (Friday)
5:00 p.m. (Monday-Thursday); Noon (Friday)
Schedule 4
80% = 32 hours per week
8:00 a.m.-6:00 p.m., Monday through Wednesday (1/ 2 hour lunch)
8:00 a.m.- 11 :30 a.m. Thursday (no lunch)
Friday off
Between 8:00 a.m. and 9:00 a.m.
Between 5:00 p.m. and 6:00 p.m.
Chapter 5 Motivation in Action 18 1
Canadian employees do no t have much access to flextime, however. According to the results of a survey of 25 000 Canadians employed full time conducted by professor Li nda Duxbury of the Spro tt School of Business, Carleton University, only 15 percent of employees said they had access lo flextime schedules. Employees did report some flexibility in determining some of their work hours, however, with 69 percent indicat- ing high or moderate flexibility for work hours and Jocation.74 According lo a recent survey, a ma jority ( 60 percent) of US organ izations offer some form of flext ime.75 In Germany, 73 percent of businesses offer flextime, and such practices are becoming more widespread in Japan as well .76 In Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, and France, by law, employers are not allowed lo refuse an emp loyee's request for either a part-time or a flexible work schedu le as long as the request is reasonable, such as to care for an infant child. 77
Benefits of flext ime include reduced absenteeism, increased productivity, reduced overtime expenses, reduced hosti lity toward management, reduced traffic congestion, 78
elimination of tardiness, and increased autonomy and responsibility for employees- any of wh ich may increase employee job satisfaction.79 But what is flextime's actual record?
Most of the evidence stacks up in favour of flextime. Perhaps most important from the organization's perspective, flextime increases profitabi lity. Interestingly, though, this effect seems lo occur only when flextime is promoted as a work- life balance strategy (not when il is for the organization's gain) .80 Flextime also tends to reduce absenteeism and frequently improves employee productivity and satisfaction, 81 probably for several reasons. Employees can schedu le their work hours to a lign with personal demands, reducing tardiness and absences, and they can work when they are most productive. Flextime can also help employees balance work and family li fe.
A study by University of Toronto researchers found that flextime can lead to longer hours of work overa ll and more multi-tasking. These effects in t urn lead lo greater work- life conflict and s tress.82 So the management of flextime is an important issue for employees. Flextime's other ma jor drawback is that it's not applicable to every job or every employee. It works well for clerical tasks where an emp loyee's interaction w ith people outs ide t he department is limited. ll's not a v iable option for recep- tionists, salespeople in retail stores, or anyone whose service job requires being al a workstation al predetermined l imes. l l a lso appears that peop le who have a strong desire to separate their work and fam ily lives are Jess apl to want flextime, so it's no t a motivator for everyone.83 Those who ask for il are often stigmatized, which can be avo ided only if the majority of the organ ization's leaders adopt flexib le hours to signal that flextime is acceptable.84 Finally, research in the United Ki ngdom ind icated tha t employees in organizations with flext ime do not realize a reduction in their levels of stress, suggesting that this option may not truly improve work- life balance.85 Since flextime is intuitively a worthwhile business practice, these find ings suggest add itional research is needed to determ ine the motivational aspects of flext ime.
Job Sharing Job s haring allows two or more people lo spl it a full -lime job. One m ight perform the job from 8:00 a.m. lo noon, perhaps and the o ther from 1:00 p.m. lo 5:00 p.m., or the two cou ld work full but a lternate days. While it's popular in Europe, it's not a common arrangement in Canada. About 14 percen t of Canad ian employers offer th is arrangement.86 The reasons it's not more widely adopted are likely the difficulty of finding compatib le partners to share a job and the historically negative perceptions of individuals not completely committed lo their jobs and emp loyers.
However, eliminating job sharing for these reasons might be short-s ighted. Job shar- ing allows the organization to draw upon the talents of more than one ind ividual in a given job. It also opens up the opportunity to acqu ire skilled emp loyees- for instance, parents with you ng chi ldren, retirees, and others desiring flexibility- who m ight not be available on a full-time basis.87
job sharing The practice of having two or more people splij a 40-hour - a-week job.
182 Part 2 Striving for Performance
telecommuting Working from home at least n•ro days a week on a oomputer lhat is linked to the employer's office.
From the emp loyee's perspective, job sharing can increase motivation and satisfac- tion. An employer's decision to use job sharing is often based on econom ics. Two parl- lime employees sharing a job can be less expensive than one full -lime employee, but experts suggest this is not the case because training, coord ination, and adm inistrative costs can be high. In Canada, benefits do not have lo be paid for those working less than half, which may create an incentive for companies to increase job-sharing arrangements.
Ideally, emp loyers should consider each emp loyee and job separately, seeking to match the skills, personality, and needs of the employee with the tasks requ ired for the job, taking into account that individual's motivating factors.
Te lecommuting Telecommuting (someti mes called teleworking) m ight be close lo the ideal job for many peop le: no rush-hour traf- fic, flexib le hours, freedom to dress as you please, and few interruptions. Telecommuting refers to working at home- or anywhere else the employee chooses tha t is outside the workp lace- at least two days a week on a compu ter l inked to t he employer's office.88 {A closely related concept-
Woulol you find telecommuting
motivating'?
working from a virtual office- describes working outside the workplace on a relatively permanent basis.) A sales manager working from home is telecomm uting, but a sales manager working from her car on a business trip is not Despite the benefits of telecom- muting, large organizations such as Yahoo ! and Best Buy have eliminated it.89 Yahoo! CEO Marissa Mayer discussed how telecommuti ng may underm ine corporate cu lture, noting, •reople are more productive when they're alone, but they're more collaborative and innovative when they're together. •90
A recent BMO poll found that about 23 percent of Canadian companies offer telecom- mu ting, 91 wh ich was down from about 40 percent of Canad ian companies in 2008.92
What kinds of jobs lend themselves to telecommuting? Writers, attorneys, analysts, and employees who spend the majority of their lime on computers or the phone- telemarketers, customer-service representatives, reservation agents, and product-support special ists- are candidates for telecommuting. As telecommuters, they can access information on their computer screens at home as easi ly as on the company screen in any office.
Vancouver-based TELUS involves many of its employees in its Work Styles program. Employees are
encouraged to work from home or the office, whichever best fits the needs of getting work done. The program has led to increased morale and decreased turnover.
1\ 0 )'1 -+ CAREER OBJECTIVES ~ How Can I Get Flextime?
My job is great , bu t I can't u nd er- stand why ma nagement won't allow flext im e. After all, I often work on a lapt op in t h e office! I could j ust as easily be working on t he same lapt op at home withou t int errupt ions from my colleagues. I know I'd be more p rod uctive. How can I convince t hem to let me?
-Sophia
Dear Sophia:
We can 't help but wonder two things:
(1) is the ban on working from home a company policy, or your manager's
policy; and (2) do you want flextime,
o r telecommuting? If you work for Yahoo!, for instance, you may not be
able to convince anyone to let you work from home after CEO Marissa
Mayer's very public decree against
the policy. If the ban is your man- ager's policy- or even your d ivision's
policy- in an organization open to
alternative work arrangements, you just may be able to get your way.
That leads us to the second ques-
tion, about flextime vs. telecommuting. If you want flextime as you stated and
just want to work from home during
some non-core hours (say, work in the office for six hours a day and work
another two hours a day from home), your employer may be more likely to
grant your wish than if you want to
completely telecommute (work all your hours from home).
Research indicates that employ-
ees are most likely to be granted work-
from-home privileges as a result of a direct sympathetic relationship with their
managers (not as a result of a company
policy). Employees are also more likely to gain aoceptance for partial than for
full telecommuting (either flextime or by
alternating days). It helps if you have a legitimate need to be home and if you do
knowledge-based work. Jared Dalton, for instance, telecommutes two days a
week as a manager for accounting firm
Ernst & Young, and his wife Christina telecommutes on two different days, so
they can oversee the care of their infant.
If it sounds like flextime depends on favouritism , you might be right. It's
also, however, a reflection of the state
of telecommuting: Only 38 percent of US organizations permit some of
their employees to regularly work from
home. To be one of the lucky few: • Check your organization's flexible
options policies.
• Develop a plan tor working from home to show your manager. Include how
many hours/week, which days/week, and where you will work, and explain
how your manager can retain over-
sight of you.
• Assemble evidence on your productivity. Have you worked from
home before? If so, show how much you achieved. You stated you would
be more productive at home: How
much more?
]] RESEARCH FINDINGS: Telecommuting
Chapter 5 Motivation in Action 1 83
• Outline your reasons for work-
ing from home. Do you need to help care for an aging relative, for
instance? Would working from home save you commuting time you could
use for work?
• Address management's concerns. Research indicates the biggest ones
are the possibility of abuse of the sys-
tem and issues of fairness. • Consider your relationship with your
manager. Has he or she been sup- portive of you in the past? Is your
manager approachable?
When you're ready, discuss your request with your manager. Remem-
ber, pitching the idea of telecommuting
is the same as pitching any idea- you have got to think about what is in it for
your employer, not for yourself.
Sources: "The 2015 WO<kplace Flexibility Study," WOfkp/ace7i'ends.com, Februa,y 3, 2015, https://workplacetrends.com/the- 2015-workplace-llemility-study/ ; T. s. Bernard, "For Workers, Less Flexible Companies," New York Tunes, May 20, 2014, pp. 81, 87; and C . C. Miller and L. Alderman, "The Flexibility Gap," New York Times, December 14, 20 14, pp. 1, 5 .
The opinions provided here are of the man8(J· ers and authors only and do not necessariy reflect those of their Ofganizatlons. The authors Of managers are not responsible (Of any errors Of omissions, Of for the results obtained from the use of this information. In no event w/11 the authors Of managers, Of their related partner- ships or corporations thereof, be liable to you Of anyone else (Of any decision made or action taken In reliance on the opinions provided here.
Telecommu ting has several potentia l benefits. These incl ude a larger labour - pool from which lo select (some people can/will only work by telecommuting),
higher productivity, improved morale, and reduced office-space costs. A positive rela- tionsh ip exists between telecommuting and s upervisor performance ratings,93 but a relationship between telecommuting and potentially lo\ver turnover intentions has not been substantiated in research to date.94 Beyond the benefits to organiza tions and its
184 Part 2 Striving for Performance
employees, telecommu ting has potential benefits to society. One study estimated that if people in the United States telecomm uted half the ti me, carbon em issions would be reduced by approximately 51 metric tons per year. Environmental savings could come about from lower office energy consumption, fewer traffic jams that em it greenhouse gases, and a reduced need for road repa irs.95
Telecommuting has several downsides too. The ma jor one for management is less d irect supervision. In tod ay's team-focused workplace, telecommuting may a lso make it more difficult for managers to coord inate teamwork and it can reduce knowledge transfer in organizations.96 Managers are also challenged to hand le the d emotivation o f office workers who feel they are unfa irly denied the freedom of telecommuters.97
Contrary to Mayer's conclusions for Yahoo !, research ind icates that more creative tasks may actually be best suited for telecomm uting, whereas dull repetitive tasks like data entry decrease motivation and thus performance for remote workers.98
From the employee's standpo int, telecommuting can increase feeli ngs of iso la- tion and reduce job satisfaction. Research ind icates it does not reduce work-family confl icts, perhaps beca use it often increases work hours beyond the contracted work- week. 99 Telecommuters are also vulnerable to the •out of sight, out of mind" effect. Employees who are not at their desks, miss meetings, and don' t share in day-to-day informal workplace interactio ns may be at a disadvantage when it comes to raises and promotions because they are perceived as not putting in the requ isite "face-time." JOO Point/Co1111terpoi11t on page 191 co nsiders whether face- time actually matters. As for a CSR benefit of reducing car em issions by allow ing telecommuting, research indica tes that emp loyees actually d rive over 45 m iles more per day, due to increased personal trips, \vhen they telecommute! JO I
Telecommuting is a contemporary reality, particularly in the minds of employees. The success of telecommuting will always depend on the quality of communications in order to estab lish good, though remote, working relationsh ips. Telecommuting cer- tain ly does appear to make sense given changes in technology; the nature of work, and preferences of younger workers. Yet as the Yahoo! experience shows, some leaders do not think those benefits outweigh the costs.
Employee Involvement and Participation Bruce Poon lip wants his employees to be happy, and therefore encourages them to embrace the four pillars of happiness. The pillars are being able to grow, being connected, being part of
something bigger than yourself, and having freedom_ 102
Poon Tip explains this code in his book, Looptai/, which is about G Adventures:
I believe that if businesses want to be both sustainable and successful, they have to
infuse their organizations with passion and purpose, as a way to engage the people
inside the business, which will in turn engage people outside of it.
"Mayor" Dave Holmes is an integral part of encouraging employee involvement and participa-
tion at G Adventures. Holmes has to keep the company's more than 1500+ employees in over
100 countries informed and engaged. He does this by creating biweekly newscasts, and by travelling to meet with them. "Creating community, that's a huge part of my role," says Holmes.
Poon lip and Holmes very much share the belief that happy workplaces are productive
workplaces. Says Poon lip:
Happy people do more, they think more, they're more creative, they're more free. And,
ultimately, it's a very sound business decision in all aspects, whether it's attracting the best people or retaining the best people or giving the best customer service on
the planet to your customers. Happy people deliver performance.
Holmes adds, "We see the results from it. We see double-digit growth as a company every year. Our happiness model is working for us."
What other ways can companies encourage employee involvement?
Chapter 5 Motivation in Action 185
Employee invo lveme nt and participation (EIP) rn3
are participative and use employees' input to increase their commitment to organ izational success. If employees are engaged in decisions that increase their au tonomy and con- trol over their work lives, they will become more motivated, more committed to the organization, more productive, and more satisfied w ith their jobs. These benefits don't stop with individuals- when teams are given more co ntrol over their work, morale and performance increase as well .104
Examples of Employee Involvement Programs
HO\\' do employees
become rnore involved in the
workplace'?
Let's look a t two major forms of employee invo lvement- participative management and representative participation- in more deta il.
Participative Management The disti nct characteristic common to all participative management programs is joint decision making, in wh ich subord inates share a sign ifican t degree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors. This sharing can occur either formally through, say, briefings or surveys, or informally through dai ly consultations as a way to enhance motivation through trust and comm itment. 105 Participa tive management has, at times, been co ns idered as the sol ution for poor morale and low productivity. In rea lity, for participative ma nagement to be effective, followers must have trust and confidence in their leaders. Leaders should avoid coercive techn iques and instead stress the organ iza- tional consequences of decision making to their followers. lD6
Studies of the participation- performance relationship have yielded mixed find - ings.107 Organizations that institute participative management may real ize higher stock returns, lower turnover rates, and higher labour productivity, although these effects are typ ically not large. 108 Research at the ind ividual level indicates participation typ ically has only a modest influence on employee productivity, motivation, and job sa tisfaction. This does not mean participative management is not beneficial. However, it's not a sure means for improving performance.
Representative Participation Most coun tries in western Europe require companies to practise re pres entative participation. Representative participation red istributes power within an organization, putting labour's in terests on a more equal footing with the interests of management and stockholders by includi ng a small group of employees as participants in decision maki ng. In the Un ited Ki ngdom, Irela nd, Austral ia, and New Zealand, representative participation was originally the o nly EIP program, formed to allow employee repre- senta tives to discuss issues ou tside union agreements, and the representatives were all from the union. However, represen tative groups are now increasingly a mix of union and nonun ion, or separate from the un ion arrangement. rn9
The two most commo n forms of representation are works councils a nd board representatives. 110 Works councils are groups of nomina ted or elected employees who must be consulted when management makes decisions abou t employees. Board repre- sentatives are employees who si t on a company's board of directors and represent the employees' interests.
The influence of representative participation on worki ng employees seems to be m ixed, b ut generally an employee would need to feel his or her interests are well rep- resented and make a difference to the organization in order for motivation to increase. Th us representative participation as a mo tivationa l tool is surpassed by more d irect participation methods.
In sum, EIP programs clearly have the potential to increase employees' intrinsic motiva tion. The opportuni ty to make and implement decisio ns- and then see them
f) Describe how employee involvement pro- grams can motivate employees.
employee involvement and parti cipation (EIP) Participa- tive processes that use lhe input of employees and are intended to increase employee commitment to an organizatioo's success.
participative management A process in which subordinates share a significant degree of decisioo- making power wilh their immediate superiors.
representative participation A system in which employees partici- pate in organizational decision making through a small group of representa- tive employees.
186 Part 2 Striving for Performance
Q Describe how knowl· edge of what motivates people can be used to make organizations more motivating.
work out- can contribute to all desirable organizational outcomes. Giving employees control over key decis ions, along with ensuring that their interests are represented, can enhance feelings of procedural justice. But, like any other ini tiatives, ElP programs must be carefully designed.
Linking Employee Involvement Programs and Motivation Theories Employee involvement draws on a number of the motivation theories we discussed in Chap ter 4 . Theory Y is consistent with participative management, and Theory X is consistent with the more traditional autocratic s tyle of managing people. In terms of Herzberg's two-factor theory, employee involvement programs could provide intrinsic motivation by increasing opportunities for growth, responsibi lity, and involvement in the work itself. The opportunity to make and imp lement decisions- and then see them work out- can help satisfy an employee's needs for responsibil ity, ach ievement, recog- ni tion, growth, and enhanced self-esteem. Extensive employee involvement programs clearly have the potential to increase emp loyee intrinsic mo tivation in work tasks. Giving employees control over key decis ions, along wi th ensuring that their interests are represented, can enhance feelings of procedural justice.
Motivation: Putting It All Together In Chapter 4, we reviewed basic theories of motivation, considering such factors as how needs affect motivation, the importance of linking performance to rewards, and the need for fair processes. In this chapter, we considered various ways to pay and recognize people, and looked at job design and creating more flexible workplaces. Three Harvard University professors completed two studies that suggest a way to put all of these ideas together to understand ( 1) what motivates peop le and (2) how to use this knowledge to make sure that organizational processes mo tivate. 111
According to the study authors, research suggests that four basic emotional drives (needs) guide ind ividuals. 112 These are the drive to acquire; the drive to bond; the drive to comprehend; and the drive to defend. People want to acquire any number of scarce goods, both tangible and intangible (such as social status). They want to bond with other ind iv iduals and groups. They want to understand the world around them. As well, they want to protect aga inst external threats to themselves and others, and want to ensure justice occurs.
Understanding these d ifferent drives makes it possible to motivate individuals more effectively. As the s tudy au thors po int out, "each drive is best met by a distinct organ i- zational lever.• The drive to acquire is met through organizational rewards. The drive to bond can be met by "crea t(ing] a culture that promotes teamwork, collaboration, openness, and friendship.• The drive to comprehend is best met through job design and creating jobs that are • meaningful, interesting, and challenging.• The drive to defend can be accompl ished through an organization's performance management and resource allocation processes; th is includes fair and transparent processes for managing perfor- mance and adequate resources to do one's job. Exh ib it 5-5 indicates concrete ways that organiza tional characteristics can address individual drives.
uF GLOBAL IMPLICATIONS \ (~ ) Do the motivational approaches we have discussed vary by cuhure7 Because ~ we have covered some very different approaches in th is chapter, let's break down our analysis by approach. Not every approach has been studied by cross- cullural researchers, so we consider cross-cultura l differences in ( 1) variable pay, (2) flexible benefits, (3) job characteristics and job enrichment, (4) telecommuting, and (5) employee involvemen t.
Chapter 5 Motivation in Action 187
EXHIBIT 5-5 How to Fulfill the Drives That Motivate Employees
DRIV E PRIMARY LEVER
· , Reward System
..
. . . .
Culture
Job Design
Performance Management and Resource Allocation Processes
A CTIONS
• Sharply differentiate good performers from average and poor performers
• Tie rewards clearly to performance
• Pay as well as your competitors
• Foster mutual reliance and friendship among co-worke<s
• Value collaboration and teamwork
• Encourage sharing of best practices
• Design jobs that have distinct and important roles in the organization
• Design jobs that are meaningful and foste< a sense of contribution to the organization
• Increase the transparency of all processes
• Emphasize their fairness
• Build trust by being just and transparent in granting rewards, assignments, and other forms of recognit ion
Source: N. Nohria, B. Groysberg, and L.-E. Lee, "Employee Motivation: A Powerful New Model,' Ha,vard Business Review 86, no. 7- 8 (July- August 2008), p. 82.
Variable Pay Glob ally, around 80 percent of companies offer some form of variable-pay plan. In Latin America, more than 90 percent of companies offer some form of variab le-pay plan. In the United States, 91 percen t of companies offer a variable-pay program.113 In La ti n America, companies a lso have the h ighest percentage of total payroll allocated to variable pay, at nearly 18 percent. European and US compan ies are at about 12 per- cent.114 When it comes to executive compensation, Asian compan ies outpace Western compan ies in their use of variable pay.11 5
Flexible Benefits Given the intuitive motivational appeal of fl exible b enefi ts, it may b e surprising that their usage is not yet global. In China, only a lim ited percentage of compan ies offer flexib le plans, 11 6 as in other Asian countries.117 Almost all major corporations in the United States offer them. A sim ilar survey of firms in the Un ited Kingdom found that nearly all ma jor organ iza tions were offering fl exible benefits programs, with options ranging from supplemental medical insura nce lo holiday trad ing (with co-workers), d iscounted bus travel, an d child-care assistance. 11 8
Job Characteristics and Job Enrichment A few studies have tested the )CM in different cultures, b ut the resu lts are not very consistent. 119 The fac t that t he model is re latively individualistic {il considers th e
188 Part 2 Striving for Performance
LESSON S LEARNED
• Money is not a motivator for all indiv iduals.
• Effective reward systems link pay Lo performance.
• Jobs characterized by variety, autonomy, and feedback are more motivating.
relationsh ip between the employee and h is or her work) suggests job enrichment strategies may no t have the same effects in collectivistic cultures as in individualistic cu lt ures (such as the Un ited States). Indeed, one study in Niger found that wh ile the MPS was h ighly influenced by job d imensions, the correlations were differen t than the genera l data gathered from predom inately individualist countries.120 In contrast, another study suggests that the degree to which jobs have intrinsic job characteristics pred icted job satisfaction and job invo lvement equa lly well for American, Japanese, and Hungarian employees. 121
Telecommuting Wh ile th e movemen t away from te lecommuting by some companies made h ead- lines, it appears that for most organ izations, it remains popular. Almost 50 percent of managers in Germany, the Un ited Kingdom, and t he United States are permit- ted telecommuting options. In developing countries, t his percentage is between 10 and 20 percent. 122 Telecommuting is less practised in China, but there, too, it is growing. 123
Employee Involvement To be successfu l, EIP programs shou ld be tailored to local and nationa l norms. 124 A s tudy of four countries, includ ing the United States and Ind ia, confirmed the impor- tance of modifying practices to reflect national culture. 125 While US employees read- ily accepted EIP programs, managers in Ind ia who tried to empower their employees through employee involvement programs were rated low by those employees. These reactions are consistent with India's h igh power-d istance culture, wh ich accepts and expects differences in au thority. The work culture in India may not be in as much transition as in China, where some employees are becoming less high power-distance oriented. Ch inese employees who were very accepting of trad itional Chinese cultural values showed few benefits from participative decis ion making. However, Chinese employees who were less traditional were more satisfied and had higher performance ratings under participative management. 126 Another study conducted in Ch ina, however, showed that involvement increased emp loyees' thoughts and feelings of job security, enhancing their well-being. 127 These differences within China may well reflect the current transitiona l nature of that culture. For example, research in urban China ind icated that some aspects of EIP programs, namely those that favour co n- sultation and expression but no t participation in decision making, yield higher job sa tisfaction. 128
Summary As we have seen in this chapter, understand ing what motivates individuals is ultimately the key to organiza tional performance. Emp loyees whose differences are recognized, who feel val ued, and who have the opportun it y to work in jobs tailored to the ir s trengths and interests will be motivated to perform at the highest levels. Emp loyee participation also can increase emp loyee productivity, commi tme nt to work goals, motivation, and job satisfaction. However, we cannot overlook the powerful role of organizational rewards in influencing motivation. Pay, benefits, and intrinsic rewards must be ca refully and thoughtfully designed in order to enhance employee motivation toward positive organizational outcomes.
Chapter 5 Motivation in Action 189
SNAPSHOT SUMMARY I
From Theory to Practice: The Role of Money
Creating Effective Reward Systems • What to Pay: Establishing a
Pay Structure
• How to Pay: Rewarding Individuals through Valiable- Pay Programs
• Flexible Benefits: Developing a Benefits Package
• Intrinsic Rewards: Employee Recognition Programs
Mylab Management
• Beware the Signals That Are Sent by Rewards
Motivating by Job Redesign
• The Job Characteristics Model • Job Redesign in the Canadian
Context: The Role of Unions
• How Can Jobs Be Redesigned?
• Relational Job Design
• Alternative Work Arrangements
• Flextime
Employee Involvement and Participation • Examples of Employee
Involvement Programs • Linking Employee Involvement
Programs and Motivation Theories
Motivation: Putting It All Together
Study, practise, and explore real business situations with these helpful resources:
• Study Plan: Check your understanding of chapter concepts with self-study quizzes.
• Online Lesson Presentations: Study key chapter topics and work through interactive assessments to test your knowledge and master management concepts.
• Videos: Learn more about the management practices and strategies of real companies.
• Simulations: Practise management decision-making in simulated business environments.
-"' a:I C)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
.,. for Review
What is variable pay? What variable-pay programs are used to m otivate em ployees? What are their advantages and disadvantages?
How can flexible benefits moti· vate employees?
What are the motivational ben· efits of intrinsic rewards?
What is the job characteristics model? How does it m otivate employees?
What are the main ways that jobs can be redesigned? In your view, in w hat situations would one of the methods be favoured over the others?
What are the three alternative work arrangements of flextime, job sharing, and telecommuting? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each?
What are employee involvement programs? How might they increase em ployee motivation?
How can motivation theories be used to create more motivating work environments?
for Managers
• Recognize individual differences: Spend the time necessary to understand what is important to each employee. Design jobs to align with individual needs and maximize their motivation potential.
• Use goals and feedback. Give employees firm, specific goals, and provide them with feedback on how well they are doing in pur- suit of those goals.
• Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them. Employees can contribute to set· ting work goals, choosing their own benefits packages, and solving productivity and quality problems.
• Link rewards to performance and ensure that employees perceive the link between the two.
• Check the system for equity. Employees should perceive that individual effort and outcomes explain differences in pay and other rewards.
for You
• Because the people you interact with appreciate recognition, con - sider including a brief note on a nice card to show thanks for a job well done. Or you m ight send a basket of flowers. Sometimes just sending a pleasant, thankful email is enough to make a person feel valued. All of these things are easy enough to do, and appreci- ated greatly by the recipient.
• If you are working on a team or in a volunteer organization, try to find ways to motivate co-workers using the job characteristics model. For instance, make sure that everyone has some tasks over which they have autonomy, and make sure people get feedback
on their work.
• When you are working on a team project, think about w hether
everyone on the team should get the same reward, or whether rewards should be allocated according to performance. Individual-based performance rewards may decrease team cohesiveness if individuals do not cooperate w ith one another.
Chapter 5 Motivation in Action 191
''FACE-TIME'' MATTERS
POI NT Although allowing people to work from home is gaining
popularity, telecommuting will only hurt them and their
employers. 129 Sure, employees say they are happier
when their organization allows them the flexibility to work
wherever they choose, but who would not like to hang around at home in their pyjamas pretending to work?
I know plenty of colleagues who say, w ith a wink, that
they are taking off to •work from home" the rest of the
day. Who knows whether they are really contributing?
The bigger problem is the lack of face-to-face inter-
action between employees. Studies have shown that great ideas are born through interdependence, not inde-
pendence. It's during those informal interactions around
the water cooler or during coffee breaks that some of the
most creative ideas arise. If you take that away, you stifle
the organization's creative potential. Trust is another problem. Have you ever trusted
someone you have not met? Probably not. Again, face-
to-face interactions allow people to establish trust-
ing relationships more quickly, which fosters smoother
social interactions and allows the company to perform
better. But enough about employers. Employees also benefit
when they are at the office. If you are out of sight, you
are out of mind. Want that big raise or promotion? You
are not going to get it if your supervisor does not even
know who you are. So think twice the next time you either want to leave
the office early or not bother coming in at all, to "work
from home."
COUNTERPOINT Please. So-called face-time is overrated. If all managers
do is reward employees who hang around the office the
longest, they are not being very good managers. Those
who brag about the 80 hours they put in at the office
(being sure to point out they were there on weekends) are not necessarily the top performers. Being present is
not the same thing as being efficient.
Besides, there are all sorts of benefits for employees
and employers who take advantage of telecommuting
practices. For one, telecommuting is seen as an attrac-
tive perk companies can offer. With so many dual-career earners, the flexibility to work from home on some days
can go a long way toward achieving a better balance
between work and family. That translates into better
recruiting and better retention. In other words, you will
get and keep better employees if you offer the ability to work from home.
Plus, studies have shown that productivity is higher,
not lower, when people work from home. This result is
not limited to the United States. For example, one study
found that Chinese call centre employees who worked
from home outproduced their "face-time" counterparts by 13 percent.
You say all these earth-shattering ideas would pour
forth if people interacted. I say consider that one of the
biggest workplace distractions is chatty co-workers. So,
although I concede that there are times when "face-time"
is beneficial, the benefits of telecommuting far outweigh the drawbacks.
192 Part 2 Striving for Performance
BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES
Form small groups to discuss the following topics, as assigned by your instructor:
1. How might the job of student be redesigned to m ake it more motivating?
2. What is your ideal job ? To w hat extent does it match up with the elements of the JCM?
3. Would you prefer working from hom e or w orking at the office? Why?
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
Analyzing and RedesigningJobs Break into groups of 5 to 7 m embers each. 130 Each student should describe the worst job he or she has ever had. Use
any criteria you want to select 1 of these jobs for analysis by the group. Members of the group will analyze the job selected by determ ining how well it scores on the job characteristics
model. Use the following scale for your analysis of each job dimension:
7 = Very high 6 = High 5 = Somewhat high
4 = M oderate 3 = Somewhat low 2=Low
1 = Very low
The following sample questions can guide the group in its analysis of the job in question:
• Skill variety. Describe the different identifiable skills required to do this job. What is the nature of the oral,
written, and/or quantitative skills needed? What physical skills are required? Does the job holder get the
opportunity to use all of his or her skills?
• Task identity. What is the product that the job holder creates? Is he or she involved in its production from
beginning to end? If not, is he or she involved in a particular phase of its production from beginning to end?
• Task significance. How important is the product? How important is the job holder's role in producing it? How important is the job holder's contribution to the people he or she works with? If the job holder's job were
eliminated, how inferior would the product be?
• Autonomy. How much independence does the job holder have? Does he or she have to follow a strict
schedule? How closely is he or she supervised?
• Feedback. Does the job holder get regular feedback from his or her manager? From peers? From his or her staff? From customers? How about intrinsic performance feedback When doing the job?
Using the formula found on page 177, calculate the job's motivating potential score. Discuss Whether you think this
score accurately reflects your perceptions of the motivating potential of these professions.
Using the suggestions offered in the chapter for redesigning jobs, describe specific actions that management could
take to increase this job's motivating potential.
Calculate the costs to management of redesigning the job in question. Do the benefits exceed the costs?
Conclude the exercise by having a representative of each group share his or her group's analysis and redesign sug-
gestions w ith the entire class. Possible topics for class discussion might include similarities in the jobs chosen, problems
in rating job dimensions, and the cost- benefit assessment of design changes.
Chapter 5 Motivation in Action 193
ETHICAL DILEMMA
Are CEOs Paid Too Much? C ritics have described the astronomical pay packages given to Canadian and American C EOs as "rampant
greed." 131 In 2015, the average annual compensa-
tion of CEOs in Canada's 100 largest companies was
$9.5 million, up from $8.86 million in 2014. The 2015
C EO compensation was 193 times what the average full -time Canadian employee earned in 2015 ($49 5 1 OJ. Canadian CEOs may feel they are underpaid, though,
if they compare themselves w ith a similar group of
American CEOs, whose median pay was US$13. 1 mil-
lion in 2016, and 34 7 times that of the average pay for
US employees. How do you explain such large pay packages for
CEOs? Some say that executive compensation rep-
resents a classic economic response to a situation in
which the demand is great for high-quality top-executive
talent, and the supply is low. Other arguments in favour of paying executives millions a year are the need to
compensate people for the tremendous responsibilities
and stress that go with such jobs; the motivating poten-
tial that seven- and eight-figure annual incomes provide
to senior executives and those who might aspire to be;
and the influence of senior executives on the company's bottom line.
Critics of executive pay practices in Canada and the
United States argue that CEOs choose board members
whom they can count on to support ever-increasing pay
for top management. If board members fail to "play along,•
they risk losing their positions, their fees, and the prestige
and power inherent in board membership.
In addition, it's not clear that executive compensation
is tied to firm performance. For example, a 2014 analysis
of compensation data by Equilar showed little correlation
between CEO pay and company performance. Consider
the data in Exhibit 5-6, which illustrates the disconnect
that can sometimes happen between CEO compensa-
tion and firm performance. Rnancia/ Post Magazine uses
a "Bang for the Buck" formula to calculate which CEOs
were overpaid (or underpaid), based on their company's
performance.
Is high compensation of CEOs a problem? If so, does
the blame for the problem lie with CEOs or with the share-
holders and boards that knowingly allow the practice? Are
Canadian and American CEOs greedy? Are these CEOs
acting unethically? Should their pay reflect more closely
some multiple of their employees' wages? What do you
think?
EXHIBIT 5-6 2017 Compensation of Canada's M ost Overpaid CEOs*
Pay Received Amount CEO(s) (2-Year Avg.) Pay Deserved Overpaid
1. Darren Enthistle, Joe Natale, TELUS, $14 680 000 $5894 000 $8 786000 Vancouver, British Columbia
2. Brendan Bell, Robert Gannicott, $8 765 000 $1 564 000 $7 201 000 Dominion Diamond, Toronto, Ontario
3. Bradley Shaw, Shaw Communications, $10 144 000 $3508 000 $6636000 Calgary, Alberta
4. Geoffrey Martin, CCL Industries, $9950000 $4 923 000 $5 026000 Toronto, Ontario
5. Sean Boyd, Agnico Eagle Mines, $9 688000 $4 876 000 $4 8 12 000 Toronto, Ontario
"Rnancial Post Magazine uses a "Bang for lhe Buck• formula 10 calculale the amounl overpaid, laking inlo accounl CEO performance variables.
Source: "How Much Do They Make? Which Canadian CEOs Are Overpaid and Who Oesenies More," Financial Post Magazine, November 9, 2017. http://business.financialpos1.com/financial-pos1 -magazine/from-bigges1-bank·for-lhe-buck·lo-mos1-overpald- how-canadas· lop-business-leaders-stack·up.
194 Part 2 Striving for Performance
CASE I NCI DENTS
Motivation for Leisure "When I have time I don't have money. When I have money
I don't have tim e,• says Glenn Kelman, CEO of Redfin.132
He is not alone. While many employees find them selves
faced with 60-, 70-, or 80-hour weeks (and sometimes
more), others who are unemployed can find them selves
with too much time on their hands. Take Dennis Lee, a sales associate whose girlfriend is unemployed. She has
time to spare, but he says her unemployment makes it
"financially impossible for me to support the both of us,
even if we just go on a small trip, and get a small hotel and stay for a couple of days."
Those who are employed and w ho may have the
financial means to take a vacation often leave those vaca-
tion days on the table. The average Canadian employee
receives almost four weeks of vacation time a year, and
76 percent take their full vacation time. The average US
employee gets 2.6 weeks of vacation a year, yet only 43 percent take that tim e.
The c hallenge of taking leisure tim e does not seem
to be a problem for employees in many European coun-
tries. Take the French, w ho get 30 days of vacation and
say they take all of them . Employees in Spain, Italy, and
Germ any get about the same time off. M oreover, if you
work in the European Union and get sick on vacation, the
European Court of Justice states that you are entitled to
take a make-up vacation.
Questions
1. Do you think North American employees are less motivated by vacation time than employees in other
countries?
2. Why do you think Canadian w orkers often do not take all of their allotted vacation time, even w hen they may lose the benefit?
3. If many unemployed people spend around two hours per day looking for work , as some research indicates, how w ould you evaluate the impact of unemploym ent on w ork motivation? How w ou ld you spend your days if you were unemployed?
Pay Raises Every Day How do you feel w hen you get a raise?133 Happy?
Rewarded? Motivated to work harder for that next raise?
The hope of an increase in pay, followed by a raise, can increase employee motivation. However, the effect may
not last. In fact, the "warm fuzzies" from a raise last less
than a month, according to a recent study. If raises are
distributed annually, performance motivation can dip for
many months in between evaluations.
Some organizations have tried to keep the motivation
going by increasing the frequency of raises. Currently, only
about 5 percent of organizations give raises more than
annually, but some larger employers like discount website
retailer Zulily, Inc ., assess pay quarterly. Zulily CEO Darrell
Cavens would like to do so even more frequently. "If it
wasn't a big burden, you'd almost want to work on it on
a weekly basis," he said. That's because raises increase
employee focus, happiness, engagement, and retention.
Jeffrey Housenbold, C EO of online photo publisher
S hutterfly, Inc ., also advocates frequent pay assess-
ments, but for a different reason. The company gives
bonuses four times a year to supplem ent its biannual
raise structure as part of a review of employee concerns.
"You can resolve problems early versus letting them fes-
ter," he said. Another reason is to increase feedback.
Phone app designer Solstice Mobile gives promotions
and salary increases six tim es a year; w ith this structure,
Kelly O'Reagan climbed from $10/hour to $47.50/hour
in four years. The company's CEO, John Schwan, said
that young workers are especially motivated by the near-
constant feedback. O'Reagan said, "Seeing that increase
was like, 'Wow, this is quite different than w hat I had ever
dreamed of. "'
You might be wondering how organizations can keep
the dollar increases to employees flowing. Organizations
are wondering, too. One tactic is to start employees at
a low pay rate. En silon, a marketing services company,
has coupled low starting salaries w ith twice-yearly salary
reviews. Initial job candidates are skeptical, but most of
the new hires earn at least 20 percent more after two
years than they would with a typical annual raise structure.
Chapter 5 Motivation in Action 1 95
Quest.ions No one is saying frequent pay raises are cheap, or easy to administrate. Pay itself is a com plex issue, and main-
taining pay equity adds another level of difficulty. Frequent
pay reviews are motivating, but only for the people receiv-
ing them - for the others, it's a struggle to stay engaged. If
a person has a track record of raises and then pay levels
off, it can feel like a loss of identity as a strong performer
rather than a natural consequence of achieving a higher
level of pay. The frustration can lead to lower performance
and increased turnover for high performers. CEO Schwan
acknowledged, "It's definitely a risk."
1. Do you think frequent, small raises or annual, larger raises are more motivating? Why?
2. Do you think you would personally be more moti- vated by more frequent raises or by performance bonuses if the annual amounts were the same?
3. Annual pay raises in the United States are expected to be around 3 percent during the next few years. Do you think this percentage is motivating to employees? Why or why not?
1. Combine tasks. Managers should seek to take existing and fraction- alized tasks and put them back together to form a new and larger module of work. This increases skill variety and task identity.
2. Create natural work units. The creation of natural work units means that the tasks an employee does form an identifiable and meaningful whole. This increases employee •ownership" of the work and improves the likelihood that employees will view their work as meaningful and important rather than as irrelevant and boring.
3. Establish client relationships. The c lient (who may be an "internal customer" or som eone outside the organization) is the user of the product or service that the employee works on. Wherever possible, managers should try to establish direct relationships between employees and their clients. This increases skill variety, autonomy, and feedback for the employee.
4. Expand jobs vertically. Vertical expansion gives employees responsibili- ties and control that were formerly reserved for management. It seeks to partially close the gap between the "doing" and the •controlling" aspects of the job, and it increases employee autonomy.
EXHIBIT 5-7 Guidelines for Enriching a Job
Suggested Action Core Job Dimensions
Combine tasks Skill variety
Form natural work units Task ident i ty
Establish client relationships
Expand jobs vertically Autonomy
Open feedback channels Feedback
Sou~ e: HACKMAN, J .R., IMPROVING LIFE AT WORK, 1st Ed., ©1977. Reprinted and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Designing Enriched J obs How does management enrich
an employee's job? The following
suggestions, based on the JCM,
specify the types of changes in
jobs that are most likely to lead to
improving their motivating poten-
tial (also see Exhibit 5 -7).134
196 Part 2 Striving for Performance
• • • • • ••••••••••••••
Practising Skills
•••••••••••
Reinforcing Skills
5. Open feedback channels. By increasing feedback, employees not only learn how well they are performing their jobs, but also whether their performance is improving, deteriorating, or remaining at a constant level. Ideally, this feedback about performance should be received directly as the employee does the job, rather than from management on an occasional basis. For instance, at many restaurants you can find feedback cards on the table to indicate the quality of service received during the meal.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
You own and manage Sunrise Deliveries, a small freight transportation
company that makes local deliveries of products for your customers. You have a total of nine employees- an administrative assistant, two ware-
house personnel, and six delivery drivers.
The drivers' job is pretty straightforward. Each morning they come in at 7:30 a.m. , pick up their daily schedule, and then drive off in their pre-
loaded trucks to make their stops. They occasionally will also pick up
packages and return them to the Sunrise warehouse, where they will be unloaded and redirected by the warehouse workers.
You have beoorne vety concerned with the high turnover among your driv-
ers. Of your current six drivers, three have been working for you less than two months and only one's tenure exceeds six months. This is frustrating because
you are paying your drivers more than many of the larger delivery companies like UPS and FedEx. This turnover is getting expensive because you con-
stantly have to spend time finding and training replacements. It's also hard
to develop a quality customer-service program when customers constantly see new faces. When you have asked departing drivers why they are quitting,
common complaints include: "There's no room for advancement," ''The job is
boring," and "All we do is drive." What should you do to solve this problem?
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1. Think of the worst job you have ever had. Analyze the job according to the five dimensions identified in the JCM. Redesign the job to make it more satisfying and motivating.
2. Spend one to three hours at various times observing employees in your college dining hall. What actions would you recommend to make these jobs more motivating?
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0 0
e 0 e
198
Groups and Teamwork
Define group and team.
Analyze the growing popularity of teams in orga- nizations.
Contrast the five types of teams.
Show how role requirements change in different situations.
Demonstrate how norms exert influence on an individ ual's behaviou r.
How can a t eam come
t ogether and learn how to serve lunch t o
youngsters in summer camp in just
a week?
0 Identify the five stages of group development. f) Identify the characteristics of effective teams. e Explain the implications of diversity for group
effectiveness.
0 Show how group size affects group performance. Q) Decide when to use individuals instead of
teams.
usan Wright launched Toronto-based Summe~unch+ as a charity in the summer of 2016, after develop- ing plans and raising funds during the previous eight months.1 She had recognized for a number of years
that lunch is not available in the summer for many children who receive subsidized lunches
at school during the regular school year. Summerlunch+ provides healthy lunches
and nutrition information through sev- eral summer camps in the Thornhill
area of Toronto. This is an area susan \Mijlt where children are less likely
to have access to healthy food. "There's so much benefit to eating well ," she notes. "There is a ton of good research that supports that kids who eat a healthy meal do better in school and they do,
overall, better in life." Wright's challenge in launching the program was to create something that could run efficiently each summer without a lot of start-up costs. She relies on both secondary
and post-secondary students to work in the program (in this photo, Wright [top right) appears with one of her teams). The Toronto District School Board provides local
students through one of its volunteer programs, and has permitted the use of several of the area's public school kitchens. Canada Summer Jobs grants
have allowed Wright to hire university students studying nutrition . The students are all young, and there is often a difference in the
maturity level of secondary and post-secondary students, yet Wright needs them to work together, and to start doing it quickly. The high school students help prepare the lunches and the university students
need to earn their respect quickly. The program runs for six to eight weeks, delivering lunches to several of the summer camps in the area. Developing teamwork among the student volunteers and leaders is one
of the most important things Wright needs to do. For teams to excel, a number of conditions need to be met. Effective teams need wise leadership, a variety of
resources, and a way to solve problems. Team members need to be dedicated and they need to build trust. In this chapter, we examine when it's best to have a team, how
to create effective teams, and how to deal with diversity on teams.
\ I I
:'o': , ' , '
• Ever wonder what causes flurries of activity in groups? 'l'IIE BIG IDEA • Shou ld individuals be paid for their teamwork or their individual performance?
• Why do some team members seem to get along better than others?
• Why don't some team members pu ll their weight?
Effective Leains do not si1nply happen. They
require attention Lo process, teain co1nposilion, and
re\\'ards.
199
200 Part 2 Striving for Performance
O Define group and team.
f) Analyze the growing popularity of teams in organizations.
9 Contrast the five types of teams.
group Two or more people with a oommoo relaliooship.
t eam A group whose individual efforts result in performance that is greater 1han 1he sum of the individual inputs.
Teams vs. Groups: What Is the Difference? There is some debate whether groups and teams are really separate concepts or whether the two terms can be used interchangeab ly. We th ink that there is a subtle d ifference between the terms. A group is two or more people with a common relationship. Thus a group could be co-workers, or people meeting for lunch or standing at the bus stop. Unlike teams, groups do not necessari ly engage in collective work that requ ires inter- dependent effort.
A team, on the other hand, generates positive synergy through coordination. The ind i- vidual efforts result in a level of performance greater than the sum of the individual inputs.
Groups become teams when they meet the following conditions:2
• Team members share leadership.
• Both ind ividuals and the team as a who le share accountability for the work of the team.
• The team develops its own purpose or mission.
• The team works on problem solving continuously, rather than just at scheduled meeting times.
• The team's measure of effectiveness is the team's outcomes and goals, not indi- vidual outcomes and goals.
Thus, while not all groups are teams, all teams can be consid ered groups. Much of what we discuss in th is chapter appl ies equally well to both, even though there are some important distinctions between the two.
Why Have Teams Become So Popular? The organization that does not use teams has become newsworthy Teams are everywhere. How much time is spent working in teams? One s tudy found that "the ti me spent by managers and employees in collaborative activities has ballooned by SO percent or more" over the last two decades. ll is not unusual a t some compan ies for employees to spend three-quarters of their day communicating with co-workers.3
As organ izations have restructured themselves to compete more effectively and efficiently, they have turned to teams as a be u er way to use employee talents. Management has found that teams are more flexible and responsive to changing events than are trad itional departments or other forms of permanent groupings. Teams have the capab ility to quickly assemble, dep loy, refocus, and disband. Teams a lso can be more motivational. Recall from the job characteristics model d iscussed in Chapter 5 that having greater task identity is one way of increasing motivation. Teams allow for greater task identity, with team members working on tasks together. However, teams are not necessarily appropriate in every s ituation. Are teams truly effective? What conditions affect their potential7 How do members work together? These are some of the questions we will answer in this chapter.
Types of Teams Teams can make products, provide services, negotia te dea ls, coordinate projects, offer advice, and make decisions.4 In this section, first \Ve describe the four most common kinds of teams you are likely to find in organizations:
• Problem-solvi ng ( or process-improvement) teams
• Sel f-managed ( or self-directed) teams
• Cross-functional ( or project) teams
• Virtual teams
Chapter 6 Groups and Teamwork 201
EXHIBIT 6-1 Four Types of Teams
• . , ... .. ..... .. ·: .. . . . ·.: :.~·. . .. • ·:~ .. , .•
Problem-solving Self-managed Cross-f unctional
The types of relationships that members within each team have to one an other are shown in Exhibit 6-1. Later in th is sectio n, we also describe multiteam systems, wh ich use a "team of teams• and are becom ing increasingly widespread as work increases in complexity.
Problem-Solving Teams Qual ity-control teams have been in use for many years. Originally seen most often in manu- facturi ng plants, these were permanent teams that generally met at a regular time, sometimes weekly or daily, to address quality standards and any problems with the products made. The medical field in particular has recently implemented quality teams to improve their services in patient care. Problem -solving teams like these rarely have the authority to unilaterally implement their suggestions, b ut if their recommendations are paired with implementation processes, some significan t improvemenL~ can be realized.
Self-Managed Teams Problem-solving teams only make recommenda tions. Some organizations have gone further and created teams that also implemen t sol utions and take responsibility for outcomes.
A sel f-managed (or s elf-directed) team is typically made up of 10 to 15 employ- ees. The employees perform h igh ly related or interdependent jobs; these teams take on some supeivisory responsib ilities.5 fypically, the responsibi lities include planni ng and schedu ling of work, assigning tasks lo members, maki ng operating decisions, taking action on problems, and working with suppliers and customers. Fu lly self-managed teams even select their own members who evaluate one another's performance. When these learns are established, former supeivisory positio ns can take on decreased impor- tance and may even be eliminated.
Research results on the effectiveness of self-ma naged work teams have nol been uniform ly positive.6 Some research ind icates that self-managed teams may be more or less effective based on the degree to wh ich team-promo ting behaviours are rewarded. For example, one study of 45 self-managing teams of factory employees fo u nd that when team members perceived that econom ic rewards such as pay were dependent on input from their teammates, performance improved for both individuals and the learn as a \vhole.7
A second area of research foc us has been the impact of conflict on self-managed work team effectiveness. Some research indicates t hat self-managed teams are not effective when there is conflict. When d isputes arise, members often stop cooperat- ing and power struggles ensue, which lead to lower group performance.8 However, other research indicates that when members feel confident they can speak up without be ing embarrassed, rejected, or pun ished by other team members-in other words,
Technology . ~-::·. ,:.;,
..
. .... -~· ......
... . ,
• •• Virtual
problem-solving (or process- improvemenl) team A group of 5 lo 12 employees from the same department v.tio meel for a few hours each week lo discuss ways of improv- ing quality. efficiency, and the wol1< environment.
self-managed (or self-directed) team A group of 10 lo 15 employ- ees who lake on many of lhe respon- sibilities of !heir former managers.
202 Part 2 Striving for Performance
cross-functional (or project) team A group of employees at about the same hierarchical level, but from different 1•,011( areas. who come together to accomplish a task.
l
Harley-Davidson Motor Company uses cross-functional teams at all levels of its o rganization in creat- ing new products, such as its first electric motorcycle, shown here. From product conception to launch, cross-functional teams include Harley employees from product planning, engineering, design, marl<eting,
manufacturing, and purchasing.
when t hey feel psycholog ically safe- confl ict can be benefic ial and boost team performance. 9
Th ird ly, research has exp lored the effect of self-managed work teams on member behaviour. Here again the findings are m ixed. Although individuals on teams report higher levels of job satisfaction compared with other individuals, studies indicate they sometimes have higher absenteeism and turnover rates. One large-scale study of Jabour prod uctivity in British establishments fo u nd that, although using teams improved ind ivid ua l (and overall) Jabour productivity, no evidence supported the cla im that self-managed teams performed better than traditional teams with Jess decision-making authority. JO On the whole, it appears that for self-managing teams to be advantageous, a number of facil itating fac tors must be in place. Point/ Counterpoint on page 234 considers whether empowerment is key to effective teams.
Cross-Functional Teams Starbucks created a team of individuals from production, globa l PR, global commun i- cations, and marketing to develop its VIA brand of instant coffee. The team's suggestions resulted in a product that would be cost-effective to produce and distribute and that was marketed with a tightly integrated, multifaceted strategy. 11 This example ill ustrates the use of cro s s-fun ctional (or p r oject ) teams, made up of employees from about the same hierarchical level but d ifferent work areas, who come together lo accomplish a task.
Cross-functional teams are an effective means for allowing people from diverse areas with in an organ ization (or even between organizations) lo exchange informa- tion, develop new ideas, so lve problems, and coordinate complex projects. However, due to the high need for coordination, cross-func tional teams are not easy lo manage. First, il makes sense for power shifts to occur as differen t expertise is needed because
Chapter 6 Groups and Teamwork 203
the members are at roughly the same level in the organization, which creates leadersh ip amb iguity. A climate of trust thus needs to be developed before shifts can happen with- out undue confl ict.12 Second, the early stages of development are often lime-consuming as members learn to work with diversity and comp lexity. Third, it takes t ime to bui ld trust and teamwork, especially among people from varying backgrounds w ith different experiences and perspectives.
In sum, the strength of trad it ional cross-functional teams is the collaborative effort of ind ividuals with diverse skills from a variety of disciplines. When the unique perspec- tives of these members are considered, these teams can be very effective.
Virtual Teams Problem-solving, self-managed, and cross-functional teams do their work face to face, whereas virtual t eam s use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal. 13 They collaborate on line- using com- mun ication links such as wide-area networks, corporate social media, videoconferenc- ing, and email - whether members are nearby or continents apart. Nea rly all teams today do at least some of their work remotely.
Virtual teams shou ld be managed d ifferently than face-to -face teams in an office, partially because virtual team members may not in teract along traditional hierarch i- cal patterns. Because of the complexity of interactions, research indicates that shared
leadersh ip of virtual teams may sign ifican tly enhance team performance, although the concept is sti ll in development. 14 For virtual teams to be effective, management should
ensure that (I) trust is established amo ng team members ( one inflammatory remark in a team-member email can severely undermine team trust); (2) team progress is moni- tored closely (so the team does not lose sight of its goals and no team member "disap- pears"); and (3) the efforts and products of the virtual team are publ icized throughout
Queen's School of Business started an innovative executive MBA program in 201 1 that relies on a virtual team of students. While there are three residential sessions during the p rogram, most courses are taught
in virtual boardroom sessions with students participating from home. "The program offers the same real- time connectivity and interactivity as our boardroom learning centres, but offers more accessibility to a top-ranked program to participants who wouldn't otherwise have the time or be able to physically be in a
boardroom location on weekends,• said Gloria Saccon, director of the executive MBA program. 15
virtual team A team that uses oomputer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a oommoo goal.
204 Part 2 Striving for Performance
.. _
~ OB ~cr10N Managing Virtual Teams
Establ ish ing trust and commitment, encourag- ing communication, and assessing team mem- bers pose tremendous challenges for virtual team managers. Here are a few lips to make the process eas ier:
-+ Establ ish regul ar time s for group interaction.
-+ Set up firm rules for communication.
-+ Use vis ual forms of communication where possible.
-+ Copy the s tyle o f fa ce-to -face teams . For example, allow time for informal ch itchat and socia lizing, and celebrate achievements.
-+ Give and r eceive feedba ck and offer assis- tance on a regular basis. Be persistent with people who are no t communicati ng with you or one another.
-+ Agree on s tandard technology so all team members can work together easily
-+ Consider using 360-d egree feedback to bet- ter understand and evaluate team members.
-+ Provide a virtual m eeting room via an intranet, website, or bulletin board.
-+ Note which employees effectively u se em ail to bu ild team rapport.
-+ Smooth the way for the n ext a ssignment if membership on the team, or the team itself, is not permanent.
-+ Be availa ble to employees, bu t don't wa il for them to seek you out.
-+ Encourage informal, off-line conver s ation between team members. 16
the organization (so the team does not become invisible) . 17 For even more tips, see OB in Accion- Managing Virtual Teams.
I l would be a mistake to think v irtual teams are an easy substitute for face-lo-face teams. While the geographical reach and immed iacy of on line communica tion make v irtual teams a natural development, and whi le virtua l teams can contribu te to environmental sustainab ility, as Focus on Ethics shows, managers must make certa in this type of team is the optimal choice for the desired outcome and then maintain an oversight role through- out the collaboration.
Multiteam Systems The types of teams we have described so far are typ ically smaller, s tandalone teams, although their activ ities relate lo the broader objectives of the organ ization. As tasks become more complex, teams often grow in s ize. Increases in team size are accompanied by higher coord ination demands, creating a tipp ing point at which the addition of another member does more harm than good . To sol ve this problem, organiza tions use multite am system s, collections of two or more interdependent teams that share a superord inate goa l. In other words, multi team sys tems are a "team of teams." 19
To picture a multiteam system, imagine the coordination of response needed after a major car accident. There is the emergency med ical services team, which responds first and transports the injured to the hosp ital. An emergency room team then takes over, providing medical care, followed by a recovery team. Although the emergency services team, the emergency room team, and the recovery team are technical ly independent, their activities are inter- dependent, and the success of one depends on the success of the others. Why? Because they all share the h igher goal of saving lives.
Some factors that make smaller, more traditional teams effec- tive do not necessari ly apply lo multiteam systems and can even hinder their performance. One s tudy showed that multiteam systems performed better when they had "boundary spanners• whose jobs were to coordinate with members of the other sub- teams. This reduced the need for some team member commu- nication, which was helpful because it reduced coordination demands.20 Leadership of mu ltiteam systems is a lso much dif- ferent than for standalone teams. Wh ile leadership of all teams affects team performance, a mu ltiteam leader must both facilitate coordination among teams and lead each team. Research ind i- cated teams that received more a ttention and engagement from the organization's leaders felt more empowered, which made them more effective as they sought to solve their own problems.21
In general, a multi team system is the best cho ice either when a team has become too large to be effective, or when teams with d istinct functions need to be h ighly coordinated.
multiteam system A collection of two or more interdependent teams that share a superordinate goal; a team of teams.
From Individual to Team Member To make sure Summerlunch+ starts off well on the first day of summer camp, Susan Wright
hires the university students a few weeks before lhe program begins. This lets the leaders and
I the students share in an orientation, have fun, and get on the same page.22 The high school students receive their orientation on lhe first day of the program, and are given clear directions
Chapter 6 Groups and Teamwork 205
about what needs to be done. The university students make sure that the high school students
are kept busy, so that they are not distracted by their phones.
While the meals are being prepared, everyone is expected to be focused on one another and
the job at hand. Clear instructions are given:
• Phones must be put away.
• Individuals can work with their best friend but only it both are working productively.
• Everyone must follow sate food handling practices.
• Everyone is expected to share the responsibility, and to give feedback at day's end to help
everyone figure out what could be done better next time.
During the first few weeks ot team building, Wright makes sure that everyone understands
their mission. The students know that they are making lives better tor young people in their community by ensuring they don't go hungry. "Charitable work is generally mission-driven and
I our students are all working tor minimum wage. We believe it helps them to understand the big picture of their work and the impact they are having within their own community."
For e ilh er a group or a learn to fu nction, ind ivid uals have to ach ieve some balance between lheir own needs and the needs of the group. When individuals come togelh er lo form groups and teams, they bring with them their personalities and all their previous experiences. They also bring their tendencies to act in differenl ways at different limes, depending on the effeclS thal differenl situations and differenl people have on them.
One way lo th ink of these differences is in terms of possible pressures thal individual group members put o n o ne an other through roles, norms, and stalus expectalions, as OB in the Workplace ind icales. As we consider the process of how individuals lean1 lo work in
FOCUS ~~ HICS Virtual Teams Leave a Smaller Carbon Footprint
Should vi rtual t eams be used even more? Despite b eing in different countries, or even
on d ifferent continents, many teams in geograp hically d ispersed locations are able to
comm unicate effectively wit hout meeting face to face , thanks to technology such as videoconferencing , instant messag ing , and email. 18 In fact, members of some of these
virtual teams may never meet each other in person. Although the merits ot face-to-face vs.
electronic communication have been debated , there may be a strong ethical argument for virtual teams. Keeping team members where they are, as opposed to having them travel
every time they need to m eet, may be a more environmentally responsible choice. A very
large proportion of airline, rail, and car transport is for business purposes and contributes greatly to global carbon dioxide emissions. When teams are able to meet virtually rather
than face to face, they d ramatically red uce t heir carbon footprint.
Here are several ways that virtual teams can be harnessed for greater sustainability:
1. Encourage all team mem bers to think about whether a face-to-face meeting is really
necessary and to try to use alternative comm unication methods whenever possible.
2 . Communicate as much information as possible through virtual means, including email, telephone calls, and videoconferencing.
3 . When travelling to team meetings, choose the most environmentally responsib le meth- ods possible. Also, c heck the environm ental profile of hotels before booking rooms.
4 . If the environmental savings are not enough motivation to reduce travel, consider the
financial savings. Accord ing to a recent survey, businesses spend about 8 to 12 p er- cent of their entire budget on travel. Communicating electronically can therefore result
, in two benefits: (a) It's cheaper and (b) it's good for the environment. •..............•
206 Part 2 Striving for Performance
8 Show how role require· ments change in differ- ent situations.
rol e A set of expected behaviours of a person in a given position in a social unij_
role expectati ons How others believe a person should act in a given situation.
role conflict A situation in which an individual finds that complying with one role requirement may make it ITlOfe difficult to comply with another.
groups and teams, we will use the terms interchangeably. Many of the processes that each go through are the same, with the major d ifference being that teams with in the workplace are often set up on a nonpermanenl basis in order to accomplish projects.
Turn ing Around a Losing Team
Can one st a r performer make a team successful? The Winn ipeg Blue Bombers won 3 games in 2013 and 9 of36 from 2012 lo 2013.23 By early August 2014, though, fans thought maybe the team had turned its fate around, wi th a 5 to 1 winning record on August 6, the best in the West Divis ion.
The Bombers h ired quarterback Drew Willy before the 2014 season started, and h e received some of the credit for making a d ifference, earning t,vo CFL Offensive Player of the Week lilies playing for the Bombers. With the early winning streak, head coach Mike O'Shea praised Willy for h is leadership and h is co nfidence. "He knows he ca n do il .. . his bel ief in h imself, his knowledge that he can get the job done spills over to his teammates. They recogn ize that he believes they are going to get it done.•
Willy's skills and leadership were nol enough to lead the Bombers lo a winning season, however. The team won just one more game after August 6, losing 12 during the season. Despite the d isma l record, sportswri ter Gary Lawless no ted that "Willy is the future in Winnipeg and this off-season will all be about giv ing him what he needs to succeed." The general view was that Willy had done all that he could do, but he needed a better team. O'Shea noted, as the team was headed in to the last game of the season, that even with a losing record, team members were s till expected to give their all in the fina l game. "They need to come and play .. .. If we've got the right group of guys who love to play foo tball, then this is another opportunity for them lo do what they Jove lo do." ... . .. . . . ...... .
Roles Shakespeare said, "All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players.• Using the same metaphor, all group members are actors, each playing a r o le, a set of expected behaviour pauerns of a person in a given position in a socia l unit. We are required to play a number of diverse roles, both on and off our jobs.
As we will see, one of the tasks in understanding behaviour is grasping the role that a person is currently playing. For example, on the job a person might have the roles of electri- cal engineer, member of middle management, and primary company spokesperson in the community. Off the job, there are still more roles: spouse, parent, church member, food bank vol unteer, and coach of the softball team. Many of these roles are compatible; some create conflicL~. For instance, how does one's rel igious involvement influence managerial decisions regarding meeting with clients on the Sabbath 1 We address role conflict below.
Ro le Conflict Most roles are governed by r ole exp ect a tions , that is, how others believe a person shou ld act in a given situation. For instance, there are certa in expectations about how a manager should act while al work. However, if the manager is also a parent, and that manager's chi ld woke up sick in the morn ing, the manager may be confronted by conflicting role expectations: go to work or remain with the sick child. Th is di lemma is role co nflict. Role conflict arises when an individual finds that comp lying with one role requirement may make il more difficult lo comply with another.24 At the extreme, il can include si tuations in which two or more role expectations are mu tually contradic- tory! A great deal of research demonstrates that work- fami ly con flict is one of the most s ign ificant sources of stress for most emp loyees.25
Chapter 6 Groups and Teamwork 207
Wilhin organizalions, mosl employees are simultaneously in occupalions, work groups, divis ions, and demographic groups, and Lhese idenlilies can conflicl when lhe expectations of one clash wi th lhe expectations of anolher.26 During mergers and acqu isitions, employees can be torn between lheir identilies as members of lheir origi- nal organ izat ion and of lhe new parent company.27 Multinalional organ izations also have been shown to lead lo dual identificalion, wilh lhe local division and wilh lhe in ternational organ ization.28
Ro le Amb iguity Role ambiguity exists when a person is unclear about lhe expectalions of his or her role. In teams, role ambigui ty can lead to confusion, slress, and even bad feelings. For instance, suppose two group members each lh ink that lhe olher one is responsible for preparing lhe first draft of a report. Al lhe next group meeting, neilher brings a draft report, and bolh are annoyed lhat the olher person d id not do lhe work.
Groups benefil when individuals know lheir roles. Roles wilh in groups and teams should be ba lanced. Edgar Schein, professor emeritus of the MIT Sloan School of Management, suggests lhat role overload occurs when what is expected of a person "far exceeds what he or she is able to do."29 Role underload occurs when too little is expected of someone, and lhat person fee ls lhat he or she is not conlribuling lo lhe group.
Norms Have you ever noticed lhal go lfers don' t speak while lheir parlners are putting? Why? The answer is •norms"!
Norms are acceptab le standards of behaviour shared by group members lhat express what lhey ought and ought not to do under certain circumstances. H's not enough for group leaders to share lheir opin ions- even if members adopt lhe leaders' v iews, lhe effect may last only lhree days! 30 When agreed lo by lhe group, norms influence behav- iour wilh a min imum of external conuols. Different groups, communities, and socielies have different norms, bu t lhey all have lhem.31
A study of 23 National Basketball Association teams found that "shared experience• -tenure on the team and time on court-tended to improve turnover and boost win-loss performance significantly. Why do you think teams that stay together longer tend to play better?
C, Demonstrate how norms exert influence on an individual's behaviour.
role ambiguity A persoo is unclear about his or her role.
role overload Too much is expected of someone.
role underload Too little is expected of someone, and !hat person feels that he or she is not contributing to the group.
norms Acceptable standards of behaviour wilhin a group !hat are shared by lhe group's members.
208 Part 2 Striving for Performance
~ OB ~cr10N Creating a Team Charter
Formalized norms are written up in organ izational manu- als that set out ru les and procedures for employees to fo llow. Bu t, by far, most norms in orga nizations are informal. You don't need someone to tell you that throwing paper airplanes or engaging in prolonged gossip sessions at the water coo ler is an unacceptable behaviour when the "big boss from Toronto" is touring the office. Sim ilarly, we all know that when we are in an employment interview discussing what we did not like about our previous job, there are certa in things we should not talk about (such as d iffic ulty in getting alo ng with co-workers or our manager). There are other th ings it's appropria te to ta lk about (inadequate opportunities for advancement, or unimportan t and meaningless work) .
When you form a new team, you may want to develop a team charter, so that everyone agrees o n the basic norms for group performance. Con- s ider incl ud ing answers to the following in your charter:
-+ What are team members' names a nd conta ct information ( e.g., phone, email)7
-+ How will communication among team members take place ( e.g., phone, ema il)7
-+ What will the team ground rules be ( e.g., where and when to meet, auendance expecta- tions, workload expectations)?
-+ How will de cis ions be made ( e.g., consensus, ma jority vote, leader rules)?
-+ What poten tial confli cts may arise in the team? Among team members?
-+ How will conflicts b e reso lved by the group?33
Norms can cover virtually any aspect of group behaviour.32
Some of the most common norms have to do with issues such as
• Performance. How hard to work, the level of output, wha t kind of qua lity, levels of tardiness
• Appearance. Dress codes, when to look busy, when to "goof off,• how to show loyalty
• Social arrangenient. With whom Lo eat lunch, whether Lo form fr iendships on and off the job
• Allocation of resources. Pay, assignments, allocation of tools and equipment
OB in Action- Creating a Team Charter presents a way for teams to develop norms when the team first forms.
The " How" and " Why" of Norms How do norms develop? Why are they enforced? A review of the research allows us to answer these q uestions. 34
Norms typ ically develop gradually as group members learn what behavio u rs are necessary for the team to function effectively. Of course, critical events in the group m ight short-circuit the process and qu ickly prompt new norms. Most norms develop in one or more of the following fo ur ways:
• Explicit statenients made by a graup member. Often, instructions from the group's supervisor or a powerful member establish norms. The team leader m ight spe- cifically say that no personal phone calls are allowed during working hours or tha t coffee breaks must be no longer than 10 minutes.
• Critical events in the group's histary. These set important precedents. A bystander is injured while stand ing too close to a machine and, from that poi nt on, members of the work group regularly monitor one another to ensure that no one other than the operator gets with in two metres of any machine.
• Primacy. The first behavioural pa uern that emerges in a group frequently sets team expectations. Groups of students who are fr iends often choose seats near one another on the first day of class and become upset if an outsider takes "their" seats in a later class.
• Carry-over behaviour.s fron1 past situations. Group members bring expectations with them from other groups to which they have belonged. Th us, work groups typically prefer to add new members who are similar to current o nes in back- ground and experience. This is likely to increase the probabi lity that the expec- tations they bring are consistent w ith those already held by the group.
Chapter 6 Groups and Teamwork 209
Groups don' t establish or enforce norms for every conceivable situation, however. The norms that the groups will enforce tend to be those that are important to them. 35
What makes a norm important?
• It facilitates the group's survival. Groups don't like to fail, so they seek to en force any norm that increases their chances for success. This means that groups try to protect themselves from interference from other groups or individua ls.
• It increases the predictability of group niember.s' behaviours. Norms that increase predictabil ity enable group members to anticipate one another's actions and to prepare appropriate responses.
• It reduces embarrassing interper.sonal problems for group members. Norms are important if they ensure the satisfaction of their members and prevent as much interpersonal discomfort as possible.
• It allows niember.s to express the central values of the group and clarify what is distinctive about the group's identity. Norms that encourage expression of the group's values and distinctive identity help solidify and mainta in the group.
Conformity As a group member, you desire acceptance by the group. Thus, you are susceptible to conforming lo the group's norms. Considerable evidence shows tha t the group can place
s trong pressures on ind ividual members to change their attitudes and behaviours to conform to the group's standard.36 There are numerous reasons for conformity, with recent research highl ighting the importance of a des ire lo form accurate perceptions of real ity based on group consensus, to develop mean ingful social relationships with others, and to ma intain a favourable self-concept.
The impact that group pressures for conformity can have on an individual member's
judgment and a ttit udes was demonstrated in studies by psychologist Solomon Asch.37
Asch found that subjects gave answers that they knew were wrong, but that were consis- tent with the replies of other group members, about 35 percent of the time. The results
suggest that group norms can pressure us toward conformity. We desire to be one of the group and avoid being visibly different.
Research by Un iversity of British Columb ia professor Sandra Robinson and col- league Anne O'Leary-Kelly indicates that conformity may expla in why some work groups are more prone to antisocial behaviour than o thers. 38 Ind ividuals working with others who exhibited antisocial behaviour al work were more likely to engage in antisocial behaviour themselves. Of course, not all conformity leads to negative behav- iour. Other research has ind icated that work groups can have more posi tive influences,
lead ing to more prosocial behaviour in the workplace.39
Overall, research continues to ind icate tha t conform ity to norms is a powerful force in groups and teams.
Positive Norms and Group Outcomes One goal of every organization with corpora te social responsibility {CSR) in itiatives is for its values to hold normative sway over employees. After all, if employees al igned their thinking with positive norms, these norms wou ld become stronger and t he
probab ility of posi tive impact wou ld grow exponentially. We might expect the same outcomes from pol itical correctness {PC) norms. Bu t what is the effect of s trong posi- t ive norms on group outcomes? The popular thinking is that to increase creativity in groups, for instance, norms should be loosened . However, research on gender-diverse groups indicates that strong PC norms increase group creativity. Why? Clear expecta-
t ions about male-female interactions reduce uncertainty about group expectations,40
conformity Adjusting ooe's behaviour to align with the nDfms of the group.
21 O Part 2 Striving for Performance
deviant workplace behaviour Volun1ary behaviour that violates significant organiza!iooal n0<ms and, in so doing, threatens 1he well-being of the organization Of ~s members. Also called anljsocial behavioor Of workplace incivility.
which allows the members to more easily express their crealive ideas withoul combat- ling stereotype norms.
Positive group norms may well begel positive oulcomes, but only if other faclors are present, too. For instance, in a recenl sludy, a high level of group exlraversion predicled help ing behaviours more slrongly when lhere were posilive coopera tion norms.41
As powerful as norms can be, though, not everyone is equally susceplible lo posilive group norms. Individual personalities faclor in, too, as well as lhe level of a person's social identity with the group. Also, a recenl sludy in Germany ind icated thal the more salisfied people were with their groups, the more closely they followed group norms.42
Negative Norms and Group Outco mes Malthew is fruslraled by a co-worker who constantly spreads malicious and unsubslan- liated rumours aboul him. Aisha is lired of a member of her work group who, when confronted with a problem, Lakes oul his frustra tion by yelling and screaming al her and other members. Mi-Cha recenlly quit her job as a denlal hygienisl after being sexually harassed by her employer.
Whal do these illuslrations have in common? They represenl employees exposed lo acts of devianl workp lace behaviour.43 As we discussed in Chapler 3, counterproductive work behaviour (CWB) or deviant workplace beh aviour (also called antisocial behav- iour or workplace in.civility) is voluntary behaviour thal violates significant organizational norms and, in so doing, threalens lhe well-being of the organization or ils members.
Exh ib il 6-2 provides a typology of deviant workplace behaviours, with examples of each. Few organizations will admit lo crealing or condon ing conditions lhal encourage
and ma intain deviant behaviours. Yet they exist. For one, as we discussed before, a work group can become characlerized by positive or negative altribules. When those atlribules are nega tive, such as when a work group is h igh in psychopathy and aggression, lhe characteristics of deceit, amorality, and inlenl to harm others are pronounced.44 Second, employees have been reporting an increase in rudeness and disregard loward others by bosses and co-workers in recenl years. Workp lace incivility, like many other devianl behaviours, has many negative outcomes for lhe victi ms.45 Nearly half of employees who have suffered th is incivility say il has led them to think about changing jobs; 12 percent actually qu il because of it.46 Also, a sludy of nearly 1500 respondenlS found thal in add ilion to increasing lurnover inlenlions, incivi lity al work increased reporlS of psycho logical slress and physical illness.47 Th ird, research suggests that a lack of sleep,
EXHIBIT 6-2 Typology of Deviant Workplace Behaviour
Category
Production
Property
Po litical
Personal aggression
Examples
Leaving early Intentionally working slowly Wast ing resources
Sabotage Lying about hours worked Stea ling from the organi zati on
Showing favouritism Gossiping and spreading rumours Blam i ng co-workers
Sexual harassment Verbal abuse Stea ling from co-workers
Sources: S. H. Appelbaum, G. D. laconi, and A. Matousek, "Positive and Negative Deviant Workplace Behaviors: Causes, Impacts, and Solutions," Corporate Governance 7, no. 5 (2007), pp. 586-598; and R. W. Griffin, and A . O'Leary-Kelly, The Dari< Side of Organizational Behavior (New Yori<: Wiley, 2004).
Chapter 6 Groups and Teamw ork 2 1 1
wh ich is often caused by heightened work demands and which hinders a person's ability to regulate emo tions and behaviours, can lead to deviant behaviour. As organ izations have tried to do more with less, pushing their emp loyees to work extra hours, they may indirectly be faci litating deviant behaviour.48
Like norms in general, employees' antisocial actions are shaped by the group context within which they work. Evidence demonstrates deviant workplace behaviour is likely to flourish where it's supported by group norms.4 9 For example, workers who socialize either at or outside work with people who are frequen tly absent from work are more likely lo be absent themselves.50 Thus, when deviant workplace norms surface, employee cooperation, comm itment, and motivation are likely to suffer.
What are the consequences of workplace dev iance for groups? Some research sug- gests a chain reaction occurs in groups with high levels of d ysfunctional behaviour.51
The process begins with negative behaviours like shirking, undermining co-workers, or being generally uncooperative. As a result of these behaviours, the group collectively s tarts to have nega tive moods. These negative moods then result in poor coord ination of effort and lower levels of group performance.
Stages of Group and Team Development
I As the student workers at Summerlunch+ prepared to meet the youngsters they would be feed-ing, they faced a number of questions . What would the work be like' Would everyone like the food? Who would really be in charge' Would the program be successful? To build a successful
I team that produces high-quality work, the employees of Summerlunch+ had to go through several stages. What stages do teams go through as they develop' When people get together for the firs t time wi th the purpose of achieving some objec- tive, they discover that acting as a team is not something simple, easy, or genetically programmed. Working in a group or team is often difficult, particularly in the initial stages, when people don' t necessarily know one another. As lime passes, groups and teams go through various s tages of development, although the s tages are not necessarily exactly the same for each group or team. In this section, we d iscuss two models of group development. The five-stage model describes the standardized sequence of stages groups pass through. The punctuated-equilibrium model describes the pattern of developmen t specific lo temporary groups with deadlines. These models can be applied equally to groups and teams.
The Five-Stage Model As shown in Exh ib it 6-3, the five-stage group-development model has groups proceed- ing through the d istinct stages of fanning, stonning, nonning, performing, and adjourning.52
Although we now know that not all groups pass through these s tages in a linear fash ion, the five-stage model of group development can still help in addressing any anxieties you might have about working in groups and teams. The model shows how ind iv idu- als move from being independent to \vorking interdependently with group members.
• Stage I: Fanning. Think about the first time you met with a new team. Do you remember how some people seemed silent and others felt confused about the task you were to accomp lish? Those fee lings arise during the firs t stage of group development, known as forming. Forming is characterized by a great deal of uncerta inty about the team's purpose, structure, and leadership. Members are "testing the waters" lo determine what types of behaviour are accep table. This s tage is complete when members have begun to think of themselves as part of a team.
• Stage ll: Swrming. Do you remember how some peop le in your team just did not seem to get along, and sometimes power struggles even emerged? These
O Identify the five stages of group development.
forming The first stage in group development, characterized by much uncertainty.
2 1 2 Part 2 Striving for Performance
EXHIBIT 6-3 Stages of Group Development and Accompanying Issues
Storming
Forming
Pre-group
Norming
Dependence/ interdependence
Performing
Adjourning
Return to independence
Independence
Individual issues
Group issues
storming The second stage in group development, characterized by intragroup conflict.
norming The third stage in group development, characterized by do5e relatiooships and cohesiveness.
performing The fourth stage in group development, when the group is fully functional.
adjourning The final stage in group development for tempo<ary groups, where attention is directed toward wrapping up activities rather than task performance.
"How do I ·what's my "What do the "How do I ·what's next?" f•t. )" I 10 . role here?" others expect best perform?"
of me?"
"Why are we he<e?"
·who is in charge and who
" Can we agree on roles and
" Can we do the job
· How do we disband?"
does what?" work as a team?" properly?"
reactions are typ ical of the s torming stage, which is one of intragroup con- flict. Members accept the existence of the team, but resist the constra ints that the team imposes on ind ividuality. Furthermore, there is con fl ict over who will control the team. When this stage is complete, a relatively clear h ierarchy of leadership will emerge within the team.
Some teams never really emerge from the s torming stage, or they move back and forth through storm ing and the other stages. A team that remains forever planted in the storming stage may have less ability to complete the task because of all the interpersonal problems.
• Stage Ill: Norming. Many teams resolve the interpersonal conflict and reach the third stage, in wh ich close relationships develop and the team demonstrates cohesiveness. There is now a strong sense of team iden tity and camaraderie. Th is norming s tage is complete when the team structure sol id ifies, and the team has assimi lated a common set of expectations of what defines correct member behaviour.
• Stage N : Performing. Next, and you may have noticed this in some of your own team interactions, some teams jus t seem to come together well and start to do their work. This fo urth stage, when s ign ificant task progress is being made, is called performing. The structure at this point is fully fu nctional a nd accepted. Team energy has moved from getting to know and understand one a nother to performing the task at hand.
• Stage V: Adjourning. For permanent work groups and teams, perform ing is the last stage in their development. However, for temporary committees, teams, task forces, and s imi lar groups that have a limited task to perform, there is an adjourning s tage. In this stage, the group prepares for its disbandment. High
Chapter 6 Groups and Teamwork 2 13
task performance is no longer the group's top priority. Instead, atten tion is d irected toward wrapping up activities. Group members' responses vary at th is stage. Some members are upbeat, basking in the group's accomplishments. Others may be depressed over the loss of camaraderie and friendships gained during the work group's life.
For some teams, the end of one project may mean the beginn ing of another. In this case, a team has lo transform itself in order to get on with a new project that may need a d ifferent focus and d ifferent skills, and may need to take on new members. Thus the adjourning s tage may lead to renewal of the team to get the next project started.
Putting the Five-Stage Model into Perspective Many interpreters of the five -stage model have assumed that a group becomes more effective as it progresses through the firs t four s tages. This assumption may be gener- ally true, but what makes a group effective is actually more complex.53 First, groups proceed through the stages of group development al different rates. Those with a strong sense of purpose and strategy rapidly achieve high performance and improve over time, whereas those with less sense of purpose actually see their performance worsen over time. Sim ilarly, groups that begin w ith a positive social focus appear to achieve the "performing" stage more rap id ly. Nor do groups always proceed clearly from one stage to the next. Storming and performing can occur simu ltaneously, and groups can even regress lo previous stages.
The five -stage model also ignores organizational context. 54 For instance, a s tudy of a cockp it crew in an a irliner found that, with in 10 minutes, three strangers ass igned to fly together for the firs t time had become a high-performing team. How cou ld a team come together so qu ickJy7 The answer lies in the strong organ izational context surrounding the tasks of the cockpit crew. This context provided the rules, task defini- tions, information, and resources needed for the team to perform. They did not need to develop plans, assign roles, determine and allocate resources, resolve conflicts, and set norms the way the five-stage model pred icts. Nevertheless, a recent review of 40 years of research looking at th is model suggests that it is still a good place to start when d iscussing group development.55
The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model Temporary groups with dead lines don't seem to fo llow the previous model. Studies ind icate that temporary groups with deadl ines have their own un ique sequence of action ( or inaction ):56
• The first meeting sets the group's direction.
• The first phase of group activity is one of inertia and thus slower progress.
• A transition takes place exactly when the group has used up half its allotted lime.
• Th is transition in itiates major changes.
• A second phase of inertia follows the transition.
• The group's last meeting is characterized by mark- edly accelerated activity.
This pattern, called the pun ct uate d -equilib rium model, is shown in Exhibit 6-4. It's important for you to understand these shifts in group behaviour, if for no other reason than when you are in a group that is not working well or one that has got off lo a slow start, you can start to think of ways to help the group move to a more productive phase.
Ever ,-vonder ,,vhat causes
flurries of activity in
groups'? punctuated-equilibrium model A set of phases that tempo<ary groups go lhrough that involves transitions betlveen inertia and activity.
2 14 Part 2 Striving for Performance
EXHIBIT 6-4 The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model
(High)
B c .. E 0
i ...
Phase 1
Fi rst meeti ng
A
Phase 1
(A+B)/ 2
Time
Phase 2 Completion
B
As both a team member and possibly a team leader, it's importan t that you recognize that the first meeti ng sets the team's d irection. AL the first meeti ng, the group's general purpose and direction is established, and then a framework of behavioural patterns and assumptions through which the team will approach its project emerges, sometimes in the firs t few seconds of the team's life. Th is is especially challenging when some team members are rel uctant to speak up in meetings, as discussed in Case lncident- Tongue- Tied in Teams on page 236.
Once set, the team's direction becomes "written in stone" and is unlikely to be re-examined throughout the first ha lf of the team's life. Th is is a period of inertia- that is, the team tends to s tan d still or become Jocked into a fixed course of action. Even if it gains new insights that challenge initial pallerns and assumptions, the team is incapable of acting on these new insights in Phase 1. You may recognize that in some teams, d uring the early period of trying Lo get things accomplished, no one really d id his or her assigned tasks. You may also recognize th is ph ase as one where everyone carries out the tasks, but not in a very coordinated fash ion. Thus, the team is perform- ing at a relatively lo\v state. This does no t necessarily mean that it's do ing no th ing at all, however.
Phase 2 O ne of the more interesting d iscoveries made in work team stud ies was that teams experienced their tra nsi tion precisely halfway between the firs t meeti ng and the official deadli ne, whether members spent an h our on their project or six months.57 The mid- point appears to work like an alarm clock, heighten ing members' awareness that their time is limited and that they need to "get moving.• When you work on your next team project, yo u m ight want to exam ine when your team starts to "get moving.•
This transition ends Phase 1 and is characterized by a concentrated burst of changes, dropping of old pa uerns, and adoption of new perspectives. The transition sets a revised d irection for Phase 2, which is a new equilibrium or period of inertia. In this phase, the team executes plans created d uring the tra nsition period. The team's last meeting is characterized by a final burst of activity to fin ish its work. A number of stud ies support the basic premise of punctuated equilibrium, though not all of them found that the transition in the team occurred exactly at the midpoint.58
App lying the Punctuated-Equilibrium Model We can use this model to describe ty pical experiences of student teams created for doing group term projects. Al the first meeting, a basic timetable is established. Members size
Chapter 6 Groups and Teamwork 2 15
up one another. They agree they have n ine weeks to do their project. The instructor's requirements a re d iscussed and debated. From that poin t, the group meets regularly to carry out its activities. About four or five weeks into the project, however, prob lems are confronted. Criticism begins lo be taken seriously. Discussion becomes more open. The group reassesses where it has been and aggressively moves to make necessary changes. If th e righ t changes are made, the next four or five weeks find the group developing a first-rate project. The gro up's last meeting, wh ich will probably occur just before th e project is d ue, lasts longer than the others. In it, all fina l issues are d iscussed and details resolved.
In summary, the p unctua ted-equilibrium model characterizes dead line-oriented teams as exh ibiti ng long periods of inertia, interspersed with brief revolutionary changes triggered primarily by their members' awareness of time and deadl ines. To use the termi- nology of the five -s tage model. the team begins by comb ini ng the forming and norming stages, then goes through a period of low perfonning, followed by stonning, then a period of high performing, an d, finally, adjoun1ing.
This is not the o nly model of group s tages by far, but it is a dominant theory with strong support. Keep in mind, however, that this model does not apply to all groups but is su ited to the fi n ite quality of temporary task groups working u nder a time deadl ine.59
I\ 0 )'I ~ CAREER OBJECTIVES
L \i Can I Fudge the Numbers and Not Take the Blame? I've got a g reat work g roup, except for one th ing: The others make me omit negative information a bout ou r g ro u p's success t hat I'm in charge of as the treasurer. They gang u p on me, insult me, a nd t h reaten me, so in t he end I report w hat they want . They say om itti ng t he negative informat ion is not really wrong, and it doesn't vio lat e ou r orga nization's rules, but o n my own I wou ld report everything. I need to stay in the g rou p o r I'll lose my jo b. If we are calle d out on th e numbers, can I just put the blame on the w ho le g rou p?
-Jean-Claude
Dear Jean -Claude: The short answer is that, since you are in a leadership role in the group, you may not have the option of blaming the others. Further, you may be held individually accountable as a leader for the outcomes of this situation.
Your dilemma is not unusual. Once we think of ourselves as part of a col- lective, we want to stay in the group and can become vulnerable to pres- sures to conform. The pressure you are getting from multiple members can make you aware that you are in the minority in the group, and taunting can make you feel like an outsider or lesser member; therefore threats to harm your group standing may feel powerful.
So you have a choice: Submit to the p ressure and continue misrep- resenting your group's success, or adhere to the responsibility you have as the treasurer and come clean. From an ethical standpoint , we hope you don 't consider the first option an acceptable choice. To make a change, you may be able to use social identification to your advantage. Rather than challeng- ing the group as a whole, try meeting with individual group members to build trust, talking to each as fellow mem- bers of a worthy group that can suc- ceed without any ethical quandaries. Don't try to build a coalition; instead,
build trust w ith individuals and change the climate of the group to value ethi- cal behaviour. Then the next time you need to report the numbers, you can call upon the group's increased ethi- cal awareness to gain support for your leadership decisions.
Sources: M. Cikara and J. J . Van Savel, "The Neuroscience of Intergroup Relations: An Integrative Review," Perspectives on Psychological Science 9, no. 3 (2014), pp. 245-27 4: M.A. Korsgaard, H. H. Brower, and S . W. Lester, "It Isn't />Jways Mutual: A Critical Review of Dyadic Trust," Journal of Management 41 , no. 1 (2015), pp. 47-70; R. L. Priem and P. C. Nystrom, "Exploring the Dynamics of Workgroup Fracture: Common Ground, Trust-With-Trepidation, and Warranted Distrust," Journal of Management 40, no. 3 (2014), pp. 67 4-795.
The opinions provided here are of the man8(J- er.s and authors only and do nor necessarily reflect those of their organlzlltlons. The authors or man8(Je(S are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for the results obtained from the use of this information. tn no event will the authors or man8(JefS, or their related partner- ships or corporations thereof, be liable to you or anyone else for any decision made or action taken In reliance on the opinions provided here.
2 16 Part 2 Striving for Performance
f) Identify the characteris· tics of effective teams.
Creating Effective Teams
I Building an effective team requ ires solid groundwork, wh ich Susan Wright did with her Summerlunch+ student employees by explaining the norms, making sure there was enough supervision, and letting the employees develop confidence in their wcrk. 60 After several weeks,
Wright added more things to help the team develop.
Recogn ition and rewards can be part of building a solid team . Wright learned that the students wanted to go to Canada's Wonderland together. "In the background, we worked on
getting tickets for the team. Once the students saw that we were listening and wanted to show
our gratitude, we felt an immediate increase in commitment and energy." By the fourth week, Wright and the others in charge expanded the roles of the student
employees to bring them closer together. Students found their responsibility, creativity, and
autonomy increased, unless a student seemed unable to handle these additional items. That way, students were not overwhelmed by changes, but the team could grow as a whole.
Finally, during the last week of camp, Wright sought more feedback from the students,
I asking them to tell the leaders about their roles and how they felt about their experience with Summerlunch+. Students were proud to have been part of this endeavour. When we consider team effectiveness, we refer to such objective measures as the team's productivity, managers' ratings of the team's performance, and aggregate measures of member satisfaction. Some of the considerations necessary to create effective teams are outl ined next. However, we are also interested in team process. Exhibit 6-5 lists the characteristics of an effective team.
EXHIBIT 6-5 Characteristics of an Effective Team 1. Clear purpose The vision, mission, goal, or task of the team has been defined and is now accepted by
everyone. There is an action plan.
2. Informality The climate tends to be informal, comfortable, and relaxed. There are no obvious tensions or signs of boredom.
3. Participation There is much discussion, and everyone is encouraged to participate.
4. Listening The members use effective listening techniques such as questioning, paraphrasing, and summarizing to get out ideas.
5. Civilized disagreement There is disagreement, but the team is comfortable with this and shows no signs of avoiding, smoothing over, or suppressing conflict.
6. Consensus decisions For important decisions, the goal is substantial but not necessarily unanimous agreement through open discussion of everyone's ideas, avoidance of formal voting, or easy compromises.
7. Open communication Team members feel free to express their feelings on the tasks as well as on the group's operation. There are few hidden agendas. Communication takes place outside of meetings.
8. Clear rules and work There are clear expectations about the roles played by each team member. When action is assignments taken, clear assignments are made, accepted, and carried out. Work is distributed among
team members.
9. Shared leadership While the team has a formal leader, leadership functions shift from time to time depending on the circumstances, the needs of the group, and the skills of the members. The formal leader models the appropriate behaviour and helps establish positive norms.
10. External relations The team spends time developing key outside relationships, mobilizing resources, and building credibility with important players in other parts of the organization.
11 . Style diversity The team has a broad spectrum of team-player types including members who emphasize attention to task, goal settilg, focus on process, and questions about how the team is functioning.
12. Self-assessment Periodically, the team stops to examine how w ell it is functioning and what may be interfering with its effectiveness.
Source: Team players and teamwork: The new competitive business strategy by PARKER, GLENN M. Reproduced with permission of JOHN WILEY & SONS, INCORPORATED in the format Republish in a book via Copyright Clearance Center.
EXHIBIT 6-6 A Model of Team Effectiveness
Context
• Adequate resou rces
• Leadership and structure • Climate of t rust • Performance
evaluation and systems
Team effectiveness
Process
• Common purpose
• Specific goals • Team efficacy • Team identity • Team cohesion
• Mental models • Conflict levels • Social loafing
Chapter 6 Groups and Teamwork 2 17
Composition
• Abilities of members
• Personality • Allocati ng roles • Diversity
• Cultural differences
• Size of teams
• M ember preferences
There is no shortage of efforts Lhat try to identify Lhe factors Lhat lead to team effec- tiveness. However, stud ies have taken what was once a large list of characteristics into a relatively focused model. 61 Exhibit 6-6 summarizes what we currently know about what makes teams effective.
Keep in mind two caveats as you review Lhe issues Lhat lead to effective teams:
• First, teams differ in form and structure. Since Lhe model we present at1empts to general ize across all varieties of teams, you need to be carefu l not lo rigidly app ly Lhe model's predictions to all teams.62 The model sh ould be used as a guide, not as an inflexible prescription.
• Second, Lhe model assumes Lhat it's already been determined that teamwork is preferable over ind ividual work. Creating "effective" teams in situations where individuals can do Lhe job better is equiva len t lo solving Lhe wrong problem perfectly.
What does team effectiveness mean in th is model? 'fypically, il includes objective measures of the team's productivity, managers' ratings of the team's performance, and aggregate measures of member satisfaction. We can organ ize Lhe key compo nents of effective teams into three general categories. First are Lhe resources and other contex- tual in fl uences Lhat make teams effective. The second relates to Lhe team's composition. Finally, process variables are events wilhin Lhe team Lhat influence effectiveness. We will explore each of these components next. OB in Action- Hanning Your Team presents activities Lhat can make a team ineffective. You might want to eval uate your own team experience against Lhis checkl ist to give you some idea of how well you r team is func- tioning, or to u nderstand what might be causing problems for your team. Then consider Lhe factors Lhat lead lo more effective teams below. For an applied look at Lhe process of bui lding an effective team, see Lhe Experiential Exercise on page 235 wh ich asks you to bu ild a paper tower wi th teammates and Lhen analyze how the team performed.
2 1 8 Part 2 Striving for Performance
~ OB ~cr10N Harm ing Yo ur Team
-+ Refuse to s h are issues and concerns. Team members refuse to share information and engage in s ilence, avoidance, and meetings behind closed doors where not all members are included.
-+ Depend too much on the leader . Members rely too m uch on lhe leader and do not cany oul their responsibi lit ies.
-+ Fail to follow through on decisions. Teams do not take action after decis ion making, showing that the needs of the team have low priority, or that members are not committed to lhe decisions that were made.
-+ Hide conflict. Team members do not reveal that they have a difference of opin ion, an d this causes tension.
-+ Fail at conflict r es o lu tion . Infighting, put- downs, and attempts to hurt other members damage the team.
-+ Form subgroups . The team breaks up into smaller groups that p ut their needs ahead of the team as a whole. 63
Context The four contextual factors that appear to be most s ignificanlly related lo team performance are adequa te resources, effective leadersh ip, a cl imate of lrust, and a performance evalua tio n and reward system that reflects team conlrib utions.
Adequate Resources Teams are part of a larger organizatio n system; every work team relies on resources outside lhe team to sustai n itself. A scarcity of resources directly reduces the abi lity of a team to perform its job effe ctively. As one set of researchers concluded, after looking at 13 factors potentially related to team performance, "perhaps one of the most importa nt characteristics of an effective work group is lhe support the group receives from the organ ization."64 Th is support includes technology, adequate staffing, admin islrative assistance, encouragement, and timely information.
Teams mus t receive the necessary support from management and lhe larger organiza tion if they are lo succeed in ach ieving their goals.
Leadership and Structure Leadership plays a crucial role in the development and success of teams.
Professor Richard Hackman of Harvard Un iversity, who is lhe leading expert on teams, suggests that the role of team leader involves lhe follow ing:66
• Creating a real team rather than a team in name o nly
• Setting a clear and mean ingful d irection for lhe team's work
• Maki ng sure that lhe team slructure wi ll support working effectively
Wadood Ibrahim (centre), CEO of Winnipeg-based Protegra, a management consulting firm, strongly believes in engaged teams. "We give Protegrans the autonomy and responsibility to do their own work, and as a result, they take on the challenge to do what they need to without strict hierarchical management structures in place."65
Chapter 6 Groups and Teamwork 2 19
• Ensuring lhal lhe team operates wilhin a supportive organiza tional context
• Providing expert coaching
Teams can't function if lhey can'l agree on who is lo do what and ensure all mem- bers share lhe workload. Agreeing on lhe specifics of work and how lhey fit togelher to integrate individual skills requires leadership and slructure, ei ther from managemen t or from team members lhemselves. In self-ma naged teams, members absorb many of lhe du ties typically assumed by managers. A manager's job then becomes managing outside (rather lhan inside) lhe team.
Leadership is especially important in mu ltiteam syslems. Here, leaders need to del- egate responsibil ities to teams and play lhe ro le of facilitator, making sure lhe teams work togelher ralher Lhan against one anolher. 67
Rece nt research suggests lhat women may make beuer team leaders lhan men, as Focus on Research shows.
FOCUS ~1 sEARCH A Leader's Gender Can Affect Team Performance
Do men's and women's approaches to team leadership lead to different outcomes? "The more women participating equally in a project, the better the outcome," suggests Professor
Jennifer Berdahl of the Sauder School of Business at the University of British Columbia. 68
Berdah I's research looked at 169 students enrolled in her o rganizational behaviour
courses. She found that all of the teams started out w ith one person taking a leadership
role. However, if the groups were predominantly male, the same person stayed in charge
the entire time. In predominantly female teams, women shared leadership roles, and were
more egalitarian in how they worked. Male-led teams, whether they were predominantly
male groups or mixed- gender groups, received poorer grades on their projects than teams
where women shared leadership ro les.
Berdahl gives this advice to students: "In a creative project team, it's really important to
• ensure there is equal opportunity for participation." ................................•
Climate of Trust Trust is lhe fo undalion of leadership; it allows a team to accep t and commit to the leader's goals and decis ions. Members of effective teams exhibil trusl in lheir leaders.69 They also trus t o ne anolher. Interpersonal trust among team members facil i- tates cooperation, reduces lhe need lo mon itor one another's behavio u r, and bonds individuals through the be) ief that members won't take advantage of lhem. Members are more likely to take risks and expose vu lnerab ilities when lhey can lrust others on lheir team. Trust allows a team to accept and comm it lo its leader's goals and decisions. The overa ll level of lrust in a team is important, b ut the way trust is dispersed amo ng team members also matters. Trust levels lhat are asym- melric and imbalanced between team members can m itigate lhe performance advantages of a high overall level of lrust- in such cases, coalitions form lhat often underm ine the team as a whole.70 OB in Action- Building Trust shows Lhe dimensions lhal underl ie the co ncept of trust. Focus on Diversity exam ines how lrust varies across cultures.
··-
~ OB ~c110N Build ing Trust
The fo llowing aclions, in order of importance, help bu ild one's lrustworlhiness.
-+ lntegrity- b uill lhrough h onesty and truth- fulness.
-+ Compete nce-demonstrated by technical and interpersona l knowled ge and skills .
-+ Consistency-shown by reliability, p redictabil- ity, and good judgment in handling situations.
-+ Loyalty - one's will ingness to protect an d sta nd up for anolher person.
-+ Open ness-o ne's willingness to sh are id eas and info r m atio n freely. 71
220 Part 2 Striving for Performance
How do you develop trust on multicult ural teams? The development of trust is critical
in any work situation, but especially in multicultural teams, where differences in commu- nication and interaction styles may lead to misunderstandings, eroding members· trust in
one another. 72
Some studies have shown that overall levels of trust differ across cultures. For example, Germans have been found to be less trusting of people from other countries, such as
Mexicans and Czechs. Japanese employees have been found to be more trusting of their
North American counterparts than the other way around, but only in long -lasting relation- ships. Chinese and US employees seem to trust each other equally.
There is some evidence that people from different cultures pay attention to different
factors when deciding whether someone is trustworthy. Risk taking appears to be more critical to building trust for US and Canadian employees than for Japanese employees,
perhaps reflecting that Canada and the United States are lower in uncertainty avoidance
than Japan . Both Chinese and Mexican employees appear to rely more than US employ- ees on emotional cues such as mutual understanding, openness, and social bonding,
and less on cognitive cues such as reliability, professionalism, and economic cooperation.
When interacting with others from different cultures, whether in a fonmal team setting or not, it seems that what drives you to trust your colleagues may differ from what drives
your colleagues to trust you, and recognizing these differences can help to facilitate higher
: levels of trust . ................................................................. .
Trust is a perception that can be vulnerable to shifting cond itions in a team e nvi- ro nmen t. Also, trust is not u nequivocally desirable. For instan ce, recen t research in Singapore found that, in h igh-trust tea ms, i ndivid ua ls are less likely to clai m and defend personal own ersh ip of their id eas, bu t individuals who do still cla im personal ownersh ip are rated as lower co ntributors by ream members.73 This •pu nishment" by the team may reflect resentments that create negative relationships, increased co nflicts, and reduced performance. For add itional in formation on what leaders ca n d o to improve the cl imate of trus t in their organization, see OB on the Edge-1h1st, o n pages 240- 245.
Performance Evaluation and Rewards How do yo u get team members to be both individ ually and jo intly accountable? Individual performa nce evaluations and incentives are not consistent with the develop- ment of high-performance teams. So in addi tion to evaluati ng and rewardi ng employees for their ind iv id ua l contrib utions, management should utilize hybrid performance systems that incorporate an ind ividual member component to recogn ize individ ual co ntribu tions and a group to rec- ogn ize positive team outcomes.74 Some research has found th at when team members did no t trust th eir colleagues' ability, h o nesty, an d d ependab ility, they preferred ind ivid- ual-based rewards rath er than team-based rewards. Even wh en trust improved over time from worki ng toge ther, there was still a preference for ind ivid ua l-based rewards, suggesting that •teams must have a very h igh level of trust for members to tru ly embrace group-based pay,"75
Should individuals he paiol for their team"''ork or
t heir individual performance'?
O ne add itional consideration when deciding whether and h ow to reward team members is the effect of pay dispers ion on team performance. Research by Na ncy Langton, your Van couver-based a uthor, shows that when there is a large discrepancy in
Chapter 6 Groups and Teamwork 221
wages among group members, collaboralion is lowered.76 A study of baseball player sal- aries also found that teams where p layers were paid more simi larly oflen ou tperformed learns with high ly paid "stars• and lowly paid •scrubs. •77 How teams are slructured and rewarded is the topic of Focus on Research.
FOCUS ~i sEARCH The Im pact of Rewards on Team Functi oning
Can competit ive teams lea rn to cooperate? Researchers at Michigan State University
composed 80 four-person teams from undergraduate business students.78 In a command- and-control computer simulation developed for the US Department of Defense, each
team 's mission was to monitor a geographic area, keep unfriendly forces from moving in, and support friendly forces. Team members played on networked computers, and per-
formance was measured by both speed (how quickly they identified targets and friendly
forces) and accuracy (the number of friendly fire errors and missed opportunities). Teams were rewarded either cooperatively (in which case team members shared
rewards equally) or competitively (in which case team members were rewarded based
on their individual contributions). After playing a few rounds, the reward structures were switched so that the cooperatively rewarded teams were given competitive rewards and
the competitively rewarded teams were now cooperatively rewarded.
The researchers found the initially cooperatively rewarded teams easily adapted to the competitive reward conditions and learned to excel. However, the formerly competitively
rewarded teams could not adapt to cooperative rewards. It seems teams that start out
being cooperative can learn to be competitive, but competitive teams find it much harder to learn to cooperate.
In a follow-up study, researchers found the same results: Cooperative teams more easily adapted to competitive conditions than competitive teams did to cooperative condi-
tions. However, they also found competitive teams could adapt to cooperative conditions
when given freedom to allocate their roles (as opposed to having the roles assigned). That freedom may lead to intrateam cooperation, and thus the process of structuring team roles
: helps the formerly competitive team learn to be cooperative . ........................ .
Composition The team composilion calegory includes variables thal relate lo how learns should be staffed- the abi lil ies and personalilies of team members, lhe allocation of roles, d iver- s ily, cultural differences, size of the team, and members' preferences for teamwork. As you can expect, op inions vary widely aboul the type of members leaders wanl on their learns. Google tried lo find a form ula for bui ld ing the perfecl learn, as Focus on Research noles.
Ab ilities of Members ll's lrue thal we occasiona lly read about an athletic learn of mediocre players who, because of excellenl coach ing, determination, and precision teamwork, beat a far more lalented group. Bul such cases make the news precisely because they are unusual. A lea m's performance depends on part on lhe knowledge, skills, and abilities of its indi- vidual members.80 Abilities set limils on whal members can do and how effectively they will perform o n a learn.
Research revea ls insighls into team composition and performance. First, when so lving a complex problem s uch as re-engineering an assembly line, h igh-ab ilily learns- composed of mostly intell igenl members- do better than lower-ability teams.
222 Part 2 Striving for Performance
FOCUS ~1sEARCH Building Teams
Is it possible to b uild t he perfect team? HR people at Google set up a task force called
Project Aristotle to find the secret to perfect teams. 79 The team thought an algorithm was out there, if they just studied enough teams. The task force studied 180 of the company's active teams and interviewed hundreds of employees.
''Who is on a team matters less than how the team members interact, structure their work, and view their contributions," said people operations analyst Julia Rozovsky.
"Essentially, the best teams are made up of people who respect one another's emotions,
can depend on each other, and actually care about what they're doing." Rozovsky and the task force did find one important norm that seemed to apply to
effective teams. This was the notion of psychological safety. For example, one engineer
described his team leader as "direct and straightforward, which creates a safe space for you to take risks." Another engineer noted that his "team leader had poor emotional
control," and this made him feel uneasy. Rozovsky concluded that in order to optimize
teamwork, "We had to get people to establish psychologically safe environments." •.. . .•
High-abi lity teams are also more adaptab le to changing situations; lhey can more effec- tively apply existing knowledge to new prob lems.
Finally, the abi lity of t he team's leader mauers. Smart team leaders help less. intelligent team members when lhey struggle wilh a task. A less intelligent leader can conversely neutral ize lhe effect of a high-ab ility team.8 1
Exh ibit 6-7 identifies some important ski lls lhat all team members can apply to help teams function well.
EXHIBIT 6-7 Teamwork Skills
Orients team to problem-solving situation
Organizes and manage.s team performance
Pro motes a positive t eam environment
Facilitates and manage.s task conflict
Appropriately promotes perspective
Assists the team in arriving at a common understanding of the situation or problem. Determines the important elements of a problem situation. Seeks out relevant data related to the situation or problem.
Helps team establish specific, challenging, and accepted team goals. Monitors, evaluates, and provides feedback on team performance. Identifies alternative strategies or reallocates resources to address feedback on team performance.
Assists in creating and reinforcing norms of tolerance, respect, and excellence. Recognizes and praises other team members' efforts. Helps and supports other team members. Models desirable team member behaviour.
Encourages desirable and discourages undesirable team conflict. Recognizes the type and source of conflict confronting the team and implements an appropriate resolution strategy. Employs "win-win" negotiation strategies to resolve team conflicts.
Defends stated preferences, argues for a particular point of view, and withstands pressure to change position for another that is not supported by logical or knowledge-based arguments. Changes or modifies position if a defensible argument is made by another team member. Projects courtesy and friendliness to others while arguing position.
Source: G. Chen, L M. Donahue, and R. J . Klimoski, "Training Undergraduates to Work in Organizational Teams,• Academy of Management Learning & Education 3, no. 1 (March 2004), p . 40.
Personality of Members Teams have different needs, and people should be selected for the team on the basis of their personalities and prefer- ences, as well as the team's needs for d iversity and specific roles. We demonstrated in Chapter 2 that personality sig- nificantly influences ind ividual behaviour. This assertion can also be extended lo team behaviour.
Some d imensions identified in the Big Five Personality Model are particularly relevant lo team effectiveness.B2
Chapter 6 Groups and Teamwork 223
\>Vhy do sorne team me1nbers
seem to get along better than others'?
Conscientiousness is especially important to teams. Conscientious people are good a t backing up other team members, and th ey are also good at sensing when their support is truly needed. Conscientious teams a lso have other advantages- one study found that behavioural tendencies such as organ ization, achievemen t orientation, and endurance were all related to h igher levels of team performance.83
Team composition can be based on individua l personalities lo good effect. Suppose an organization needs to create 20 teams of 4 peop le each and has 40 high ly consci- en tious people and 40 who score low on conscientiousness. Would the organ ization be beuer off (a) putting all the conscientious people together (forming 10 teams with the h ighly conscientious people and 10 teams of members low on conscientiousness) or (b) "seeding" each team with 2 peop le who scored h igh and 2 who scored low on conscientiousness?
Perhaps surprisingly, the evidence tends lo suggest that option (a) is the best choice; performance across the teams will be higher if the organization forms 10 highly con- scientious teams and 10 teams low in conscientiousness. The reason is that a team with varying conscientiousness levels w ill not work to the peak performance of its h ighly conscientious members. Instead, a group normalization dynamic ( or simp le resent- ment) will complicate interactions and force the h ighly conscientious members to lower their expectations, thus reducing the group's performance_B4
What about the o ther trails? Teams with a high level of openness to experience tend lo perform beuer, and research indicates that constructive task conflict enhances the effect. Open team members co mmunicate better with one another and t hrow out more ideas, which makes teams composed of open people more creative and innovative.85 Task co nflict also enhances performance for teams with high levels of emotional stability.86 It's nol so much that the confl ict itself improves performance for these teams, but that teams characterized by openness and emotional stab il ity are able to hand le conflict and leverage it to improve performance. The m inimum level of team member agreeableness matters, loo: Teams do worse when they have one or more highly d isagreeable members, and a wide span in individual levels of agreeable- ness can lower productivity. Research is nol clear on the outcomes of extraversion, but a recent study ind icated tha t a high mean level of extraversion in a team can increase the level of helping behaviours, particularly in a cl imate of cooperation.B7 Thus the persona lity tra its of individuals are as important lo teams as the overall personality characteristics of the team.
Allocation of Roles Teams have different needs, and members shou ld be selected to ensure all the various roles are filled. A study of778 major league baseball teams over a 21-year period high- ligh ts the importance of assigning roles appropriately.BB As you might expect, teams with more experienced and skilled members performed beuer. However, the experience and skill of those in core ro les who handled more of the workflow of the team, and were central to all work processes ( in this case, p itchers and catchers), were especially vi tal. In other words, pul your most able, experienced, and conscientious employees in the most central roles in a team.
224 Part 2 Striving for Performance
e Explain the implications of diversity for group effectiveness.
group diversity The presence-:--] a heterogeneous mix of individuals within a group.
organizational demography The degree to which members of a work unij share a oommon demographic attribute, such as age, gender, race, educaliooal level, or leng1h of service in an 0<ganization, and the impact of this attribute on turnover.
EXHIBIT 6-8 Key Roles of Teams
Linker
Creator
Adviser
Promoter
J Fights external
Maintainer 1-- --"--b-an_l_e 5 ___ .. .,~ Team
Assessor
Organizer
Producer I
We can idenlify nine polenlial learn ro les (see Exhibit 6-8) . Successful work teams have selecled peop le lo play all these ro les based on their skills and preferences.89 {On many teams, ind iv iduals will play mulliple roles.) To increase the like lihood learn members will work well together, managers need lo understand the individual strengths each person can bring lo a team, select members with lheir strengths in mind, and allocate work assignments that fil with members' preferred styles.
Dive rsity of Members Group diversity refers to the presence of a heterogeneous mix of individuals within a group. The degree to which members of a work unil (group, learn, or department) share a common demographic attribule, such as age, gender, race, educational level, or length of service in lhe organization, is lhe subject of o rga nizational demography. Organizational demography suggesls lhal attributes such as age or lhe date of jo in- ing should help us predict t urnover. The logic goes like th is: Turnover will be greater among those w ith d issimilar experiences because commun ication is more difficu lt and confl ict is more likely. Increased confl ict makes membership less allraclive, so employees are more likely lo quit. Similarly, the losers of a conflict are more apl lo leave vo luntarily or be forced out90 The conclus ion is thal d ivers ity negalively affects learn performance.
Many of us hold the oplimislic view that diversity should be a good th ing- diverse learns should benefil from d iffering perspeclives and do belier. Two me ta -analylic reviews show, however, thal demographic divers ity is essentially unrelated 10 team performance overall, while a th ird review suggests that race and gender diversily are actually negalively relaled lo learn performance.9 1 Other research find ings are mixed. One qualifier is that gender and ethnic diversity have more negalive effects in occupa- lions dom inated by white or male employees, but in more demographically ba lanced
Chapter 6 Groups and Teamwork 225
occupations, d iversity is less of a problem. Diversity in function, education, and exper- tise are posi tively related to team performance, but these effects are quite small and depend on the situation.
Proper leadership can improve the performance of diverse teams.92 For example, one study of 68 teams in Ch ina found that teams diverse in terms of kno\vledge, skills, and ways of approaching problems were more creative, but only when their leaders were transformational and inspiring.93
Cultural Differences We have discussed research on team d ivers ity in race or gender. But what about diversity created by national d ifferences? Like t he earlier research, ev idence here indicates that these elemen ts of d iversity interfere with team processes, at least in the short term, 94 but let's d ig a little deeper: Whal about differences in cu ltural status? Though it's debatab le, people with h igher cultural status are usually in the ma jority or ruling race group of their nations. Researchers in the Un ited Kingdom found tha t cultural-status differences affected team performance, whereby ind iv idua ls in teams w ith more high cultural-status members than low cultural-status members realized improved performance . .. for every member.95 This suggests not that diverse teams should be filled with ind ividuals who have high cultural sta tus in their countries, but that we should be aware of how peop le identify with their cultura l status even in d iverse group settings.
In general, cultural diversity seems lo be an asset for tasks that call for a variety of viewpoints. But culturally heterogeneous teams have more difficulty learn ing to work with each other and solving problems. The good news is that these difficulties seem to d issipate with time.
Size of Teams Most experts agree that keep ing teams small is key to improving group effectiveness. 96
Amazon CEO Jeff Bezos uses the "two-pizza" rule, saying, •1f it takes more than two p izzas to feed the team, the team is too b ig."97 Psycho logist George Miller claimed "the magical number (is] seven, plus or minus two,• as the ideal team size.98 Author and Forbes publisher Rich Karlgaard writes, "B igger teams al most never correla te with a greater chance of success• beca use the potential connections between people grow exponentially as team s ize increases, complicating commun icalions.99
Generally speaking, the most effective teams have five lo nine members. Experts suggest using the smallest number of people who can do the task. Unfortunately, there is a pervasive tendency for managers to err on the side of making teams too large. Wh ile a m inimum of four or five may be necessary lo develop diversity of views and skills, managers seem lo seriously underestimate how coord ination problems can increase dra- matically as team members are added. When teams have excess members, cohesiveness and mutual accountability decline, social loafing increases, and peop le commun icate less. Members of large teams have trouble coord inating wi th one another, especially under lime pressure. When a natural \vork un it is larger and you want a team effort, consider breaking the unit into sub teams. 100
Members' Preference for Teamwork Not every employee is a team player. Given the op tion, many employees wi ll select themselves out of team participation. When people who would prefer lo work a lone are required to team up, there is a d irect threat to the team's morale. 101 This suggests that, when selecting team members, ind ividua l preferences should be considered, as well as abilities, persona lities, and skills. High-performing teams are likely to be composed of people who prefer worki ng as part of a team.
0 Show how group size affects group perfor- mance.
226 Part 2 Striving for Performance
Young employees o f Alibaba's Tmall online shopping site celebrate their group's achievement of increasing the volume of sales orders during China's "Singles' Day" shopping event . Although social loafing is consis-
tent with individualistic cultures, in collectivist societies such as China, employees are motivated by group
goals and perform better when working in groups.
Team Processes Process variables make up the fi nal comp o nent of team effectiveness. The process cat- egocy includes member commitment lo a common p urpose, establ ishment o f specific goals, team efficacy, team identity, team cohesio n, sh ared mental models, a ma naged level o f confl ict, and minimized social loafing. These will be especially impo rta nt in larger teams, a nd in teams th at are h ighly interdependent 1D2
Why a re p rocesses important to team effect iveness? Teams should create outputs greater than the sum of their inputs. Exh ibit 6-9 illustrates how group processes can have an impact on a group's actual effectiveness. lD3 Scientists often work in teams b ecause they can draw on the diverse skills of various individuals lo produce more meaningfu l research than researchers working independently- that is, they produce positive synergy, and their process ga ins exceed their process losses.
Common Plan and Purpose Effective teams b egin by analyzing the team's mission, developing goals to ach ieve that m ission, and creating strategies for achievi ng the goals. Teams tha t consistently perform better have established a clear sense of wh at needs lo be do ne and how. 104 Th is sou nds obvious, bul many teams ignore th is fundamenta l process.
Members of successfu l teams p ut a tremendous amou nt o f ti me and effort inlo d is- cussing, shaping, and agreeing upon a purpose that belongs lo them collectively an d
EXHIBIT 6-9 Effects of Group Processes
Pot ential g roup e ffectiveness +
Process gains
Process losses =
Actual g roup effectiveness
Chapter 6 Groups and Teamw ork 227
Matt hew Corrin, CEO of Toronto-based Freshii, a c hain of healthy eating restaurants, is proud of the fact that more than 50 perc en t of his leadership team are women (Freshii's Jenny Hosh oian, Melissa Gallagher, and Ashley Dalziel are sh ow n here). However, he didn't deliberately plan it that way . "We hire wicked smart people w ho align w ith our c ulture and mission, have experience in brands that w e
admire and share our passion for helping citizen s of the world live better."105
individually. This common purpose, when accepted by the team, becomes the equ iva- lent of what CPS is lo a sh ip captain- it provides direction and gu idance under any conditions. Like a sh ip following the wrong course, teams that don't have good p lanning skills are doomed, executi ng the wrong plan.1D6 Teams should agree on whether their purpose is to learn about and master a task or simp ly to perform the task; evidence suggests that d iffer ing perspectives on learning vs. performance lead to lower levels of team performance overall. !07
Effective teams show r e fl exivi ty , mean ing that they reflect on and adjust their purpose when necessary. A team must have a good p lan, bu t it needs lo be will ing and able to adapt when conditions call for it. 108 Interestingly, some evidence suggests tha t teams high in reflexivity are better able lo adapt to conflicting p lans and goals among team members. 109
Specific Goals Successful teams translate their common purpose into specific, measurable, and real- istic performance goals. Just as goals can lead individuals to h igher performance ( see Chapter 4), they can also energize teams. Specific goals faci litate dear communication. They also help teams mainta in their focus on achieving resul ts.
Consistent with the research on individual goals, team goals should be challenging. Difficult but ach ievable goals have been found to raise team performance on those criteria for which they are set. So, for instance, goals for quantity tend to increase quantity, goals for speed tend to increase speed, goals for accuracy tend to increase accuracy, and so on. 110
Team Efficacy Effective teams have confidence in themselves. They believe they can succeed. We call this team efficacy. 111 Teams that have been successfu l raise their beliefs abou t future
reflexivity A team characteristic of reflecting on and adjusting the master plan when necessary.
team efficacy A team's collective belief that they can succeed at their tasks.
228 Part 2 Striving for Performance
team identity A team member's affinity for and sense of belonging- ness to his or her team.
team cohesion A situalioo when team members are emotionally attached to one another and moti- vated toward the team because of their attachment.
mental models Team members' knowledge and beliefs about hOl'l the work gets done by the team.
success, which, in turn, motivates them to work harder. In addition, teams that have a shared knowledge of individual capabilities can strengthen the link between team mem- bers' self-efficacy and their ind ividua l creativity because members can more effectively sol icit informed opin ions from their teammates.112
What, if anyth ing, can management do to increase team efficacy? Two possible options are help ing the team lo achieve small successes and providing skills training. Small successes bu ild team confidence. As a team develops an increasingly stronger performance record, il also increases the collective belief that fu t ure efforts will lead to success. In addi tion, managers should cons ider prov id ing train ing to improve members' technical and interpersonal skills. The greater the abil ities of team members, the greater the likelihood that the team w ill develop confidence and the capability lo deliver on that confidence.
Team Identity When people connect emotionally with the teams they are in, they are more likely lo invest in their relationsh ip with those teams. For example, research with soldiers in the Netherlands ind icated that ind ividuals who fell included and respected by team members became more willing to work hard for their teams, even though as sold iers they were already called upon to be dedicated to their units. Therefore, by recogniz- ing ind ividuals' specific skills and abi lities, as well as creating a climate of respect and inclusion, leaders and members can foster positive team identity and improved team outcomes.113
Organizational identity is important, too. Rarely do teams operate in a vacuum- more often teams interact with o ther teams, requiring interteam coord ina tion. Individuals with a positive team identity but without a posi tive organizational iden tity can become fixed to their teams and unwilling to coordinate with other teams within the organization. 114
Team Cohesion Have you ever been a member of a team that rea lly "gelled," one in which team members felt connected? The term team cohesion means members are emotionally attached to one another and motivated toward the team because of their attachment. Team cohesion is a usefu l tool lo pred ict team outcomes. For examp le, a large st udy in China recently ind icated that if team cohesion is high and tasks are complex, coslly investments in promotions, rewards, train ing, and so forth yield greater profitable team creativity. Teams with low cohesion and s imple tasks, on the other hand, are not like ly to respond to incentives w ith greater creativity. 115 Working as a cohesive team can be a matter of survival, as described in Case lncident-ln1ragro11p 'IhJst and S11rvival on page 23 7.
Team cohesion is a strong predictor of team performance such tha t when cohe- s ion is harmed, performance may be, too. Negative relationships are one driver of reduced cohesion. To mitigate th is effect, teams can fos ter high levels of interdepen- dence and high-quality interpersonal interactions. OB in Action- Increasing Group Cohesiveness indicates how to increase bo th socio -emotional and instrumental cohesiveness.
Mental Models Effective teams share accurate m ental mode ls-organized mental representations of the key elements within a team's environment that team members share.116 (If team mission and goals perta in to what a team needs to be effective, menta l mod- els pertain lo how a team does its work.) If team members have the wrong menta l models, which is particularly l ikely to happen with teams under acute stress, their
performance suffers.117 One review of 65 independent stud- ies found that teams with shared mental models engaged in more freq ue nt interactions with one a noth er, were more motivated, had more pos itive attitudes toward their work, and had higher levels of objectively rated performance.118 If team members have different ideas about how to do th ings, however, lhe team will fight over meth ods rather than focus on what needs to be done.11 9
Conflict Levels Conflict has a comp lex rela tionship wilh performa nce, and it's not necessari ly bad. Relationship conflicts- those based on in terpersonal incompatibil ity, tension, and animosity toward o thers- are almost always dysfunctional. 120 However, when teams are perform ing nonrouline activities, d isagreemen ts about task content ( called task conflicts) stimulate d iscussion, promote critical assessment of problems and options, and can lead to beuer team decisions. A study conducted in China fo und that moderate levels of task confl ict during the in itial phases of team performance were positively related to team creativity, b ut both very low and very high levels of task con- flict were negatively related to team performan ce. 121 In other words, both too much and loo linle disagreement about how a team should in itially perform a crea tive task can inhibit performance.
The way confl icts are resolved can also make the difference between effective and ineffective teams. A study of ongoing comments made by 37 autonomous work groups showed that effective teams resolved conflicts by explicitly discussing the issues, whereas ineffective teams had unresolved conflicts that were foc used more on personalities and the way things were said. 122
Which teams are more likely to h ave conflicts than others? It's not a s imp le answer. While we may presu me lhal diver- s ity increases conflicts, the answer is likely to be much more subtle than that. For example, recent research in Spa in fo und that when ind iv idua l team members varied greatly in their perceptions of organ iza tional support, task conflict increased, communication decreased, and u ltimately team performance suffered. 123 If the researchers had instead compared on ly lhe average level of organizational support given to lhe team, rather than how members perceived lhe support, they would have missed the correct causal links. Thus we need to be care- fu l not lo overgeneralize. OB in Acti.on- Reducing Tea,n Conflict presents tactics that can be used to manage interpersonal conflict.
Social Loafing As we noted earl ier, individuals can engage in socia l loafing and coast on the group's effort when their particular contribu- tions ( or lack thereof) can't be identified. Effective teams undermine th is tendency by making members individ ually
Chapter 6 Groups and Teamwork 229
~ OB ~cr10N Increasing Group Cohesiveness
To increase socio-emotional cohesiveness:
-+ Keep the group relatively s mall.
-+ Strive for a favourable p ublic image lo increase lhe status and prestige of belonging.
-+ Encourage intera ction and coope ra tion .
-+ Emph asize members' common characteris- tics and interests.
-+ Point out en vironmental threats (e.g., com- petitors' achievements) lo rally the group.
To increase instnimental cohesiveness:
-+ Regularly update and clarify the group's g oal(s) .
-+ Give every group member a vital "p iece of the a ction."
-+ Channel each group member's special talents toward the common goal(s) .
-+ Recogn ize and equitably reinforce every m em ber's contrib u tions.
-+ Frequently rem ind group members they n eed one another to get the job done.12 4
~ OB IN ~~ Action Reducing Team Confl ict
-+ Work with more, ra ther tha n less, informa- tion, and debate on the basis of facts.
-+ Develop multip le altern a tives to enrich the level of debate.
-+ Develop commonly agreed-upon goals.
-+ Use humour when maki ng tough decisions.
-+ Maintain a balanced power structure.
-+ Resolve issues without forcing consens us. 125
230 Part 2 Striving for Performance
G) Decide when to use individuals instead of teams.
and jointly accountable for the team's purpose, goals, and approach. 126 Therefore, members should be clear on what they are individually and jointly responsible for on the team. From Concepts 10 Sliills on pages 238- 239 discusses how lo conduct effective team meetings. For more about social loafing. read the Ethical Dilemma on pages 235- 236.
Beware! Teams Are Not Always the Answer
\.Yhy olon't so1ne team n1c1n -
bers pu ll their ,,veight'?
Despite considerable success in the use of teams, they are not necessarily appropriate in all s itua tions. Teamwork takes more time and often more resources than individual work. Teams have increased communication demands, confl icts to be managed, and meetings to be run. So the benefits of using teams have to exceed the costs, and that is not always the case. 127 A study done by Statistics Canada found that the introduction of teamwork lowered turnover in the service industries, for both high- a nd low-skilled employees. However, manufacturing companies experienced higher turnover if they introduced teamwork and forma l teamwork training, compared with not do ing so (15 .8 percent vs. 10.7 percent) . 128
How do you know if the work of your group would be beuer done in teams? It's been suggested that three tests be app lied to see if a team fi ts the situation: 129
• Can the worli be done beuer by nwre than one person? Simple tasks that don't require d iverse input are probably better left to ind ividuals.
• Does che worli create a common purpose or set of goals for the people in the group that is more chan the sum of individual goals? For instance, the service depart- ments of many new-car dealers have introduced teams that link customer service personnel. mechanics, parts special is ts, and sales representatives. Such teams can bener manage co llective responsib ility for ensuring that customers' needs are proper! y met
• Are the 1nembers of the group interdependent? Teams make sense where there is interdependence among tasks- where the success of the whole depends on the success of each one, and the success of each one depends on the success of the others. Soccer, fo r instance, is an obvious team sport because of the in terdependence of the players. Swim teams, by contrast, except for relays, rely heavily on individual performance to wi n a meet They are groups of individu- als performing individually, whose total performance is merely the aggregate summation of their individual performances.
Team Cultu ral Diversity and Team Performance How do teams composed of members from different countries perform? The evidence indicates that the cultural diversity of team members interferes with team processes, at least in the short term. 130 However, cultural diversity does seem to be an asset for tasks that call for a variety of viewpoin ts. But culturally heterogeneous team members have more d ifficu lty learning to work with one another and so lving problems.
Researchers in the United Ki ngdom found that cul tural-stalus d ifferences affected team performance, whereby ind ividuals in teams w ith more high cu ltural-status
Chapter 6 Groups and Teamwork 231
members than low cu ltu ral-status members rea lized improved performance .. . for every member. 131 Another study found that teams in the European Un ion made up of members from collectivistic and individual istic co untries benefited equally from group goals. 132
Group Cohesiveness Researchers stud ied teams from an international bank with branches in the United States (an ind ividua listic culture) and in Hong Kong (a co llectivistic culture) lo deter- mine the factors that affected group cohesiveness. 133 Teams were enti rely composed of individuals from the branch co untry. The results showed that, regardless of what cu lture the teams were from, giving teams difficu lt tasks and more freedom to accom- pl ish those tasks created a more tight-kn it group. Consequently, team performance was enhanced.
However, the teams differed in the extent to wh ich increases in task complexity and autonomy resulted in greater group cohesiveness. Teams in individua listic cultures responded more strongly than d id teams in collectivistic cultures, became more united and committed, and, as a result, received h igher performance ratings from their supeNi- sors than d id teams from collectivistic cultures.
A large study in China recently indicated that if team cohesion is h igh and tasks are complex, costly investments in promotions, rewards, training, and so forth yield greater profitable team creativity. Teams with low cohesion and s imp le tasks, o n the other hand, are not likely to respond to incentives with greater creativity. 134
These findings suggest that ind ividuals from collectivistic cultures already have a s trong pred isposition to work together as a group, so there is less need for increased cohesiveness. However, if cohesion is low, teams wi ll not perform as well. Managers in individ ualistic cultures may need lo work harder to increase team cohesiveness. One way to do th is is to give teams more challenging assignments and provide them with more independence.
Summary We can draw several implications from o ur discussion of groups. First, norms control behaviour by establishing standards of r ight and wrong. Second, cohesiveness may in fl uence a group's level of productivity, dependi ng on the group's performance-related norms. Third, role co nflict is associated with job-induced tensio n and job d issatisfac- tion. 135 Groups can be carefully managed toward positive organizational outcomes and optimal decision-making.
Few trends have influenced jobs as much as the massive movement of teams into the workplace. Working on teams requires employees to cooperate with others, share information, confron t d ifferences, an d subl imate personal interests for the greater good of the team. Understanding the d is ti nctio ns between problem-solving, self-ma naged, cross-functional, and virtual teams as well as multiteam systems helps determ ine the appropriate applications for team-based work. Concep ts such as refl exivity, team effi- cacy, team identity, team cohesion, a nd mental models bring to light importan t issues relating to team con text, compositio n, and processes. For teams to function optimally, careful atte ntio n must be given lo hiri ng, crea ting, and rewarding team players. Still, effective organ izations recogn ize that teams are not always the best method for getti ng the work do ne efficiently. Careful d iscernment and an understan ding of organ izationa l behaviour are needed.
LESSONS LEARNED
• A good team wi II achieve balance between individual needs and team needs.
• To create effective teams, members should be rewarded for engaging in team behaviour rather than individual behaviour.
• Teams should not be created for tasks that could be better done by individuals.
232 Part 2 Striving for Performance
Mylab Management
SNAPSHOT SUMMARY
Teams vs. Groups: What Is the Difference? • Why Have Teams Become So
Popular?
• Types of Teams
From Individual to Team Member • Roles • Norms
Stages of Group and Team Development • The Five-Stage Model • The Punctuated-Equilibrium
Model
Creating Effective Teams • Context
• Composttion
• Team Processes
Beware! Teams Are Not Always the Answer
Study, practise, and explore real business situations with these helpful resources:
• Study Plan: Check your understanding of chapter concepts with self-study quizzes.
• Online Lesson Presentations: Study key chapter topics and work through interactive assessments to test your knowledge and master management concepts.
• Videos: Learn more about the management practices and strategies of real companies.
• Simulations: Practise management decision-making in simulated business environments.
.,. for Review
1. Define group and team.
2. How do you explain the growing popularity of teams in organiza- lions?
3. What are the five types of teams?
4. Do role requirements change in different situations? If so, how?
5. How do group norms influence an individual's behaviour?
6. What are the five stages of group developm ent?
7. What characteristics contribute to the effectiveness of a team?
8. What are the implications of diversity for group effective-
ness?
9. How does group size affect group performance?
10. When is work performed by individuals preferred over work performed by teams?
for Managers
• Recognize that groups can dramatically affect individual behaviour in organizations, to either positive or negative effect. Therefore, pay special attention to roles, norms, and cohesion-to understand how these are oper- ating within a group is to under- stand how the group is likely to
behave.
• Effective teams have adequate resources, effective leadership, a climate of trust, and a perfor- mance evaluation and reward
system that reflects team contri· butions. These teams have indi - viduals with technical expertise as well as problem-solving, decision- making, and interpersonal skills and the right traits and skills.
• Effective teams also tend to be small. They have members who fill role demands and who prefer to be part of a group.
• Effective teams have members who believe in the team's capabil· ities and are committed to a com- mon plan and purpose and have an accurate shared mental model of what is to be accomplished.
• Select individuals who have the interpersonal skills to be effective team players, provide training to develop teamwork skills, and reward individuals for cooperative
efforts.
for You
• Know that you w ill be asked to w ork on teams and groups both during your undergraduate years and later on in life, so understand- ing how teams work is an impor- tant skill to have.
• Think about the roles that you play on teams. Teams need task-oriented people to get the job done, but they also need maintenance-oriented people who help keep people working together and feeling committed to the team.
• Help your team set specific, measurable, and realistic goals, as this leads to more successful outcomes.
0 ICll:I
"' -
234 Part 2 Striving for Performance
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TO GET THE MOST OUT OF TEAMS, EMPOWER THEM
POI NT If you want high-performing teams with members who
like one another and their jobs, here is a simple solu-
tion: Remove the leash tied to them by management and
let them make their own decisions. 136 In other words,
empower them. This trend started a long time ago, when
organizations realized that creating layers of bureau- cracy thwarts innovation, slows progress to a trickle,
and merely provides hoops for people to jump through
in order to get anything done.
You can empower teams in two ways. One way is
structurally, by transferring decision making from man- agers to team members and giving teams the official
power to develop their own strategies. The other way
is psychologically, by enhancing team members' beliefs
that they have more authority, even though legitimate
authority still rests with the organization's leaders.
Structural empowerment leads to heightened feelings of psychological empowerment, giving teams (and organi-
zations) the best of both worlds.
Research suggests that empowered teams benefit
in a number of ways. Members are more motivated.
They exhibit higher levels of commitment to the team
and to the organization. They also perform much better. Empowerment sends a signal to the team that it's trusted
and does not have to be constantly micromanaged by
upper leadership. When teams get the freedom to make
their own choices, they accept more responsibility for
and take ownership of both the good and the bad. Granted, that responsibility also means empowered
teams must take the initiative to foster their ongoing
learning and development, but teams entrusted with the
authority to guide their own destiny do just that. So, do
yourself (and your company) a favour and make sure that
teams, rather than needless layers of middle managers, are the ones making the decisions that count.
COUNTERPOINT Empowerment can do some good in certain circum- stances, but it's certainly not a cure-all.
Yes, organizations have become flatter over the past
several decades, paving the way for decision-making
authority to seep into the lower levels of the organiza-
tion. But consider that many teams are "empowered" simply because the management ranks have been so
thinned that there is no one left to make the key calls.
Empowerment is then just an excuse to ask teams to
take on more responsibility without an accompanying
increase in tangible benefits like pay.
In addition, the organization's leadership already has a good idea of what it would like its teams (and individ-
ual employees) to accomplish. If managers leave teams
to their own devices, how likely is it that those teams
will always choose what the manager wanted? Even if the manager offers suggestions about how the team m ight proceed, empowered teams can easily ignore that
advice. Instead, they need direction on what goals to
pursue and how to pursue them. That is what effective
leadership is all about.
When decision-making authority is distributed among
team members, each member's role is less clear, and members lack a leader to whom they can go for advice.
Finally, when teams are self-managed, they become
like silos, disconnected from the rest of the organiza-
tion and its mission. Simply handing people authority is
no guarantee they will use it effectively. So, leave the power to make decisions in the hands of those who
have assigned leadership roles. After all, they got to be
leaders for a reason, and they can best guide the team
to stay focused and perform at top levels to maximize
organizational outcomes.
Chapter 6 G roups and Teamwork 235
BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES Cl co 0, -Forn, small groups to discuss the following topics, as assigned by your instructor: ~
1. One of the members of your team continually arrives late for meetings and does not turn drafts of assignments in ;1- on tim e. In general, this group member is engaging in social loafing . W hat can the members of your group do to reduce social loafing?
2. Consider a team with w hich you have worked . Was there more em phasis on task-oriented or m aintenance- oriented roles? What impact did this have on the group's performance?
3. Identify 4 or 5 norms that a team could put into place near the beginning of its life that might help the team func- tion better over tim e.
Step 1
Step 2
Step3
Step4
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
The Paper Tower Exercise Each group will receive 20 index cards, 12 paper clips, and 2 marking pens. Groups have 10 m inutes to plan a paper tower that w ill be judged on the basis of 3 criteria: height, stability, and beauty. No physical work (b uilding) is allowed during this planning period .
Each group has 15 m inutes for the actual construction of the paper tower.
Each tower will be identified by a num ber assigned by your instructor. Each student is to individually exam ine all the paper towers. Your group is then to come to a consensus as to w hich tower is the winner (5 m inutes). A spokesperson from your group should report its decision and the criteria the group used in reaching it.
In your small groups, discuss the following questions (your instructor may choose to have you dis- cuss only a subset of these questions):
a. What percentage of the plan did each m ember of your group contribute, on average?
b. Did your group have a leader? Why or w hy not?
c. How did the group generally respond to the ideas that were expressed during the planning period?
d. To what extent did your group follow the five-stage model of group development?
e. List specific behaviours exhibited during the planning and building sessions that you felt were helpful to the group. Explain why you found them to be helpful.
f. List specific behaviours exhibited during the planning and building sessions that you felt were dysfunctional to the group. Explain w hy you found them dysfunctional.
Source: This exercise is based on The Paper Tower Exercise: Experiencing Leadership and Group Dynamics, by Phillip L. Hunsaker and J ohanna S. Hunsaker, unpublished manusCfl)t. A brief desCfl)tion is Included in "Exchange,' Organizational Behavior Teaching Joumal 4, no. 2 (1979), p . 49. Reprinted by permission of the authors. The materials list was suggested by Professor Sally Maitlis, Sauder School of Business, University of British Columbia.
ETHICAL DILEMMA
Dealing with Shirkers As we discussed in this chapter, social loafing is one
potential downside of working in groups. Research sug-
gests that regardless of the type of task, when working
in a group, most individuals contribute less than if they
were working on their own. Sometim es these p eople
are labelled shirkers because they don 't fulfill their
236 Part 2 Striving for Performance
-"' CCI 0
responsibilities as group members. Other tim es, social
loafing is overlooked, and industrious employees do the
work to meet the group's performance goals. Either way,
social loafing creates an ethical dilemma.
Whether in class projects or in jobs we have held,
most of us have experienced social loafing in groups.
We may even have been guilty ourselves. Although lim -
iting group size, holding individuals responsible for their
contributions, setting group goals, and rewarding both
individual and group performance might help reduce the
occurrence of social loafing, in m any cases people just
try to work around shirkers rather than m otivate them to
perform at higher levels.
Managers must determine w hat level of social loafing
for groups and for individual employees will be tolerated in
terms of nonproductive meetings, performance expecta-
tions, and counterproductive work behaviours. Employees
must decide what limits to social loafing they will impose
on themselves and w hat tolerance they have for social
loafers in their work groups.
Questions
1. Do group members have an ethical responsibility to report shirkers to leadership? If you were working on a group project for a class and a group member was loafing, would you communicate this informa- tion to the instructor? Why or why not?
2. Do you think social loafing is always shirking (failing to live up to your responsibilities)? Are there times when shirking is ethical or even justified?
3. Social loafing has been found to be higher in individualistic nations than in other countries. Do you think this m eans we should tolerate shirking by North American students and employees to a greater degree than if som eone else does it?
CASE INCID E N T S
Tongue-Tied in Teams Thirty-one-year-old Robert Murphy has the best inten-
tions to partic ipate in team meetings, but when it's •game
time," he chokes. 137 An online m arketing representa- tive, Robert cannot be criticized for lack of preparation.
After being invited to a business meeting with six of his
co-workers and his supervisor, Robert began doing his
research on the meeting's subject matter. He compiled
notes, and arranged them neatly. As soon as the meeting
began, "I just sat there like a lump, fixated on the fact that
I was quiet.• The entire meeting passed without Robert
contributing a w ord.
Robert is certainly not the first person to fail to speak
up during meetings, and he won't be the last. While some
silent employees m ay not have any new ideas to contrib-
ute, the highly intelligent also freeze. One study found that
if we believe our peers are smarter, we experience anxiety
that temporarily blocks our ability to think effectively. In
other words, worrying about what the group thinks of you
makes you dumber. The study also found the effect was
worse for wom en, perhaps because they can be more
socially attuned to what others may think.
In other cases, failing to speak up may be attributed
to personality. While the extraverted tend to be assertive
and assured in group settings, the more introverted prefer
to collect their thoughts before speaking - if they speak at
all. But again, even those w ho are extraverted can remain
quiet, especially when they feel they cannot contribute.
You m ay be wondering w het her it is important for
everyone to speak up . Collaboration (the word comes
from "labouring together" in Latin) is at the heart of orga-
nizational transformation , so yes, the more participa-
tion, the m ore likely the collaboration w ill result in higher
tru st, increased productivity, and enhanced creativity.
Furthermore, collaboration w orks best when individuals
know their ideas are taken seriously.
The message from research is clear: Give free speech
a try!
Questions
1. Recall a time w hen you failed to speak up during a group meeting. What were the reasons for your silence? Are they similar to or different from the rea- sons discussed here?
2. Can you think of other strategies that can help the tongue-tied?
3. Imagine that you are leading a team meeting and you notice that a couple of team members are not contributing. What specific steps might you take to try to increase their contributions?
Chapter 6 Groups and Teamwork 237
Intragroup Trust and Survival When 10 British Army soldiers on a 10-day training exer-
cise descended into Lew's Gully, a narrow chasm that
cuts through M t. Kinabalu in Borneo, each knew "the
golden rule for such expeditions-never split up." 138 Yet
the fittest three struggled out of the jungle with a con-
cussion, malaria, and infected wounds 19 days later; two
more terribly ill soldiers found a village the next day; and
the rem aining five emaciated and injured m en were res-
cued from a cave by a helicopter on day 33. What hap-
pened?
On a surface level, the near-tragic fract uring of the
group began w ith a logical division of labour, according
to the training's initiators, Lieutenant Colonel Neill and
Major Foster:
Because the group would be one of mixed abilities,
and the young British and NCOs [non -commissioned
officers] were likely to be fitter and m ore experienced
than the Hong Kong soldiers, the team would work
in two halves on the harder phases of the descent.
The British, taking advantage of Mayfield's expertise
(in rock climbing), would set up ropes on the difficult
sections, w hile he [Neill) and Foster w ould concentrate
on bringing the Hong Kong soldiers down. Every now
and then the recce (reconnaissance) party would
report back, and the expedition would go on down in
one unit until another reconnaissance party became
necessary.
The men reported that from then on, perilous climb-
ing conditions, deb ilitating sickness, and monsoon rains
permanently divided the group. A review board found
differently, blaming Neill's and Foster's leadership and
their decision to take some less-experienced soldiers on
the exercise.
No rulings were made about the near-catastrophic
decision to divide the group, but doser inquiries show that
this temporary work group of diverse m embers w ho were
not previously acquainted started out with a high level of
intragroup trust that dissolved over tim e. The resulting
fault lines, based on members' similarities and differences
and the establishment of ad hoc leaders, may have been
inevitable.
Initially, an group members shared the common ground
of soldier training, clear roles, and voluntary commitment
to the mission. When the leaders ignored the soldiers'
concerns about the severity of conditions, lack of prepa-
ration, and low level of communication, however, trust
issues divided the group into subgroups. The initial recon-
naissance party established common ground and trust
that allowed them to complete the mission and reach
safety, even though they divided yet again. Meanwhile, the
main group that stayed w ith the leaders in the cave under
conditions of active distrust fractured further.
We will never know w hether it would have been better
to keep the group together. However, we do know that
this small group of soldiers trained to stay together for
survival fractured into at least four subgroups because
they did not trust their leaders or their group, endangering
all their lives.
Questions
1. How was the common ground established by the reconnaissance subgroups different from the com- mon ground established by the cave subgroups? See the leaders' description.
2. Do you think the group should have fractured as it did? Why or Why not?
3. When the exercise was designed, Neill created a buddy system based on similarity of soldiers' back- grounds (rank, unit , age, fitness, skill level). The first group out of the jungle were assigned buddies and one other: two lance corporals and one corporal from the same unit (regular army); ages 24-26 with good fitness levels; all top roping and abseiling (TR&A) instructors. The second group out were assigned buddies: a sergeant and a lance corporal from the same unit (elite regular army); ages 25 and 37; good fitness levels; both w ith Comm ando Brigade skills. The group left in the cave split into a lieutenant colonel and a major (buddies); one from the regular army and one from the part-time ter- ritorial army; ages 46 and 54; fair fitness level; one TR&A and one ski instructor. The second faction was the three from the Hong Kong unit-a lance corporal and two privates, all from the Hong Kong unit; ages 24-32 ; fair to good fitness levels; one with jungle training and two novices. Would you have set up the buddy system as Neill did? Why or why not? If not, what would you have changed?
238 Part 2 Striving for Performance
FROM CONCEPTS TO SKILLS
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Conducting a Team Meeting Team meetings have a reputation for inefficiency. For instance, noted
Canadian-born economist John
Kenneth Galbraith said, "Meetings
are indispensable when you don't
want to do anything." When you are responsible for
conducting a meeting, what can
you do to make it more efficient and effective? Follow these 12 steps: l 39
1. Prepare a meeting agenda. An agenda defines what you hope to accomp fish at the meeting . It should state the meeting's purpose; who w ill attend; what, if any, preparation is required of each participant; a detailed list of items to be covered; the specific time and location of the meeting; and a specific finishing time.
2. Distribute the agenda in advance. Participants should have the agenda sufficiently in advance so they can adequately prepare for the meeting.
3. Consult with participants before the meeting. An unprepared partici- pant cannot contribute to his or her full potential. It's your responsibility to ensure that members are prepared, so check w ith them ahead of time.
4 . Get participants to go over the agenda. The first thing to do at the meeting is to have participants review the agenda, make any changes, then approve the final agenda.
5. Establish specific time parameters. Meetings should begin on time and have a specific time for com pletion. It's your responsibility to specify these time parameters and to hold to them.
6. Maintain focused discussion. It 's your responsibility to give direction to the discussion; to keep it focused on the issues; and to minimize interruptions, disruptions, and irrelevant comments.
7. Encourage and support participation of all members. To maxim ize the effectiveness of problem -oriented meetings, each participant must be encouraged to contribute. Quiet or reserved personalities need to be drawn out so their ideas can be heard.
8. Maintain a balanced style. The effective group leader pushes w hen necessary and is passive w hen need be.
9. Encourage the clash of ideas. You need to encourage different points of view, critical thinking, and constructive disagreement.
10. Discourage the clash of personalities. An effective meeting is char- acterized by the critical assessment of ideas, not attacks on people. W hen running a meeting, you must quickly intercede to stop personal attacks or other forms of verbal insult.
11. Be an effective listener. You need to listen with intensity, empathy, and objectivity, and do whatever is necessary to get the full intended m eaning of each participant's com ments.
12. Bring proper closure. You should close a meeting by summarizing the group's accomplishments. Clarify what actions, if any, need to follow the meeting, and allocate follow -up assignments. If any decisions are m ade, you also need to detennine who will be responsible for com- municating and implementing them .
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Jameel Saumur is the leade r of a five-member p roject team that has been
assigned the task of moving his engineering firm into the boom ing area
of high-speed intercity rail constructio n. Saum ur and his team members
have been researching the field , identifying specific b usiness o p po rtuni-
ties, negotiating alliances with equipm ent vendors, and evaluating high-
speed rail experts and consultants fro m around the world. Throughout the
process, To nya Eckle r, a highly qualified and respected eng ineer, has chal-
lenged a number of things Saumur said during team meetings and in the
workplace. For example , at a meeting two weeks ago, Saumur presented
the team with a list of 10 possible high -speed rail projects and started
evaluating the company's ability to compete for them . Eckler contradic ted
virtually all of Saumur's comments, questio ned his statistics, and was
quite pessimistic about the possib ility of g etting contracts on these proj-
ects. After this latest display of d ispleasure, two other group mem bers,
Bryan Worth and Maggie Ames, are c o mp laining that Eckler's actio ns are
damaging the team's effectiveness. Eckler was o rig inally assigned to the
team fo r her unique expertise and insight. If yo u had to advise this team,
what suggestio ns would you m ake to get the team o n the right track to
achieve its fullest potential?
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1. Interview th ree manage rs at different o rganizatio ns. Ask them abo ut their experiences in managing team s. Have each describe team s that
they tho ught were effective and why they succeeded . Have each also
describe team s that they thought were ineffective and the reasons
that m ight have caused this.
2. Contrast a team you have been in where members trusted one another
with another team you have been in where members lacked trust in one
another. How did the cond itions in each team develop? What were the
conseq uences in terms of interaction patterns and performance?
Chapter 6 Groups and Teamwork 239
•••••••••••••••••••••
Practising Skills
•••••••••••••••••••••
Reinforcing Skills
240
------
Bruce Macl ellan, president and CEO of Toronto-based Environics Communications, finds that building trust in the workplace has a high payoff. 1 In fact, he believes that trust is a crucial element of his public relations firm's success. "Build trust [because) everything you say and do will be watched .. .. Building a stable and trust- ing atmosphere is essential to other success. People may not always agree, but if they see transparency, consis- tency and candour, it helps."
Employees (pictured above at a recent company retreat)
look forward to the annual ESRA (read it backward) award. The award goes to the person who made the big- gest blooper of the year in front of a client or colleague. One employee won for rec- ommending a "suitable" park- ing spot from which the client got towed. Another employee was caught on a television interview looking like she was falling asleep. "She didn't realize she was on camera and looked like she was fall- ing asleep while our client was speaking ," Maclellan says. The award ensures that
employees feel safe when they make mistakes and that they can trust their colleagues.
Maclellan also builds trust at Environics by help - ing employees achieve work- life balance. After working at the firm for four years, Steve Acken, vice-president of digi- tal services, wanted to travel the world and requested four months of unpaid leave. "They held my job for four months and that was every- thing," said Acken. This made him even more committed to the firm.
Trust, o r Jack of trust, is an increasingly important leadershi p issue in today's o rganizations.2 Trust is fragile. It takes a Jong t ime to bu ild, can be eas ily destroyed, and is hard to regain.3
A 201 7 survey of Canadians con- ducted by Environics Commun ications found t h a t on ly 51 percent of Canadians trusted the ir sen io r lead- ers.4 It' s no t just sen ior leaders who get a fa il ing grade for communica- t ion . In te rnal commun ica tions a re also d issatisfying: On ly 46 percen t of Canad ian employees a re satisfied.5
Accord i ng t o a r ecen t survey by Ed monton-based David Ap li n Recru it ing, manage rs and h uman resources professionals are not aware that a trust deficit exists in th e work- place and th ink tha t employees qui t due to insufficient pay. Likely, th is is because employees "a ren't going to cite lack of trust as their reason fo r leaving. It would be experienced by many as burn ing a b ridge on the way ou t the door,• Aplin says.6
\,Vhat Is Trust? Trust is a psychological state that exists when you agree to make yourself vul- nerable to another person because you have positive expectations about how th ings a re going to tum out. 7 Although you aren' t com pletely in control of the s itua tion, you a re w ill ing to take a chance that the other person will come th rough fo r you . Trust is a pr imary attribute associa ted w ith leaders h ip; breaking it can h ave serious adverse effects on a g roup's performance. 8
Trust is a h istory-dependent p rocess based on re levant but limited samples of experience.9 It takes time to fo rm, building incrementally and accumu- lating. Most of us find it h ard, if not im possible, to trust someone immed i- ately if we d on' t know anyth ing about them. At t h e extreme, in the case of
total ignorance, we can gamble, but we cannot trust. 10 But as we get to know someone and the relationsh ip matures, we gain confidence in our ab ility to fo rm a posi tive expectation.
There is in heren t risk and vul nera- bil ity in any trusting relationsh ip. Trust involves making oneself vulnerable, as when, fo r example, we disclose inti- mate information o r rely on another's p rom ises. II By its very na ture, trust p rovides the oppo rtunity for disap- po intment o r to be taken advantage of. 12 But trust is not taking risk per se; rather, it is a will ingness to take risk. 13
So when I trust someone, I expect that he o r she w ill no t take advantage of me. Th is w ill ingness to take risk is common to all trust situations. 14
What Determines Trust?
What are the key characteristics leading us to bel ieve a person is trustworthy? Research has identified three: integrity, benevolence, and ab ility. ts
• Integrity. Integrity refers to honesty and truthfulness. When 5 70 whi te- collar em ployees were given a lis t of 28 attributes related to leadersh ip, honesty was rated the most im por- tant by far. 16 In tegrity a lso means having cons istency between w hat you do and say.
• Benevolence. Benevolence means the t rus ted person has your interests at h eart, even if your interests are not necessarily in line w ith his or hers. Caring and supportive behav- iour is part of the emotional bond between leaders and followers.
• Ability. Abil ity encom p asses an individual' s technica l and inter- personal knowledge and skills. You a re un likely to depend on someone whose abilities you do not believe in even if the person is highly p ri n- cipled and has th e best intentions. Trust can be won in the ab ility
domain by demonstrating compe- tence.
T ime is anot h e r component for bu ild ing trust. We come to trust peo- p le based on observing their behav- iour over a period of time. 17 The inset \¥ /rat Are tile Consequences of Trust on page 242 illustrates the impo rtance of develop ing trust in the workplace.
Basic Principles of Trust Research offers a few p rincip les tha t help us better understand how trust and mistrust are created:18
• Mistrust drives out trust. People who are trusting demonstrate thei r trust by increa~ing their o penness tooth- ers, disclosing relevan t information, and expressing their true intentions. People who m is trust conceal infor- mation and act opportunistically to take advantage of o thers. A few m istrusting people can po ison an en tire organization.
• Trust begets trust. Exh ib iting trus t in others tends to encourage reci- procity.
• Trust can be regained (sometimes). Lead ers who betray trust a re espe- cia lly likely to be evaluated nega- tively by followers if there is already a low level of leader-member exchange. 19 Once it is violated, trust can be regained, but on ly in certain situations.20 If the cause is Jack of ab ility, it' s usually best to apo lo- gize and recogn ize you s hould have done better. When Jack of in tegrity is the problem, apologies d on' t do much good. Regard less of the vio- lation, saying noth ing or refus ing to confirm or deny gu ilt is never an effect ive strategy fo r regaining trust. Trust can be restored w h en the individual observes a consistent
2 4 1
th Co nsequences of Trust?
WhatAre • has a number of advantages.
Trust between managers and emplo~s .21 . f that research has shown.
Here are iust a ew I
ees decide to deviate . · ks Whenever emp O'f , d
• Trust encourages taking ns . . to take their managers wor I f doing things, or t" trom the usua wa'f o . . k In both cases, a trus ing
W direction they are taking ans . onane '. . 1 relationship can fac1\1tate that eap. b" reason emplo'fees fail
• Trust facilitates information sh_anng. Othne ~~·t feel ps'fchologically t work 1s that e'f ·11 ive
to exPress concerns a ers demonstrate they w1 g · · When manag \ ees
safe revealing their v1e~s. . d ctively make changes, emp O'f I ,,ees' ideas a fair heanng an a
empo, . . k ut 22 are more w1\\1ng to spea o . . I der sets a trusting tone
ttect,ve When a ea xt • Trusting groups are more e wil;ing to help each other and exert e ra
in a group, members are more bers of mistrusting groups tend to effort which increases trust. Mem ti uard against exPloitation' and
' . · f h other constan Y g · t d to be suspicious o eac . • . the group. These actions en
t . t communication with others in res nc t ll'f destro'f the group. undermine and even ua 1· . terest of companies
f ity The bottom- ine in . • Trust enhances produc ,v . t Ernplo'fees who trust their
appears to be positivel'f influ~nc:~ b:rf~:~nce ratings, indicating higher supervisors tend to receive high p. t t b'f concealing information
od uctivity _23 People respond to mis rus
pr · · nterests and secretl'f pursuing their own I .
pattern of trustworthy behaviours by the transgres.~or. However, if the transgressor used deception, trust never fu lly recovers, even when the person deceived is given apologies, p romises, o r a consisten t pattern of trustworthy actions.24
• A1istrusting groups self-destruct. The coro llary to the previous p rinciple is that when group members mistrust one another, they rebel and sepa- rate. They pursue their own inter- ests rather than the group's interests. t\,lembers of mistrusting groups tend
2 42
to be suspicious of one another, are constantly on guard against exploi- tation, and restrict commun ication with others in the group.
• 1h,st increases cohesion. Trust holds people together. 25 If one person needs hel p o r fa lters, that person knows that the o thers will be there to fill in.
• Mistn1st generally reduces productivity. Lead ers who break the psychologi- cal con tract with workers, d emon- s trating they a re not trustwo rthy,
w ill find tha t emp loyees are Jess satisfied and less comm itted, have a h igher in ten t towa rd turnover, engage in Jess c it izensh ip behav- iour, and have lower levels of task performance. 26
\Vhat Can Leaders Do to Increase Trust? A review of the findings for the effects of leadersh ip on bui ld ing trust indi- cates that several characteristics of lead- ersh ip a re most likely to bu ild trus t. Leaders who engage in procedural justice ( ensuring fa ir procedures and outcomes) and interactional jus tice ( trea ting people fairly when proce- dures are carried out), encourage par- ticipative decis ion making. and use a transformational leadership style are most successful at build ing trust.27
Research w ith 100 com panies around the world suggesL~ that lead- ers can build t rust by shifting their commun ication style from top-down commands to ongo ing organ izational dialogue. Lastly, when leaders regu- larly create interpersonal conversations with their employees that are intimate, in te ractive, and inclus ive and that intentionally follow an agenda, follow- ers d emonstrate trust with high levels of engagemen t.28 The inset Increasing Organizational Candour ind icates ways that organizations can increase the level of trust available internally.
Building Team Trust To improve the climate of trust in an o rgan ization, it is important to build team trust. One s tudy examined the effect of trus t in one's coach on team
••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
-• organlzatlonalCandour 1ncrea .. ng
· t' n start with your- dour in your orgarnza 10 ,
To develop a culture of can I ' • 29
II and consider these tips· se re utation for straight talk. • Tell the truth. Develop a p r People highef up in
eak truth to powe · • Encourage people to sp t th Encourage people lower
the organization need to know the ru . courageous and speak up.
down to be . nize and challenge your own • Reward contranans. Recog to help you do that.
assumptions. Fmd colleagues . Deliver bad news kindly . teasant conversations.
• Practise having unp t hurt unnecessarily. so that people do not ge . C mmunicate regularly with
of information. 0 • Diversify your sources t mers and competitors.
of employees. cus o . different groups thers will do the same.
• Admit your mistakes. If you do so, o H' people who . . port for transparency. ,re
• Build organizational sup h Protect whistle-bloWefS. . f r candour elsew ere.
have a reputation o . nless thefe is a clear . t' tree Share informat,on-u
• set ,nforma ,on ·
reason not to.
' .............. . FACTBOX
Compared with people in low-trust
companies, people in high-trust companies report:
• 7 4 % less stress
• 1 06o/o more energy at work
• 50% higher productivity
• 13% fewef sick days
• 76% more engagement
• 29% more satisfaction with their lives
• 40% less burnout30
performance during basketball season for 30 teams in Division I and Division Ill of the NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Associa tion) .31 The find ings show that basketball players' trust in their coach improves team perfor- mance. The two teams with the h ighest level of trust in the ir coach had out- stand ing records for the season stud- ied. The team with the lowest level of trust won only 10 percent of its games, and the coach was fired at the end of the season .
As these results indicate, leaders have a s ign ificant impact on a team's t rust clima te. The fo llow ing po in ts summarize ways to bu ild team trust:32
• Recognize excellence. Publ ic recogn i- t ion both celebra tes successes and
inspi res others to a im fo r exce l- lence.
• Induce •c/Jal/enge stress.• Ass ign d ifficul t but achievable tasks tha t requ ire team members to work together.
• Give people discretion in /row tire)' do t/Jeir worll. Feeling that they are trusted motivates employees.
• Enable job crafting. Give employees the opportunity to choose their p rojects, as th is will focus energy on things employees care about. Then, hold them accountable for their work.
• Slrare information broad/)'. Uncertainty about the company's d irection can cause stress and undermine team- work.
• Intentional/ )' build relations/rips. Completing tasks is important in the workplace, but so is time for making friends. Studies show that when people intentionally bui ld socia l ties at work, performance improves.
• Facilitate whole-person growth. H igh- trust workp laces help peo- p le develop persona lly as well as professionally .
• S/Jow vulnerability. Leaders in high- trus t workplaces ask for help from colleagues instead of just tell ing them to do th ings .
High-performance teams are char- acterized by h igh mutual trust among members. That is, members believe in the integrity, character, and abi lity of one another. Since trust begets trust and d istrust begets d istrust, mainta in- ing trust requ ires carefu l atten tion by leaders and team members.33 H igh trus t can have a downside, though, if it inspires team members to not pay attention to one another's work. Team
243
The Rules for Trusting Wisely d t trust the wrong people too quickly•
• Know yourself. If you ten o If have difficulty building trusting learn to interpret the cues bettec 'tu relationships, learn how to do this. .
II Start with small acts of trust, and see if they are
• Start sma.
reciprocated . H a plan for how the relationship will end, so .. , -1 an escape clause. ave . t • vvn e f II d with more comm1tmen . that people can trust more u y an .
. als Signal trustworthiness more clearly and retaliate • Send strong Sign ·
strongly when your trust is abused· . t . • d'I mma The other person is also ry1ng
• Recognize the other person s I e · d Reassure that person about
to fi ure out whether you can be truste . whe;her or how much he or she should trust you. . . 'd
A rson's role or position can prov1 e
• Look at roles as well as people. pe . . f h' or her expertise and mot1vat1on.
some guarantee o is . d • Remain vigilant and a/Ways question. Do not just;;~age in ue
.. . ·1·a11y Keep your due diligence up-to- . d11tgence 1rn 1 ·
membe rs w ith h ig h t rus t may no t mon itor one another, and if the low mon itoring is accompanied by h igh individual autonomy, the team can perform poorly. 35
One of the reasons people l ie is because lying is d ifficult for othe rs to d e tect. In more than 200 stud ies, ind ividuals correctly identified peo- ple who were lying only 4 7 percent of the time, which is Jess than random p icking.3 6 Th is seems to be true no matter what lie-detection techn ique is employed. The Need to
Prevent Lying If a liar is merely someone who lies, we are all liars. We lie to ourselves, and we lie to others. We lie consciously and unconsciously. We tell big lies and cre- ate small deceptions.
2 4 4
Lying is deadly to trus t and deci- sion making, whether o r not lies can be detected. Managers-and organ i- za tions-simp ly cannot make good dec isions when facts are mis rep re- sen ted and people g ive fa lse mo tives for the ir behaviours. Lying is a b ig
eth ical p roblem as well. From an orga- n izational perspective, using fancy Jie- detection techn iques and en trapp ing liars when poss ib le yie ld unreliab le results .37 The most lasting solution comes from o rganizational behaviour, which studies ways to p reven t lying by work ing with ou r natu ral propens i- ties to crea te environments tha t a re not conducive to lying. Research con- ducted by behavioural scientists sug- gests some steps to reduce lying in o rgan izations.
• Stop l)'ing to ourselves. Many stud ies reveal that we deem ourselves much less likely to lie than we judge oth- ers to be. At a collect ive level, this is impossible-everyone can't be below above average in their pro- pensity to lie. So step I is to adm it the truth: We lie much more than we should.
• Trust, /Jut verify. Lying is learned a t a very young age. Why do peop le learn to lie? Because they often get away w ith it Negotiation research shows that individua ls are more likely to lie in the future when their lies have succeeded or gone unde- tected in the past. Managers need to el iminate situations in wh ich lying is avai lable to employees.
• Reward honest)'. If we want mo re honesty, we have to provide greater incentives for the truth, and more d isincentives for lying and cheating.
The inset The Rules for Trusting \.Visel)' presents some tips fo r s tarting on "a lifelong process of learn ing how to trust w isely and wel l. •38
F A C E O F F Trust in others can be dangerous. If
you get too close to someone else, that person could take advantage of
you, and possibly hurt your chances
to get ahead.
RESEARCH EXERCISES
1. Look for data on the extent to wtich CCATl)01lies in other oountries are trusted by the cttizens of those coun- tries. How do they compare with the extent to which Canadians trust CCATl)01lies? Can you draw any infer- ences about what leads to greater or less trust of corporations?
2. Identify tlTee Canadian organizations that are tryilg to improve their image to be more trust\/\\'.ll1hy. What effect is this rew image havilg on the organi- zations' bottom lines?
Trust improves relationships among
individuals. Through trust, produc- tivity can be increased and more
creative ideas are likely to come
forward.
YOUR PERSPECTIVE
1. Why might oorporations be wiling to neglect the iT1portance of trust and instead engage in behaviours such as those that could lead to corporate scandals?
2. What steps can organizations take to make sure that they are seen as trustworthy by the rest of society?
WANT TO KNOW MORE?
P. J. Zak, "The Neuroscience Of
Trust ," Harvard Business Review,
January- February 2017, pp. 84- 90; D. DeSteno, "Who Can You Trust?"
Harvard Business Review, Marc h
201 4, pp. 22- 23; and A. J. C. Cuddy, M. Kohut, and J. Neffinger, "Connect,
Then Lead,• Harvard Business Review,
July- August 20 13, pp. 54-61.
245
246
Communication
PA RT 3
IN TERAC TING EF FECT IVE LY
Would communication in the workplace be more efficient and less stressful
without email?
O Describe the commu nication process and formal and informal communication. f) Show how channel richness underlies the choice of comm unication channel. f) Identify common barriers to effective commun ication. C, Contrast downward, upward, and lateral commun ication. 0 Compare and contrast formal small-group networks and the grapevine. O Contrast oral, written , and nonverbal commu nication. f) Show how to overcome the potential problems in cross-cultural communication.
fter selling his first com- pany, Flickr, to Yahoo! in 2005, Vancouver-based entrepreneur Stewart Butterfield moved on to Tobias llase/DPA Picture Aliance/Alamy Stock PhJto
his next venture, a multi-player, online game called Glitch.1
The Glitch team was spread out in different cities across North America, and members needed a more efficient way to communicate and share files. To meet this challenge, they developed a platform that used Internet
Relay Chat (!RC), which supports a number of communication tools including discussion forums, private messaging, and data exchange. The system was easy, transparent, and kept all of their communications
organized. When it became clear that their game, in which players could cultivate plants, talk to rocks, and meditate, was not going anywhere, Butterfield reluctantly acknowledged that it was time to call it
quits. When the company shut down, it had 45 employees and had been in operation for three- and-a-half-years, yet there were only 50 messages in the company-wide email system. In a
time when employees are drowning in the deluge of emails they receive every day (roughly 111 per day, according to a 2017 study),2 this really struck Butterfield and inspired him to take the system the company had developed and create a new communication tool for the business world called Slack. Clearly filling an untapped need, Slack is now one
of the fastest-growing companies in the world and one of the fastest-growing business applications available. Within a month of launching, Slack was valued at $1 billion. It was
number three on the Forbes Cloud 100 list for 2017. Just three years from its start in 2014, it had 5 million daily users of its messaging function that allows users in the same workplace to
communicate with each other. Good communication makes organizations successful. Communication is powerful: No group or orga-
nization can exist without sharing meaning among its members. In this chapter, we will analyze communica- tion and ways we can make it more effective.
\ I I
:'o': , ' , '
• Ever notice that communicating via email can lead to misunderstandings?
• Does body language really make a difference?
• How can you improve cross-cultural comm unication?
'l'IIE BIG IDEA
Real co1n1nunicalion
requires feedback (boll1 giYing il and
seeking il).
247
248 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
O Describe the commu · nication process and formal and informal communication.
f) Show how channel richness underlies the choice of communica- tion channel.
communication process The steps between a source and a receiver that result in the transfer and understanding of meaning.
formal channels Communica- tion channels established by an organization to transmit messages related to the professional activities of members.
informal channels Communication channels that are created spontane- ously and that emerge as responses to individual choices.
channel The medium through which a message travels.
communication apprehension Undue tension and anxiety about oral communication, written oommunica- tion, or both.
The Communication Process Commun ication is the transfer and understanding of a message between two or more people. Commun icating is more than merely saying someth ing; the mean ing of what was said m ust also be understood.
Exhib it 7-1 dep icts this commu nication process. The key parts of this model are (1) the sender, (2) encoding, (3) the message, (4) the channel. (5) decoding, (6) the receiver, (7) noise, and (8) feedback. The sender in itiates a message by encoding a thought. The 1nessage is the actual physica l product of the sender's encoding. When we speak, the speech is the message. When we wri te, the writing is the message. When \Ve gesture, the movements of our arms and the expressions on our faces are the message. The channel is the medium through which the message travels. The sender selects it, determin ing whether to use a formal or informal channel. For mal channels are estab- lished by the organization and transmi t messages related lo the professional activities of members. They trad itionally follow the authority chain with in the organization. Other forms of messages, such as personal or social messages, follow infor mal ch annels , which are spontaneous and subject to individual cho ice.3 The receiver is the person(s) to whom the message is directed, who must firs t translate the symbols into understand- able form. Th is step is the decoding of the message. Noise represents commun ication barriers tha t d istort the clarity of the message, such as perceptual problems, information overload, semantic difficulties, or cultural differences. The final l ink in the communica- tion process is a feedback loop. Feedback is the check on how successful we have been in transferring our messages as originally intended. It determ ines whether understanding has been achieved.
The model indicates that commun ication is both an interactive and iterative process. The sender has lo keep in m ind the receiver ( or audience), and in finalizing the com- mun ication may decide lo revisit decis ions about the message, the encod ing, and/or the feedback.
Choosing a Channel Why do peop le choose one channel of communication over another; for instance, a phone call instead of a face-lo-face talk? One answer might be anxiety ' An estimated 5 to 20 percent of the population4 suffers from debilitating commu nication appreh en- sion, or social anxiety. These people experience undue tension and anxiety about oral commun ication, wri tten communication, or both.5 They may find it extremely difficult to talk with others face to face or become extremely anxious when they have to use the telephone. As a resu lt, they may rely on memos, letters, or email lo convey messages when a phone call would be nol only faster but also more appropriate.
Bul what about the 80 to 95 percent of the population who don't suffer from th is problem? Is there any general insight we might be able to provide regarding cho ice of
EXHIBIT 7-1 The Communication Process Model
Oiooses a message
Sende~
Encodes the message
Oiooses the channel
Considers the receiver
Considers the sender
Provides f eedback
Decodes the messag':......J
No isej
Receiver
Chapt er 7 Communication 249
EXHIBIT 7- 2 Information Richness of Communication Channels
Formal reports, Prerecorded Online discussion Live speech~ Video conferences
bulletins speeches groups, groupware
! ! l l i Low High channel channel richness richness
t t t t t Memos, leners Email
J Voice mail
Telephone Face-to-face
I conversations conversations Source: R. H. Lengel and R. L. Daft, "The Selection of Communication Media as an Executive Skill,• Academy of Management Executive, August 1988, pp. 225-232; and R. L. Daft and R. H. Lengel, "Organizational Information Requirements, Media Richness, and Structural Design," Managerial Science, May 1996, pp. 554- 572. Reproduced from R. L. Daft and R. A . Noe, Organizatkmal Behavior (Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt, 2001), p. 3 11. ISBN: 978-0030316814.
commun icat ion channel? A mode l of med ia richness has been developed to exp lain channel selection among managers.6
Channels d iffer in Lheir capacity to convey informa tion. Some are rich in Lhat they have the ab ility to (1) hand le mu ltiple cues simultaneously, (2) facil itate rapid feed - back, and (3) be very persona l. Olhers are lean in that Lhey score low on Lhese three factors. As Exhibit 7-2 illusLrates, face-to -face conversaLion scores h ighest in terms of ch a nnel richness because it transmits the most information per comm unication ep isode-multip le information cues (words, postures, fac ial expressions, gest u res, intonations), immed iate feedback (bo th verba l and nonverba l), and t he persona l touch of being present. Focus on Research expla ins why face-to-face meetings are so important.
FD c us ~NESEARCH Commun icating in Bad Times
Ca n communication really make a difference during bad economic t imes? A recent study found that when economic times are bad, it is particularly important for manage-
ment to create an atmosphere of trust. 7 They can do this by communicating directly with
employees-bulletin boards, intranets, newsletters, and email can all be effective. However,
: face-to-face communication is the most important way of communicating . . . . . .. .. . . . .•
Impersonal written media such as formal reports and bulletins rate lowest in richness.
The choice of one channel over another depends on whether Lhe message is rou- tine. Routine messages lend lo be straightforward and have a minimum of ambiguity. Nonroutine messages are likely to be compl icated and have Lhe potential fo r misun- dersLanding. Ind ividuals can commu nicate nonroutine messages more effectively by selecting rich channels.
channel richness The amount of information that can be lransmitted during a communication episode.
250 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
The Benefits of Effective Commu nication
· How ca n communication ma ke a team st ronger? Calgary-based CANA Construction has Jo ng been in the construction a nd design b us iness in Alberta.8 The economy has not been great for co nstructio n in Alberta, b ut the company's management believes commu nicati ng its situation with employees is good management.
Luke Simpso n, ma n ager of bus iness development and marketing a t CANA Construction, says it's even more important to commun icate to employees in bad times. "In econom ic times like these, it's worthwh ile to let our employees know we've been here before and we'll get through it jus t like we always have," he expla ins.
The company holds regular meeti ngs with its employees. You nger employees are also given mentors, so that they can ask q uestions and make sure they kn ow what is going on with the company. Management routinely visi ts construction sites to make sure that commu nication fl ows freely, and the culture is one where everyone is expected to be included in that communication. Simpson notes, "We have a culture that says, regardless of your posi tion, everyone has a seat at the tab le wh en it comes to discussing everything from current projects to wh ere the compa ny is going.•
CANA mus t be doi ng somethi ng righ t. IL was named one of Canada's Best Managed Companies for 2016 . .... ... ... ... ... .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. ... ... ... . .
Chan nel richness is a helpful framework for choosing your mode of communica- tion. H's no t always easy to know when to ch oose oral rather tha n written commun i- cation, for instance. Experts say oral communication or "face-time" with co-workers, cl ients, and upper man agement is key to success. However, if you seek out the CEO just to say hello, you may be remembered as an an noyance rath er than a star, and signing
1
Acccrding to Fabrizio Carinelli, president of CANA Construction, face-to-face meetings make good busi-
ness sense. Supervisor and management meetings are held monthly at different construction sites. "We
invite everybody from the company to come out, and we basically have a roundtable discu ssion," he explains. "It really enables everyone to get to know other people in the company and to know what's hap-
pening in different areas . ..g
up for every meet ing on the calendar lo increase your face-time is counterproductive to getting the work of the organization done. Your communication choice is worth a moment's thought: Is the message you need to commun icate beue r suited to a discus- s ion, or a diagram?
Whenever yo u need lo gauge the receiver's receptivity, oral communication is usually the better choice. Written communication is generally the most rel iable mode for comp lex and lengthy commun ications, and il can be the most efficient method for short mes- sages when, for instance, a two-sentence text can take the place of a IO-minute phone call. Bul keep in mind that wriuen commun ication can be limited in its emo tional express ion. Choose wriuen commun ication when you want the informatio n to be tangib le, verifiab le, a nd "on the record."
It's important to be alert lo nonverbal aspects of commun ication and look for these cues as well as the literal meaning of a sender's words. You should particu larly be aware of contradictions between the messages. Someone who frequentl y glances at her wrist- watch is giv ing the message that she wou ld prefer to terminate the conversation no maner what she actually says, for instance. We misinform others when we express one message verbally, such as trus t, bu t nonverbally commu nicate a co ntradictory message that reads, •1 don't have co nfidence in you."
Barriers to Effective Communication I One of the features of Slack is that it tries to help users overcome information overload by orga- • nizing information and making it easy to find.10 Stewart Butterfield, co-founder of Slack, hates
email. "If someone I worked with emailed me, I'd probably fire them," he says. He acknowledges
the frustrations many people feel about email. "With email, there's a constant tension between,
'Please copy me, I want to be in the loop' and 'Don't, because I get too much damn email,"' Butterfield explains.
He and his team use Slack because it's a way to bring together all of the different ways people communicate with each other. As one business writer explains, "It replaces the electronic
I cacophony of messages sent through email, text, phone, video- and voice-conferencing, [with]
Dropbox, group calendars, Facebook, Linkedln, and Twitter."
While Slack tries to address information overload, a number of barriers can slow or d istort effective communication, barriers that we need to recognize and reduce. This section presents the most prominent ones.
Filtering Filterin g refers lo a sender purposely manipulating information so the receiver will see il more favourabl y. A manager who tells his boss what he feels the boss wants to hear is fi ltering in formation.
The more vertica l leve ls in the organization's h ierarchy, the more opportun ities there are for filtering. Some fi ltering w ill occur wherever there are s tatus differences. Factors such as fear of conveying bad news and the desire to p lease the boss often lead employees to tell their superiors what they think superiors want to hear, thus distorting upward commun ications.
Selective Perception Selective perception is important because the receivers in the communication process selectively see and hear based on their needs, motivations, experience, background, and other personal characteristics. Receivers also project their interests and expectations into communications as they decode them. For example, an employment interviewer who believes that young people are more interested in spending ti me on leisure and social activities than working extra hours to further their careers is likely to be influenced by
Chapter 7 Communication 251
f) Identify common barriers to effective communication .
filtering A sender's manipulation of information so that it will be seen m0<e favourably by the receiver.
252 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
information overload A condition in which information inflow exceeds an in<ividual's processing capacity.
tha t stereotype when inteiviewing young job applicants. As we d iscussed in Chapter 2, we don't see rea lity; rather, we interpret what we see and call il •reality.• A recent study found that people perceived that they communicated better with people with whom they were close (friends and partners) than with s trangers. However, in amb iguous conversations, it turned out that their abi lity lo commun icate with close friends was no better than their abil ity to communicate with slrangers.11
Information Overload Individuals have a fin ite capacity for processing data. When the information we have to work with exceeds our process ing capacity, the result is information overload. With emails, phone calls, text messages, meetings, and the need to keep current in one's field, more and more emp loyees say that they are suffering from too much information.
What happens when ind ividuals have more informa tion than they can sort and use? They tend lo select, ignore, pass over, or forget il. Or they may put off further pro- cessing until the overload situation ends. Consider what happens in a poorly planned PowerPo inl presen tation (see Case lncident- PowerPoint Purgatory on pages 271 - 272). In any case, lost information and less effective commun ication results, making it all the more important to deal well with overload.
To deal with information overload, it may make sense lo con nect to technology less frequently. By creating breaks for yourself, you may be bener able to prioritize, think about the big picture, and thereby be more effective.
As information technology and immed iate commu nication have become a more preva lent component of modern organ izational life, more employees find they are never able to get offline. For example, some business lravellers were disappo inted when airl ines began offering wireless Internet connections in flight because they cou ld no longer use their travel ti me as a rare opportun ity to relax wi thout a constant barrage of organizational communications. The negative impacts of these commun ication devices can sp ill over in to employees' personal lives as well . Both workers and their spouses relate the use of electronic communication technologies outside work to h igher levels of work- life conflict. 12 Employees must balance the need for constant communication with their own personal need for breaks from work or they risk burnout from being on call 24 hours a day.
Emotions You may interpret the same message differently when you are angry or distraught than when you are happy. For example. indiv iduals in positive moods are more confident about their opinions after reading a persuasive message, so well-designed arguments have a stronger impact on their opinions. 13 People in negative moods are more likely to scrutinize mes- sages in greater detail, whereas those in positive moods tend lo accept communications at face val ue.14 Exlreme emotions such as jubilation or depression are most likely to hinder effective communication. In such instances, we are most prone to disregard our rational and objective thinking processes and substitute emotional judgments.
Lan guage Even when we are communicating in the same language, words mean d ifferent things to d ifferent people. Age and context are two of the b iggest factors that influence such differences. For example. when business consultant Michael Sch iller asked his 15-year-old daughter where she was going with friends, he told her, "You need to recognize your ARAs and measure against them." Sch iller said that in response. his daughter "looked al him like he was from outer space.• (ARA stands for accountabi lity, responsibi lity, and authority.) Those new to corporate lingo may find acronyms such as ARA, words such as deliverables (verifiable outcomes of a project), and phrases such as get the low-hanging
fruit ( dea l with the easiest parts first ) bewildering, in the same way parents may be mystified by teen s lang_ 1 s
Our use of language is far from un iform. If we knew how each of us modifies language, we could min im ize communication difficulties, but we usually don't know. Senders tend to incorrectly assume that the words and terms they use mean the same to the receivers as to themselves.
Silence It's easy lo ignore silence or lack of communication because il is defined by the absence of information. This is often a mistake- silence itsel f can be the message to commun i- cate non-interest or inability to deal with a top ic. Silence can also be a s imple ou tcome of information overload, or a delaying period for considering a response. For whatever reasons, research suggests using silence and withholding communication are common and prob lematic. 16 One survey found that more than 85 percent of managers reported remaining silent about al least one issue of sign ificant concern. 17 The impact of si lence can be organizationally detrimental. Employee si lence can mean managers lack infor- mation about ongoing operational prob lems; management silence can leave employees bewildered. Silence regard ing discrimination, harassment, corruption, and m isconduct means lop management cannot take action to eliminate problematic behaviour.
Silence is less likely when minority op inions are treated with respect, work group identification is high, and h igh procedura l justice prevails. 18 Practically, this means managers must make sure they behave in a supportive manner when employees vo ice d ivergent opinions or concerns, and they must take these under advisement. One act of ignoring or bel in ling an employee for expressing concerns may well lead the employee to withhold important information in the fu ture.
Effective listening skills are discussed in From Concepts to Skills on pages 272- 273.
Lying The fina l barrier to effective commun ica tion is outright misrepresentation of infor- mation, or lying. People d iffer in their defin ition of a l ie. For example, is del ibera tely
Communication barriers exist between these call centre employees in Manila, Philippines, and their Canadian customers even though they all communicate in English. Training in pronunciation, intonation,
vocabulary, and grammar helps employees to get messages across effectively to their customers.
Chapter 7 Communication 253
254 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
O Contrast downward, upward, and lateral communication .
wilhholding informalion about a m islake a lie, or do you have lo actively deny your role in the mislake lo pass the lhresho ld? Whi le the definilion of a lie befuddles elh icists and social scienlisls, lhere is no deny ing lhe prevalence of ly ing. Peop le may tell one to two l ies per day, with some individuals Lelling considerabl y more. 19
Compounded across a large organization, lhis is an enormous amoun t of deception happening every day. Evidence shows people are more comfortable lying over the phone than face to face, and more comfortable lying in emails than when they have to write w ith pen and paper.20
Can you detect liars7 Research suggests mosl people are not very good at detecling deception in others.21 The problem is there are no nonverbal or verbal cues unique to lying- averting your gaze, pausing, and shifting your postu re can also be signals of nervousness, shyness, or doubt. Most peop le who l ie take steps lo guard aga inst being detected, so they might look a person in the eye when lying because they know that direct eye contact is {incorreclly) assumed to be a sign of truthfulness. Finally, many lies are embedded in truths; liars usually give a somewha t true account wilh just enough detai ls changed lo avoid delection.
In sum, the frequency of lying and the difficul ty in de tecting liars make this an especially strong barrier to effective commun icalion.
Organizational Communication
I Communication within organiiations can be difficult.22 There is email, but email simply piles up, making it difficult to distinguish between important and less important messages. Slack uses different channels of communication that help companies reduce the number of emails employees need to send. For instance, if you want to find someone to go to lunch with, you
don't email. You go to the "lunch" channel to see who's looking for a lunch buddy. Stewart Butterfield, Slack's co-founder, notes that "a lot of the value in Slack is in transparency. It's
easy to duck into channels and get a sense of what's going on all over the company, without
having to read every email."
I Slack is just one of several apps that make organiiational communication more fluid. What else can an organiiation do to make communication more effective? In this section, we explore ways that communication occurs in organizalions, includ ing Lhe direclion of communication, forma l small-group networks, the grapev ine, and electron ic commun icalions.
Direction of Communication Commun ication can flow vertically and/ or laterally in organizalions through formal small-group networks or the informal grapevine.23 We will explore each of these d irec- lional flows and their implications.
Downward Communication Communication lhal flows from one level of a group or organization lo a lower level is downwa rd communication. Group leaders and managers use th is approach lo assign goals, provide job instructions, inform employees of policies and procedures, identify problems that need auenlion, and offer feedback.
In downward communication, managers must explain the reasons why a decision was made. Although th is find ing may seem l ike common sense, many managers fee l they are loo busy lo explain things, or that exp lanations will raise too many questions. Evidence clearly indicates, lhough, that explanations increase emp loyee commitment and support of decisions.24 Managers m ight Lhink thal sending a message one lime is enough to get lhrough lo lower-level emp loyees, but research suggests that managerial commun ications must be repeated several limes and through a variety of different
med ia to be truly effective.25 Moreover, for employees to actually lis ten to a man ager's message, they must bel ieve what is being said. Sentis' recent Canad ian Employee Benchmark survey fo und that •40 percent [of employees] don't believe that their orga- nization's senior leaders communicate honestly with emp loyees. "26
Another problem in downward communication is its one-way nature; generally; man- agers inform employees b ut rarely solicit their advice or opinions. Research revealed that nearly two-thirds of employees said their boss rarely or never asks their advice. The study noted, •organizations are always striving for higher employee engagement, b ut evidence indicates they u nnecessarily create fundamenta l m istakes. People need lo be respected and listened to. "27 The way advice is sol icited also matters. Employees will not provide input, even when conditions are favo urable, if doing so seems against their best interests. 28
The best communicators explain the reasons behind their downward communica- tions but a lso so licit communication from the employees they supervise. That leads us to the next d irection: upward communication.
Upward Communication Upward commun ication flows to a higher level in the group or organ ization. H's used to provide feedback to higher-ups, inform them of progress toward goals, and relay current problems. Upward communication keeps managers aware of how employees feel about their jobs, co-workers, and the organ ization in general. Managers a lso rely on upward commun ication for ideas on how things can be improved.
Given that most managers' job responsibil ities have expanded, upward commun ica- tion is increasingly difficult because managers can be overwhelmed and easily distracted. As well, sometimes managers subtly ( or not so subtly) discourage employees from speaking up.29 To engage in effective upward communication, commu nicate in short summaries rather than long explanations, support your summaries with actionable items, and prepare an agenda to make sure you use your boss' attention well.30 And watch wha t you say, especially if you are commun icating something to your manager that will be unwelcome. If you are turni ng down an assignment, for example, be sure lo project a "can do• attitude while asking advice about your workload d ilemma or inexperience with the assignment. 31 Your del ivery can be as important as the content of your commun ication.
Lateral Co mmunication When communication occurs among members of the same work group, members al the same level, or among any horizo ntally equivalen t employees, we describe it as lateral ( or horizontal) commun ication.
Horizontal commun ication saves time and eases coordination. Some latera l rela- tionships are formally sanctioned. Often, they are informally created to short-circuit the vertica l h ierarchy and speed up action. So from management's perspective, lateral comm unication can be good or bad. Beca use strict adherence to the forma l vertical structure for all commun ications ca n be inefficien t, lateral communication occurring w ith the knowledge and support of managers can be beneficia l. Bu t dysfunctional confl ict can result when formal vertical channels are breached, when members go above or around their managers, or when employers find o ut that actions have been taken or decisions made w ithout their knowledge.
Small-Group Networks Formal communication networks can be compl icated, including h undreds of people and a ha lf-dozen or more hierarch ical levels. We have condensed these networks into three common small groups of five people each (see Exhib it 7-3): chain, wheel, and all-channel.
The chain rigid ly follows the formal chain of command; th is network approximates the communication channels you m ight find in a rigid three-level organ ization. The
Chapter 7 Communication 255
0 Compare and contrast formal small -group networks and the grapevine.
formal communication networks Task-related communications that follow the auth0<ity chain.
256 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
EXHIBIT 7-3 Three Common Small-Group Networks and Their Effectiveness
Speed A ccuracy
Emergence of a leader M emb er satisfaction
informal communication networks Communications that flow along social and relational lines.
grapevine The organizalioo's most common informal networ1<.
Chain Wheel All-Channe l
Moderate Fast Fast High High Moderate Moderate High None Moderate Low High
wheel relies on the leader to act as the central condu it for all group commun ication; il s imulates the communication network you would find on a team with a strong leader. The all-channel network perm its group members lo actively communicate with one another; it's most often characterized in practice by self-managed teams, in which group members are free lo contribu te and no one person takes on a leadership role. Many organizations today like lo consider themselves all-channel, mean ing that anyone can communicate with anyone (bul sometimes they shou ldn't).
As Exh ib it 7-3 illustrates, the effectiveness of each network is determ ined by the vari- able that concerns you. For instance, the structure of the wheel network facilitates the emergence of a leader, the all-channel network is best if high member satisfaction is most important, and the chain network is best if accuracy is most important Exhibit 7-3 leads us to the conclusion lhal no single network is appropriate for all occasions.
The Grapevine The most common informal communica tion network in a group or organization is the grapevine .32 Although rumours and gossip transmitted through the grapevine may be informal, it's still an important source of information for emp loyees and candidates. Grapevine or word-of-mouth information from peers about a company has importan t effects on whether job applicants jo in an organizalion.33
The grapevine is an importan t part of any group or organization communica tion network. It serves emp loyees' needs: Small talk creates a sense of closeness and friend- ship among those who share information, a lthough research suggests it often does so al the expense of those in the outgroup. 34 fl also gives managers a feel for the morale of their organization, identifies issues employees consider important, and helps them lap into emp loyee anxieties. Evidence ind icates that managers can study the gossip driven largely by employee social networks lo learn more about how positive and negative information is flowing through the organization.35 Managers can furthermore identify influencers (high ly networked peop le trusted by their co-workers36) by noting which individuals are small talkers (those who regu larly commun icate about insign ificant, unrelated issues) . Small talkers te nd lo be influencers. One study found that small talkers are so influential that they were s ignificantly more likely lo retain their jobs during layoffs.37 Thus, wh ile the grapevine may not be sanctioned or controlled by the organization, it can be understood and leveraged a bit
Cou ld managers entire ly el iminate the gossip and rumours common lo t he grapevine if they so chose? No. Should they wanl 101 Maybe not; in addition to the
Chapter 7 Communication 257
opportunities for managers to learn from the grapevine, some forms o f gossip provide p rosocial motivation for employees to help each other achieve organizational goals.38 What managers should do is m inimize the negative consequences of rumours by lim iting their range and impact. OB in Action- Reducing R11111ow-s gives some tips for reducing the negative consequences of rumours.
~ OB ~c110N Reducing Rumours
-+ Provide information: Rumours tend to thrive in the absence of formal communication.
Modes of Communication
I Stewart Butterfield , co-founder of Stack, an organizational com-munication application that consolidates messaging of all sorts, realizes the value of downtime.40 Though Stack can keep people
-+ Explain actions and d ecisions that seem problematic.
-+ Do not shoot the messenger: Respond to rumours calmly and rationally.
connected 24/7, that is not what he expects of his own employees.
"Most people will have a small number of effective hours to work, and to the extent those hours can overlap with other people's, the
net effect will be more impact," Butterfield says. He encourages
-+ Maintain open commun ication channels: Encourage people to talk about their concerns and ideas. 39
I his employees to meet face to face during work hours, even if their work is on perfecting an on line communication app. How do group members transfer meaning among each other? They rely on oral, writ- ten, and nonverbal communication. Th is much is obvious, but as we will discuss, the choice between modes can greatly enhance or detract from the way the perceiver reacts to the message. Certain modes are highly preferred for specific types of communication. We will cover the latest th inking and practical app lications.
Oral Communication A primary means of conveying messages is oral communication. Speeches, formal one- on-one and group d iscussions, and the informal rumour mi ll or grapevine are popular forms of ora l commun ication.
The advantages of oral communica tion are speed, feedback, and exchange. We can convey a verba l message and receive a response in m inimal ti me. As one professional put il, • Face-to-face communication on a consistent basis is still the best way to get information to and from employees."41 If the receiver is unsure of the message, rap id feedback allows the sender Lo quickly detect and correct it. The feedback we receive includes information and emotional content; however, we should acknowledge that we are usually bad listeners. Researchers ind icate that we are prone to • listener burnout• in which we tune the other person out and rush to offer advice. •Good l isteners overcome their natural incl ina tion to fix the other's problems and to keep the conversation brief,• said professor Graham Bodie.
One major d isadvantage of oral commun ication surfaces whenever a message has to pass through a number of people: The more peop le, the greater the potential d istortion. Therefore, ora l communication "chains• are generally more of a liab ility than an effective tool in organ izations. Le t's discuss some popu lar oral communica- tion app lications.
Meetings Meetings can be formal or informal, include two or more people, and take place in almost any venue. Some people hate meetings, so it's important to make them effective.
Good interpersonal communication is key Lo making meetings effective. Some experts recommend using humour as an ice breaker; public relations firm Peppercomm even offers stand-up comedy workshops Lo help businesses teach people how to use
0 Contrast oral, written , and nonverbal communication .
258 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
~ OB ~c110N Solving the Pitfalls of Videoconferencing and Conference Calls
humour.42 But what if you don't have a voice in meetings? Voice refers to the ab il ity to contribute words of va lue to the meet- ing.43 By defin ition, voice challenges the s tatus quo, supports others' viewpoints, adds constructively, or is defensive/destruc- tive.44 As you can see, voice refers to the input and reactions of a person with in the meeti ng. A person without vo ice may have noth ing to say, but research ind icates that women in particular don't speak up in meetings even when they are in leadersh ip positions, suggesting that certain group dynam ics inh ibi t equal participation.45 Without equitable participation, the benefits of meetings are questionab le.
1. Set more explicit agendas and finner rules than for face-to-face meetings.
2 . Have callers begin by introducing them- selves, their roles in the project, and what they are looking for in the meeting.
3. Dis tribute discussion questions before the meeting, and note the responses of each par- ticipant during the meeting.
4 . Assign a modera tor for the meeting (not the leader) and a secretary (again, not the leader).
5. Understand people's preferences for v ideo- conferencing vs. conference calling before the meeting and make sure everyone under- s tands the technology.47
Videoconferenc ing and Conference Calling Videoconferencing permits employees and cl ients to conduct real- time meetings with people at different locations. Live audio and video images let us see, hear, and talk with each other without being physically in the same loca tion. Conference calling is gen- erally limited to telephone exchanges where some people may gather around one speaker phone, and others call in through a secure line. There may be some shared files or videos everyo ne can see on their computers. Both modes are used selectively, according to the application.
You m ight assume people prefer videoconferencing to con- ference calling since v ideo offers a more "live" experience, but 65 percent of all remote meetings are done via audio on ly. For reasons not clearly understood besides some people's reluc- tance to be on camera, the time people spend on audio-only
calls may be growing al most 10 percent per year.46 OB in Action- Solving the Pitfalls of Videoconferencing and Conference Calls offers some suggestions about using these mechanisms.
Te lephone The telephone has been around so long that we can overlook its efficiency as a mode of communication. Commun ication by telephone is fast, effective, and less ambigu- ous than email. However, telephone messages can be easily overlooked, and a lack of func tions has made the phone difficult to use without electronic follow-up. Fortunately there are a number of software options to make phoning more versati le.
Written Communication Written communication includes letters, email, instant messaging, organizational peri- odica ls, and any other method tha t conveys written words or symbols. Written busi- ness commun ication today is usually conducted via letters, PowerPoinl, ema il, instant messaging, text messaging, social media, apps, and b iogs. We are all fami liar with these methods, but let's co nsider the unique current business commun ication applications of them.
Letters With all the technology available, why would anyone write and send a letter? Of all the forms of written communication, letter writing is the oldest- and the most endur- ing. Letter writing can be used to great effect in business, add ing a personal touch to a commu nication or, a lternately, creating a lasting document to signal an official com- mun ication. Interestingly, research indicates that when we write by hand, the co ntent is much more memorable to us than when we type.48
'\ O JI ~ CAREER OBJECTIVES
I \i Isn't This Disability Too Much to Accommod ate? I thou ght it w as a g ood, responsi- b le move w hen my manager h i red a guy w ho is hea ring-imp aired .. . b ut now I'm not so su re. We do
okay in commu nicating w it h h im, mostly t han ks t o emai l and t extin g. None of us knows sig n la nguage b ut sometimes w e sp ell out w ord s w it h ou r ha nd s. But someti mes t his can get fru st rat ing for my co-wo rkers and me. W hy should we have to d o so m uch
accomm od ation? -Jackie
Dear Jackie:
In short: Workplace accommodation means more than simply tolerating a
disabled worker's presence. Perhaps
you m ight consider this from your deaf co-worker's point of view (by the way,
"deaf" is the preferred term, acccrd-
ing to the National Association of the
Dean: • How are the communication condi-
tions for him to work? Are you being
PowerPoint
sure to include him in d iscussions by, say, assigning one of you to
write down the important points for
him and ask his opinions in meet- ings? Search for " 1 O Annoying
Habits of Hearing People" online to
get a glimpse of his perspective.
• Do you know what he thinks about your "hand spelling?" You may not know that American Sign Language
(ASL) is not simply using one's hands
to signal words and grammar. Your co-worker may be offended by your
attempts at what you imagine "sign
language" to be, but he would likely appreciate an effort for the group
to actually learn some ASL and/or
use a translator. There are apps and online translators where you can
type in a phrase and see someone
sign your words on the screen, for instance. Similarly, technology from
MotionSavvy translates sign lan- guage into written speech.
If you can get past the barrier of
thinking about how he should accom-
C h a p t er 7 Co mmunication 2 59
modate himself to your environment and instead show him how your group
is willing to work to communicate with
him, you may begin to develop an understanding of one another. In other
words, search the Internet for tips on
comm unicating with the deaf, and show him some respect.
C. Swinbourne, "The 1 O Annoying Habits o f Hearing People,• The Huffing ton Post, S eptember 17, 2013, http://www. huffing tonpost.oom/c harlie-swinbourne/ the-1 O-annoying-habits-of_b_3618327 .html; National A ssociation o f the Deaf website, www. nad .org, accessed June 30, 20 15; and R. Wal<.er, "An Office Distraction: New Yori< Times, March 22, 20 15, p. 8.
The opinions provided here are of the manag- ers and authors only and do not necessar- ily reflec t those of their organizations. The authors or managers are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for the resuffs obtained from the use of this information. In no event will the authors or managers, or their related partnerships or CO(J)Orations thereof, be liable to you or anyone else for any decision made or action taken in reliance on the opin- ions provided here.
PowerPoinl and other slide formats like Prezi can be an excellent mode of communica- tion because sl ide-generating software combines words with visual elements lo engage the reader and help expla in complex ideas. PowerPoinl is often used in conj unction with oral presenta tions, but ils appeal is so intuitive that it can seive as a primaiy mode of communication. ll is not without its detractors, however, who argue that it is too impersonal, disengaging, and frequently hard to follow.
Email The growth of email since its inception nearly 50 years ago has been spectacular, and its use is so peivasive it's hard to imagine life without il. There are more than 3.1 billion active email accoun ts worldwide,
and according lo a 2017 study, the typical Canadian know!- Ever notice that edge worker sends or receives 86 work-related emails at work and 25 at home.4 9 Exhibit 7-4 shows the time manag- ers and professionals spend daily on various tasks. Many managers report they spend too much time on email. See the Ethical Dilemma on pages 269 - 270 to consider some eth ical challenges technology presents.
communicatin~ via email can
lead to misun- derstandings'?
260 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
EXHIBIT 7-4 Allocation of Time at Work for Managers and Professionals
28% 39%
__J Reading and answering emai l
Searchi ng and gathering i nformat ion
Communicating and collaborating internally
Rol e-specific tasks
Source: Based on M. Chui et al., "The Social Economy: Unlocking Value and Productivity through Social Technologies," McKinsey & Company, J uly 2012, http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/high_
tech_telecoms_intemeVthe_social_economy.
The business benefits of email messages are obvious: They can be quickly and cheaply wriuen, edited, sen t, and stored. Ema il is not without cost, however. One study indicated tha t people focus longer on tasks and are less stressed when they are cut off from checking email. so Canadians d ivert 42 percent of their emai l directly lo "junk mail" folders, accord ing lo an lpsos Reid study.51 Over one-th ird of the survey respon- dents said they had trouble handling all of their ema il, and only 43 percent though t that emai l increased efficiency at work. Even though he and his business partner are located many plane hours apart, Dam ien Veran, co-founder of SlimCu t Media (with offices in Toronto and Paris) does not th ink email is lhe answer for communicating with h is co-founder, as OB in the Worliplace demonstrates.
Asleep in Paris, Busy Working in Toronto
What is t he best way to communicate when business pa rtners are on different continents? Toronto-based Damien Veran and Paris-based Thomas Davy launched Slim Cut Media in 2011 . 52 The two, who have been fr iends s ince childhood, have only seen each other in person a handful of ti mes since the company launched. To bridge lhe commu nication gap, they use lhe telephone and Skype. "Emails can be tricky; Mr. Veran says. "You need to be careful to make the amount of connecting [in real time] very regu lar."
Veran is s till working hard at 4 p.m. in Toronto, whi le Davy's day is ending. Veran admits the two sacrifice personal time to keep the communication flowing. "He has to be there for the team at 9 a.m., bu t he also has lo answer my emai ls from Canada al 11 p.m." .................................................................... .
Desp ite lhe costs, email is likely here lo s tay, and is •often the first impress ion that others get of you,• accord ing to executive coach and etiqueue expert Jacqueline Whitmore.53 Still, even seasoned ema il users struggle with striking the proper tone in their commu nications.
Whitmore offers the follow ing advice:
1. Do n't skip the s ubj ect line, but make it short a nd topic-related.
2 . Give a greeting/salutation •Dear" and "hello" are good s tarting points. In later exchanges, • h i• may be appropriate. Use the person's name. "Err on the side of being more formal" in your greeting and the body of the ema il, Whi tmore advises. Same for your closing; •sest regards" is more formal.
3 . Keep sen ten ces, p aragraphs, and thou gh ts s hort. Use bullet points when possible.
4. However, d o n't b e curt. •No one can see your facial expressions or hear your tone of vo ice, so the only way they're gauging your emotions is the tone tha t you use in that email.• she said.
5 . Don't u se text language. "Even if you've just graduated from college and you're now out in the workforce,• Whitmore observed, •remember that a lot of your cl ients may be Baby Boomers. It's important for you to stay professional. •
6. Ch eck your sp elling. Check it again.
7. Wh en peo p le ,vrite back, reply within 24 hours. •Even if you don't h ave an answer for someone, reply anyway,• she said. 54
Instant Messaging There are d istinct pros and cons to instant messaging (IM), b ut mostly negatives for business interactions. If you are present when the IM comes in, you can respond in real time to engage in online typed d ialogue, but the conversation will not be saved for later reference. If you miss the incoming IM, you may be a lerted when you next log on that a person tried to reach you, which may be long after a response was needed.
Text Messaging Text messaging may be a liu le bit beuer than IM bu t has many of the same pitfa lls in b us iness usage. The guidelines for the business use of texting are still evolving, b ut experts contin ually caution tha t business text language should be as forma l as any other business commun icatio n. The level of informality and abbreviations we use in personal text messages are usually not advisable at work. 55
Social Media Nowhere has online communication been more transformed than in the rise of social networks like Facebook and Linkedln, and business is taking advantage of the opportu- n ities these social media present. Many organizations have developed their own in-house social networking app lications, known as enterprise social sofuuare, and most have their own Facebook pages and 1\vitter feeds. 56 Social networking has become a too l for prospective employees, h iring managers, employees, and human resource divisio ns. See Case Incident- Organizational Leveraging of Social Media on pages 270- 271 on how social med ia blurs the lines between work and personal lives.
Facebook has more than 1.44 bill ion active users per month,57 and it's importan t to remember in business that users can send messages to other users e ither by posting on their walls (pub lic), sending messages, or setting up chats (private). Some of the modes of comm unication may be appropriate for business application (such as an organ iza tion's Facebook page) b ut many are not. Research has fo und that none of the world's 50 most profitab le companies' CEOs use Face book. 58 This represents a dramatic shift from 2010, when these CEOs were us ing Facebook, Linkedl n, and 1\vitter qu ite equally. Privacy remains a high concern for many Facebook users, and some regio ns of the world do not have access to it. 59
Chapter 7 Communication 261
262 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
··-
~ OB ~c110N
Unlike many social media venues, Linkedin was created as an online business network and now has 187 mill ion active users per month.60 User profiles on the site are like virtual resumes. Communication is sometimes limited to endorsements of others' skills and estab- lishment of business connections, though direct private communication is available and users can form and belong to groups. Linkedin is used increasingly by top CEOs and is the top popular network for them (22 percent of the top SO companies' CEOs use Llnkedin). 61
Twitter is a hybrid social networking service for users lo post • micro-b log• entries of 140 characters to their subscribers about any top ic, including work. Twitter has 236 m illion active users monthly on average62 and is growing as a business venue. American President Donald Trump may be its most famous user. Wh ile only 10 percent of the top companies' CEOs are onTwitter,63 some have many followers, such as Richard Branson of Virgin Group, who has 5.99 mill ion. Having many followers can be an advantage to a firm or a manager, but a huge l iab ility when posts (tweets) are badly written or negative, something Trump does not seem to have figured oul.
Apps Linkedl n and Twitter are two of the most widely used social media platforms for busi- nesses, bul they are not the only ones. Apps- easily accessed mobi le-friendly p latforms- are increasingly the forum of cho ice for the public. Some websites have apps, while other apps exist without corresponding websites. One of the biggest apps is WhatsApp, at 450 mill ion active monthly users. Apps are most popular in regions where mobile phone usage is primary.64 Asia has the world's largest number of social media users, and apps are a big part of that through Line (Japan), WeChat (China), and KakaoTalk (South Korea) .65
Biogs A blog (short for web log) is a website about a s ingle person or company. Experts see blogging as a business necessity for organizations, so it should not be overlooked as a vital form of communication to employees and customers, who can post feedback if they choose.66 However, outdated biogs look bad lo employees, customers, and the public, so new ones must be continually added to maintain relevancy.
Others Flickr, Pinteres t, Google+, YouTube, Wikis, Jive, Sociallext, and Socia l Cast are just a few of the many public and industry-specific platforms, wi th new ones launching
daily. Some are designed for only one type of posting: YouTube accepts only v ideos, for instance, and Flickr on ly videos and images. Other sites have a particu lar culture, such as Pinterest's informal posts sharing recipes or decorating tips. The business
Using Social Media Responsibly applications have not been fully realized yet, bul soon there will probably be at least one social med ia site ta ilored to every type of business communication. -+ Don' t write anything you would be uncom-
fortable having your emp loyer read.
-+ Keep in mind that wha t you publis h could be public for a long time .
-+ If you are writing abou t your company, b e tran sp ar ent about your role in the organ ization.
-+ Ge t approval from the organization before posting private or internal convers ations.
-+ Be u p front about correcting errors and updating previous posts.67
To help you find a ba lance between your des ire to engage in social media and to behave ethically toward the company in wh ich you are employed, OB in Action- Using Social Media Responsibly summarizes rules established by IBM. Shou ld man- agers care about employees' social media presence? Point/ Counterpoint on page 268 addresses th is question.
Nonverbal Communication Every lime we del iver a verbal message, we also impart an unspo- ken message.68 Sometimes the nonverbal component may stand alone as a powerful message of our business communication. No discussion of communication would thus be complete withou t
consideration of nonverba l communication-wh ich includes body movements, the intonations or emphasis we give lo words, fac ial expressions, and the physical d istance between the sender and receiver.
We cou ld argue that every body movement has mean ing, and no movement is accidental (though some are uncon- scious). We act out our state of being with nonverbal body language. For example, we smile to project trustworthiness, uncross our arms lo appear approachab le, and stand lo s ignal authorily.69
Does body language really
1nake a differe nce'?
Body language can convey status, level of engagement, and emo tional state.70 Body language adds lo, and often complicates, verbal communication. In fact, studies indicate that people read much more about another's attitude and emotions from their nonver- bal cues than their words ' If nonverbal cues con fl ict with the speaker's verbal message, the cues are someti mes more likely lo be bel ieved by the listener.71
If you read the minutes of a meeting, you wou ld not grasp the impact of what was said the same way as if you had been there or could see the meeting on video. Why not7 There is no record of nonverbal communication, and the emphasis given Lo words or phrases is m issing. Facial expressi.ons also convey meaning. Facial expressions, along with intonations, can show arrogance, aggressiveness, fear, shyness, and other characteristics.
The way individuals space themselves in terms of physical distance, commonly called proxemics, also has mean ing. For instance ind ividuals from "contact• cultures (for example, Arabs, Lalin Americans, southern Europeans) are more comfortable with body closeness and touch than those from •noncontacl • cu ltures (for example, Asians, North Americans, northern Europeans). If someone stands closer to you than is considered appropriate, it may ind icate aggressiveness or sexual interest; if farther away, it may s ignal disinterest or disp leasure with what is being said.
GLOBAL IMPLICATIONS
Cultural Barriers to Communication There are a number of problems related to language difficulties in cross-cultural com- mun ication. First, there are barriers caused by semantics. Words mean different th ings to d ifferent people. Some words don't translate between cultures. For instance, the Finnish word sisu means something akin to "guts" or "dogged persistence• but is essentially untranslatable in English. Similarly, capital is ts in Russia may have d ifficulty comm un i- cating with British or Canadian cou nterparts because Engl ish terms such as efficiency, free market, and regulati.on have no d irect Russian equivalents.
Second, there are barriers caused by word connotati.ons. Words imp ly different th ings in d ifferent languages. The Japanese word liai translates as •yes," but its co nnotation may be "yes, I'm listening,• rather than "yes, I agree.• Western executives may be h ampered in their negotiations if they don't understand th is connotation.
Third, there are barriers caused by tone differences . In some cult ures, language is forma l; in others, it's informa l. In some cultures, the lone changes depending on the co ntext: People speak differently at home, in social s ituations, and at work. Using a personal, informal style in a s ituation where a more formal style is expected can b e inappropriate.
Fourth, there are differences in wlerance for conflict and 1nethods for resolving conflicts. Peop le from ind ividua listic cultures tend to be more comfortab le with d irect con fli cts and will make the source of their disagreemen ts overt. Collectivists are more likely to
Ch apt er 7 Communication 263
f) Show how to overcome the potential problems in cross-cultural communication.
nonverbal communication Mes- sages conveyed through body move- ments, faci al expressions, and lhe physical distance between the sender and receiver.
proxemics The study of physical space in interpersonal relationships.
264 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
high-context cultures Cultures that rely heavily on nonverbal and subije situational cues in communication.
low-context cultures Cultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in communication.
acknowledge conflict only implicitly and avoid emo tionally charged disputes. They may attribute confl icts to the s it uation more than to the ind ividuals and therefore may not require explicit apologies to repa ir relationships, whereas individual ists prefer explicit s tatements accepti ng responsibility for conflicts and public apo logies to restore relationsh ips.
Cultural Context Cu ltures tend to differ in the degree to which context influences the meaning individu- als take from communication.7 2 In high-context cultures such as China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, people rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues when com- mun icating with others, and a person's official status, place in society, and reputation carry considerab le weight. What is not said may be more significant than what is said. In contrast, people from Europe and North America reflect their low-context cultures. They rely essentially on spoken and written words to convey meaning; body language or formal ti tles are secondary (see Exhibit 7-5).
Contextual d ifferences mean quite a lot in terms of communication. Communication in h igh-context cultures implies considerab ly more trust by both parties. What may appear, to an ou tsider, as a casual and insignificant conversation is important because it reflects the desire to build a relationsh ip and create trust. Oral agreements imply strong commitmen ts in high-context cu ltures. Also, who you are- your age, sen iority, rank in the organiza tion- is highly valued and heavily influences yo ur cred ibi lity. Managers can therefore •make suggestions" rather than give orders. But in low-context cultures, enforceab le contracts will tend to be in writing, precisely worded, and h igh ly legal istic. Sim ilarly, low-context cultures value directness. Managers are expected to be exp licit and precise in conveying intended meaning.
A Cultural Guide There is much to be ga ined from business intercultural communications. ll is safe to assume that every one of us has a different viewpoi nt that is culturally shaped. Because we do have differences, we have an opportun ity to reach the most creative solutions possible with the help of others if we communicate effectively.
Accord ing to Fred Casmir, a leading expert in intercu ltural communication research, we often don't communicate well with people outside of our culture because we tend to generalize from on ly their cultural origin.73 Doing so can be insensitive and potentially d isastrous, especially when we make assump tions based on observable characteris tics. Many of us have a rich ly varied ethnic background and would be offended if someone addressed us according to wha t cu lture our physical features might favour, for instance.
EXHIBIT 7-5 High- vs. Low-Context C ultures
High context
Low context
Chinese Korean Japanese Vietnamese Arab Greek
Spanish Italian English
North American Scandinavian
Swiss
German
Globalization has changed the way Toyota Motor Corporation provides employees with the informa-
tion they need for decision making. In the past, Toyota transferred employee knowledge on the job from generation to generation through "tacit understanding,• a common communication method used in the conformist and subdued Japanese culture. Today, however, as a global organization, Toyota
transfers knowledge of its p roduction methods to overseas employees by b ringing them to its training centre in Japan, shown here, to teach them production methods by using how-to manuals, practice d rills, and lectures.
Also, al!empts to be cultura lly sensitive to another person are often based on stereotypes propagated by the media. These stereotypes usually don't have a correct or curren t relevance.
Casm ir noted that because there are far too many cul- tures for anyone to understand completely, and individuals interpret their own cu ltures differently, intercultural com - mun ication should be based on sensitivity and the pursuit of commo n goals. He found the ideal condition is an ad
h!Ov\' can you 1mpro\'e
cross~cul tural communication'?
hoc "third culture" a group can form when they seek to incorporate aspects of each member's cultura l communication preferences. The norms this subculture estab lishes through apprecia ting individual differences create a common ground for effective com- munication. lntercultural groups that communicate effectively can be highly productive and innova tive.
When commun icating with people from a different culture, what can you do to reduce misinterpretations? Casm ir and other experts offer the following suggestions:7 4
• Know yourself Recognizing your own cultural identity and biases is critical to then understand ing the un ique v iewpoint of other peop le.
• Foster a climate of mutual respect, fairness, and denwcracy. Clearly establ ish an environment of equal ity and mutua l concern. This will be your "third culture" co ntext for effective intercultural commu nication that transcends each per- son's cultural norms.
• State facts, not your interpretation. Interpreting or eva luating what someone has sa id or done, in co ntrast with describ ing, is based more on the observer's
Chapter 7 Communication 265
266 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
Savannah Olsen, a Cree from Saddle lake, Alberta, is the co-owner of Old Faithful Shop, located in Vancou-
ver's historic Gastown district . When she received the National Aboriginal Entrepreneur of the Year by the Ca- nadian Council for Aboriginal Business several years
ago, the Council noted that her business is a model for helping "Canadians see Aboriginal people as net con- tributors to the Canadian economy and shared prosper- ity." Because of the store's location, she takes a unique
approach to developing her customer base. Olsen says that she "(holds] in-store craft workshops and mini fam,- ers' markets featuring growers and other local vendors.
These events provide an opportunity to get to know our customers and establish a feeling of neighbourliness."75
LESSON S LEARNED
cul lu re and background th an on the obseived situation. If you stale only facts, you will have the opportu nity lo benefit fro m the oth er person's interpretation. Delay judgment until you have had su fficient time lo obseive and interpret the situation from th e d if- fe ring perspectives of all the cul lu res involved.
• Consider the other person's viewpoint. Before sending a message, p ut yourself in the recipien t's shoes. What are h is or her values, expe- riences, and frames of reference? Whal do you know ab out his or h er educatio n, upb ringing, and background that can give you added insight? Try lo see the people in the group as they really are fi rst, a nd take a collaborative problem-solving approach whenever potential confl icts arise.
• Proactively maintain the identity of the group. Li ke any cultu re, th e establ ishment of a co m mon-ground "th ird cult ure• for effective inlercul lural communica tion takes lime and n urtur- ing. Remind members of the group o f yo ur commo n goa ls, m ut ua l respect, and need lo adapt to individual commun ica- tion preferences.
Summary You have probab ly d iscovered the link b etween communicatio n an d employee sa tisfactio n in this chapter: The less u ncertain ty, the grea ter the satisfactio n. Distortions, amb iguities, and inco ngruities between verba l and no nverba l messages all increase uncertainty and red uce effective commun ication. Careful attentio n to the methods an d modes fo r each com mu nication better e nsures th at the message is properly in terpreted by the receiver.
• Just because something is said, it does not mean that it was heard .
SNAPSHOT SUMMARY
• Com m unication is rarely "objective.' Both the sender's and receive(s realities affect
th e framing and understand- ing of the m essage.
• Information overload is a
serious problein for m ost individuals.
Mylab Management
The Comm unication • Emotions • Small-Group Networks Process • Language • The Grapevine • Choosing a Channel • Silence
• Lying Modes of Communication Barriers to Effective • Oral Communication Communication Organizational • Written Communication • Filtering Communication • Nonverbal Communication • Selective Perception • Direction of • Information Overload Communication
Study, practise, and explore real business situations with these helpful resources:
• Study Plan: Check your understanding of chapter concepts with self-study quizzes.
• Online Lesson Presentations: Study key chapter topics and work through interactive assessments to test your knowledge and master management concepts.
• Videos: Learn more about the management practices and strategies of real companies.
• Simulations: Practise management decision-making in simulated business environments.
.,. for Review
1. What are the key parts of the communication process, and how do you distinguish formal from informal communication?
2. How does channel richness underlie the choice of communi- cation channel?
3. What are some common barri- ers to effective communication?
4. What are the differences among downward, upward, and lateral communication?
5. What are the differences between formal small-group networks and the grapevine?
6. How do oral communication, written communication, and nonverbal communication differ?
7. How do you overcome the potential problem s of cross- cultural communication?
for Managers
• Remember that your com- munication mode will partly determine your communication effectiveness.
• Obtain feedback to make certain your messages-however they are communicated-are understood.
• Remember that written com- munication creates more misunderstandings than oral communication; communicate with employees through in-person meetings when possible.
• Make sure you use communica- tion strategies appropriate to your audience and the type of mes- sage you are sending.
• Keep in mind that culture can be a communication barrier.
for You
• If you are having difficulty com- municating w ith someone, you might consider that both you and the other person are contributing something to that breakdown. This tends to be true even if you are inclined to believe that the other person is the party more responsible for the breakdown.
• Often, either selective perception or defensiveness gets in the way of communication. As you work in your groups on student projects, try to observe communication flows more crit ically to help you understand ways that communi- cation can be improved and dys- functional conflict avoided.
0 ICll:I
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268 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
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EMPLOYEES' SOCIAL MEDIA PRESENCE SHOULD MATTER TO MANAGERS
POI NT COUNTERPOINT - - - - Everyone uses social media. 76 Well, almost everyone: A
Pew research study found that the highest percentage of adults who use social networking sites was in Israel at
53 percent, followed by 50 percent in the United States,
43 percent in Russia and Great Britain, and 42 percent
in Spain. Canada was not included in the 20 countries
studied.
Business is social, and using employees' social con- tacts to increase business has always been a facet of
marketing. Organizations that don't follow their employ-
ees' social media presence are m issing an opportunity
to expand their business and strengthen their workforce.
For example, the Honda employee who once told 30 friends that Honda is best can now tell 300 Facebook
friends and 500 Twitter followers about the latest model.
Employees' savvy about social media can have a sub-
stantial positive effect on the bottom line.
Monitoring employees' social media presence can also
strengthen the workforce by identifying the best talent. Managers can look for potential online celebrities - fre-
quent bloggers and Twitter users with many followers- to
approach for co-branding partnerships. Scrutiny can also
help employers spot problems. For example, consider
the employee who is fired one day and turns violent. A manager who had been monitoring the employee's social
media posts may have been able to detect warning signs.
A human resources department monitoring employees'
social media activity may be able to identify a substance
abuse problem and provide help for the employee through
the company's intervention policies. A job candidate's social media presence provides one
more input to hiring and retention decisions that many
organizations already take advantage of. In reality, there
is no difference between the employee and the person.
Em p loyers that monitor social media can also iden-
tify employees who use their p latforms to send out bad p ress or who leak p roprietary information. For this
reason, managers may someday be required to moni-
tor employees' social media postings and to act upon
infringements of company policies. Many do so already.
Managers should therefore develop enforceable social media policies and c reate a corporate infrastruc-
ture to regularly research and monitor social media activ-
ity. The potential increase in business and lim it on liability
is ample return for dedicating staff and work hours to
building a successful social p rogram.
There is little to be gained and much to be lost when
organizations follow candidates' and employees' pres-
ence on social media. Managers may be able to learn more about individuals through their online activity, and
organizations may be able to catch some good press
from employee postings, but the risk of liability for this
intrusion on privacy is inescapable. Managers are ill· equipped to monitor, interpret, and act upon employees' social media postings, and few have any experience with
relating the medium to business use.
Managers may also easily misinterpret information
they find. Few companies have training programs for the
proper use of social media; only 40 percent have social
media policies of any kind. Those that do are skating on thin ice because monitoring policies can conflict with
privacy regulations.
An employee's online image does not reveal much that is relevant to the job, certainly not enough to warrant
the time and money a business would spend on moni- toring. Most users view social media as a private, recre-
ational venue, and their membership on Facebook and
other sites should be regarded with the same respect
as would membership in a club. In th is light, monitoring
employees' social media accounts is an unethical viola -
tion of their right to privacy. Federal and provincial laws require companies to not
discriminate against women, people with disabilities,
Indigenous peoples, and visible minorities. But managers
who check into candidates' social media postings often
find out more than the candidate wanted to share, and then there is no way to keep that information from affecting the
hiring decision. Searching through social media can, there--
fore, expose a company to a costly discrimination claim.
Using employees' personal social media presence as
a marketing tool through company-supportive postings
is unethical from many standpoints. First, it's unethical to expect employees to expand the company's client base
through their personal contacts. Second, it's unreason-
able to expect them to endorse the company after work-
ing hours. The practice of asking employees for their
social media passwords is an obvious intrusion into their
personal lives. In sum, people have a right to a professional and a pri-
vate image. Unless the employee is offering to •friend" the
company in a social media partnership, there is no question
that employers should stay out of their personal business.
Chapter 7 Communication 269
BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES
Forn, small groups to discuss the following topics, as assigned by your instructor:
1. What differences have you ob served in the ways that men and women communicate?
2. How do you know when a person is listening to you? When someone is ignoring you?
3. Describe a situation in which you ignored someone. What impact did it have on that person 's subsequent comm unication behaviours?
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
An Absence of Nonverbal Communication This exercise will help you see the value of nonverbal com munication in interpersonal relations.
1. The class is to divide into pairs (Party A and Party BJ.
2. Party A is to select a topic from the following list:
a. Managing in the Middle East is significantly different from managing in North America.
b. Em ployee turnover in an organization can be functional.
c. Som e conflict in an organization is good .
d. Whistle-blowers do more harm than good for an organization.
e. An employer has a responsibility to provide every employee with an interesting and challenging job.
f. Everyone should register to vote.
g. Organizations should require all employees to undergo regular drug testing.
h. Individuals who have majored in business or economics make better employees than those who have majored in history or English.
,. The place w here you get your college or university degree is more imp ortant in detennining career success than what you learn while you are there.
j . It's unethical for a manager to purposely distort communications to get a favourable outcome.
3. Party B is to choose his or her position on this topic (for example, arguing against the view that •an employer has a responsibility to provide every em ployee w ith an interesting and challenging job '1. Party A now must take the oppo site position.
4. The 2 parties have 10 minutes in which to debate their topic. The catch is that individuals can only communicate ver- bally. They may not use gestures, facial movements, body movements, or any other nonverbal communication. It may help for both parties to sit on their hands to remind them of these restrictions and to maintain an expressionless look.
5. After the debate is over, the class should discuss the following:
a. How effective was com munication during these debates?
b. What barriers to com munication existed?
c . What purposes does nonverbal comm unication serve?
d. Relate the lessons learned in this exercise to problems that m ight occur when communicating on the telephone or through email.
ETHICAL DILEMMA
BYOD
"What's your cell phone num ber? Good, I' ll call you about
the meeting."77 If you're like many people in the world
who have used a smartphone for years, or one of the
1.3 billion people who bought one recently, chances are you've used it for work. In fact, your employer may have
even invited - or asked- you to use your smartphone,
270 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
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tablet, or laptop in your job. Such is the bring -your-own-
device (BYOD) trend, which started out of friendly conve-
nience but now carries major ethical issues. For instance:
• Did you know your employer can wipe your personal devices clean? Remotely? W ith no warning? It hap-
pens, and not just at the 21 percent of organizations
that erase devices when employees are terminated.
Any time an organization has a privacy concern,
it may w ipe all devices clean to prevent a further
breach of its cyber-defences. Health -care consultant
Michael Irvin lost his personal email accounts, apps,
music, contacts, and photos suddenly one day, leav-
ing his multi-use iPhone "like it came straight from the
factory." Another individual lost pictures of a relative
who had died.
• Is your device part of your employment contract,
either explicitly or by understanding? If so, who pays
for the device? Well, you did, and you continue to
pay for the service. If the device breaks, then .. . who
pays for the replacement device? Can you lose your
job if you can't afford the device and service?
• Can you use your device for all work-related com- munications? The cloud has brought opportunities for people to send classified work information anywhere,
anytime. Organizations are concerned about what
social media, collaboration, and file-sharing applica-
tions are in use, which is fair, but some policies can
limit how you use your own device.
• Once you use your personal device for work, where are the boundaries between work and home life? Research
indicates that intensive smartphone users, for instance,
need to disengage in their off-hours to prevent work-
home stress and burnout. Yet not everyone can do this
even if they are allowed to; research indicated a signifi ·
cant proportion of smartphone users felt pressured to
access their devices around the clock, whether or not
that pressure was warranted.
The clear dilemma for employees is whether to
acknowledge they own a smart device, and whether to
offer its use for their employer's convenience. Put that
way, it seems obvious to say no (why would you risk the possibility of later losing everything to a corporate
swipe?), but having just one phone for both personal
and professional use is more convenient. However, some
people think it's just better to carry two phones - one for
work, another for personal use. Attorney Luke Cocalis
tried it and concluded, "It frankly keeps me saner.•
Quest.ions
1. Do you use your smartphone or other personal devices for work? If so, do you think this adds to your stress level or helps you by providing convenience?
2. Cocalis likes the two-phone lifestyle and says his boss has his personal phone number only for emer- gencies. But assistant talent manager Chloe lfshin reports it doesn' t work so well in practice. "I have friends who are clients and clients who are friends,• she says, so work contacts end up on her personal phone and friends call her work phone. How does this consideration affect your thinking about BYOD?
3. Organizations are taking steps to protect themselves from what employees might be doing on their BYOD devices through allowing only approved computer programs and stricter policies, but no federal regula- tions protect employees from these. What ethical initiatives m ight organizations adopt to make this situation fair for everyone?
CASE INCIDENTS
Organizational Leveraging of Social Media As you know, social media have transformed the way
we interact.78 The transparent, rapid-fire communication
they make possible means people can spread informa-
tion about companies more rapidly than ever.
Do organizations understand yet how to use social media effectively? Perhaps not. Only 3 of 10 CEOs in the
Fortune 500 have any presence on national social media sites. Many executives are wary of these new technolo-
gies because they cannot always control the outcomes of
their communications. However, whether they are directly
involved with social media or not, companies should rec-
ognize that messages are out there, so it benefits them to
make their voices heard. Some experts say social media
tools improve productivity because they keep employees
connected to their companies during non-office hours. As
well, social media can be an important way to learn about
emerging trends. For example, Andre Schneider, chairman
of World Climate Ltd. , uses feedback from Linkedln
discussion group s and Facebook friends to discover
emerging trends and issues worldwide. Padmasree Warrior,
former chief technology officer of Cisco, has used social
media to refine her presentations before a ''test" audience.
The first step in developing a social media strategy
is establishing a brand for your communications- after
you define w hat you want your social media presence to
express. Experts recommend that organizations first lever-
age their internal corporate networks to test their strategy
in a medium that's easier to control. Most companies have
the technology to use social media through their corporate
websites and may use these platforms for communicat-
ing w ith employees and facilitating social networks for
general information sharing. As social networking expert
Soumitra Dutta of Cornell University notes, "My advice is
to build your audience slowly and be selective about your
contacts."
Despite the potential advantages, organizations also
need to be aware of significant draWbacks for them. First,
it 's very difficult to control social media communications.
Microsoft found this out When the professional blogger it
hired spent more time promoting himself than getting posi-
Chapter 7 Communication 271
tive information out about the company. Second, impor-
tant intellectual capital might leak out. Companies need
to establish strong policies and procedures to ensure that
sensitive information about ongoing corporate strategies
is not disseminated via social m edia. Finally, managers
must be committed to monitoring motivation and interest
beyond their initial forays into social media. A site that is
rarely updated can send a very negative message about
the organization's level of engagement with the world .
Questions
1. Are the draWbacks of the corporate leveraging of social media sufficient to make you think it 's better for organizations to avoid certain media? If so, which media?
2. What features would you look for in a social media outlet? What types of information would you avoid making part of your social m edia strategy?
3. What do you think is the Mure direction of social media in business? How might emerging technolo- gies change your forecast?
PowerPoint Purgatory We have all been there, done that : 10 minutes, 20 Pow-
erPoint slides. 79 Whether you have been the harried pre-
senter racing through the slides or the hapless listener
choosing between reading the slides or listening to the
talk, it's miserable. In all, 350 PowerPoint presentations are given per second worldwide, and the program com -
mands 95 percent of the presentation software m arket.
Why do we do this to ourselves?
The short answer seems to be because we know
how, or at least we think we do. Joel Ingersoll of Lorton
Data, a Minneapolis database company, said, "You say
to yourself, 'I' ll start vomiting information I found on my
hard drive until I hit, oh, about 20 slides, and then I' ll wing
the talking-to-people part."' Bombarding audiences w ith
stark phrases is only one possible pitfal , says Rick Altman,
author of Why Most PowerPoint Presentations Suck.
Another is to overdesign your presentation . Most of us
spend 36 percent of our prep time on design, according
to a study, yet we fail to remember that "less is more.• The
poor choices that sometimes result (such as using car-
toonish typefaces for a serious presentation) can under-
mine your intended message. Altman cautions against
using layer after layer of bullet points to write out what you
should say instead, and he recomm ends making sparing
use of hologram s, 30, and live Twitter feeds that only
detract from your message.
Successful talks are about a story and an interaction.
"Even if you're a middle manager delivering financials
to your department in slides, you're telling a story. A
m anager is constantly trying to persuade," says Nancy
Duarte, owner of a presentation design company. Equally
important is the audience. "Everyone is sick of the one-
way diatribe," Duarte notes, and Altman recommends
engaging people anim atedly "as if they're in preschool
waiting to get picked up by their parents." According to Keith Yamashita, founder of SYPartners communications,
this m ay mean ditching PowerPoint altogether. "There
are endless techniques that are more appropriate than
PowerPoint, • he contends. Like what?
Experts suggest fewer visual aids and more live interac-
tion with the audience. High tech does not guarantee bet-
ter storytelling. "Pin up butcher paper on the walls, draw
a m ap of your thinking, and hand that out," Yamashita
says, or use a w hite board. The results can amaze you.
When sales engineer Jason Jones had trouble launching
his two-hour slide presentation to a dozen clients, buddy
Dave Eagle stepped in. "All right, I got two presentations
for y'all," Eagle told the clients. He said one presentation
272 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
-"' CCI 0
was with slides, and the other just spoken. The c lients
chose the latter, and Jones and Eagle won the account.
2. In w hat presentations of yours have you found PowerPoint m ost effective in communicating your m essage? In what presentations did PowerPoint hinder your successful communication? Questions
1. What are some of the ways people misuse PowerPoint? What are the potential consequences?
3. list the pros and cons you see for managers who avoid PowerPoint as a mode of communication.
Effective Listening Too many people take listening skills for granted.80 They confuse
hearing with listening. What is the
difference?
Hearing is merely picking up sound vibrations. listening is m aking sense out of what we hear. That is, listening requires paying attention, interpret-
ing, and remembering sound stimuli.
The average person normally speaks at a rate of 125 to 200 words per
minute. However, the average listener can comprehend up to 400 words
per minute. This leaves a lot of time for idle mind-wandering while listen-
ing. For most people, it also means they have acquired a number of bad
listening habits to fill in the "idle time."
The following eight behaviours are associated with effective listening
skills. If you want to improve your listening skills, look to these behaviours
as guides:
1. Make eye contact. How do you feel when somebody doesn't look at you when you are speaking? If you are like most people, you are likely to interpret this behaviour as aloofness or lack of interest. We may listen w ith our ears, but others tend to judge w hether we are really listening by looking at our eyes.
2. Exhibit affirmative head nods and appropriate facial expressions. The effective listener shows interest in w hat is being said. How? Through nonverbal signals. Affirmative head nods and appropriate facial expressions, w hen added to good eye contact , convey to the speaker that you are listening.
3. Avoid distracting actions or gestures. The other side of showing inter- est is avoiding actions that suggest your mind is somewhere else. W hen listening, don' t look at your watch, shuffle papers, play with your pencil, or engage in similar distractions. They make the speaker feel that you are bored or uninterested . Maybe more important, they indicate that you are not fully attentive and may be missing part of the m essage that the speaker wants to convey.
4 . Ask questions. The critical listener analyzes w hat he or she hears and asks questions. This behaviour provides clarification, ensures under- standing, and assures the speaker that you are listening.
5. Paraphrase. Paraphrasing means restating w hat the speaker has said in your own words. The effective listener uses phrases such as "What I hear you saying is ... " or "Do you mean ... ?" Why rephrase w hat has already been said? Two reasons! First , it's an excellent control device to check whether you are listening carefully. You can- not paraphrase accurately if your mind is wandering or if you are
thinking about w hat you are going to say next. Second, it's a control for accuracy. By rephrasing w hat the speaker has said in your own words and feeding it back to the speaker, you verify the accuracy of your understanding.
6. Avoid interrupting the speaker. Let the speaker complete his or her thought before you try to respond. Don' t try to second-guess w here the speaker 's thoughts are going. When the speaker is finished, you will know!
7. Don 't overtalk. Most of us would rather voice our own ideas than listen to what someone else says. Too many of us listen only because it 's the p rice we have to pay to get people to let us talk. While talking may be more fun and silence may be uncomfortable, you cannot talk and listen at the same time. The good listener recognizes this fact and
does not overtalk.
8 . Make smooth transitions between the roles of speaker and listener. When you are a student sitting in a lecture hall, you find it relatively easy to get into an effective listening frame of mind. Why? Because communication is essentially one way: The teacher talks and you listen. But the teacher-student dyad is not typical. In most work situ- ations, you are continually shifting back and forth between the roles of speaker and listener. The effective listener, therefore, makes transi- tions smoothly from speaker to listener and back to speaker. From a listening perspective, this means concentrating on what a speaker has to say and practising not thinking about w hat you are going to say as soon as you get an opportunity.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Form groups of 2. This exercise is a debate. Person A can choose any
contemporary issue. Some examples include business ethics, the value
of unions, stiffer grading policies, same-sex m arriage, and money as a
motivator. Person B then selects a position on this issue. Person A must
automatically take the counter-position. The debate is to proceed for 8 to
10 minutes, with only one catch. After each person speaks, the other
must summ arize, in his or her own words and w ithout notes, what the
other person has said. If the summary does not satisfy the speaker, it
must be corrected until it does. What impact do the summaries have on
the quality of the debate?
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1. In another class- preferably one with a lecture format - practise active listening. Ask questions, paraphrase, exhibit affirming nonverbal behaviours. Then ask yourself: Was this harder for me than a normal lecture? Did it affect my note taking? Did I ask more questions? Did it improve my understanding of the lecture's content? What was the instructor's response?
2. Spend an entire day fighting your urge to talk. Listen as carefully as you can to everyone you talk to, and respond as appropriately as pos- sible to understand, not to make your own point. W hat, if anything, did you learn from this exercise?
Chapter 7 Communication 273
. ...... . Practising Skills
• • • •
Reinforcing Skills
• ••••••
274
Power and Politics
O Define power.
Can a popular radio show host get away with sexual harassment?
Power and politics tell much of the story.
f) Explain the three bases of formal power and the two bases of personal power. f) Explain the role of dependence in power relationships. C) Identify power or influence tactics and their contingencies. 0 Identify the causes and consequences of abuse of power. 0 Explain what empowerment is, and the factors that lead to it. f) Describe how pol itics work in organizations. G Apply impression management techn iques. 0 Identify the causes, conseq uences, and ethics of political behaviour.
ian Ghomeshi, former host of the CBC rad io show Q with Jian Ghomeshi, was fired by the CBC in 2014 after it saw "graphic evidence" of him physi- cally injuring a woman.1 Ghomeshi referred to it as "rough consensual sex," but that did not make a difference to the CBC. Ghomeshi and his lawyer tried to present evidence of consent with texts, emails, and photos
of Ghomeshi's sexual encounters. The CBC fired Ghomeshi because the evidence showed behaviour that "was
far more aggressive and physical than anything they had been led to believe dur- ing months of discussions. " Months earlier Ghomeshi had been accused of sexual assault, but the CBC kept Ghomeshi on the air while they conducted an investigation and examined the charges.
After viewing this new evidence, the CBC felt that it would not be able to defend itself once viewers found out about it. The CBC put Ghomeshi on indefinite leave
on October 24, 2014, suggested that he think about whether he had anything more he wanted to say, and met with him again on October 26. People
with knowledge of that meeting suggest that had Ghomeshi expressed remorse, or said he would seek treatment, that might have factored
into the CBC's thinking. However, Ghomeshi refused to accept responsibility for the situation, which prompted his firing .
One reason the CBC acted as slowly as it did after the first allegations were made is that Ghomeshi was a very popu-
lar radio host. His show had very high ratings. This gave him both expert and referent power, which allowed
him to keep his job when rumours about sexual misconduct first started to arise . The fact that
he kept his job caused employees to feel their complaints to management about
his behaviour were being ignored. WENN Ltdt AJamy s,ockl'hoto CBC worried about the fallout from
Ghomeshi 's fans. In both research and practice, power and politics have been described as
dirty words. It's easier for most of us to talk about sex or money than about power or political behaviour. Power is seductive. People who have power
deny it, people who want it try not to look like they are seeking it, and those who are good at getting it are secretive about how they do so. 2 A major theme in this chapter is that power and politics occur naturally in any group
or organization. Although you might have heard the saying "Power corrupts, and absolute power corrupts absolutely," power is not always bad. Power and politics are realities of organizational life, and they will not go away. Understand-
ing how to use power and politics effectively makes organizational life more manageable, because it can help you gain the support you need to do your job effectively.
• Have you ever wondered how you might increase your power?
\ I I ' , : ;, : ,V, , '
'l'IIE BIG IDEA • What do you need to be truly empowered?
• Why do some peopl e seem to engage in politics more than others? • In what situations does impression management work best?
Po\ver is nol necessarily a zero- sum game.
Sharing po\ver may in facl increase
everyone's po\ver.
275
276 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
O Define power.
power The capacity !hat A has to influence the beha~our of B, so Iha! B acts in accordance with Pis wishes.
dependence B's relationship lo A when A possesses somelhing !ha! B requires.
A Definition of Power Power refers to the capacity that A has to influence the behaviou r of B, so tha t B acts in accordance with Ns wishes.3 This definition implies that there is a porential for power if someone is dependent on another. But one can have power and not impose it.4
Probably the most important aspect of power is that it's a function of dependence. The greater B's dependence on A, the grea ter A's power in the relationsh ip. Dependence, in turn, is based on the alternatives that B perceives and the importance that B p laces on the allernative(s) that A controls. A person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you desire. If you are auending college or university on funds to tally provided by your parents, you probably recognize the power that your parents hold over you. You are dependent on them for financial support But once you are out of school, have a job, and are making a good income, your parents' power is reduced s ign ificantly. Who among us has not known or heard of the rich relative who is able to contro l a large number of fam ily members merely through the implici t or explicit threat of •writing them out of the wi ll"7
Power makes people uncomfortable.5 Part of the discomfort abou t power may have Lo do with how people perceive those in power. A recent study fo und that people who behave rudely- pulling their feet up on a chair, ordering a meal brusquely- were bel ieved by those watching this behaviour to be more likely to •gel Lo make decisions" and able lo •gel people lo l is ten Lo what (they] say• than people who behave pol itely. The researchers concluded that •norm viola tors are perceived as having the capacity Lo act as they p lease."6 As a resu lt, they seem more powerful. Another study found that people who have power judged others much more negatively for speeding, dodging taxes, and keeping a stolen b ike than if they engaged in this behaviour themselves. The study also found that those who had legitimate power were even more likely Lo indulge in moral hypocrisy (the attempt to appear moral withou t actually being moral) than those who d id not feel personally entitled Lo their power.7
Power should nol be considered a bad th ing, however. Focus on Research provides insight into the dynam ics of power, choice, and personal contro l.
Everyone wants power. Or do they7 Point/ Counterpoint on page 303 considers th is question.
FOCUS ~1sEARCH Power: It's All about Control
Why is choice less important when you have a sense of personal power? A recent study
examining how people think about power suggests that the desire for power is directly
related to control.8 In one of the experiments that was part of the study, subjects were asked to think about their feelings about being in the role of a boss or an employee after reading a
description of the role. Subjects in the employee role read about being in a powerless situa-
tion, while those in the boss role read about being in a powerful situation. Afterward, subjects were asked to choose whether to "buy eyeglasses or ice cream from a store that had three options or a store that had fifteen options.• Subjects in the powerless employee situation chose the scenario with more options, even if it meant driving farther or waiting longer.
In other words, people who have power do not feel the need for as much choice, and
people who lack power demand to have more choice. This research suggests that "power satisfies the thirst for choice and choice quenches the desire for power because each
replenishes a sense of control."
"People instinctively prefer high to low power positions," says Ena lnesi, one of the researchers from the London Business School. For those in low power positions, "it feels
good when you have choice, and it doesn't feel good when choice is taken away. " •....•
C hapt er 8 Pow er and Politics 277
Bases of Power Jian Ghomeshi's radio show was very popular.9 When the show was still on the air, the CBC
website indicated that the show had "the highest-ever ratings in its time slot in CBC history."
The show also had an American following, with 180 US radio stations carrying the program .
Because of this, Ghomeshi had both expertise power and referent power.
A report written after an independent investigation suggested that "host culture" at CBC
enabled Ghomeshi. Host culture, according to the report, is "A belief that people who occupy the
role of an on-air host inevitably have big personalities, big egos, and big demands . .. . Because
this personality type is considered necessary for the job, certain host behaviour was generally
tolerated despite the feeling that their egos and behaviour were problematic as there is general
fear to stand up to the talent." One senior manager quoted in the report said "there tends to be
a belief that bad behaviour is excused by results."
How do bases of power affect how individuals are treated and evaluated' Where does power
come from' What is it that gives an individual or a group influence over others?10
Fo rma l Power Formal power is based on an individual's position in an organizatio n. ll can come from the abi lity to coerce or reward, or from formal authority.
Coercive Power Al the organ izational level, A has coercive power over B if A can d ismiss, suspend, or demote B, assuming B values her job. If A can assign B work activ ities B finds u np leas- ant, or treat B in a manner B finds embarrassing, A possesses coercive power over B. Coercive power comes also from wi thhold ing key information. People in an organ iza- tio n who h ave d ata or knowledge others need can make oth ers d ependen t on them .
Reward Power The opposite of coercive power is r eward power . People will go along with the wishes or directives o f another if doing so produces positive be nefits; th erefore, someone who can d istribute rewards that others view as valuable will h ave power over th ose o thers. These rewards ca n be financial - such as controlli ng pay ra tes, ra ises, and bo nuses- or nonfi na ncial, including offering recognitio n, promotio ns, interesting work assignments, frie ndly colleagues, and preferred work sh ifts o r sa les te rritories. 11
Legitimate Power In forma l gro ups and o rganizatio ns, probably the most freq uen t access to one or more of the bases of power is th ro ugh a perso n's structural positio n. Th is is called legitima te power . It represents the power a perso n receives as a resu lt of his or h er position in the forma l hierarchy o f an orga n ization .
Legitima te power is broader than the power to coerce and reward. Specifically, it includ es acceptance by members of an organiza tion of the authority of a hierarch i- cal position. We associate power so closely with the concept of h ierarchy tha t just drawing longer lines i n an orga nization chart lead s people to in fe r th at the leaders are especially powerful. 12 When school p ri ncipals, bank presiden ts, or gove rnment department head s speak, teachers, tell ers, and c iv il servants liste n and us ua lly comply.
The Ethical Dilemma o n pages 304- 305 asks you to think abo ut h ow much you should de fer to th ose i n power. The Milgram experime nt, d iscussed in Focus on Research, looks at the extremes ind iv idua ls sometimes go to in ord er to comply w ith authority fig ures.
f) Explain the three bases of formal power and the two bases of personal power.
coercive power A power base that is depenoont oo fear of !he negative results from failing to comply.
reward power Power that achieves compliance based on !he ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable.
legitimate power Power that a person receives as a result of his Of her position in the f0<mal hierarchy of an organization.
278 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
•
FOCUS ~1sEARCH A Shocking Experiment
Would you shock someone if you were told to do so? A classic experiment conducted by Stanley Milgram studied the extent to which people are w illing to obey those in authority. 13
Subjects were recruited for an experiment that asked them to administer electric shocks to
a "student" who was supposed to learn a list of words. The experiments were conducted
at Yale University, and subjects were assured by the experimenter, who was dressed in a
white lab coat, that punishment was an effective way to learn. The subjects were placed in
front of an instrument panel that indicated the shocks could go from 15 volts to 450 volts.
W ith each wrong answer, subjects were to administer the next-highest shock level. After
the shocks reached a middle level, the "student" started to cry out in pain . The experi-
menter would instruct the subject to continue administering shocks. The experimenter was
trying to find out at what level the subjects would stop administering the electric shock.
No subject stopped before 300 volts, and 65 percent of the subjects continued to the
end of the experiment, even though, at the upper levels, the instrument panel was marked
"Danger XXX." It should be noted that subjects were not actually administering shocks, and
that the "student" was actually a confederate and was simply acting as if in pain. However,
the subjects believed that they were administering electric shocks. This experiment sug-
gests that many people w ill obey those who appear to have legitimate authority, even in
: questionable c ircum stances . .................................................... ..
expert power Influence based on special skills°' knowledge.
referent power Influence based on possession by an individual of desir- able resources Of personal traits.
Personal Power It is possible lo have power, as do competent and productive chip designers in technol- ogy firms, without having the formal power that comes with being a manager. Some peop le have personal power, which comes from an ind ividual's u nique characteris tics. There are two bases of perso na l power: expertise and th e respect and admiration of others. Personal power is not mut ua lly excl usive of forma l power, b ut il can be independent.
Expert Power Expert power is i nfl uence based o n expertise, special skills, or knowledge. As jobs become more specialized, we become dependent o n experts lo ach ieve goals. It is generally acknowledged that physicians have expertise and hence expert power- most of us follow the advice t hat our doctor gives us. Comp u ter specialists, lax accounta nts, economists, and o ther specia lists ca n have power as a result of their expertise.
Referent Power Refe rent power is based on identification with a person who has desirab le resources or personal traits. If I like, respect, an d admire you, you can exercise power over me because I want lo please you. Referent power develops out of adm iration of another and a desire lo be like that person. It helps expla in why celebrities are paid mill ions of dollars to endorse products in commercia ls, such as Drake for OVO Jordan brand sneakers, Eugenie Bouchard for Coca-Co la Canada, Gwen Stefani for I.:Oreal, and Justi n Timberlake for Sauza tequila. Some people wh o are not in formal leadersh ip positions nonetheless have referent power and exert influence over others because of their char- ismatic dyn am ism, likeability, and emotional appea l.
The Experiential Exercise on page 304 gives you the opportunity to explore the effec- tiveness of different bases of power in changing someone's behavio ur.
C h apt er 8 Power and Politics 279
Internet entrepreneur Mark Zuckerberg, co-founder and CEO of Facebook, has expert power. Shown here talking with employees, Zuckerberg earned the title "software guy" during college b ecause o f his expertise in
comp uter programming. Today, Facebook depends on his expertise to achieve company goals.
Which Bases of Power Are Most Effective? Of Lhe three bases of formal power (coercive, reward, legilimale) and two bases of perso nal power ( expert, referenl), which are mosl importanl? Research suggeslS lhe per- sonal sources of power are mosl effeclive. Bolh expert a nd referen t power are positively related to employees' satisfaction wilh supervisio n, lheir organizational commi tment, and their performance, whereas reward and legiti male power seem to be unrela ted to lhese outcomes. O ne source of formal power- coercive power- ca n be damaging.
Generally; people will respond in one of lhree ways when faced wilh lhose who use lhe bases of power described above:
• Commitment. The perso n is enlhusiastic abou t lhe request and sh ows initiative and persislence in carrying it o ut.
• Compliance. The person goes alo ng wilh lhe requesl grudgingly, puts in m ini- ma l effort, an d takes liul e in itialive in carrying out lhe request
• Resistance. The person is opposed to lhe request and tries lo avoid il wilh such tactics as refus ing, stalli ng, or argu ing about il. 14
A review of lhe research on lhe effectiveness of lhese forms of power fi nds lhal lhey d iffer in lheir impact o n a person's performance.15 Exhibit 8-1 summarizes some of lhis research. Coercive power leads lo resistance from individuals, increases m istrust, and is negatively related to employee salisfaclio n and comm itment. Reward power resu lts in complian ce if Lh e rewards are co nsistent wilh what individ uals wa nt as rewards. Legiti- mate power also results in compl iance, b ul it does not generally result in increased com- m itment. In other words, legitimate power does not insp ire individuals to act beyond lhe basic level. Expert and referent powers are lhe mosl l ikely to lead lo commitmen t from individuals an d are posi tively related to employees' satisfactio n wilh supervision, lheir organ izatio nal commitment, an d lheir performance. Iron ically, lh e leasl effective bases of power for improvi ng commilmenl- coercive, reward, a nd legitimate- are lh e o nes most often used by man agers, perhaps because lhey are lhe easiest to inlroduce. 16
Research shows that deadline pressure increases group members' reliance on individu- als w ilh expert power. ' 7
280 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
EXHIBIT 8-1 Continuum of Responses to Power
Base s o f Le a der Po w er
Coercive
Reward
Legiti mate
Resistance
M ost likely employee response
I
Compliance Commitment
l
l
Expert '"" i
Referent '" I
Source: STEERS, RICHARD M.; BLACK, J. STEWART, ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR, 5th Ed., ©1994. Reprinted and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
8 Explain the role of dependence in power relationships .
Dependence: The Key to Power
I Allegations about Ghomeshi's sexual misconduct started swirling in the spring of 20 14 .18 He learned from friends that reporters and a former girlfriend were investigating his sex life. Specifically they were wondering whether there was any evidence he engaged in nonconsensual and/or violent sex.
Ghomeshi worried that this information might enter the public sphere, so he alerted senior management to these rumours to make sure they heard this information from him first. The CBC
did not press Ghomeshi to give clear and detailed accounts, and he did not. Instead, the corpo-
ration decided to stand by him. There was a long history between Ghomeshi and the CBC, his accounts of what had happened were somewhat vague, and he was a CBC star. tn other words,
Ghomeshi had made the CBC dependent on him. So the corporation stood by him until it felt it
could no longer do so. tn a memo sent to employees, the CBC said "Jian's conduct in causing physical injury to a woman was inconsistent with the character of the public broadcaster, was
fundamentally unacceptable for any employee, was likely to bring the reputation of his fellow
I employees and CBC into disrepute and could not be defended by CBC." What factors might lead one party (a person or an organization) to have greater power over another? The most i mpo rtant aspect o f power is th at it is a functio n of depend ence. I n this sec-
tion, we show how an understand ing of dependence helps us u nderstan d the degrees
o f power.
The General Dependence Postulate Let's begin with a general postul ate: The greater B's dependence 011 A, the greater the power A has over B. When you possess anyth ing that others require b u t that you alone co ntrol, you make them dependen t upo n you and , th erefore, you gain power over th em .19
Another way to frame depend ence is to think ab o ut a relatio nsh ip in terms o f •who
needs whom1• The perso n w ho has the most need is the o ne most dependent on the
relationsh ip. 20
D ependence is inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply. I f some-
th ing is plenti ful, possessio n of it will not increase yo ur power. If everyone is i ntell igent, intelligence giv es no special ad va ntage. But if yo u can create a m o nopoly by control -
ling information, p restige, or any th ing that others crav e, they becom e d ependent on
C hapter 8 Power and Politics 281
you. Alternatively, the more options you have, the less power you place in the hands of others. This explains, for example, why most organizations develop multiple suppl iers rather than give their business to only one. It a lso explains why so many people aspire to financial independence. Independence reduces the power others can wield to limit our access to opportuni ties and resources.
What Creates Dependence? Dependence is increased when the resource you control is important, scarce, and can- not be substi tuted.21
Importance If nobody wants \vhat you have, there is no dependence. To create dependence, the thing(s) you contro l must be perceived as important. However, note that there are many degrees of importance, from needing the resource for sur- vival to wanting a resource that is in fashion or adds to conven ience.
Scarcity
Have you e\'e r ,,vondered ho\\'
you m ight increase you r
l)O\·rer'?
As noted previously, if something is plentifu l, possession of it will not increase your power. A resource must be perceived as scarce lo create dependence.
The scarcity- dependence relationsh ip can further be seen in the power s ituation of employment. Where the supply of labour is low relative to demand, workers can negoti- ate compensation and benefits packages far more attractive than those in occupations with an abundance of cand idates. For example, college and un iversity administrators have no problem finding English instructors to staff classes. There are more individuals who have degrees enab ling them to work as English instructors than there are posi- tions ava ilable in Canada. The market for corporate finance professors, by contrast, is extremely tight, with the demand high and the supp ly lim ited. The result is that the bargain ing power of finance facu lty allows them to negotiate higher salaries, lighter teaching loads, and other benefits.
Scientist Maria Kovalenko is in a position of power at Gilead Sciences, a research-based biopharmaceu-
tical firm. Scientists are in a powerful occupational group at Gilead because they discover and develop medicines that improve the lives of patients and contribute to Gilead's growth and success.
282 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
O Identify power or influ- ence tactics and their contingencies.
influence tactics Ways in which individ\Jals translate power bases into specific actions.
Nonsubstitutabi lity The fewer substitutes there are for a resource, the more power the person controlling that resource has. For example, most universities value faculty pub lishing, so the more recognition the faculty member receives through publication, the more control that person has because other universities want faculty who are high ly pub lished and vis ible.
Influence Tactics How do individuals translate their bases of power into specific, desired actions? Ind i- viduals use influence to try and gel the desired actions they want from others. Research has identified 10 distinct influence tactics, which are described in Exhibit 8-2:22
EXHIBIT 8-2 Influence Tactics
Influence Tactic Definition
Rational Persuasion Person A uses logical arguments and factual evidence to persuade person B that a proposal or request is viable and likely to result in the attainment of task objectives.
Inspirational Appeals Person A makes an emotional request or proposal that arouses enthusiasm by appealing to person B's values and ideals, or by increasing person B's confidence that person B can do it.
Consultation Person A seeks person B's participation in making a decision or planning how to implement a proposed policy, strategy, or change.
Ingratiation Person A seeks to get person B in a good mood or to think favourably of person A before asking person B to do something.
Exchange Person A makes an explicit or implicit promise that person B will receive rewards or tangible benefits if person B complies with a request or supports a proposal, or reminds person B of a prior favour to be reciprocated.
Personal Appeal Person A appeals to person B's feelings of loyalty and friendship toward person A before asking person B to do something.
Coalition Person A seeks the aid of others to persuade person B to do something or uses the support of others as an argument for person B to agree also.
Legitimating Person A seeks to establish the legitimacy of a request by claiming the authority or right to make it or by verifying that it is consistent with organizational policies, rules, practices, or traditions.
Upward Appeals Person A seeks to persuade person B that the request is approved by higher management, or appeals to higher management for assistance in gaining person B's compliance with the request.
Pressure Person A uses demands, threats, or intimidation to convince person B to comply with a request or to support a proposal.
Source: G. Yuki and J. B. Tracey, •eonsequences of Influence Tactics Used with Subordinates, Peers, and the Boss; Journal of App/led Psychology 7 7, no. 4 (1992) pp. 525-535.
C hapter 8 Power and Politics 283
EXHIBIT 8-3 Preferred Tactics by Influence Direction
Upw ard Influence
Ratio nal persuasi on
About Influence Tactics
Downward Influence
Rational persuasi on Inspirational appeals Pressure Consultati on Ingratiation Exchange Legitimacy
Lateral Influence
Ratio nal persuasi on Consultati on Ingratiation Exchange Legitimacy Personal appeals Coalit ions
Some infl uence taclics are more effeclive than others. Ra lio nal persuasion, inspiratio nal appeals, a nd consultalion tend lo be the mosl effeclive, especially wh en the audience is highly interested in the o ulcomes of a decision process. Pressure lends lo frequently backfire and is ly pically the least effective of the 10 tactics.23 You can increase your chance of success by using two or more taclics logether, as lo ng as yo ur cho ices are compalible.24 Using ingralialion and legiti macy together can lessen the negalive reac- lions, but only when the aud ience does nol really care about the o ulcome of a decision process or the pol icy is routine.25
The effectiveness of some infl uence tactics depends o n the d irectio n of infl uence, 26
and on the audience. As Exh ib it 8-3 shows, rational persuasion is the only taclic that is effective across organ iza tional levels. Inspirational appeals work best as a downward- in fl uenci ng taclic with subordinates. When pressure works, it's generally only lo achieve downward infl uence. The use of personal appeals and coalitions is most effeclive with lateral influence attemp ts. In addilion lo the direction of influence, a number of other factors affect which taclics work best These incl ude the sequencing of tactics, a person's skill in using lhe tactic, and the organ izational cu lture.
In general, yo u are more likely lo be effeclive if you begin with "softer• influence tactics that rely on personal power such as personal and inspirational appeals, ratio nal persuasion, and co nsultation. If these fa il, you can move to • harder• lactics (which emphasize forma l power and involve grealer cosls and risks), such as exchange, coal i- lions, and pressure. 27 A single soft taclic is more effeclive than using a single hard tactic, and combining lwo soft tactics or a soft tactic and rational persuasion is more effective than any single tactic or a combinalion of hard tactics. 28
The effectiveness of in fl uence tactics depends on the audience.29 People especially likely lo comply wilh sofl influence laclics tend to be more reflective and intrinsically molivated; they have h igh self-esteem a nd grealer desire for control. Those likely to comply with hard influence tactics are more action oriented and extrinsically motivated and are more focused on gelling along w ith others than on getting their own way.
Applying Influence Tactics Peop le differ in their political skill, or the ability lo infl uence others in such a way as lo enhance their own objeclives. The pol il ically ski lled are more effeclive users of all of the infl uence tactics. Poli tical ski ll is also more effeclive when the stakes are h igh - such as when the individ ual is accountable for imporlanl organ izational ou tcomes. Finally, the politically skilled are able to exerl their influence without olhers delecting il, a key element of its effectiveness (it's damagi ng lo be labell ed po lilical).30 These individuals are able to use their pol ilical ski lls in environments with low leve ls of procedural and distribulive justice. In organizations thal apply rules fa irly, without favo ur ilism or b iases, pol itical ski ll is negative ly relaled lo job performance ralings.31
Fina lly, we know that cullures within organizations d iffer markedly- some are warm, relaxed, and supportive; olhers are formal and conservative. Some encou rage
political skill The ability lo infl u- ence others in such a way as lo enhance one's objectives.
284 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
participatio n a nd co nsultation, some encourage reaso n, a nd s ti ll others rely on pres- sure. People wh o fit the culture of the organization tend to obta in more infl uence.32
Specifically, extraverts tend to be more influential in team-oriented organizatio ns, and highly conscientious people are more influential in organizatio ns that val ue working a lone on tech nical tasks. People who fit th e culture are infl uential because they ca n perform especia lly well in the domains deemed most important for success. Thus, the organization itself will infl uence which subset of influence tactics is viewed as acceptab le for use.
How Power Affects People Ghomeshi's star power, which came from Q, also affected the way that he worked with his employees.33 Some people in positions of power make demands on others so that they can
protect their own reputations. Matt Tunnacliffe, who was a Q producer and director, said that
Gomeshi "had a vision for the show and he made it happen . . . and he wasn't accepting of things that got in the way of that vision. That included subpar work, headphone settings, script
work. It was a tough place to work sometimes."
Staff reported that as the show grew in stature, it became more about Ghomeshi, and the staff felt that they received no credit for the show's success.
Kathryn Borel, founding producer of Q, described being sexually assaulted by Ghomeshi
for three years. Rather than face a trial, Ghomeshi entered a plea bargain in May 2016, and explained his behaviour as follows: "I now recognize that I crossed boundaries inappropriately.
I didn't appreciate the damage that I caused . . . the incident was thoughtless and I was insen-
sitive to her perspective and how demeaning my conduct was towards her." It is likely that,
I because he was in a position of power, he had little need to consider her perspective. What leads people to use power either selfishly or wisely? Studies ind icate that when someone is in a position of power, he or sh e may be more will ing to exert that power.3 4 Focus 011 Research sh ows how this idea p layed ou t in one particular study.
FOCUS ~1sEARCH The Cookie Experiment
Who eats t he fourth cookie? In a study known as the "cookie experiment," three psy- c hologists instructed teams of three students to write a s hort paper during a meeting . 35
Two of the team mem bers (the "subo rd inates") were to do the actual writing, and the
third team m emb er (the "boss") was assigned to evaluate the work and determine the pay the two writers would receive. Part way through the meeting, experimenters brought
in a plate of five cookies. As expected, no one ate the fifth cookie (rules of etiquette sug- gest that one should not eat the last item on a plate). The researc hers were interested,
then , in who ate the fourth cookie, given that it was extra . "Bosses" were far more likely
to take the fourth cookie than "subordinates," and were much more likely to chew w ith their mouths open and scatter c rumb s widely, signs t hat their power enabled them to
act in less-inhibited ways.
The authors concluded that pecple w ith power behave very differently than those with- out it. Powerful people are generally less inhibited and sometimes act in counternormative
ways. Powerless people "are more likely to feel negative moods and emotions; to attend
to punishment and t hreat; to make more careful, controlled judgments about others' intentions, attitudes, and actions; and to inhibit their own behaviours and act contingently
upon others." •................................................................•
C hapt er 8 Power and Politics 285
To Lhis poinl, we have discussed whal power is and how il is acqu ired. Bul we have nol yet answered one imporlanl queslion: Does power corrupl?
Power does appear to have corrupling aspects. Power can lead people lo place Lheir own inlereslS ahead of those of others' needs or goals. Why does th is happen? Inlereslingly, research suggesls that power nol only leads people lo focus on their self-in teresls because lhey can, it a lso liberales them to focus inward and lhus come lo place greater weighl on their own aims and interesls. Power also appears lo lead ind ividuals lo "objecti fy" olhers (lo see them as tools lo obtain Lheir inslrumenla l goals), and 10 see relationships as more peripheral.36 Powerful people react (especially negatively) lo any lhreats to their competence. People in positions of power hold on lo il when they ca n, and ind ividuals who face threals lo their power are exceplion- ally w illing lo lake actions 10 rela in il whelher Lheir actions harm others or not. One need only Lh ink of the many tweets US Pres ident Donald Trump made during his pres idenlial campaign a nd afterward auacking peop le he thought had s lighled him. Those given power are more likely lo make self- inleresled decisions when faced with a mora l hazard, which is lack of incenlive to guard aga insl risk where one is protecled from its consequences. An example is hedge fund managers laking more risks w ith other peop le's money because Lhey are rewarded for gains but less oflen punished for losses. Peop le in power are more willing 10 denigrate others. Power a lso leads lo overconfidenl decision making. 37
Power Variables As we have discussed, power does appear lo have some important dislurb ing effects on us. But lhat is hard ly Lhe whole s tory- power is more complicated than lha t. It does nol affecl everyo ne in the same way, and there are even posilive effects of power. Lel's co nsider each of lhese in lurn.
Firsl, the toxic effects of power depend on the wielder's personality. Research sug- gests thal if we have an anxious personalily, power does not corrupl us because we are less likely to lhink lhal using power benefils us.38 Second, the corrosive effecl of power can be conta ined by organizalional syslems. One sludy found, for examp le, that while power made peop le behave in a self-serving manner, when accountability for Lhis behaviour was initiated, the self-serving behaviour slopped. Third, we have lhe means lo blunt lhe negalive effects of power. One sludy showed lhal simply expressing gralilude toward powerful olhers makes lhem less l ikely lo act aggressively against us. 39
Finally, consider the saying that Lhose with lillle power abuse what lillle they have. There appears lo be some truth lo th is in tha t lhe people mosl likely to abuse power are those who slart low in status and gain power. Why is th is Lhe case? IL appears that having low status is threalen ing, and the fear this creales is used in negalive ways if power is later given.40
As you ca n see, some faclors can moderate the negative effects of power. But lhere can be genera l posi tive effects. Power can energize and lead to increased molivalion lo ach ieve goals. ll can also enhance our motivation to help others. One sludy found, for example, thal desire lo help others translated inlo actual work behaviour when people felt a sense of power.41
Th is study po ints lo an important insighl abou t power: ll's no t so much thal power corrupls as il reveals what we value. Supporting this l ine of reasoning, another s tudy found lhal power led to self-interested behaviour on ly in those with a weak moral identity (the degree to wh ich morals are core lo someone's idenlily). In those wilh a strong moral identi ty, power enhanced their moral awareness and wi llingness to act.42
Harassment: Unequal Power in the Workplace Peop le who engage in harassment in the workp lace are typically abusing their power pos ition. The manager-employee relalionsh ip best characlerizes an unequal power
O Identify the causes and consequences of abuse of power.
286 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
sexual harassment Unweloome behaviour of a sexual nature in the workplace that negatively affects the work environment or leads to adverse job-related consequences for the employee.
relalionship, where position power gives lhe manager lhe capacity lo reward and coerce. Managers give emp loyees lheir assignmenls, evaluate their performance, make recom- mendations for salary adjuslmenls and promotions, and even decide whelher employees retain lheir job. These decisions give a manager power. Since employees want favourable performance reviews, salary increases, and the l ike, it's clear that managers conlrol lhe resources lhal most emp loyees consider important and scarce.
Allhough co-workers do nol have position power, they can have influence and use il to harass peers. In facl, allhough co-workers appear lo engage in somewhal less severe forms of harassmenl lhan do managers, co-workers are lhe mosl frequenl perpelrators of harassmenl, particularly sexual harassment, in organizations. How do co-workers exercise power? Mosl often lhey provide or wilhhold informa tion, cooperalion, and support.
We focus here on two types of harassment that have received considerable auenlion in the press: workplace bullying and sexual harassment.
Workp lace Bullying Many of us are aware, anecdolally if not personally, of managers who harass emp loy- ees, demanding overtime without pay or excessive work performance. Further, some of the recent slories of workplace violence have reporledly been t he resull of an employee feeling inti midated at work. In research conducted in lhe private and public sector in soulhern Saskalchewan, Celeste Brolheridge, a professor al the Universite du Quebec a Monlreal, found lhal bullying was prevalent and has a negalive effect in lhe workp lace: "Given bullying's delelerious effects on employee health, il is reason for concern. • 43
There is no clear definition of workplace bullying, and Marilyn Noble, a Fredericton- based adult educator, remarks thal in some inslances a fine line exisls between manag- ing and bullying. However, recent research suggests lhal bosses who feel inadequate or overwhelmed are more likely lo bully.44 As one of the s tudy's co-aulhors explained: "The comb ination of hav ing a h igh-power role and fearing that one is not up to lhe Lask .. . causes power holders to lash out. "45 A recenl s tudy by researchers al Univer- s ile du Quebec a Monueal looking at the effects of bullying on nurses showed lhat il decreases satisfaction and increases burnout.46
Quebec inuoduced lhe firsl anti-bullying labour legislation in Norlh America on June l, 2004. The legislation defines psychological harassment as "any vexatious behav- iour in lhe form of repealed and hostile or unwanted conduct, verbal comments, actions or gestures lhat affects an employee's dign ity or psycho logical or physical inlegrity and lhal results in a harmful work environment for lhe employee."47 A number of olher provinces have inuoduced workplace legislation addressing bullying and harassmenl issues, though nol all provinces have done so. Most provinces do have a requiremen t in their Occupalional Health and Safely Legislation to protecl lhe heallh and safely of employees, wh ich provides some protection. OB on the Edge- Workplace Bullying on pages 344-349 looks al th is maller more closely.
Sexual Harassment The Supreme Court of Canada defines sexu al harassm e n t as unwelcome behaviour of a sexua l natu re in the workplace that negatively affecls the work env ironmenl or leads lo adverse job-related consequences for the employee.48 Despile the legal framework for defining sexual harassment, d isagreement conlinues as to what specifi- cally constilules sexual harassment Sexual harassment includes unwanled physical louching, recurring requests for dates when il is made clear lhe person is not inler- esled, and coercive threats that a person w ill lose her or his job if she or he refuses a sexua l propos ition. The problems of interpreting sexual harassment often surface around some of its more subtle forms - unwanted looks or comments, off-colour jokes, sexual artifacls such as nude calendars in t he workplace, sexual innuendo,
0
Chapt er 8 Power and Politics 287
or different interpretations of where t he l ine between "being fr iend ly" ends and "harassment• begins.
Most studies confirm that power is cenlral to understanding sexual harassment.49
Th is seems true whether the harassment comes from a supervisor, a co-worker, or an employee. Sexua l harassment is more l ikely lo occur when there are large power dif- ferentia ls. The supervisor- employee dyad best characterizes an unequa l power relation- ship, where formal power gives the supervisor the capacity to reward and coerce. Because employees want favourable performance reviews, salary increases, and the like, supervi- sors co ntrol resources most employees consider important and scarce. Inadequate con- trols lo detect and preven t sexual harassment by a manager typically create the greatest d iffic ulty for those being harassed. If there are no witnesses, abusers are more likely to act For example, ma le respondents in one s tudy in Switzerland who were high in hostile sexism reported h igher intentions lo sexually harass in organizations that had low levels of justice, suggesting that fa ilure to have consistent policies a nd procedures for all employees m ight increase levels of sexual harassment.50
Employers in Canada are expected to pro tect their employees with sexual harass- ment policies. Some emp loyers have developed sexual harassment policies, and some go further, either bann ing workp lace romances or requiring them lo be reported to managemen t Lying about a workp lace affair got one manager fired, as OB in the Work- place shows.
In add ition lo its legal repercussio ns, sexual harassment obvio usly has a nega- tive impact on the work environme nt. Sexual harassment negative ly affects job attitudes and leads those who fee l harassed to withdraw from work (for example, avoiding work, failing to attend scheduled meetings). In fact, perceptions of sexual harassment are more l ikely than workplace bu llying lo lead to work withdrawal. 51
ll also appears that sexual harassment has health consequences. Women exposed to workplace sexual harassment reported psychological distress two years after the harassment occurred_s2
Workplaces are not the on ly place where sexual harassment occurs. While noncon- sensual sex between professors and students is rape and subject lo criminal charges, it's harder to evaluate apparently consensual relationships that occur outside the classroom. There is some argu ment over whether lruly consensual sex is ever possible between students and professors and some universities have considered outright bans between
OB IN TH E ~. WORKPLACE It's Not About t he Affair, It's About th e Coverup
Should an employee be f ired for lying about a workplace affair? Bryan Reichard, a 41 -year-old married manager at Kitchener-based Kuntz Electropla ting, had an affair with one of the company's adminislra tive assistan ts.53 She was single and 26.
In order to prevent sexua l harassment lawsu its, Ku ntz imp leme n ted a non- fra tern iza tio n pol icy, which specified that employees in romantic rela tio nsh ips needed to notify their manager. Reichard was repeated ly asked ifhe was having an affair with the administrative assistant, bu t he denied it. Kuntz did not forb id office relationships, so Reichard would not have been d iscip lined for having a workplace affa ir.
However, Reichard was eventually terminated for lying about the affa ir. The decision was appea led, and Kuntz's decis ion to term inate Reichard was upheld. The judge hear- ing the case gave his reaso ning in his December 2011 judgment: "Kuntz had every right to consider that Reichard's wilful misconduct seriously called into question the lrust, integrity and honesty required for h im to perform his d uties as a manager and tha t Kuntz's Jack of trust in Reichard was sufficient to terminate him for cause.• ......... .
288 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
e Explain what empower- ment is, and the factors that lead to it.
professors and s tudents engaging in intimate relationsh ips. Most universities have been unwilling to adop t such an extreme stance, and it's not clear that in Canada such a policy would stand up in the courts. Carleton University does not prohibit relation- ships between individuals in au thority and those who are not, but does include the fo llowing statement in its sexua l harassmen t po licy: "No individual in a posi tion of authority is permitted to grade or supeNise the performance of any student, or evaluate an emp loyee or a colleague, with whom they are sexually involved or have been with in the past five years.• 54
A recent st udy of five of Quebec's French-speaki ng universities found that almost 37 percent of the respondents (wh ich included students, facu lty, and staff) reported that they had experienced some form of sexual v io lence. Only I 5 percent of t hat group reported the activities to the authorities, and more than 30 percent never told anyone, not even a fr iend, about the episode(s).55 However, much of this harass- ment comes from student-on-student incidents. Iain Boekhoff, the editor-in-ch ief of Western Univers ity's Frosh issue of the Gazeue, came under fire for pub lish ing an article telling first-year students how to sexually harass their teaching assistants (TAs) . Boekhoff defended t he article as being relatively tame. •Two years ago it was just s tra ight, 'How to have sex with your TA; as one of the SO or 100 th ings to do before you leave Western: he said _s6
Sexual harassment can have a negative impact on the organizations and the victims themselves. But it can be avoided. The manager's role in preventing sexual harassment is critical. Managers can protect themselves and their employees from sexual harassment in the fo llowing ways:
• Make sure an active po licy defines \vhat constitutes sexual harassment, informs emp loyees that they can be fired for inappropriate behaviour, and establ ishes procedures for making complaints.
• Reassure employees that they will not encoun ter retaliation if they issue a compla int.
• Investigate every compla int and inform the legal and human resource departmen ts.
• Make sure that offenders are d iscipl ined or terminated.
• Set up in-house seminars to raise emp loyee awareness of sexual harassment issues.
Should workplaces ban all forms of sexual behaviour as a way of preventing harass- ment? Focus on Ethics considers th is question.
The bottom line is that managers have a responsibility to pro tect their employees from a hostile work environment. They may easily be unaware that one of their employ- ees is being sexually harassed, bu t being unaware does not protect them or their orga- nization. If investigators bel ieve a manager could have known about the harassment, both the manager and the company can be held liable.
Empowerment: Giving Power to Employees Thus far, our discussion has implied- to some extent, at least- that power is some- thing that is more likely to reside in the hands of managers, to be used as part of their interaction with emp loyees. However, in today's workplace, there is a movement toward sharing more power with employees by put ting them in teams and also by making them responsible for some of the decisions regarding their jobs. For instance, at Vancouver- based iQmetrix Software Development, employees are part of a results-only workplace, where they are encouraged to make their own decisions.57 Organ izational specialists refer to this increasing responsibility as empowennen.t.
C hapter 8 Power and Politics 289
FD c us ~~ HICS Sex at Work
Shou ld romantic relationshi ps be prohibited at work? The difficulty in monitoring and defining sexual harassment at work has led some organizations to go beyond discourag- ing overt sexually harassing behaviours.58 Companies ranging from Walmart to Staples to Xerox have disciplined employees for workplace romances and upheld policies that ban hierarchical romantic relationships, such as between a supervisor and a subordinate. The idea is that such relationships are so fraught with potential for abuse of power that they cannot possibly be consensual for extended periods of time. Surveys by the Society of Human Resource Management suggest that concerns about both potential sexual harassment and lowered productivity have motivated prohibitions on workplace romances. However, ethicists and legal scholars have thrown some "no romance" policies into ques- tion on the grounds they are patronizing or invade employee privacy.
What does organizational behaviour research have to say about consensual sexual behaviour at work? One study of more than 1000 respondents found that 40 percent were exposed to sexual behaviour in some form in the past year. Counter to the idea that all sexual behaviour at work is negative, some female and many male respondents reported enjoying the experience. However, exposure to sexual behaviour at work was negatively related to performance and psychological well -being. People may report enjoying it, but it
might be hurting their productivity and well-being anyway . •. . ........ . ... . ..........•
Definition of Empowerment The definition of empowennent that we use here refers to the freedom an d the ab i lity of employees to make decisio ns and commitments.59 Unfortunately, neither managers nor researchers agree on the defi nition of empowerment. O ne study found that executives were split abo ut 50- 50 i n their defi n it ion.60 One group of executives " believed tha t empowerment was about delegating deci sion making w ith in a set of clear boundar- ies.• Empowerment would start at the lop, specific goals and tasks would be assigned,
responsibility wo uld be delegated, and people would be held accountable for thei r results. The other group believed that empowerment was •a process of risk taking and personal growth.• This type of empowerment starts at the bottom, w ith considering the
employees' needs, showing them what empowered behaviour looks like, bu ilding teams, encouraging risk-taking, and demonstrati ng trust in empl oyees' abi lity to perform. Case Incident- Delegate Power, or Keep It Close? on page 305 considers th e tension between delegating and remain ing in charge.
One difficul ty with empowerment is t hat manag- ers often give lip service t o the idea, 6 1 with organiza- t ions telling employees th at they have decis ion-making \.Vhat do you responsibility, but nol giving them th e authority to carry o ut th eir decisions. The result is a great dea l of cyn icism in many workp l aces, part icular ly w h en •empowered"
employees are m icromanaged. For an employee t o be f u lly empowered, he or she needs access to the i nfor-
need to be truly empov.•ercd"?
mation required to make decisions; rewards for acting i n appropriate, responsib le ways; and the authority to make the necessary decis ions. Empowerment means th at employees understand how thei r job fits inlo the organizatio n and are ab le to make deci sions regarding job action guided by the organization's purpose and mission.
290 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
EXHIBIT 8-4 Characteristics of Empowered People
Robert E. Quinn and Gretchen M. Spreitzer, in their research on the characteristics of empowered people, found four characteristics that most empowered people have in common:
• Self-determination: They choose how to do their work (they are not micromanaged).
• Sense of meaning: They care about what they do because they consider what they do has an important purpose.
• Sense of competence: They believe that they have the ability to perform their work well.
• Sense of impact: They believe that their ideas are listened to and that they can influence work outcomes.
Source: Based on R. E. Quinn and G. M. Spreitzer, "The Road to Empowerment: Seven Questions Every Leader Should Consider," Organizational Dynamics, Autumn 1997, p. 41.
Nol every employee app reciates being empowered, however. One s tudy found that someti mes empowerment ca n make employees ill if they are put in charge at work bul lack the con fidence to hand le their responsibi lities.62 The study autho rs suggested that emp loyers who seek to increase employees' control over their \vork shou ld also promote emp loyees' sense of sel f-efficacy. Doing so is more likely to support employee well-bei ng.
Exhibit 8-4 outlines wha t two researchers discovered in studying the characteristics of empowered p eop le.
Managers at Toronto-based Steam Whistle Brewing must face their employees to ask what needs to be
fixed if there are complaints about the managers. The company encourages its younger employees (a few of whom are shown here, congregating after work on the staff patio) to speak up. Co-founder Greg Taylor explains the rationale: "In many organizations, younger employees feel they won't be heard until
they' re established in their careers. We t hink that we're in the business of selling beer to young people, so we should listen to what they have to say."63
C hapter 8 Power and Politics 291
At Vancouver-based Great Little Box Company (GLBC), which designs and manufactures corrugated containers, employees are given the freedom to do whatever they feel is necessary and appropriate to
make customers happy. If a customer is dissatisfied with the product, the employee can say, "OK, I 'II bring this product back and return it for you,• w ithout having to get prior authorization.
Politics: Power in Action Whenever peop le get together in groups, power will be exerted. People want lo carve out a niche to exert influence, to earn awards, and to advance their careers.64 If they convert their power into action, we describe them as being e ngaged in politics. Those w ith good po litical skills have the ability to use their bases of power effectively.65 In this section, we look at po litical behaviour, including the types of political activity peop le use Lo try to influence others, and impression managemen t. Po litical skills are no t confined to adults, of course. Even you ng ch ildren are quite adept at waging careful, de liberate campa igns lo wear their parents down, so that they can get things that they want.
Definition of Politi cal Behaviour There is no shortage of definitions for organizational politics. Essentially, th is type of poli- tics focuses on the use of power to affect decision making in an organization, sometimes for self-serving and organizationally unsanctioned behaviours.66
For our purposes, we will define political be haviour in organizations as those activities that are outside one's formal role and that influence, or attemp t Lo influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organ izalion.67
This defin ition encompasses what most people mean when they talk about orga- nizational politics. Po litical behaviour is outs ide one's specified job requirements. The behaviour requires some attempt to use one's bases of power. Our defin ition also encompasses efforts lo influence the goals, criteria, or processes used for decis ion making \vhen we s tale that politics is concerned with "the d istribution of advantages and disadvantages w ithin t he organ ization .• Our definition is broad enough lo include such varied pol itical behaviours as withholding key information from deci- sion makers, jo ining a coalition, whistle-blowing, spread ing rumours, leaking co nfi- dential information about organizational activities to the media, exchanging favours w ith others for mut ual benefi t, and lobbying on behalf of or agains t a particu lar ind ividual or decision a lternative. In this way, po litical behaviour is often negative, but not always. Exh ibit 8-5 provides a quick measure to help you assess how pol itica l your workp lace is.
f) Describe how politics work in organizations.
political behaviour Those activities that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within !he organization.
292 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
EXHIBIT 8-5 A Quick M easure of How Political Your Workplace Is
How political is your workplace? Answer the 12 questions using the following scale:
SD = Strongly d isagree
D = Disag ree
U = Uncertain A = Agree
SA = Strongly agree
1. Managers often use the selection system to hire only people Who can help them in their future.
2. The rules and policies concerning promotion and pay are fair; it's how managers carry out the policies that is unfair and self-serving.
3. The perfonnance ratings people receive from their managers reflect more of the managers' "own agenda" than the actual performance of the employee.
4. Although a lot of what my manager does around here appears to be directed at helping employees, it's actually intended to p rotect my manager.
5. There are cliques or "in-groups" that hinder effectiveness around here.
6. My co-workers help themselves, not others.
7. I have seen people deliberately distort infonnation requested by others for purposes of personal gain, either by withholding it or by selectively reporting it.
8. If co-workers offer to lend some assistance, it is because they expect to get something out of it.
9. Favouritism rather than merit detennines who gets ahead around here.
10. You can usually get what you want around here if you know the right person to ask.
11. Overall, the rules and policies concerning promotion and pay are specific and well-defined.
12. Pay and p romotion policies are generally clearly communicated in this organization.
This questionnaire taps the three salient dimensions that have been found to be related to perceptions of politics: manager behaviour; co-worker behaviour; and organizational policies and practices. To calculate your score for items 1- 10, give yourself 1 point for Strongly disagree; 2 points for Disagree; and so forth (through 5 points for Strongly agree). For items 11 and 12, reverse the score (that is, 1 point for Strongly agree, etc.). Sum up the total: The higher the total score, the greater the degree of perceived organizational politics.
Source: G. R. Fems, D. D. Fmk, 0. P. S. Bhawuk, J . Zhou, and D. C. Gilmore, "Reactions of Diverse Groups to Politics in the Workplace," Journal of Management 22, no. 1 (1996), pp. 32-J3.
The Reality of Politics Interviews with experienced managers show most believe political behaviour is a major part of organizational life.6 8 Many managers report some use of pol itical behaviour is ethical, as long as it doesn't d irectly harm anyone else. They describe pol itics as neces- sary and believe someone who never uses political behaviour w ill have a hard Li me getting things done. Most also indicate they have never been trained to use political behaviour effectively. But why, you may wonder, must pol itics exist? Isn't it possible for an organization to be politics-free? It's possible, but most unlikely.
Organizations have ind ividua ls and groups with d ifferent values, goals, and inter- ests. 69 This sets up the potentia l for conflict over the allocation of limited resources, such as budgets, work space, and salary and bonus pools. If resources were abundant, then all constituencies w ithin the organization could satisfy their goals. But because they are l imited, no t everyone's interests can be satisfied. Furthermore, gains by one individual or group are often perceived as coming at the expense of o thers within the organiza tion (whether they are or not). These forces create competition among mem- bers for the organization's limited resources.
1\ 0 )'1 -+ CAREER OBJECTIVES
I ~ Should I Become Political? My office is so polit ical! Everyone is just lookin g for ways to get a he a d by plotting and schemi ng rat her t ha n doi ng the job. Shou ld I just go along w ith it a n d develop my own pol it ica l strateg y?
-Julia
Dear Julia: There's definitely a temptation to join in when other people are behaving politically. If you want to advance your career, you need to think about social relationships and how to work with other people in a smart and d ip lomatic way. But that doesn't mean you have to give in to pressure to engage in organizational politics.
Of course, in many workplaces, hard work and achievement aren't rec- ognized, which heightens politicking and lowers performance. But politics aren 't just potentially bad for the com- pany. People who are seen as political can be gradually excluded from social networks and informal communica- tion. Co-workers can sabotage a per- son with a reputation for dishonesty or manipulation so they don't have
to deal with him or her. It's also likely that a political person will be the direct target of revenge from those who feel they've been wronged.
If you want to provide a positive alternative to political behaviour in your workplace, there are a few steps you
can take: • Document your work efforts, and find
data to back up your accomplish-
ments. Political behaviour thrives in an ambiguous environment where standards for success are subjective and open to manipulation. The best way to shortcut politics is to move the focus toward clear, objective markers of work performance.
• Call out political behaviour when
you see it. Political behaviour is, by its very nature, secretive and underhanded. By bringing poli- tics to light , you limit this capacity to manipulate people against one another.
• Try to develop a network with only those individuals who are interested in performing well together. This makes it hard for a very political person to get a lot done. On the
C h apt e r 8 Power and Politics 293
other hand, trustworthy and coop- erative people will be able to find many allies who are genuinely sup- portive. These support networks w ill result in performance levels that a lone political person simply can - not match.
Remember, in the long run a good reputation can be your greatest asset!
Based on: A. Lavoie "How to Get Rid of Toxic
Office Politics," Fast Company, April 1 o, 2014, http://www.fastcompany .oom/3028856/worl<- smart/how-to-make·office-po!tticking·a-lame-
duck; C. Conner, • Office Politics: Must You Play?• Forbes, April 14, 2013, http://www.forbes. com/sites/cherylsnappconner/ 2013/04/14/
offce-politics-must·you·play-a-handbook·lor-
suivivalsuccess/; and J. A Colquitt and J. B. Radel "Justice, Trust, and Trustworthn ess: A
LongttudinaJ Analysis lntegratn g Three Theoret~ cal Perspectives," Academy of Management Journal 54 (2011 ), pp. 1183-1206.
The opinions provided here are of the manag· ers and authors only and do nor necessariy reflect those of their organizations. The authors or managers are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for the results obtained from the use of this information. In no event wl// the authors or managers, or their related partner- ships or corporations thereof, be liable to you or anyone else for any decision made or action taken In reliance on the opinions provided here.
Maybe the most important fac tor behi nd pol itics w ith in organizations is the realization th at most of the "facts• that are used to allocate th e limited reso urces are open to interpretation. Wh at, for insta nce, is good performance? What is a n adequate improvement? What constitutes an unsatisfactory job? H's in this large and ambiguous m iddle ground of orga nizationa l life- where the facts don't speak for themselves- that politics fl o u rish.
Finally, because most decisio ns must be made in a climate of a mb iguity- where facts are rarely fully objective, and thus are open to interpretation- peop le within organ iza tions will use whatever in fl uence they can to support their goa ls and interests. Thal, of course, creates the activities we call politicking. For more about how o ne engages in po liticking, see From Concepts to Skills on pages 306- 308.
Therefore, to answer the earlier questio n about whether it is possible for an orga- nization to b e politics-free, we can say •yes·- b ut only if all the members of th a t organ ization h old the same goals an d interests, organ izational resources are not scarce, and performance o utcomes are comp letely clear and objective. However, that does not describe the organ izatio nal world in wh ich most of us Jive.
294 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
9 Apply impression man- agement techniques.
impression management The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them.
RESEARCH FINDIN GS : Politicking Indiv idua ls wh o s uccessfu lly engage in poli- ticki ng ca n achieve favo u rable outcomes. But
for most people- who h ave modest po litical skills or are u nwi lling to play the pol itics game- ou tcomes tend to be predominantly negative.70 There is, for instance, very stro ng evidence indicating that perceptions of organizational pol i- tics are negatively related to job satisfaction.71 Politics may lead to self-reported declines in employee performance, perhaps because employees perceive pol itical environments to be unfair, which demotivales them. 72 Not surprisi ngly,
\.Vhy do so1ne people seem to engage in
politics rnore than others·?
when pol iticking b ecomes too much lo handle, il can lead employees to qu it.73
There are some q ualifiers. First, the politics- performa nce relationsh ip appears lo be moderated by an individ ual's u nderstanding of the "hows" an d "whys" of organ i- zatio nal politics. Researchers noted, "An individual who has a clear understanding of who is responsible for making decis io ns and why they were selected lo be the decision makers would h ave a beu er understa ndi ng of h ow and why things happen the way they do than someone who does no t understa nd the decision-making process in th e organ ization. •74 When both poli tics and understandi ng are h igh, performan ce is likely to increase because the individ ual will see poli tical activity as an opportu nity. This is co nsistent with what yo u m ight expect among individ uals w ith well-ho ned poli tica l ski lls. Bu t when understanding is low, ind ividuals are more likely to see politics as a threat, which can have a negative effect on job performa nce. 75
Seco nd, perceptio ns of politica l behavio ur at work influence the extent lo which ethical leadership affects orga nizational citizensh ip behav io u r.76 O ne study fo und that male employees were more respons ive lo ethical leadership and showed the most orga nizationa l citizensh ip behaviour wh en levels of both politics and e thical leadership were high. Women, on the oth er hand, appear most l ikely to engage in organ izational citizensh ip behaviour wh en th e environment is co ns istently eth ical and apo litical.
Th ird, wh en employees see politics as a threat, they often respond with defensive behaviours- reactive a nd protective behaviours lo avoid action, b lame, or change.77
(Exhibit 8-6 provides some examples.) In t he short run, employees may find tha t defensiveness protects their self-interest, but in the long run il wears them down. People who consistently rely on defensiveness find that eventually il is the only way they know how to behave. At that po int, they lose the trust a nd support of their peers, bosses, employees, an d cl ients.
Ind iv id uals use pol itica l activities for different purposes. Some of these activities (such as auacking or b lam ing others) are more likely to b e used lo defend one's posi- tio n, wh ile other activities (such as building support for ideas and managing impres- sio ns) are meant to enhan ce one's image. Evidence suggests that keeping your enem ies close to you makes some sense po litically, as Focus on Research indicates.
Impression Management The process by which individuals au empt to control the impression others form of them is called imp ression managem ent (IM).78 Being perceived positively by others has benefits for people in an organizational setting. ll m ight, for instance, help them in itially to get the jobs they want in an organ ization and, once h ired, to get favourable evaluations, superior salary increases, and more rapid promotions.
Who m ight we predict will engage in impression management7 No surprise here. It's o ur old friend, the h igh self-monitor (see Chapter 2).79 low self-monitors tend to present images of themselves that are consis tent with their personalities, regardless of
EXHIBIT 8-6 Defensive Behaviours
Avoid ing Action
Overconforming. Strictly interpreting your r esponsibility by saying things like "The rules clearl y state . . . "or " Th is is the way we've always done it ."
Buck passing. Transferring responsibility for the executio n of a task or decisio n to someone else.
Playing dumb. Avoi ding an unwanted task by falsely plead ing i gnorance or inability.
Stretching. Prolonging a task so that a person appears to be occupied- for example, turn ing a two-week task into a four-month j ob.
Stalling. Appearing to be more or less supportive publicly while doing li ttle or nothing privately.
Avoid ing Blame
Bluffing. Ri gorously document ing activ ity to proj ect an image of competence and thoroughness, k nown as "covering your rea r."
Playing safe. Evading situations t hat may reflect unfavourably. It incl udes taking on only proj ects w ith a hi gh probability of success, having risky decisi ons approved by superiors, qua lifying expressions of judgment, and taking neutral posit io ns in conflicts.
Justifying. Developing explanati ons t hat lessen o ne's responsibil ity for a negative outcome and/or apol ogi zing to demonstrate remorse, or both .
Scapegoating. Placing the blame for a negative outcome o n external factors that are not entirely blameworthy.
Misrepresenting. Manipul ation of informatio n by distortio n, embellishment, deception, sel ective presentati on, o r obfuscation.
Avoid ing Change
Prevention. Trying to prevent a threatening change from occurring.
Self-protecti on. Acting in ways t o protect one's self-interest during change by guarding information or other resources.
FD c us ~NESEARCH Powerfu l Leaders Keep Their (Fr)Enemies Close
C hapter 8 Power and Politics 295
Is it rea lly wise to keep your enemies close? We have all heard the term ''frenemies" used to describe friends who are also rivals or people who act like friends but secretly d islike
each other.80 Some observers have argued that frenemies are increasing at work due to
the "abundance of very close, intertwined relationships that bridge people's professional and personal lives."
Recent research based on three experimental studies found that a dominant leader
chose to work in the same room w ith a rival in-group member, even when instructed that they would probably perform better apart; to sit closer to the rival when working together;
and to express an explicit preference to be c loser to the rival. The primary reason dominant leaders wanted to be c loser to rivals was to monitor the rivals' behaviour and performance
and protect their own power.
The research also found that the "keeping enemies closer" effect was strong under certain conditions - when a rival was socially dominant, when a dominant leader felt com-
petition from the rival, and when the rewards and ability to serve as a dominant leader were
dependent on the rival's performance. These results suggest that the concept of frenemies is very real and that we choose to
keep our rivals c lose so we can keep an eye on the competition they provide . •........•
296 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
EXHIBIT 8-7 Impression Management Techniques
Conformity
Agreeing w ith someone el se's opinion to gain his or her approval i s a form of ingratiation.
Example: A manager tells his boss, "You're absolutely ri ght on your reorgani zati on plan for the western reg ional office. I couldn't agree w ith you more."
Favours
Do ing something nice for someone to gain that person's approval is a form of ingratiation.
Example: A salesperson says to a prospecti ve client, " I've got two tickets to the t heatre toni ght that I ca n't use. Take them. Consi der it a thank-you f or tak ing t he time to talk with me."
Excuses
Explaining a predicament-creating event aimed at minimizing the apparent severit y of the predicament i s a defensive JM technique.
Example: A sales manager says to her boss, ·we failed to get the ad in the paper on t ime, but no one responds to those ads anyway."
Apologies
Admitting responsibility for an undesirable event and simultaneously seeking to get a pardon for the actio n is a defensive JM technique.
Example: An employee says to his boss, " I'm sorry I made a mistake on the report. Pl ease forgi ve me."
Self -Promotion
Hi ghli ghting your best qualit ies, downplaying your deficits, and calling attenti on to your achi evements is a self-focused IM technique.
Example: A salesperson tells h is boss, "Matt worked unsuccessfu lly for three years to try to get that account. I sewed it up in six weeks. I'm the best closer this company has."
Enhancement
Claiming that something you d i d is more valuabl e than most ot her members of the o rganizatio n would think is a self-focused JM technique.
Example: A journalist tells his edi tor, "My work on this cel ebrity d ivorce story was really a maj or boost to o ur sal es" (even t ho ugh the story o nly made it to page 3 in the entertainment section).
Flattery
Compliment ing others about t heir virtues in an effort to make yoursel f appear percept ive and likeable is an assertive IM technique.
Example: A new sales trainee says t o her peer, "You handl ed that client's compl aint so tactfu lly! I coul d never have h and led t h at as well as you d i d."
Exemplification
Do ing more t h an you need to in an effort to show how dedicated and hard-working you are is an assertive IM technique.
Example: An employee sends emails from h is work computer when he works late so that his supervisor w ill k now how lo ng he has been working.
Sources: Based on M . C. Bolino, K. M. Kacmar, W. H. Turnley, and J . B. Gilstrap, "A M ulti-Level Review of Impression Management Motives and Behaviors, Journal of Management 34, no. 6 (2008), pp. 1080-1109.
the beneficial or delrimental effects for them. In contrast, high self-mo nitors are good al reading s ilualions a nd mould ing lheir appearances and behaviour lo fi l each s iluatio n. If you wanl lo co nlrol Lhe impressio n others form of you, whal IM Lechniques can you use? Exhibil 8-7 su mmarizes some of Lhe most popular wilh examples.
Keep in mind lhat when people e ngage in impress io n manageme nt, Lhey are send ing a fa lse message lhat m igh t be true under o ther circu mslances.81 Excuses, for ins tance, may be offered wilh great sincerily. You may actually bel ieve th a t ad s
C hapter 8 Power and Politics 297
contrib ute little lo sales in your region. But misrepresentation can have a high cost.82
So the impression manager must be cautious not to be perceived as ins incere or man ip ulative.83
[[ ]] RESEARCH FINDINGS: Impression Management ~I.':-:' Techniques
One s tudy found that when managers at tributed an emp loyee's organizati onal citizenship behav iour lo impress ion management, they actually felt angry (prob - ably because they felt manipu lated) and gave subord inates lower performance ratings. When managers attribu ted the same behav io u rs to prosocial values and concern about the organization, they felt happy and gave higher perfor- mance ratings.84 In sum, people don't l ike lo feel others are man ipulating them through impression management, so such tactics sh ould be employed with caution. Not all
In what situ - ations does . . 1mpress1on
management work best'?
impression management consists of talki ng yourself up, either. Recent research suggests modesty, in the form of generously providing credit lo others and understating your own contributions to success, may create a more posi tive impression on others.85
The evidence indicates that most job applicants use impression management tech- niques in interviews86 and th at, when impression management behaviour is used, il works.87 To develop a sense of h ow effective differen t IM techniques are in interviews, one study gro uped data from thousands of recru iting and selection interviews into appearan ce-oriented efforts (like looking pro fessional), expl icit tactics (l ike flatter ing the interviewer or talking up you r own accomplishmen ts), and verb al cues (like us ing positive terms and showing general enthusiasm) .88 Across all the dimensions, it was clear that IM was a powerfu l pred ictor of how well people d id.
However, there was a twist. When interviews were high ly structured, meaning the in terviewer's questions were written o ut in advance and focused on app licant qualifica- tions, the effects of IM were substantially weaker. Manipulative behaviours like IM are more likely lo have an effect in amb iguous and u nstructured interviews.
In terms of performance eval uations, the picture is q uite different. Ingratiation is posi tively related to performa nce ratings, mean ing that those wh o ingratia te with their supervisors get higher performance eva lua tions. However, self-promotion appears to backfire: Those who self-promote actually may receive lower performance ratings.89
There is an important qual ifier to th is general result. It appears that individuals h igh in political skill are able to translate impression management into h igher performance appraisa ls, whereas those lower in political ski ll are more likely to be hurt by their attempts al impression managemen t.90
Another study of 760 b oards of directors found that ind ividuals who ingratiated themselves to current board members ( expressed agreement with the director, po inted oul shared at titudes and opinions, comp limented the director) increased their chances of landing on a board.91 Finally, interns who attempted to use ingratiation with their supervisors in one s tudy were usually disliked-unless they h ad high levels of pol iti- cal ski ll. For those wh o had th is ab ili ty, ingra tiatio n led to h igher levels of l iking from supervisors, and higher performa nce ratings.92
What explains these consistent resu lts across mu ltip le stud ies and contexts? If you think about them, they make sense. Ingratiati ng always works because everyone- both interviewers and supervisors- likes to be treated nicely. However, sel f-promotion may work o nly in interviews and b ackfire on the job because, whereas the interviewer has lit tle idea whether you are b lowing smoke about your accomplishments, the supervisor
298 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
FOCUS ~~ HICS Impression Management during a Job Interv iew
How much impression management is et hical? Almost everyone agrees that dressing professionally, highlighting previous accomplishments, and expressing interest in the
job are reasonable impression management tactics to improve your presentation in an
interview. 93 Strategies like flattering the interviewer and using positive nonverbal cues like smiling and nodding are also often advised.
Is there an upside to such impression management? Research generally shows there
is. The more effort applicants put into highlighting their skills, motivation, and admiration for the organization, the more likely they are to be hired. A recent study in Taiwan examined
this relationship, finding that interviewers saw applicants who talked confidently about their
qualifications as a better fit for the job, and applicants who said positive things about the organization as a better fit for the organization. Positive nonverbal cues improved inter-
viewer moods, which also improved the applicant's ratings.
Despite evidence that making an effort to impress an interviewer can pay off, you can go too far. Evidence that a person misrepresented qualifications in the hiring process is
usually grounds for im mediate term ination. So what does an ethical, effective interview strategy entail? The key is to find a positive
but truthful way to manage impressions. Don 't be afraid to let an employer know about
your skills and accomplishm ents, and be sure to show your enthusiasm for the job. At the same time, keep your statements as accurate as possible, and be careful not to overstate
your abilities. In the long run, you are much more likely to be happy and successful in a
: job where both you and the interviewer can assess fit honestly . ......................•
0 Identify the causes , con- sequences , and ethics of political behaviour.
··-
~ OB~cr10N
kn ows because it's his or h er job to observe you. Focus on Ethics co nsiders the ethics of impressio n man agement d uring a j ob in terview. OB in Action sh ows there are things tha t you can do to reduce the need for po litics once in the workp lace.
The Ethics of Behaving Politically Al though there are no clear-cul ways to differentiate ethical from unethical pol i-
ticking, th ere are questio ns yo u shou ld co nsider. For example, wh at is th e uti l ity of engaging in po l it icki ng? Sometimes we do it for little good reason. Lo uis LaPierre, the
former h ead of the New Brunswick Energy I nstitute, had h is Order of Ca nada taken
away from h im in June 2014 after it came to l ight that he had lied about his acad emic record. LaPierre, who h ad b ee n a
professor at th e University of Moncton for 30 years, h ad long claimed he earned a PhD in ecology from the U niversity of Maine, when, in fact, he had earned a PhD in education from
Positive Alternatives to Political Behaviour
Walden University in Minnesota. La Pierre l ikely h ad a lot lo gain by claim ing he had a degree in sci ence, rath er tha n in
educatio n.95 O utright lies like th is may be a rath er extreme
example of impression managemen t, but many of us have at l east distorted informatio n to make a favourabl e i mpres-
sion . One th ing lo keep i n mind is whether it's rea lly worth
the risk. For LaPierre, in the end, it really was not. An other question to ask is this: H ow does th e utility of engaging in
the political beh aviour balance out any harm ( or potential
harm) it will do to others? Complimenting a supervisor on
Docu111e11t your work efforts, and find data to back up your accomplish ments.
Call out political behaviour wh en you see it.
Try to develop a networh w ith on ly those indi- viduals who are interested in perfon11i11g well together.9 4
his or her appearance i n order to ga i n favo u r is probably
Chapt er 8 Power and Politics 299
Organizations foster politicking when they reduce resources in order to improve performance. After announcing plans to downsize its global workforce of 100 000 employees to increase its competitive- ness, French pharmaceutical firm Sanofi stimulated political activity among employees, who organized
protests against the job cuts.
m uch less harmfu l lha n grabbing credil lhal you don'l deseive for a projecl, as Case Incident- Barry's Peer Becomes His Boss on page 306 indicates.
Finally, does the pol ilical aclivity conform to standards of equity and juslice? Some- limes il's difficult lo weigh the costs and benefits of a political aclion, but its eth icality is dear. The deparlmenl head who infla tes the performance eval uation of a favo ured emp loyee and deflales the eval uation of a d isfavoured employee- an d then uses these evaluations lo juslify giving the former a big ra ise and the latter nolhing- has treated the disfavoured employee unfa irly.
Un fortunalely, powerful people can become very good al expla in ing self-seiving behavio u rs in terms of the organization's best inlerests. They can persuasively argue lhat u n fair actions are rea lly fair and jusl. Those who are powerful, aniculale, and persuasive are mosl vulnerable to elh ical lapses beca use they are more l ikely lo get a\vay wilh t hem . When faced wilh an et hical dilemma regardi ng organizational pol itics, try lo co nsider whether playing po litics is worth the risk and whelher o th - ers might be harmed in the process. If you have a strong power base, recogn ize the ability of power lo corrupt. Remember that it's a lot eas ier for lhe powerless lo act ethica lly, if for no ot her reason than lhey typ ically have very l ittle po litical d iscre- l ion to explo it.
{(F' GLOBAL IMPLICATIONS ,(g)J}) Although cul lure might en ter any of lhe topics we have covered lo th is point, ~ lwo queslions are parlicularly important: ( 1) Does cullure influence views on
empowerment? (2) Does cullure affecl the infl uence tactics people prefer lo use7
300 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
Views on Empowerment Four US researchers investigated the effects of empowerment on employees of a mu l- tinational firm by looki ng al four of the company's comparable plants: one in the Midwestern Un ited Stales, one in central Mexico, one in west-central India, and one in the south of Poland.96 These four locations were chosen because they differed on power d istance and individualism (concepts we discussed in Chapter 3). Ind ia and Mexico are considered high in power d is tance, and the U niled States is considered the lowest in power distance. Mexico and India are high in collectivity, the United States is high ly individual is tic, and Poland is moderately ind ividua listic.
The findings showed that Ind ian employees gave their supervisors low ratings when empowerment was high, wh ile employees in the other three countries rated their super- visors favourably when empowerment was h igh. In both the United States and Mexico, empowerment had no effect on satisfaction with co-workers. However, satisfaction with co-workers was h igher when employees were empowered in Poland. In India, empower- ment led lo lower satisfaction with co-workers.
Sim ilar find ings in a s tudy comparing empowerment in the Un ited States, Brazil, and Argentina suggest that in hierarch ical societies, empowerment may need to be in troduced with care.97 Employees in those countries may be more used lo working in teams, but they a lso expect their manager lo be the person w ith all the answers. Professor Marylene Gagne of Concordia's John Mo lson School of Business, who has studied empowerment cross-culturally, 98 notes that "in some cultures, bosses can't ask the op inion of subordinates, because it makes them appear weak. So managers in these environments have to find other ways to make people feel autonomous. There is no s imple recipe."99
Preference for Influence Tactics Preference for influence tactics varies across cullures. 100 Those from individualist coun- tries tend to see power in personal ized terms and as a legitimate means of advancing their personal ends, whereas those in collectivist countries see power in social terms and as a legitimate means of helping others. 101 A study comparing managers in the United Stales and China found US managers preferred rational appeal, whereas Ch i- nese managers preferred coal ition tactics. Reason-based tactics are consistent with the US preference for direct confronta tion and rational persuasion to influence others and resolve differences, wh ile coal ition tactics align with the Chinese preference for meeting d ifficu lt or controversial requests with ind irect approaches.
A st udy of Swedish, German, Czech, Polish, and Finnish managers found that Swedish managers saw mere d ifferences in opinion as confl icts, so they adopted a conflict-avoidant strategy that emphasized more passive forms of persuasion. 102 German managers, on the other hand, saw d isagreement as a useful opportunity lo gain new knowledge and fostered some rational d iscussion as an influence technique. Finn ish managers preferred d iscussion-oriented influence tactics as well. CZech and Polish man- agers bel ieved managers were under pressure lo halt conflicts quickly when they arose, s ince conflict resolution is time consum ing. Therefore, the Czech and Pol ish managers switched to more autocratic, power-oriented influence styles.
Another study of managers in US cu lt ure and three Ch inese cultures (Peop le's Republic of China, Hong Kong. and Taiwan) found that US managers evaluated "gentle persuasion" tactics such as consultation and inspirational appeal as more effective than d id their Ch inese counterparts_ w3 Other research suggests that effective US leaders achieve influence by focus ing on personal goals of group members and the tasks at hand ( an ana lytical approach), whereas influential East Asian leaders focus on relation- ships among group members and meeting the demands of the people around them ( a holistic approach). 104
C hapt er 8 Power and Politics 30 1
Summary Few emp loyees re lish being powerless in the ir jobs and organizations. People respond d ifferen tly to the various power bases. Expert and referent power are derived from an individual's personal qua lities. In contrast, coercion, reward, and legitimate power are essentially organizationally granted. Competence especially appears to offer wide appeal, and its use as a power base results in high performance by group members.
An effective manager accepts the pol itical nat ure of organ izations. Some people are more pol itica lly ast u te than o thers, meaning they are aware of the underlying politics and can manage impressions. Those who are good at playing politics can be expected to get higher performance evaluations and, hence, larger salary increases and more promotions than the politically naive or inept. The pol itically astute are a lso likely to exhibit higher job satisfaction and be heller able lo neutra lize job stressors.
SNAPSHOT SUMMARY .j
A Definition of Power
Bases of Power • Formal Power • Personal Power • Which Bases of Power Are
Most Effective?
Dependence: The Key to Power • The General Dependence
Postulate
• What Creates Dependence?
Influence Tactics • About Influence Tactics • Applying Influence Tactics
How Power Affects People • Power Variables
• Harassment: Unequal Power in the Workplace
Empowerment: Giving Power to Employees • Definition of Empowerment
Politics: Power in Action • Definition of Political
Behaviour
• The Reality of Politics • Impression Management
• The Ethics of Behaving Politically
'
LESSONS LEARNED
• Effective leaders use expert and/ or referent power.
• To maximize you r power, increase others' dependence on you.
• Politics is inevitable; manag- ing politics well is a skill.
Mylab Managem ent Study, practise, and explore real business situations with these helpful resources: • Study Plan: Check your understanding of chapter concepts with self-study quizzes.
• Online Lesson Presentations: Study key chapter topics and work through interactive assessments to test your knowledge and master management concepts.
• Videos: Learn more about the management practices and strategies of real companies.
• Simulations: Practise management decision-making in simulated business environments.
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.,. for Review
What is power?
What are the five bases of power?
What is the role of dependence in power relationships?
What are the 1 O most often identified power or influence tactics and their contingencies?
What is the connection between harassm ent and the abuse of power?
What does it mean to be empowered? What factors lead to empowerment?
How do politics work in organizations?
What are some examples of impression management techniques?
What standards can you use to determine whether a political action is ethical?
for Managers
• To maximize your power, increase others' dependence on you. For instance, increase your power in relation to your boss by devel - oping a needed knowledge or skill for which there is no ready substitute.
• You will not be alone in attempt - ing to build your power bases. Others, particularly employees and peers, will be seeking to increase your dependence on them, while you are trying to minimize it and increase their dependence on you.
• Try to avoid putting others in a position where they feel they have no power.
• An effective manager accepts the political nature of organizations. By assessing behaviour in a political framework, you can better predict the actions of others and use that information to formulate political strategies that will gain advantages for you and your work unit.
• Consider that employees who have poor political skills or are unwilling to play the politics game generally relate perceived organizational politics to lower job satisfaction and self-reported performance, increased anxiety, and higher turnover. Therefore, if you are good at organizational politics, help others understand the importance of becoming politically sawy.
for You
• Power and politics should not simply be viewed as a w in- lose situation. Through power and politics, one builds coalitions to w ork together effectively. It's pos- sible to m ake sure that everyone is included.
• There are a variety of ways to increase your power in an organi- zation. As an example, you could acquire more knowled ge about a situation and then use that infor- mation to negotiate a bonus with your employer. Even if you don't get the bonus, the knowledge may help you in other ways.
• To increase your power, consider how dependent others are on you. Dependence is affected by
your importance and substitut - ability and by the scarcity of options. If you have needed skills that no one else has, you w ill have more power.
• Politics is a reality of most orga- nizations. Being comfortable w ith politics is important. Politics is often about making deals with other people for mutual gain.
• Political skills can be developed. Taking time to join in an office birthday celebration for someone is part of developing the skill of w orking with others effectively.
Chapt er 8 Power and Pol~ics 3 03
EVERYONE WANTS POWER
POI NT We don't admit to wanting everything that we secretly
want. 10s For instance, one psychologist found people
would seldom admit to wanting money, but they thought
everyone else wanted ii. They were half right - everyone
wants money; and everyone wants power.
HaNard psychologist David McClelland was justifiably
famous for his study of underlying motives. McClelland
measured people's motivation for power based on how
they described pictures (this method is called the The-
matic Apperception Test, or TAT). Why didn't he simply
ask people how much they wanted power? Because he
believed that many more people really wanted power
than would admit, or even consciously realized. That is
exactly what he found.
Why do we want power? Because it 's good for us. It gives us more control over our own lives. It gives us more
freedom to do as we wish. There are few things worse
in life than feeling helpless, and few better than feeling in
charge of your destiny. Research shows that people with
power and status command more respect from others, have higher self-esteem (no surprise there), and enjoy
better health than those of less stature.
Usually, people who tell you power does not mat-
ter are those who have no hope of getting it. Wanting
power, like being jealous, can be one of those secrets
people just will not admit to.
COUNTERPOINT Of course it's true that some people desire power - and
often behave ruthlessly to get it. For most of us, how-
ever, power is not high on our list of priorities, and for
some, power is actually undesirable.
Research shows that most individuals feel uncom-
fortable when placed in powerful positions. One study
asked individuals, before they began work in a four-
person team, to "rank, from 1 [highest] to 4 [lowest), in
terms of status and influence within the group, what rank
you like to achieve. " You know what? Only about one-
third (34 percent) of participants chose the highest rank.
In a second study, researchers focused on employees
participating in Amazon's Mechanical Turk online seNice.
They found that the main reason was to gain power to
earn respect. If they could get respect without gaining
power, that was preferred. In a third study, researchers
found individuals desired power only when they had high
ability- that is, when their influence helped their groups.
These studies suggest that we often confuse the
desire for power with other things-like the desire to
be respected and to help our groups and organizations
succeed. In these cases, power is something most of us seek for more benevolent ends- and only when we think
it does good.
Another study confirmed that most people want
respect from their peers, not power. Cameron Ander-
son, the author of this research, sums it up nicely: •vou don't have to be rich to be happy, but instead be a valu -
able contributing member to your groups. What makes
a person high in status in a group is being engaged,
generous with others, and making self-sacrifices for the
greater good.•
304 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES
Form small groups to discuss the following topics, as assigned by your instructor:
1. Describe an incident where you tried to use political behaviour in order to get something you wanted. What influ-
ence tactics did you use?
2. In thinking about the incident described above, were your influence tactics effective? Why?
3. Describe an incident where you saw someone engaging in politics. What was your reaction to observing the political behaviour? Under what circumstances do you think political behaviour is appropriate?
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
Comparing Influence Tactics Students working in group s of three are each assigned to a role. One person is the influencer, one will be influenced,
and one is the observer. These roles can be randomly determined.
To begin, students create a deck of cards for the seven tactics to be used in the exercise. These are legitimacy, rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, exchange, ingratiation, and pressure (defined in the chapter).
Only the influencer draws cards from the set, and no one else may see what has been drawn.
The influencer draws a card and quickly formulates and acts out a strategy to use this tactic on the party being
influenced. The person being influenced reacts realistically in a back-and-forth exchange over a brief period and states
whether or not the tactic was effective. The ob server attempts to determine which tactic is being used and which power
base (coercive, reward, legitimate, expert, or referent) would reinforce this tactic. The influencer confirms or denies the
approach used.
Change the roles and cards throughout the rounds. Afterward, the class discusses:
1. Based on your observations, which influence situation would probably have resulted in the best outcome for the person doing the influencing?
2. Was there a good match between the tactics drawn and the specific role each person took? In other words, was the tactic useful for the influencer given his or her base of power relative to the person being influenced?
3. What lessons about power and influence does this exercise teach us?
ETHICAL DILEMMA
How Much Should You Defer to Those in Power? Although it's not always easy to admit it to ourselves,
often we adapt our behaviour to suit those in power. 106
To some degree, it's important for organizational suc-
cess that we do so. After all, people are in positions of
authority for a reason, and if no one paid attention to the
rules these people put in place, chaos would rule. But is it
always ethical for us to defer to the powerful?
More often than we acknowledge, powerful individuals
in organizations push our actions into ethical grey areas,
or worse.
In Stanley Milgram's famous experiments, most indi-
viduals delivered what they thought were severe shocks
only because an authority figure directed them to do so.
More recently, managers of restaurants and stores
(including McDonald's, Taco Bell, and others) were per-
suaded to strip search customers or employees when an
individual impersonating a police officer phoned in and
instructed them to do so. What would you do if you thought a police officer, definitely a symbol of power, ordered you to
do something you would never choose to do as a manager?
Outright abuses aside, power is wielded over us in
more prosaic ways. For example, many stock analysts
report pressure from their bosses to promote funds from
Which the organization profits most (a fact that is not dis-
closed to their clients). These might be good funds that
the analysts would promote anyway. But What if they are
not? Should the analyst ever promote the funds without
discussing the conflict of interest w ith the client?
Few of us might think we would perform strip searches.
But these examples, as well as the hazing incidents that
took place in Dalhousie University's men's rugby team
and women's hockey team in 2014, highlight the disturb-
ing tendency for many of us to conform to the wishes of
those in power. Knowing that blindly deferring to those in
power might cause us to cross ethical lines is enough to
keep each one of us thinking.
Chapter 8 Power and Pol~ics 305
Quest.ions
1. Do you think people tailor their behaviour to suit those in power more than they admit? Is that some-
thing you do?
2. One writer commented that bending behaviour to suit those in power reminds "anyone who is under pressure to carry out orders from 'above' to con- stantly question the validity and prudence of what they're being asked to do.• Why don't we question this more often?
3. Why might some individuals resist the effects of power more strongly than others?
CASE INCIDENTS
Delegate Power, or Keep It Close? Samantha Parks is the owner and CEO of Sparks, a
small agency that develops advertising, promotions, and
marketing materials for high-fashion firms. 107 Parks has
tended to keep a tight rein on her business, overseeing
most projects from start to finish. However, as the firm
has grown, she has found it necessary to delegate more
and more decisions to her associates. She was recently
approached by a hairstyling chain that wants a compre-
hensive redefinition of its entire marketing and promo-
tions look. Should Samantha try to manage this project
in her traditional way, or should she delegate major parts
to her employees?
Most managers confront this question at some point
in their careers. Some experts propose that top execu-
tives need to stay very close to the creative core of their
business, which means that even if their p rimary respon-
sibility is to manage, CEOs should never cede too much
control to committees of creative individuals or they can
lose sight of the firm's overall future direction. Moreover,
executives who do fall out of touch with the creative
process risk being passed over by a new generation of
"plugged-in" employees who better understand how the
business really works.
Others offer the opposite advice, saying it 's not a
good idea for a CEO to "sweat the small stuff" such as
managing individual client accounts or projects. These
experts advise executives to identify everything they can
•outsource" to other employees and to delegate as much
as possible. By eliminating trivial tasks, executives will be
better able to focus their attention on the most important
decision-making and control aspects of their jobs, which
will help the business and also ensure that the top execu-
tive maintains control over the functions that really matter.
These pieces of advice are not necessarily in conflict
with one another. The real challenge is to identify what you
can delegate effectively without ceding too much power
and control away from the person with the unifying vision.
That is certainly easier said than done, though.
Questions
1. If you were Samantha Parks, how would you prioritize which projects or parts of projects to delegate?
2. In explaining what makes her decisions hard, Parks said, "I hire good people, creative people, to run these projects, and I worry that they will see my oversight and authority as interfering with their cre- ative process." How can she deal w ith these con- cerns w ithout giving up too much control?
3. Should executives try to control projects to maintain their position of authority? Do they have a right to control projects and stay in the loop on important decisions just so they can remain in charge?
306 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
Barry's Peer Becomes His Boss As Barry looked out the window of his office in Toronto,
the gloomy October skies obscured his usual view of CN
Tower.108 "That figures," Barry thought to himself- his
mood was just as gloomy. Rve months ago, Barry's company, CTM, a relatively
small but g rowing tec hnology company, reorganized
itself. Although such reorganizations often imperil careers,
Barry felt the change only improved his position. Barry's
co-worker, Raphael, was promoted to a different depart -
ment, which made sense because Raphael had been with
the company for a few more years and had worked w ith
the CEO on a successful project. Because Raphael was
promoted and their past work roles were so similar, Barry
thought his own promotion was soon to come.
However, six weeks ago, Barry's boss left. Raphael
was transferred back to the same d epart ment and
became Barry's boss. Although Barry felt a bit overlooked,
he knew he was still relatively junior in the company and
felt that his good past relationship w ith Raphael would
bode well for his future prospects.
The previous six weeks, however, had brought nothing
but disappointment. Although Raphael often told Barry
he was doing a great job, drawing from several observa-
tions, Barry felt that opinion was not being shared w ith
the higher-ups. Worse, a couple of Barry's friends in the
company showed Barry several emails where Raphael had
taken credit for Barry's work.
"Raphael is not the person I thought he was," thought
Barry.
What was his future in the company if no one saw
the outcomes of his hard work? How would it affect his
career to work for someone who apparently was willing
to do anything to get ahead, even at others' expense?
He thought about looking for another job, but that pros-
pect only darkened his mood further. He liked the com-
pany. He felt he did good work there.
As Barry looked again out his w indow , a light rain
began to fall. The CN Tower was no more visible than
before. He just did not know w hat to do.
Quest.ions
1. Should Barry complain about his treatment by Raphael? To whom? If he did complain, w hat influence tactics should Barry use?
2. Studies have shown that those prone to complain- ing or "whining" tend to have less power in an orga- nization. Do you think whining leads to diminished power and influence, or the other way around? How can Barry avoid appearing to be a whiner?
3. Do you think Barry should look for another job?
Why or why not?
Politicking Forget, for a moment, about the
ethics of polit icking and any nega-
tive impressions you may have of
people w ho engage in organiza-
tional politics.109 If you wanted to
be more politically adept in your
organization, what could you do?
The following eight suggestions
are likely to improve your political
effectiveness:
1. Frame arguments in terms of organizational goals. Effective politick- ing requires camouflaging your self-interest. No matter that your objective is self-serving; all the arguments you marshal in support of it must be framed in terms of the benefits that the organization w ill gain. People whose actions appear to blatantly further their own interests at the expense of the organization's are almost universally denounced, are likely to lose influence, and often suffer the ultimate penalty of being expelled from the organization.
2. Develop the right image. If you know your organization's culture, you understand w hat the organization wants and values from its employ- ees-in terms of dress; associates to cultivate and those to avoid; whether to appear risk-taking or risk-averse; the preferred leadership style; the importance placed on getting along well with others; and so forth. Then you are equipped to project the appropriate image. Because the assessment of your performance is not a fully objective process, both style and substance must be addressed.
3. Gain control of organizational resources. The control of organizational resources that are scarce and important is a source of power. Knowl- edge and expertise are particularly effective resources to control. They make you more valuable to the organization and, therefore, more likely to gain security, advancement, and a receptive audience for your ideas.
4 . Make yourself appear indispensable. Because we are dealing with appearances rather than objective facts, you can enhance your power by appearing to be indispensable. That is, you don 't have to really be indispensable as long as key people in the organization believe that you are. If the organization's prime decision makers believe there is no ready substitute for what you are giving the orga- nization, they are likely to go to great lengths to ensure that your desires are satisfied.
5. Be visible. Because perfonnance evaluation has a substantial subjec- tive component, it's important that your manager and those in power in the organization be made aware of your contribution. If you are fortunate enough to have a job that brings your accomplishments to the attention of others, it may not be necessary to take direct mea- sures to increase your visibility. But your job may require you to handle activities that are low in visibility, or your specific contribution may be indistinguishable because you are part of a team endeavour. In such cases, without appearing to be tooting your own horn, you will want to call attention to yourself by highlighting your successes in routine reports, having satisfied customers relay their appreciation to senior executives, being seen at social functions, being active in professional associations, developing powerful allies who speak positively about your accomplishments, and similar tactics. Of course, the ski lled politician actively lobbies to get those projects that w ill increase his
or her visibility.
6. Develop powerful allies. It helps to have powerful people in your camp. Cultivate contacts with potentially influential people above you, at your own level, and in the lower ranks. They can provide you with important information that may not be available through normal channels. There will be times, too, when decisions will be made in favour of those with the greatest support. Having powerful allies can provide you with a coalit ion of support if and when you need it.
7. Avoid "tainted" members. In almost every organization, there are fringe members whose status is questionable. Their performance and/ or loyalty is suspect. Keep your distance from such individuals. Given the reality that effectiveness has a large subjective component, your own effectiveness might be called into question if you are perceived as being too c losely associated with tainted members.
8. Support your manager. Since he or she evaluates your performance, you will typically want to do whatever is necessary to have your man- ager on your side. You should make every effort to help your manager succeed and look good, support your manager if under siege, and spend the time to find out what criteria will be used to assess your effectiveness. Do not undermine your manager, and do not speak negatively of your manager to others.
Chapter 8 Power and Pol~ics 307
308 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
•••••••••••••••••••••
Practising Skills
•••••••••••••••••••••
Reinforcing Skills
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
You used to be the star marketing manager for Hilton Electronics Cor-
poration. But for the past year, you have been outpaced again and
again by Sean, a new manager in the design department who has been accomplishing everything expected of him and more. Meanwhile, your
best efforts to do your job well have been sabotaged and undercut by Maria, who manages you and Sean. For example, before last year's
international consumer electronics show, Maria moved $30 000 from
your budget to Sean's. Despite your best efforts, your marketing team could not complete all the marketing materials normally developed to
showcase all of your organization's new products at this important
industry show. Also, Maria has chipped away at your staff and bud- get ever since. Although you have been able to meet most of your
goals with less staff and budget, Maria has continued to slice away
resources from your group. Just last week, she eliminated two posi- tions in your team of eight marketing specialists to make room for a new
designer and some extra equipment for Sean. Maria is clearly taking
away your resources while giving Sean whatever he wants and more. You think it's time to do something, or soon you will not have any team
or resources left. What do you need to do to make sure your division has the resources to survive and grow?
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1. Keep a one-week journal of your behaviour, describing incidents when you tried to influence others around you. Assess each incident by ask- ing: Were you successful at these attempts to influence them? Why or why not? What could you have done differently?
2. Outline a specific action plan, based on concepts in this module, that would improve your career progression in the organization in which you currently work or in which you would like to be employed.
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3 1 0
Conflict and Negotiation
O Define conflict. f) Describe the three types of conflict. f) Describe the three loci of confl ict. C, Identify the conditions that lead to conflict. 0 Contrast distributive and integrative bargaining.
GM Canada and
Unifor needed to negot iate a new collect ive
bargaining agreement. Could the two sides reach an agreement
wit h employees worried that the Oshawa plant might shut
down?
O Show how individual differences influence negotiations. f) Assess the roles and fu nctions of third-party negotiations.
n the fall of 2016, GM Canada and its employ- ees' union, Unifor, were abou1 to enter into nego-
The canadian press tiations for a new con-
tract.1 Before the parties even met together at the bargaining table, they were practically at an impasse. The future of two Oshawa plants was in
question. One plant only had work scheduled in it until 2017, while the other had no work scheduled beyond 2019. GM Canada insisted that a labour agreement had to be reached before it made a decision about invest-
ing in the plant, while Unifor said a decision on the plant had to be made before an agreement could be reached .
Jerry Dias, national president of Unifor, underscored the position of the union: "I'm convinced that they have no interest in investing, therefore to sign an agreement without forcing it would be
irresponsible. I'm convinced that if we do not secure Oshawa in this set of negotiations, we're going to have a closure."
Meanwhile, GM presented the issue as a business problem . Production in Canada had fallen as competition with China, India, and Mexico had increased because of those countries' lower costs of production. One union executive emphasized what he saw as the problem : "We look at the union negotiations as a first hurdle in making
our business case, but the business case would also require us to address a number of macroeconomic factors, public-policy factors, supply-base issues .. . to be able to make
a final decision (on Oshawa). • Would the parties be able to come to a satisfactory agreement without a strike? In this chapter, we look at sources of conflict and strategies for resolving conflict, including
negotiation .
\ I I ' , :o: - ' , '
• Is conflict always bad?
• Shou ld you try to win at any cost when you bargain?
• How does anxiety affect negotiating outcomes?
• Do men and women negotiate differently?
'l'HE BIG IDEA
Resolving conf1icts and engaging in successful negoLiaLions requires understanding your objectives and the
objectives of tl1e other party.
3 11
3 1 2 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
O Define conflict.
f) Describe the three types of conflict.
conflict A process !hat begins when one party perceives !hat another party has negatively affected or is about to negatively affect something !hat the first party cares about.
functional conflict Conflict !hat supports lhe goals of lhe group and improves its performance.
dysfunctional conflict Conflict !hat hinders group performance.
task conflict Conflict over content and goals of the wolX
rel ationship conflict Conflict based on interpersonal relationships.
process conflict Conflict over how work gets done.
Conflict Defined Several common themes underlie most definitions of conflict.2 Confl ict must be per- ceived by the parties to it; if no one is aware of a conflict, then it's generally agreed that no confl ict exists. Conflict also involves opposi tion or incompatibility, and interaction between the panies.3 These fac tors set the cond itions that determine the beginning point of the confl ict process. We can define conflict broadly as a process tha t begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected or is about to negatively affect something that the firs t party cares about.4
Confl ict describes the point when an interaction becomes disagreement. People experience a wide range of confl icts in groups and organizations- incompatibil ity of goals, differences over interpretations of facts, disagreements based on behavioural expectations, and the like. Our definition covers the full range of confl ict levels- from subtle forms of d isagreement to overt and vio len t acts.
Conflict has posi tive and negative effects, wh ich we wi ll discuss further when we cover functiona l and dysfunctiona l conflict.
Functional vs. Dysfunctional Conflict Contemporary perspectives differentiate types of confl ict based on their effects. Functional conflict supports the goals of the group, improves its performance, and is thus a constructive form of conflict. For example, a debate among Is contlict members of a work team about the most efficient way to aJ~vays bad'? improve production can be functional if un ique points of view are discussed and compared openly. Confl ict that h inders group performance is destructive or dysfunctional conflict. A h ighly personal struggle for control in a team that d istracts from the task at hand is dysfunctiona l. Exhibit 9-1 provides an overview depicting the effect of levels of conflict. To understand different types of conflict, we will discuss next the types of conflict and the loci of conflict.
Stimu lating functiona l confl ict can be productive, as Case Incident- Disorderly Conduct on pages 340- 341 shows.
Types of Conflict One means of understanding conflict is to identify the type of disagreement, or what the confl ict is about. Is it a disagreement about goals? Is it about people who just rub one another the wrong way? Or is it about the best way to get th ings done? Although each confl ict is un ique, researchers have classified conflicts into three categories: task, relationsh ip, and process.
Tas k conflict relates to the conten t and goals of the work. Relations hip conflict focuses on interpersonal relationsh ips. Process conflict is about how the work gets done. Studies demonstrate that relationship confl icts, at least in work settings, are almost ahvays dysfunctiona l. 5 Why? It appears that the friction and interpersonal hostili ties inherent in relationship conflicts increase personality clashes and decrease mutual understanding, which hinders the completion of organizational tasks. Of the three types, relationship confl icts also appear to be the most psychologically exhaust- ing to individuals.6 Because they tend to revolve around personalities, you can see how rela tionship con flict.~ can become destructive. After all, we cannot expect to change our co-workers' personali ties, and we would generally take offence at criticisms d irected a t who we are as opposed to how we behave.
Wh ile scho lars agree that relationship conflict is dysfunctional, cons iderab ly less agreement exists as to whether task and process conflicts are functional. Ea rly research suggested tha t task conflict with in groups was associated with higher group
EXHIBIT 9-1 Conflict and Unit Performance
(High)
t ~ "' E 0
'1: & ·'= c: ::::,
i A B
C hapter 9 Conflict and Negotiation 3 1 3
c
(Low) -.---------- Level of Conflict ----------(High)
Situation
A
B
c
Level of Conflict
Low or
none
Optimal
High
u
Type of Conflict
Dysfunctional
Functional
Dysfunctional
Unit's Internal Unit Performance Characteristics Outcome
Apathetic Stagnant Nonresponsive
to change Low
Lack of new ideas
Viable Self-critical High Innovative
J
Disruptive Chaotic Low Uncooperative
Sources: Based on S. P. Robbins, Managing Organizatkmal Conflict: A Nontraditional Approach (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974), pp. 93-97; and F. Glasl, 1he Process of Conflict Escalation and the Roles of Third Parties,• in Conflict Management and Industrial Relations, ed. G. B. J. Bomers and R. Peterson (Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff, 1982), pp . 119-140.
performance, but a recent review of 116 st udies found that generalized task conflict was essentially unrelated lo group performance. However, the research found that the rela- tionship between confl ict and performance depends on a number of mediating factors.7
One fac tor is \vhether the co nflict includes top management or occurs at a lower hierarchical level in the organization. Task conflict among top management teams was positively associated with their performance, whereas con flict lower in the organ ization was nega tively associated with their performance, perhaps because people in top posi- tions may not fee l as threatened in their organiza tional roles by confl ict. The review also found that it matters whether other types of con fl ict are occurring at the same lime. If task and relationship conflict occurred together, task confl ict was more likely negative, whereas if task conflict occurs by itself, it was more likely positive. Some scholars have argued that the strength of conflict is important- if task conflict is very low, people are not really e ngaged or addressing the important issues. If task conflict is too high, however, infighting will quickly degenerate into relationship co nfl ict. Moderate levels of task con flict may thus be optimal. Supporting th is argument, one study in Ch ina found that moderate levels of task co nflict in the early development stage increased creativity in groups, but high levels decreased team performance.8
3 14 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
8 Describe the three loci of conflict.
dyadic conflict Conflict that occurs between lwo people.
intragroup conflict Conflict Iha! occurs within a group 0< team.
intergroup conflict Conflict between different groups 0< teams.
Finally, the personali ties of team members appear to mauer. One study demon- strated that teams made up of ind ividuals who are, on average, high in openness and emotional stab ility are better able lo turn task conflict into increased group perfor- mance.9 The reason may be that open and emotionally stable teams can pul task confl ict in perspective and focus on how the variance in ideas can help solve the problem, rather than letting it degenerate into relationsh ip conflicts.
What about process confl ict? Researchers found that process conflicts are about delegation and roles. Conflicts over delegation often revolve around the perception that some members are shirking. Moreover, conflicts over roles can leave some team members feel ing marginal ized. Thus, process conflicts often become highly personal- ized and quickly devolve into relationsh ip confl icts. H's also true, of course, that arguing about how lo do someth ing takes lime away from actually do ing it. We have all been part of groups in wh ich the arguments and debates about roles and responsib ilities seem to go nowhere.
Loci of Conflict Another way to understand conflict is to consider its locus, or the framework in which the conflict occurs. Here, too, there are three basic types. Dyad ic conflict is confl ict between two people. Intragr o u p conflict occurs within a group or team. In ter grou p conflict is confl ict between groups or teams.
Nearly all of the literature on task, relationship, and process confl ict considers intra- group conflict (within the group). Thal makes sense given that groups and teams often exist only to perform a particular task However, it does not necessarily tell us all we need to know about the context and outcomes of con flict. For example, research has found that for intragroup task conflict to positively influence performance within the team, it's important that the team has a supportive climate in which mistakes are not penal ized and every team member •[has] the other's back." 10 But is this concept appl icable to the effects of intergroup confl ict? Think about, say, the NHL. For a hockey team lo adapt and improve, perhaps a certa in amount of intragroup conflict (but not too much) is good for team performance, especially when the team members support one another. But would we care whether members from one team supported members from another team? Probably not. In fact, if teams are competing with one another so that on ly one team can "wi n; in terteam conflict seems almost inevitable. Still, it must be managed. Intense intergroup conflict can be quite stressful lo group members and might well affect the way they interact. One study found, for example, that h igh levels of conflict between teams caused individua ls to focus on complying with norms within their teams. 11
It may surprise you that ind ividuals become most important in intergroup conflicts. One st udy that focused on intergroup conflict found an interplay between an ind i- vidual's position with in a group and the way that individual managed confl ict between groups. Group members who were relatively peripheral in their own group were beuer al resolving conflicts between their group and another one. But th is happened only when those peripheral members were still accountable to their group. 12 Thus, being at the core of your work group does not necessarily make you the best person lo manage conflict with other groups.
Another intriguing question about loci is whether conflicts interact with or buffer one another. Assume, for example, that Jia and Ala in are on the same team. What hap- pens if they do not get along interpersonally ( dyadic conflict) and their team also has high task conflict? Progress might be halted. What happens to their team if two other team members, Shawna and Justin, do get along well? The team might still be dysfunc- tional, or the positive relationsh ip m igh t preva il.
Thus, understanding functiona l and d ys functiona l confl ict requires not only that we identify the type of conflict; we also need to know where it occurs. H's pos- s ible that wh ile the concepts of task, relationship, and process conflict are useful in
Chapter 9 Conflict and Negotiation 3 15
IBM encourages employees to engage in functional conflict that resutts in innovations, such as the Watson supercomputer designed to learn through th e same process human brain s use. For innovation to flourish, IBM relies on the creative tension from employees' different ideas and skills and provides a w ork environ -
men t that promotes risk-taking and outside-th e-b ox thinkin g.
understanding intragroup or even dyadic conflict, they are less usefu l in explaining the effects of intergroup confl ict.
Thinking about conflict in terms of type and locus helps us real ize that it's probably inevitab le in most organizations, and when it does occur, we can attemp t to make it as productive as possible.
Sources of Conflict A number of conditions can give rise to conflict. They need not lead directly to confl ict, but at least one of these conditions is necessary if conflict is to surface. For simpl icity's sake, these cond itions (wh ich we can also look at as causes or sources of conflict) have been condensed into three general categories: commun ication, structure, and personal variables.
Communication As we saw in Chapter 7, communication can be a source of conflict through semantic d ifficu lties, m isunderstandings, and • noise• in the communication channels. 13
A review of the research suggests that differing word connotations, jargon, insuffi- cient exchange of information, and noise in the communication channel are all barriers to commun ica tion and potential antecedent conditions to conflict. Research has further demonstrated a surprising finding: The potential for conflict increases when either too little or too much commun ication takes place. Apparently, an increase in communica- tion is functiona l up to a po int, whereupon it's possible to overcommunicate, with a resultant increase in the potential for confl ict.
8 Identify the cond itions that lead to conflict.
316 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
Structure Conflicts between two peop le can be structura l in nature; that is, they can be the con- sequence of the requ irements of the job or the workplace more than personality. For instan ce, it's not uncommon for the sales department to be in conflict w ith the pro- duction department, if sales perceives that products will be delivered late to customers. The term stn1c1ure in this context incl udes variab les such as s ize of the group, degree of specia lization in the tasks assigned lo group members, composition of the group, jurisdictional clarity, reward systems, leadership style, goal compatibility, and the degree of dependence between groups.
A review of structural variables that can lead to con fl ict in the workplace suggests the follow ing: 14
• Size, specialization, and composition of the group act as forces to stimulate con- flict. The larger the group and the more specialized its activities, the greater the likelihood of conflict. The potential for conflict lends to be greatest where group members are younger and where turnover is h igh.
• The greater the ambig11ity in precisely defining where responsibility for actions lies, the greater the potential for conflict lo emerge. Such jurisdictiona l ambiguities increase intergroup fighting for control of reso urces and territory.
• Reward systems create con fl ict when one member's ga in is at another's expense. Sim ilarly, the performance evalua tion process can create conflict when ind i- viduals fee l that they are unfa irly eva luated, or when managers and employees have differing ideas about the employees' job responsibili ties.
• Leadership style can create conflict if managers tightly conlro l and oversee the work of employees, allowing emp loyees little discretion in how they carry o ut tasks.
• The diversity of goals among groups is a major source of confl ict. When groups with in an organizatio n seek d iverse e nds, some of which are inherently at odds- such as when the sales team promises products that the development team has not yet final ized- opportunities for confl ict increase.
• If one gro11p is dependent. on another ( in contrast lo the two being mutually inde- pendent), or if interdependence allows one group to ga in at another's expense, opposing forces are stimulated.
Personal Var iables Have you ever met people to whom you take an immed iate dislike? You disagree wi th most of their opin io ns. The sound of their voice, their sm irk when they smile, and their personality annoy you. We have all met people l ike that. When you have lo work with such individuals, there is often the potential for con fli ct.
Our last category of potential sources of conflict is personal variables, which include personality, emotions, an d values. People high in the personality Lraits of d isagreeable- ness, neuroticism, or self-monitoring are prone to tangle with other peop le more often, and to react poorly when co nflicts occur. 15 Emotions can also cause conflict even when they are not directed al others. An employee who shows up to work irate from her hectic morning commute may carry that anger into her workday, wh ich can result in a tension- filled meeting.16 Furthermore, differences in preferences and val ues can generate h igher levels of conflict. For example, a study in South Korea found that when group members d idn' t agree about their desired achievement levels, there was more task conflict; when group members didn' t agree about their desired interpersonal closeness, there was more relationsh ip conflict; and when group members didn't have similar desires for power, there was more confl ict over status. 17
Chapter 9 Conflict and Negotiation 3 17
Conflict Resolution In the Unifor--GM negotiations, both parties looked for ways to meet the needs of the other,
while making sure that they accomplished their own goals.18 When the negotiations ended, it appeared that this did happen. While neither party achieved all that they might have hoped for,
each side regarded the negotiation as a win. GM said that the deal would "enable significant
new product, technology, and process investments" at two Ontario plants. Jerry Dias, the president of Unifor, meanwhile, announced his happiness with the agreement.
"Ultimately, we were not walking away from the table until we had a solution . .. we all knew
we were going to be successful right from the beginning because we were determined." The
I union had managed to get guarantees for one of the Oshawa plants to stay open with increased wages and no layoffs. Conflict in the workp lace can affect the effectiveness of individuals, teams, and the entire organ ization. 19 One st udy found that 20 percent of managers' time is spen t managing conflict.2o
Once conflict arises, what can be done to resolve it? The way a confl ict is defined goes a long way toward establish ing the sort of outcomes that might settle it. For instance, if I define our salary d isagreement as a zero-sum or win- lose sic11atio11- that is, if you get the increase in pay you want, there will be exactly that amount less for me- I am going to be far less wi lling to look for mutua l solutions than if I frame the conflict as a potential win- win situation. So individual attitudes toward a confl ict are important, because attitudes typically define the set of possible settlements.
Conflict Management Strategies Based on Dual Concern Theory Conflict researchers often use dual concern theory to describe peop le's confl ict manage- ment strategies.21 Dual concern theory considers how one's degree of cooperativeness (the degree to which one tries to satisfy the other person's concerns) and asserciveness {the degree to wh ich one tr ies to satisfy one's own concerns) determ ine how a conflict is hand led.2 2 The five conflict-handling strategies identified by the theory are as follows:
• Fo rcing. Imposing one's will on the other party.
• Problem solving. Trying to reach an agreement that satisfies both one's own and the other party's aspirations as much as possible.
• Avoiding. Ignoring or minimizing the importance of the issues creating the conflict.
• Yielding. Accepting and incorporating the will of the other party.
• Compromising. Ba lancing concern for oneself w ith concern for the other party in order to reach a so lution.
Forcing is a win- lose solution, as is yield ing, while problem solving seeks a win- win solu tion. Avoiding con fl ict and pretend ing it does not exist, and compromising, so that neither person gets what they want, can yield lose- lose solutions. Exhibit 9-2 illustrates
these five strategies, along with specific actions that one might take when using them. Choosing a particular strategy for resolving confl ict depends on a variety of factors.
Forcing brings out active attempts to contend with team members, and more ind ividual effort to achieve ends without working together. Problem solving creates investigation of mu lt ip le so lutions with other members of the team and tr ies to find a solution that satisfies all parties as much as possible. Avoiding is seen in behaviour l ike refusa ls to d iscuss issues and reductions in effort toward group goals. Peop le who yield put their relationships ahead of the issues in the conflict, deferring to others' op in ions and some- times acting as a subgroup with them. Finally, when people compromise, they both expect to ( and do) sacrifice parts of their interests, hoping that if everyone does the same, an agreement will s ift out.
3 1 8 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
"' "' Ill z Ill > ~ Ill
"' "' <(
EXHIBIT 9-2 Conflict-Handling Strategies and Accompanying Behaviours
"' c ~ .. l! e c
i ·"' ! 0
~ "' . ., .. "' 0 ~
g>
~
" > ·;: " ~
.. • 2: t: .. ::: .. c ::::,
Forcing
Satisfying one's own interests without concern for the other's interests • Make threats and bluffs • Make persuasive arguments • Make positional commitments
Problem solving
Clarifying differences to find mutually beneficial outcomes
• Exchange information about priorities and p re ferences
• Show insights • Make trade-offs between
important and unimportant issues
Compromising
Giving up something to reach an outcome (done by both parties)
• Match other's concessions • Make conditional promises
and threats • Search for a m iddle ground
Yielding
Withdrawing from or ignoring conflict
Placing the other's interests above one's own
• Don't think about the issues • Make unilateral concessions • Make unconditional promises • Offer help
Uncooperative Cooperat ive
COOPERATI VENESS
Jl'ying to satisfy the other person's concerns
Sources: Based on K. W. Thomas, "Conflict and Negotiation Processes in Organizations,• in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, vat. 3, 2nd ed., ed. M . D. Dunnette and L. M. Hough (Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1992), p . 668; C. K. W. De Dreu, A. Evers, B. Beersma, E. S. Kluwer, and A . Nauta, • A Theory-Based MeastXe of Conflict Management Strateges in the 'M:>rkplace," Journal of Organizational Behavior 22, no. 6 (Septerrtier 2001), pp. 645-668; and D. G. Pruitt and J. Rubin, Social Conflict: Escalation, Stalenate and Settlement (New York: Random House, 1986).
A review that examined the effects of these behaviours across mu ltiple stud ies found that openness and problem solving were both associated with superior group perfor- mance, whereas avoiding and forcing stra tegies were associated with significantly worse group performance.23 These effects were nearly as large as the effects of relationship conflict. This further demonstrates that it is not just the existence of confl ict or even the type of confl ict that creates prob lems, but also the ways people respond to conflict and manage the process once conflicts arise.
Research shows that whi le peop le may choose among the strategies, they have an underlying d isposition to handle conflicts in certa in ways.24 In addition, some situa- tions call for particular strategies. For instance, when a small child insists on trying to run into the street, a parent may need a forcing slrategy to resuain the ch ild. Co-workers who are having a conflict over setting dead lines to comp lete a project on time may decide that problem solving is the best strategy to use.
OB in Action-Choosing Strategies to Deal with Conflicts indicates the situations in which each strategy is best used.
What Can Individua ls Do to Manage Conflict? Individuals can use a number of confl ict resolution techniques to try to defuse conflict inside and outside of the workplace. These include the following: 25
• Problem solving. Requesting a face-to-face meeting to identi fy the prob lem and reso lve it through open discussion.
Chapter 9 Conflict and Negotiation 3 19
.. _ ~ OB ~cr10N Choosing Strategies to Deal w ith Conflicts
Fo rcing
-+ In emergencies
-+ O n important b ut unpopu lar issues
-+ O n vita l iss ues when you know you are right
-+ Against p eople who take a dvantage of no ncompeti- tive behaviour
Pro blem solv ing
-+ If b oth sets of concerns are to o important for compromise
-+ To m erge different p erspectives
-+ To gain commitment through a co nsensus
-+ To mend a rela tio nship
Avoiding
-+ When an issue is trivial
-+ When your concerns wo n't be m et
-+ When potential disruption out"1eighs the ben efits of resolution
-+ To let people co o l down and regain perspective
Yielding
-+ When you fi nd you are wro ng
-+ To show your reasonableness
-+ Wh en issu es a re more impo rtant to oth ers than yourself
-+ To build social credits for later issues
-+ Wh en h armony a nd s tab ility are especially important
Compromis ing
-+ When goals are important but not worth more assertive approaches
-+ When oppo nents are committed to mutually exclus ive go als
-+ To achieve te mporary settlemen ts to complex issues
-+ To arrive at exp edient s olutio ns u nder lime pressure26
• Developing overarching goals. Creating a shared goal that requires both parties to work together, and motivates them to do so.
• Smoothing. Playi ng down differences wh ile emphasizi ng common interests with the other party.
• Compromising. Agreei ng with the other party that each will give up someth ing of val ue to reach an accord.
• Avoiding. Withdrawing from or suppressing the conflict.
The cho ice of techn ique may depend o n how serious the issue is to you, wh ether you take a win - win or a win-lose approach, and your preferred confl ict management style.
When the co nflict is specifically work-rela ted, add itional techn iques m ight be used:
• Expansion of resources. The scarcity of a resource- say, money, promotion opportu nities, office space- ca n create conflict. Expansio n of the resource ca n create a win- win solution. (Mo ney is often the issue in pro sports strikes, as Point/ Counterpoint on page 338 shows.)
• Authoritative comma.nd. Man agement can use its formal a uthority to resolve the co nflict and then commu nicate its desires to the parties invo lved.
• Altering the h1u11an variable. Behavioural change tech niques such as human relations trai ning ca n alter attitudes an d beh aviours that cause confl ict.
320 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
~ OB ~cr10N Handling Personality Conflicts
Tips for employees having a personality conflict -+ Communicate d irectly with the other person
to resolve the perceived conflict ( emphasize problem so lving and common objectives, not personal ities).
-+ Avoid dragging co-workers into the conflict.
-+ If dysfunctional confl ict persists, seek help from direct supervisors or human resource specialists.
Tips for th ird-party observers of a personality confl ict -+ Do not take s ides in someone else's personal-
ity conflict.
-+ Suggest th e parties ,vork th ings out themselves in a constructive and positive way.
-+ If dysfunctional confl ict persists, refer the problem lo parties' direct supervisors.
Tips for managers whose emp loyees are having a personal ity confl ict -+ Investigate and d ocument conflict.
-+ If appropriate, take corrective action ( e.g., feedback or behaviour shaping) .
-+ If necessary, attempt informal dispute resolu tion.
-+ Refer difficult conflicts lo human resource specialists or h ired counsellors for formal resolution attempts and other interventions. 27
• Altering the stn1ct11ral variables. The formal organization structure and the interaction patterns of conflicting parties can be changed through job redesign, transfers, creation of coordina ti ng positions, and the like.
Resolving Personality Conflicts Personality conflicts are an everyday occurrence in the work- place. A recent study found that Canadian supervisors spend about 16 percent of their time handling d isputes among employees.28 A variety of factors lead lo personal ity conflicts al work, includ ing the follow ing:29
• Misunderstandings based on age, race, or cultural d ifferences
• Intolerance, prejudice, d iscrim ination, or b igotry
• Perceived inequities
• Misunderstandings, rumours, or falsehoods abou t an indi- vidual or group
• Blaming for mistakes or mishaps (finger-pointing)
Persona lity conflicts can result in lowered productivity when people find it difficult to work together. The individuals experiencing the conflict may seek sympathy from other mem- bers of the work group, causing co-workers to take sides. The idea l solution wou ld be for the two people having a conflict lo work it out between themselves, without involving oth- ers, but this does not always happen. OB in Action- Handling Personality Conflicts suggests ways of dealing with personal ity confl icts in the workp lace.
Conflict Outcomes The action - reaction in terpl ay between conflicting par- ties creates consequences that are f11nctional, if the conflict improves the group's performance, or dysfunctional, if it hinders performance.
Conflict is constructive when it improves the quality of decisions, stimulates creativity and innovation, encourages interest and curios ity among group members, provides the medium for prob lems to be aired and tensions released, and
fosters self-evaluation and change. Mi ld conflicts also may generate energizing emotions so members of groups become more active, energized, and engaged in their work.30
Dean Tjosvold of Lingnan Un iversity in Hong Kong suggests three desired outcomes for conflict:31
• Agreement. Equitable and fair agreemen ts are the best outcome. If agreement means that one party feels exploited or defeated, th is will l ikely lead to further conflict later.
• Stronger relationships. When confl ict is reso lved positively, this can lead to bet- ter relationships and greater trust. If the parties trust each other, they are more likely to keep the agreements they make.
• Learning. Handling confl ict successfully leaches one how to do it better next time. It gives an opportunity lo practise the skills one has learned about handling conflict.
RESEARCH FI NDINGS: The Constru ctive Effects of Conflict
Chapter 9 Conflict and Negotiation 3 21
Research studies in diverse settings confirm that conflict can be functional and improve productivity. Team members with greater d ifferences in work sty les and experience also tend to share more information with one another.32
These observations lead us to predict benefits to organ izations from the increasing cultural divers ity of the workforce. That is what the evidence indicates, under most cond itions. Heterogeneity among group and organization members can increase cre- ativity, improve the qual ity of decis ions, and facil itate change by enhancing member flexibi lity.33 Researchers compared decision-making groups composed of all-Caucasian individuals with groups that also contained members from Asian, Hispanic, and Black ethnic groups. The ethnically d iverse groups produced more effective and more feas ible ideas, and the unique ideas they generated tended to be of higher quality than the unique ideas produced by the all-Caucasian group.
Below we examine what research tells us abou t the constructive effects of confl ict. The above research findings suggest that confl ict within a group can lead to strength
rather than weakness. However, factors such as personality, social support, and com- mun ication moderate how well groups can deal with internal con flict. Al an individual level, both a person's personality (agreeableness) and h is or her level of socia l support influence that person's response lo conflict. Agreeable employees and those with lower levels of socia l support respond to confl ict more nega tively.34
Open communication is important to resolving confl ict. Group members who discuss differences of op inion open ly and are prepared to manage confl ict when it arises resolve conflicts successfully.3 5 Group members \V ith cooperative confl ict styles and a strong underlying identification to the overa ll group goals are more effective than those with a more competitive style.36 Managers need to emphasize shared interests in resolving conflicts, so group members who disagree with one another don't become too entrenched in their points of view and start to take the conflicts personally.
The destructive consequences of conflict on the performance of a group or an organization are generally well known: Uncontrolled opposition breeds d isconten t, wh ich acts to dissolve common ties and eventually leads lo the destruction of the group. A substantial body of literature documents how dysfunctional conflicts can reduce group effectiveness.37 Among the undesirable outcomes are poor communica- tion, reduced group cohesiveness, and subord ination of group goals due to infighting among members. All forms of conflict- even the functional varieties- appear to reduce group member satisfaction and trust.38 Wh en active discussions tum into open confl icts between members, information sharing between members decreases significantly.39 At the extreme, conflict can bring group functioning lo a halt and potentially threaten the group's survival.
Negotiation In the U nifor-G M contract negotiations, both parties had things they wanted to achieve at the
bargaining table.40 GM wanted to keep its labour costs low, and in particular restructure the
pension plan for employees to make it more affordable for the company. Unifor wanted guar- antees about the Oshawa plants staying open, as well as higher wages and no concessions on
the pension plan.
I In negotiations, one side sometimes has a better BATNA (best alternative to a negotiated agreement). Unifor's BATNA, at least in the short term, was for members to go on strike, making
322 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
negotiation A process in 1vhic~ two Of more parties exchange goods Of services and try lo agree on the exchange rate for them.
I it impossible tor GM to produce cars. It is not clear what GM's BATNA was, although i t could • consider whether shutting down the Oshawa plants would be a desirable thing.
Denn is DesRosiers, an automotive industry consultan t in the Toron to area , felt that
Unifor was in a better overall position . Engines, transmissions, and powertrains are built at a
St. Catharines plant. "If canadians don't produce the engines, GM doesn't produce the cars in
the United States," OesRosiers said. "There's going to be an awful lot ot rhetoric at the table,
I but at the end of the day Unifor is going to be the perceived winner in all this." How do perceptions ot fairness influence the negotiation process? Earlier in the chapter, we reviewed a number of confl ict reso lution strategies. One well - developed strategy is to negotiate a reso lution. Negotia tion permeates the interactions of almost everyone in groups and organ izations: Labour barga ins with management; managers negotiate with emp loyees, peers, and senior management; sa lespeople nego- tiate with customers; purchasing agents negotiate with suppl iers; employees agree to cover for one another for a few minutes in exchange for some past or future benefi t. In today's loosely structured organizations, in wh ich members work with colleagues over whom they have no direct authority and with whom they may not even share a com- mon boss, negotiation skills are critical.
We define negotiation as a process in which two or more parties try to agree on the exchange rate for goods or services they are trad ing.41 Although we commonly th ink of the outcomes of negotiation in one-shot economic terms, like negotiating over lhe price of a car, every negotiation in organizations also affects the relationship between nego tia- tors and the way negotiators feel about themselves.42 Depending on how much the panies are going to interact with one another, sometimes maintaining the social relation- sh ip and behaving ethically will be just as imponant as achieving an immediate outcome of barga ining. Note lhat we use the terms negotiation and bargaining interchangeably.
Within a negotiation, individuals have issues, posi tions, and interests. Issues are items that are specifically p laced on lhe barga ining table for discussion. Positions are the individual's stand on the issues. For instance, salary may be an issue for d iscussion. The salary you hope to receive is your position. Finally, interests are the underlying con- cerns that are affected by the nego tiation resolution. For instance, the reason that you
In general, people negotiate more effectively within cultures than between them. Politeness and positiv- ity characterize the typical conftict-avoidant negotiations in Japan such as those of labour union leader
Hidekazu Kitagawa (right), shown here presenting wage and benefits demands to lkuo Mori, president of Fuji Heavy Industries, maker of Subaru vehicles.
C hapter 9 Conflict and Negot iation 3 2 3
m ight want a six-figure salary is that you are trying to buy a ho use in Vancouver, and that salary is your only hope of being ab le to make mortgage payments.
Negotiators who recognize the underly ing interests of themselves and the other party may have more flexibility in achieving a resolution. For instance, in the example jus t given, a n emp loyer who offers you a mortgage at a lower rate than the ban k does, or who provides you with an interest-free loan that can be used agai nst the mortgage, may be ab le to address your underlying in terests wi thout actually meeting your salary posi- tion. You may be satisfied with th is alternative, if you u ndersta nd wha t your interest is.
Below we d iscuss bargaining strategies and how to negotiate.
Bargaining Strategies There are two general app roach es to negotiatio n: distributive bargaining and integrative bargaining.43 These are compared in Exhibit 9-3.
Distributive Bargaining Dis tributive bargaining is a negotiating strategy that operates under zero-s um (win- lose) co nditions. That is, any gain I make is at your expense, and vice versa. You see a used car ad vertised for sale o nline. It appears to be just what you have been looking to buy. You go out lo see the car. H's great, an d you want it. The owner tells you the ask- ing price. You do n't want to pay that much. The two of you then negotiate over the price. Every dollar you can get the seller to cu t from the car's price is a dollar you save, and
Should yo u try to win at any
cost ,,vhen you bargain'?
every d ollar more the seller can get from you comes at you r expense. So the essence o f d is tributive barga ini ng is negotiating over who gets what share of a fixed pie. By fixed pie, we mean a set amoun t of goods or seNices to be d ivided up. When the p ie is fixed, or the parties bel ieve it is, they tend to bargain distributively.
A pa rty engaged in distributive barga in ing focuses on trying lo get the opponent lo agree to a specific target point, or lo get as close to it as possible. Examples of this tactic are persuad ing your opponent of the impossibi lity of reach ing h is or her target point and the advisabi lity of accepti ng a settlement near yours; arguing that your target is fa ir, whi le your opponent's is not; and attemp ting to get your oppo nent to feel emotionally gen erous toward you an d thus accept an outcome close lo your target po int.
When engaged in d istrib u tive bargain ing, o ne of the b est things you can do is to make the first offer, and lo make it an aggressive one. Maki ng the first offer sh ows
EXHIBIT 9-3 Distributive vs. Integrative Bargaining
Ba rgaining Characteristic
Goal
Motivatio n
Focus
Interests
Informatio n sharing
Distributive Bargaining
Get as much of t he pie as possible
W in-l ose
Posit i ons (" I can't go beyond t his point on this issue." )
Opposed
Low (Sharing informati on will on ly allow oth er party to take advantage)
Durati on of relationship Short term
Integrative Bargaining
Expand the pi e so that both parties are satisfied
W in- w in
Interests ("Can you expl ain w hy this issue is so important t o you?" )
Congruent
High (Sharing informatio n will allow each party to fi nd ways to satisfy interests of each party)
Long term
Source: Based on R. J . Lewicki and J. A. Utterer, Negotiarion (Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1985), p. 280.
0 Contrast distributive and integrative bargaining.
distributive bargaining Nll9otia- tion that seeks to <ivide up a fixed amount of resources: a l'~rHose solution.
fixed pie The belief that !here is only a set amount of goods or services to be divided up between the parties.
324 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
•
power; individuals in power are much more likely to make in itial offers, speak first at meeti ngs, and thereby gain the advantage. Another reason this is a good strategy is the anchoring b ias (the tendency for people to fixa te on initial information) . Once that anchoring point is set, people fai l to adequately adjust it based on subsequent informa- tion. A savvy negotiator sets an anchor with the ini tial offer, and scores of negotiation studies show that such anchors greatly favour the person who sets them.44
For example, say you have a job offer, and your prospective employer asks you what sort of starting sa lary you would wan t. You have just been given a gift- you have a chance to set the anchor, meaning that you should ask for the h ighest sa lary that you th ink the employer could reasonably offer. For most of us, asking for a million dollars is only go ing to make us look rid iculous, wh ich is why we suggest being on the high end of what you th ink is reasonable. Too often, we err on the side of caution, being afra id of scaring off the employer, and thus settle for far too lit tle. It is possible to scare off an employer, and it's true that employers do not like candidates to be overly aggressive in salary negotiations, but liking is not the same as respecting or doing what il takes Lo hire or retain someone.4 5 What happens much more often is that we ask for less than what we could have obtained, as the Echical Dilemma on page 340 shows.
OB in che Street shows that in the context of eBay auctions, however, sellers who start with a low price on an item can end up getting a higher selling price.
OB IN THE STREET A Low Anchor Value Can Reap Higher Returns on eBay
Should a seller use a h igh or a low starting b id in an e Bay a uction? In their analysis of auction results on eBay, a group of researchers found that lower s tarting bids gener- ated higher final prices.4 6 As just one example, Nikon digital cameras with rid iculously low starting bids ( one penny) so ld for an average of $312, whereas those with higher starting prices went for an average of $204.
Whal explains such a counterintuitive result? The researchers found that low starting b ids auracl more b idders, and this increased traffic generates more competing bidders, so in the end the price is higher. Although th is may seem irrational, negotiation and b idding behaviour are not a lways rational, and as you have probab ly experienced first- hand, once you start bidd ing for something, you want to win, forgetting that for many auctions the one w ith the highest b id is often the loser (the so-called winner's curse).
If you are thinking of participating in an auction, consider the following two points. First, some buyers think sealed-bid auctions- where bidders submi t a single b id in a con- cealed fash ion- present an opportunity to get a "steal" because a price war cannot develop among bidders. However, evidence routinely indicates that sealed-b id auctions are bad for the winning bidder (and thus good for the seller) because the winning b id is higher than would otherwise be the case. Second, buyers sometimes think jumping bids- placing a bid h igher than the auctioneer is asking- is a smart strategy because it drives away competing bidders early in the game. Again, this is a myth. Evidence indicates bid jumping is good al
. causing other bidders to follow suit, thus increasing the value of the winning bid . •.. . . _ •
integrative bargaining Ne· gotiation that seeks one or more settlements that can create a win-1•~n solution.
Another distributive barga in ing tactic is revealing a deadline. Negotiators who reveal deadlines speed concessions from their negotiating counterparts, making them reconsider their position. Even though negotiators don't think this tactic works, in real- ity, negotiators who revea l deadlines do betler.4 7
Integrative Bargaining In contrast to d istr ibutive barga ining, integrative bargaining is preferable to d istribu- tive bargaining because the former builds long-term relationsh ips. Integrative bargain- ing bonds negotiators and allows them to leave the barga ining table feel ing they have
C hapter 9 Conflict and Negotiation 3 25
ach ieved a victory. Distributive bargaining, however, leaves one party a loser. IL tends lo bui ld animosity and deepen divis ions when people have lo work together on an ongo- ing basis. For a discussion on the ro le of unions in Jabour-management negotiations, see Case Incident- The Pros and Cons of Collective Bargaining on pages 341-342.
Research shows tha t over repeated bargain ing episodes, a •1osing• party who fee ls positively about the negotiation outcome is much more likely lo barga in coopera tively in subsequent negotiations.
Why; then, don't we see more integrative bargaining in organ izations? The answer lies in the conditions necessary for this type of negotiation to succeed. These include par- ties who are open with information and candid about their concerns, sensit ivity by both parties to the other's needs, the abil ity lo trust one another, and a will ingness by both parties to ma intain flexib ilily.48 Because these conditions often don't exist in organizations, negotiations often take a win-at-any-cost dynamic.
Compromise may be your worst enemy in negotiati ng a win-win agreement Compromising reduces the pressure lo barga in integralively. After all, if you or you r opponent
Ho,-,· does anxiety affect
negotiatin~ ') outco1nes .
caves in easily, no one needs lo be creative lo reach a settlement. People then settle for Jess than they could have obta ined if they had been forced lo consider the other party's interests, trade off issues, and be creative.49 Consider a classic example where two siblings are arguing over who gets an orange. Unknown 10 them, one sib ling wants the orange lo drink the juice, whereas the other sibling wants the orange peel to bake a cake. If one sibl ing gives in and gives the other s ibl ing the orange, then they will not be forced to explore their reasons for wanting the orange, and thus they will never find the win-win solution: They could each have the orange because they want d ifferen t parts of it! A poor compromise may sometimes be the resu lt of negotiation anxiety. A recent study found that negotiators who feel anxious "expect lower outcomes, make lower firs t offers, respond more quickly lo offers, exit bargain ing situations earl ier, and ult imately obtain worse outcomes. •so If self-efficacy is high, this will moderate some of the harmful effects of anxiely.51 So it's important lo feel prepared and do what you can lo reduce anxiety before negotiating a deal.
EXHIBIT 9-4 The Negotiation Process
How to Negotiate Exhib it 9-4 provides a simpl ified model of the negotiation process. IL vie\vs nego tiation as made up of five steps: ( 1) developi ng a s trategy; {2) defining ground rules; {3) clarifying and justifying; ( 4) barga ining and problem solving; and (5) at taining closure and implementation. 52
Developing a Strategy Before you start negotiating, you need to do your homework. Whal is the nature of the conflict? Whal is the his tory leading up to this nego tiation? Who is involved, and what are their perceptions of the conflict? Whal do you want from the negotiation? What are your goals? If you are a supply manager at Dell Computer, for instance, and your goal is to gel a significant cost reduction from your keyboard sup- plier, make sure th is goa l remains in focus in d iscussions and doesn't get overshadowed by other issues. IL often helps to pul your goals in writing and develop a range of outcomes- from "most hopeful" lo • minimally acceptable"- to keep your attention focused.
You should also assess what you th ink are the other party's goals.53
Whal are they likely to ask for? How entrenched are they likely lo be in their position? What intangible or h idden interests may be important lo them? On what terms might they be willing to settle? When you
Devel oping a strategy
Def ining ground rules
•
Clarifying and justifying
Bargaining and problem solving
Achieving closure and implementation
Source: Based on R. J . Lewicki, "Bargaining and Negotiation,' Exchange: The Organizational Behavior TeachingJoumal 6, no. 2 (1981), pp. 3~.
326 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
BATNA The rest alternative !J a ~gotialed agreement; lhe outcome an in<ividual faces if negotiations fail.
bargaining zone The zone between each party's resistance point, assuming lhal there is owrtap in lhis range.
can anticipate your opponent's posi tion, you are better equipped to counter arguments with the facts and figures that support your position.
Relationships change as a resu lt of negotiation, so take that into consideration. If you could •win• a negotiation but push the other s ide into resentment or animosity, il might be wiser lo pursue a more compromising sty le. If preseiving the relationship will make you seem easily exploi ted, you may consider a more aggressive style. As an example of how the tone of a relationship in negotiations matters, people who fee l good about the process of a job offer negotiation are more satisfied with the ir jobs and less likely lo t urn over a year later regardless of their actual outcomes from these negotiations. 54
In determ ining goals, parties are well advised to cons ider their •target and resis- tance• po ints, as well as their best alternative Lo a negotia ted agreement (BATNA).55
The buyer and the seller are examples of two negotiators. Each has a target point that defines what he or she wou ld like lo achieve. Each also has a resistance point, wh ich marks the lowest outcome tha t is acceptable- the po int below which each would break off negotiations rather than accept a less favourable settlement. The area between these two points makes up each negotiator's aspiration range. As long as there is some overlap between the buyer's and seller's aspiration ranges, a barga ining zone exists where each s ide's aspirations can be met. Referring to Exhib it 9-5, if the buyer's resis tance po int is $450, and the seller's resis tance point is $500, then the two may not be able to reach agreement because there is no overlap in their aspiration ranges. Any offer you receive tha t is higher than your BATNA is beuer than an impasse.
In nearly all cases, the party with superior alternatives will do better in a negotia- tion, so experts advise negotiators to so lid ify their BATNA prior lo any inleraction.56
There is an interesting exception to this genera l rule- negotiators with absolutely no alterna tive to a negotiated agreement sometimes •go for broke" since they don't even consider what would happen if the negotiation falls through.57 Think carefu lly about what the other side is willing to give up. People who underestimate their opponent's will ingness to give on key issues before the negotiation even starts end up with lower ou tcomes.58 Conversely, you should not expect success in your negotiation effort unless you are able to make the other s ide an offer il finds more at tractive than its BATNA.
You can practise your negotiating ski lls in the Experiential Exercise on page 339.
Defining Ground Rules Once you have done your planning and developed a strategy, you are ready to define the ground rules and procedures w ith the other party over the negotiation itself. Who will do the negotiating? Where will il take place? What time constraints, if any, will apply? To what issues will negotiation be lim ited? Will there be a specific procedure to follow if an impasse is reached? During this phase, the parties will a lso exchange their in itial proposals or demands. From Concepts to Skills on pages 342- 343 directly addresses some of the actions you should take to improve the likelihood that you can achieve a good agreement.
EXHIBIT 9-5 Staking Out the Bargaining Zone
S400 $475 5525 $600
Bargaining
- Buyer's aspiration range Selle<'s aspiration range -
- zone +
Buy er's Seller's tar get resistance p o in t point
- +
Buyer's resistance
point
Seller's t ar get po i nt
C hapter 9 Conflict and Negotiation 3 27
Clarifying and Justifying After you have been presented your in itial positions, you and the other party will explain, amplify, clarify, bols ter, and justify your original demands. This step need not be confrontational. Rather, it's an opportun ity for educating each other on the issues, why they are important, and how each arrived at their in itial demands. Provide the other party with any documenta- tion that helps support your position.
~ OB ~cr10N Tips for Getting to Yes
R. Fisher and W. Ury present four principles for win-win negotiations in their book Getting w Yes:62
Bargaining and Problem Solving The essence of the negotiation process is the actual give and take in trying to hash out an agreement. A recent s tudy found that those who used competing and collaborating ( essentially a comb ination of the forcing and problem solving confl ict resol ution styles discussed ea rl ier in the chap ter) as part of their strategy to gain a higher starting sa lary were more suc- cessful ( and received h igher increases) than those who used compromis ing and accommodating strategies. 59 The study looked at the influence of individual d ifferences and negotia- tion strategies on starting sa lary outcomes based on a sample of 149 new ly hired employees in various industry sellings. Resu lts indicated that those who chose to negotiate increased their starting salaries by an average of $5000. Individuals who negotiated by using competing and collaborating stra tegies, characterized by an open discussion of one's positions, issues, and perspectives, further increased their salaries as compared
-+ Separate the people from the problem. Work on the issues at hand, rather than getting involved in personality issues between the parties.
-+ Focus on interests, not positions. Try to iden- tify what each person needs or wants, rather than coming up with an unmovab le position.
-+ Look for ways to achieve mu t ual gains. Rather than focusing on one "right• solution for you r position, brainstorm for so lutions that will satisfy the needs of both parties.
-+ Use objective criteria lo achieve a fair so lu- tion. Try lo focus on fa ir standards, such as market value, expert opinion, norms, or laws lo help guide decision making.
with those \vho used compromising and accommodating strate- gies. Ind ividua l d ifferences, including risk aversion and integrative altitudes, played a s ignificant role in predicting whether individuals negotiated, and if so, what strategies they used.
OB in Action- Tips for Getting to Yes gives you further ideas on how lo make negotiat- ing work for you, based on the popular book Getting w Yes . 60
Achieving Closure and Implementation The final step in the negotiation process is formalizing your agreement and developing procedures for implementing and moni toring it. For major negotiations- from labour- management negotiations to bargaining over lease terms- this will require hammering out the specifics in a formal contract. For most cases, however, closure of the negotiation process is nothing more formal than a handshake.
Individual Differences in Negotiation Effectiveness Are some people heller negotiators than o thers? The answer is more complex than you m ight think. Three factors influence how effectively individuals negotiate: personality, moods/emotions, and gender.
Personality Traits in Negotiation Can you pred ict an opponent's nego tiati ng tactics if you know someth ing about his or her personality? Because persona lity and negotiation outcomes are related but only weakly, the answer is, at best, "sort of. "61 Most research has focused on the Big Five personality trail of agreeableness, for obvious reasons- agreeable individuals are cooperative, compliant, ki nd, and conflict-averse. We m ight think such characteris tics make agreeable ind ividuals easy prey in negotiations, especially d istributive ones. The
O Show how individual differences influence negotiations.
328 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
•
evidence suggests, however, that overall agreeableness is weakly related lo negotiation outcomes. Why is th is the case?
It appears that the degree to wh ich agreeableness, and personality more gener- ally, affects negotiation outcomes depends on the situation. The importance of being extraverted in negotiations, for example, will very much depend on how the other party reacts to someone who is assertive and enthusiastic. One complicating factor for agreeableness is that it has two facets: The tendency to be cooperative and compliant is one, but so is the tendency to be warm and empathelic.63 ll may be that while the former is a hindrance to negotiating favo urable outcomes, the lauer helps. Empathy, after all, is the ab ility lo take the perspective of another person and lo gain insight and understand ing of them. We know perspective-taking benefits integrative negotiations, so perhaps the null effect for agreeableness is due lo the two tendencies pulling against one another. If this is the case, then the best negotiator is a competitive but empathetic one, and the worst is a gentle but empathetic one. Focus on Ethics indicates how empathy can help you be a more ethica l negotiator.
FOCUS ~~HICS Using Empat hy to Negotiate More Et hically
How can empathy ma ke you a more ethica l negot iator? You may have noticed that much of our advice for negotiating effectively depends on understanding the perspective
and goals of the person with whom you are negotiating .64 Preparing checklists of your negotiation partner's interests, likely tactics, and BATNA have all been shown to improve
negotiation outcomes. Can these steps make you a more ethical negotiator as well?
Studies suggest that they m ight. Researchers asked respondents to indicate how much they tended to think about
other people's feelings and emotions and to describe the types of tactics they engaged in
during a negotiation exerc ise. More empathetic individuals consistently engaged in fewer unethical negotiation behaviours like making false promises and manipulating information
and emotions. When considering how to improve your ethical negotiation behaviour, follow these
guidelines:
1. Try to understand your negotiation partner's perspective. This is not just understand-
ing cognitively what the other person wants, but empathizing with the emotional reaction he or she will likely have to the possible outcomes.
2. Be aware of your own emotions, because many moral reactions are fundamen-
tally emotional. One study found that engaging in unethical negotiation strategies increased feelings of guilt, so by extension, feeling guilty in a negotiation may mean
that you are engaging in behaviour you will regret later. 3. Beware of empathizing so much that you work against your own interests. Just
because you try to understand the motives and emotional reactions of the other side does not mean you have to assume that the other person is going to be honest and
fair in return. So be on guard. . . . . . .. . . . .... . . . .. . . . .... . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. .
The type of negotiations may mauer as well. In one study, agreeable individua ls reacted more positively and felt less stress ( measured by their cortisol levels) in integra- tive nego tiations than in d istributive ones. Low levels of stress, in turn, made for more effective negotiation oulcomes.65 Sim ilarly; in • hard-edged" distribu tive negotiations, where giving away information leads to a disadvantage, extraverted negotiators do less well because they tend lo share more information than they shou ld .66
CAREER OBJECTIVES
How Can I Get a Better Job?
I feel like my career is at a stan d- st ill, a nd I want to ta lk t o my boss a bout gettin g a more develop- me ntal assign me nt. How ca n I negotiat e effect ively fo r a bett e r job position?
-Wei
Dear Wei: You 're certainly starting out on the right foot. A lot of people focus on a salary as a way to achieve success and negotiate for the best short-run offer. There is obviously an advan- tage to this strategy in the short run, but sustained career growth has bet- ter payoffs in the long run. Developing skills can help put you on track for multiple salary increases. A strong skill set from developmental assignments will also give you a better position for future negotiations because you will have more career options.
Long -term career negotiations based on developmental assign- ments are also easier to bring up with a supervisor. That is because salary negotiations are often a zero-sum situ- ation, but career development nego- tiations can bring positive outcomes to both sides. When negotiating for a
developmental assignment, make sure you emphasize a few points with your supervisor: • When it comes to salary negotia -
tions, either you get the money, or the company keeps the money. Given that, your interests and the interests of your managers are directly opposed. On the other hand, negotiating for developmen - tal assignments usually means find- ing ways to improve not just your skills, but also your contribution to the company's bottom line. You can, in complete honesty, frame
the discussion around these mutual benefits.
• Let your supervisor know that you are interested in getting better at
your job, and that you are motivated to improve through a developmen- tal assignment. Asking your super- visor for opportunities to grow is a clear sign that you are an employee worth investing in.
• Be open to creative solutions. It's possible that there are some idio- syncratic solutions (also called "I-deals") for enhancing both your interests and those of your supervi- sor. One of the best things about an
Chapter 9 Conflict and Negotiation 3 29
integrative bargaining situation like this is that you and your negotiation partner can find novel solutions that neither would have imagined separately.
Think strategically about your career, and you w ill likely find you can negotiate not just for a better paycheque tomorrow, but for a pay- cheque that keeps increasing in the
years to come.
Sources: Y. Rofcann, T. Kiefer, and K. Strauss, "How I-Deals Build Resources to Facilitate Reciprocation: Mediating Role of Positive
Affective States," Academy of Management Proceedings, August, 2014, DOI: 10.5465/ AMBPP.2014.16096abstract; C. Liao, S. J. 'Na,fne, and 0. M. Rousseau, "Idiosyncratic Deals in Contemporary Organizations: A Qualitative and Meta-Analytical Review," Journal of Organizatiooal Behavior, October 16, 2014, DOI: 10.1002/JOb.1959; and V. Brenninkmeijer and M. Hekl<ert-Koning "To Craft or Not to Craft," career DeYelopment lnternarional 20 (2015): 147-62.
The opinions provided here are of the manag- ers and authors only and do nor necessarily re/leer those of their organizations. The authors or managers are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for the results obtained from the use of this information. In no event will the authors or managers, or their related paJtner- shlps or corporations thereof, be liable to you or anyone else for any decision made or action taken In reliance on the opinions provided here.
Self-efficacy is one individual-d ifference variable that consistently seems to relate to negotiation outcomes.67 This is a fairly intuitive finding- it isn't too surprising to hear that those who believe they will be more successful in negotiation si tuations tend to perform more effectively. It may be that individuals who are more co nfident stake o ut stronger claims, are Jess likely to back down from their positions, and exh ibit confidence that intimi- dates others. Although the exact mechanism is not yet clear, it does seem that negotiators may benefi t from trying to get a boost in confid ence before going to the bargaining table.
Research suggests that intelligence pred icts negotiatio n effectiveness, b ut, as with perso nality, the effects are not especially strong.68 In a sense, these weak links mean that you are not severely d isadvantaged, even if you are an agreeab le extraverl, when it's time to negotiate. We can all learn to be better negotiators. 69
Moods/Emotions in Negotiation Do moods and emotio ns in fluence nego tiation? They do, but the way they work depends on the emotions as well as t he context. A negot iator wh o shows anger
330 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
generally induces concessions from opponents, for instance, because the other nego - tiator believes no further concessions from the angry party are possib le. One factor that governs th is outcome, however, is power- you shou ld show anger in negotiations only if you have at least as much power as your counterpart. If you have Jess, show ing anger actually seems to provoke •hardball" reactions from the other s ide.70 Another factor is how genuine your anger is- "faked" anger, or anger produced from so-called surface acting (see Chapter 2), is not effective, but showing anger that is genuine (so -called deep acting) is effective.71 ll also appears tha t having a history of showing anger, rather than sowing the seeds of revenge, actually induces more concessions because the other party perceives the negotiator as "tough."72 Finally, culture seems to matter. For instance, one study found that when East Asian participants showed anger, it induced more concessions than if the negotiator expressing anger was from the Un ited States or Europe, perhaps because of the stereotype of East Asians as refus- ing to show anger.73
Another relevant emotion is disappointment. Generally, a negotia tor who perceives disappointment from his or her counterpart concedes more. In one study, Dutch s tudents were given 100 ch ips to bargain over. Negotiators who expressed disappoint- ment were offered 14 more ch ips than those who didn't. In a second study, showing disappointment y ielded an average concession of 12 ch ips. Unlike a show of anger, the relative power of the negotiators made no difference in either study.74
Anxiety also appears to have an impact on negotiation. For example, one st udy found that individuals who experienced more anxiety about a negotiation used more deceptions in dealing with o thers.75 Another study found that anxious negotiators expect lower outcomes, respond to offers more quickly, and exi t the bargaining process more quickly, leading them to obtain worse ou tcomes.76
As you can see, emotions- especially negative ones- matter lo negotiation. Even emo tional unpredictabil ity affects outcomes; researchers have found that negotiators who express positive and negative emotions in an unpred ictable way extract more concessions because th is behaviour makes the other party feel Jess in contro l.77 As one negotiator put it, "Out of the blue, you may have to react to someth ing you have been working on in one way, and then something entirely new is introduced, and you have to veer off and refocus. "78
Gender Differences in Negotiation Men and women behave similarly in many areas of orga- nizationa l behaviour, bu t negotiation is not one of them. It seems fa irly clear tha t men and women negotiate differ- ently, men and women are treated d ifferently by negotia- tion partners, and these d ifferences affect outcomes.
A popu lar stereo type is that women are more coopera- tive and pleasan t in negotiations than are men. Although th is stereotype is controversial, it has some merit. Men tend to p lace a h igher value on s tatus, power, and recognition,
Do n1en and ~\'omen
negotiate different)~··?
whereas women tend to place a higher value on compassion and altruism. Moreover, women tend to value relationship outcomes more than men, and men tend to value economic outcomes more than women.79
These d ifferences affect both negotiation behaviour and nego tiation outcomes. Compared with men, women tend to behave in a Jess assertive, Jess self-interested, and more accommodating manner in negotiations. As a 2012 li terature review concluded, women "are more reluctant to initiate negotiations, and when they do initiate negotia- tions, they ask for less, are more willing to accept [the] offer, and make more generous offers to their nego tiation partners than men do."80 A 2012 study of MBA students at Carnegie Mellon University found that male MBA students took the step of negotiating
Chapter 9 Conflict and Negotiation 33 1
their firs t offer 57 percent of the time, compared with 4 percent for fema le MBA stu- dents. The net result? A $4000 difference in starting sa laries.8 1
One comprehensive literature review suggests that the tendency for men to receive beuer negotiation outcomes in some situations does not cover all situations. 82
Indeed, ev idence suggested women and men bargained more equally in certain situations, women sometimes outperformed men, and men and women obta ined more nearly equal ou tcomes when negotiating on behalf of someone else. In other words, everyone was beuer at advocating for others than they were at advoca ting for themselves.
Factors that increased the pred ictab ility of negotiations also tended to reduce gen- der differences. When the range of negotiation settlements was well defined, men and women were more equal in outcomes. When more experienced negotiators were at the table, men and women were also more nearly equ ivalent. The study authors pro- posed that when situations are more ambiguous, with less well -defined terms and less experienced negotiators, stereotypes may have stronger effects, leading to larger gender d ifferences in outcomes.
So wha t can be done to change this troub lesome state of affairs? First, organi- zationa l culture plays a role. If an organization, even unwillingly, reinforces gen- der-stereotyp ical behav iours (men negotia ting co mpetitively, women negotiating coopera tively), it will negatively affect negotiations when anyone goes aga inst stereo- type. Men and women need to know that it's accep table for each to show a full range of negotiating behaviours. Thus, a female negotiator who behaves competitively and a ma le nego tiator who behaves cooperatively need to know that they are not vio lat- ing expectations. Making sure negotiations are designed to focus on well-defined and work-related terms also has promise for reducing gender differences by minim iz ing the amb iguous space for stereotypes to operate. This focus on structure and work relevance also obviously helps focus negotiations on factors that wi ll improve the organization's performance.
Research is Jess clear as to whether women can improve their outcomes by show- ing some gender-stereotypical behav iours. Researchers Laura Kray, professor at the
Chrystia Freeland, minister of Foreign Affairs in Justin Trudeau's Liberal government, is responsible for
international diplomacy as well as trade relations with the Un~ed States. She is a seasoned journalist and a respected negotiator who is known for being likable, detail oriented, and tough.
332 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
University of California, Berkeley, and colleagues suggested that female negotiators who were instructed lo behave w ith •femin ine charm" (be animated in body movements, make frequen t eye contact with their partners, smi le, laugh, be playful, and frequently compliment their partners) d id beuer in negotiations than women not so instructed. These behaviours did not work for men.83
Other researchers disagree and argue that what can best benefi t women is to break down gender stereotypes for the ind iv iduals who hold them.84 !l's possible this is a short-term/long-term situa tion: In the short term, women can gain an advantage in negotiation by being bo th assertive and flirtatious, but in the long term, their interests are best seived by el iminating these sorts of sex role stereotypes.
Evidence also suggests that women's own attitudes and behaviours hurl them in negotiations. Managerial women demonstrate less con fidence than men in anticipation of negotiating and are less satisfied with their performance afterward, even when their performance and the outcomes they ach ieve are similar to those of men.85 Women are also less likely than men to see an amb iguous situation as an opportunity for negotia- tion. Women may unduly penal ize themselves by failing to engage in negotiations that wou ld be in their best interest. Some research suggests that women are less aggressive in nego tiations because they are worried abou t backlash from others. A recent s tudy by Professor Linda Schweitzer of the Sprott Schoo l of Business, Carleton Un iversity, and three colleagues found that women lend to have lower expectations abou t salaries and promotions as they enter the workforce, which may exp lain why they are less aggressive in salary negotiations.BG
Negotiating in a Social Context
' Jerry Dias, president of Unifor, was asked a few months after the Uniter-GM contract was ratified
whether he had been optimistic or pessimistic when negotiations started.87 He responded that
he had felt confident that negotiations would get done, and noted, "I knew we were going to find solutions; I jusl didn'I know that they would all happen prior lo lhe strike deadlines." Knowing
that keeping the Oshawa plants open was extremely important to the union likely affected his thoughts about the strike deadline.
Negotiations work better, generally, when the parties know each olher. Dias noted that he
spoke with Mary Barra (chairperson and CEO of GM) to let her know there would not be an agreement without a solution for Oshawa. Dias has known the chief negotiator of GM canada
for 20 years, and he says lhal helps when Dias makes strong points in the negotiations. That
also enables GM's negotiator to go back to GM management to "say to the people at lhe top at GM, 'Listen, he's not kidding."'
We have mostly been discussing negotiations that occur among parties that meet only once, and in isolation from other individuals. However, in organiza tions, many nego- tiations are open-ended and public. When you are trying lo figure ou t who in a work group should do a ted ious task, negotia ti ng w ith your boss lo gel a chance to travel internationally, or asking for more money for a project, there is a social compo nent to the negotiation. You are probab ly negotiating with someone you al ready know and will work with aga in, and the nego tiation and its ou tcome are likely lo be topics people will talk about. To really understand negotiations in practice, then, \Ve must co nsider the social fac tors of reputation and relationships.
Reputation Your reputation is the way other people think and ta lk abou t you. When il comes to negotiation, having a reputation for being trustworthy matters. In short, trust in a nego- tiation process opens the door lo many forms of integrative negotiation strategies tha t
C hapter 9 Conflict and Negotiation 3 33
benefit bo th parties.88 The most effective way to build trust is to behave in an honest way across repeated interactions. Then, o thers feel more comfortable making open- ended offers with many different ou tcomes. Th is helps to achieve win-win outcomes, s ince bo th parties can work to achieve what is most important to themselves wh ile still benefitting the other party.
Sometimes we either trust or distrust people based on word-of-mouth about a person's characteristics. What type of characteristics help a person develop a trust- worthy reputation? A combination of competence and integrity.89 Nego tiators higher in self-confidence and cognitive ability are seen as more competent by negotiation partners.90 They are also considered better able to accurately describe a sit uation and their own resources, and more credible when they make suggestions for creative solu- tions to impasses. Individuals who have a reputation for integrity can a lso be more effective in negotiations.91 They are seen as more likely to keep their promises and presen t information accurately, so o thers are more willing to accept their promises as part of a bargain. Th is opens many options for the negotiator that would not be available to someone who is no t seen as trustworthy. Finally, individuals who have higher reputations are better liked and have more friends and allies- in other words, they have more socia l resources, which may g ive them more understood power in negotiations.
Relationships There is more to repeated negotiations than just reputation. The social, interpersonal componen t of relationships with repeated negotiations means that ind iv iduals go beyond valuing what is simply good for themselves and instead start to think about what is best for the o ther party and the relationship as a whole.92 Repeated negotia- tions built on a foundation of trust also broaden the range of options, since a favour or concession today can be offered in ret urn for some repayment further down the road.93 Repeated negotiations also facilita te integrative problem so lving. This occurs partly because people begin to see their negotiation partners in a more personal way over time and come to share emotio na l bonds.94 Repeated negotiations a lso make integrative approaches more workab le because a sense of trust and reliability has been built up. 95
In sum, it's clear that an effective negotiator needs to think about more than just the outcomes of a single interaction. Nego tiators who consistently act in a way that demonstrates competence, honesty, and integrity will usually have better outcomes in the long run.
Third-Party Negotiations To this point, we have d iscussed bargaining in terms of direct negotiations. Occasionally, however, individ uals or group representatives reach a stalemate and are unable to resolve their d ifferences. In such cases, they may turn to alternative dispute reso lution {ADR), where a third party helps both sides find a solution outside a courtroom. The three basic third-party roles are mediator, arbi trator, and conci liator.
Mediator A med iator is a neutral th ird party who fac ilitates a negotiated solution by using rea- son ing and persuasion, suggesti ng alternatives, and the like. Mediators can be much more aggressive in proposing so lutions than conciliators. Med iators are widely used in labour-management negotiations and in civil court disputes. British Columbia's Motor Vehicle Branch uses mediation to help settle accident cla ims. In Ontario, all disputes between companies and employees now go to mediation within 100 days.
f) Assess the roles and functions of third -party negotiations.
medi ator A neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning, persuasion, and suggestions for alternatives.
3 3 4 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
arbitrator A lhird party lo a negotiation who has lhe authority lo dic1ale an agreement.
conciliator A lrusled lhird party who provides an informal commu- nication link between lhe n139olialor and lhe opponent.
The overall effectiveness of mediated negotiations is fairly impressive. For example, a recent Mediate BC survey found that over 90 percent of med iations resolved all issues or helped th e parties move toward resolution. The survey a lso fo und that the aver- age satisfaction rate with the process was over 90 percent. 96 Bu t the situation is the key lo whether med iation wi ll succeed; the conflicting parties m us t be motivated to barga in an d resolve their conflict. Add itionally, conflict intensity cannot be loo high; med iation is most effective under moderate levels of conflict. Finally, perceptions of the media tor are important; lo b e effective, the mediator must be perceived as neutral and noncoercive.
Arbitrator An arbitrator is a th ird party wi th the authority lo d ictate an agreement. Arbitration can be vol untary (requested by the parties) or compulsory (forced on the parties by law or contract) .
The b ig advantage of arbitration over mediation is that il always resu lts in a settle- ment Whether th ere is a downside depends on how "heavy-handed" Lhe arbitrator appears. If one party is left feeling overwhelm ingly defeated, that party is certa in lo be d issatisfied and the conflict may resurface at a later lime.
Conciliator A concili ato r is a trusted th ird party who provides an informal commun ication link between the negotiator a nd the opponent Concil iatio n is used extensively in in terna- tional, labour, fami ly, and community disputes. In practice, conci liators typically act as more than mere communication condui ts. They also engage in fact-find ing, interpreting messages, and persuading disputants Lo develop agreemenL~.
In Canada, the first s tep in trying lo resolve a labou r relations d ispute can be lo bring in a conciliation officer when agreement cannot be reached. This may b e a good faith effort lo resolve the d ispu te. Sometimes, however, a conciliator is used so Lhal the union can reach a legal strike pos ition or management can engage in a lockout Provinces vary somewhat in how they sel o ut th e ability lo engage in a s trike after going through a conciliation process. For instance, in Nova Scotia, o nce the concili- ation officer files a report that the dispute cannot be resolved thro ugh conciliation, there is a 14-day wa iti ng period b efore e ither party can give 48 hours' notice of eith er a str ike or a locko ut 9 7
uF GLOBAL IMPLICATIONS \(~l)t Below we consider (1) how conflict is handled in d ifferent cullures, (2) whether ~./ there are d ifferences in negotiating styles across cul lures, and (3) how the dis-
play of emotions affects negotiations in different cultures.
Conflict Resolution and Culture Research suggests that differences across countries in conflict resolution strategies may be based on collectivistic tendencies and motives. 98 Co llectivis tic cul cures see people as deeply embedded in social situations, whereas individ ualistic cul lures see people as autonomous. As a resu lt, collectivis ts are more likely to seek Lo preserve relationsh ips and promote the good of the group as a who le. They will avoid direct expression of conflicts, preferring lo use more indirect methods for reso lving d ifferences of op inion. Collectivists may a lso be more interested in demonstrations of concern and worki ng through third parties lo resolve disputes, whereas individualists wi ll be more likely lo confront differences of opinion d irectly and openly.
C ha pte r 9 Conflict and Negotiation 3 35
Some research supports this theoiy. Compared to collectivistic Japanese negotiators, individualistic US negotiators are more likely to see offers as unfa ir and reject them. Another study revealed that while US managers were more likely to use competing tactics when faced with a confl ict, Chinese managers were more likely to use compro- mising and avoiding. 99 Interview data, however, suggest top management teams in Chinese high-techno logy firms prefer integration even more than compromising and avo id ing. 100
Cross-cultural negotiations can also crea te issues of trust. '°1 One study of Indian and US negotiators found that respondents reported having less trust in their cross-cul lure nego tiation counterparts. The lower level of trust was associated with less d iscoveiy of common interests between parties, which occurred beca use cross-culture negotiators were less willing to d isclose and sol icit information. Another study found that both US and Chinese negotiators tended to have an ingroup bias, wh ich led them to favour negotiating partners from their own cultures. For Chinese negotiators, th is was particu- larly true when accountab ility requirements were high.
Cultural Differences in Negotiating Style So what can we say about culture and negotiations? First, it appears that people gen- erally negotiate more effectively within cultures than between them . For example, a Co lomb ian is apt to do better negotiating with a Colomb ian than with a Sri Lankan. Second, it appears that in cross-cu ltural negotiations, it's especially important that the nego tiators be high in openness. Th is point suggests that a good strategy is to choose cross-cultural negotiators who are high on openness to experience and to avoid factors such as time pressures that tend lo inhib it learning about and understand ing the other party. '°2
Culture, Negotiations, and Emotions As a rule, no one likes lo face an angiy counterpart in negotiations. However, East Asian negotiators may respond less favourably to anger than people from other cultures. 103
Two separate studies found that East Asian negotiators were less likely to accept offers from negotiators who displayed anger during negotiations. Another study explicitly compared how US and Ch inese negotiators react to an angiy counterpart. When confronted with an angiy negotiator, Chinese negotiators increased their use of d istribu tive negotiating tactics, whereas US negotiators capitulated somewhat in the face of angiy demands. 104
Why might East Asian and Ch inese negotiators respond more negatively to angiy negotiators? The authors of the research speculated that individuals from East Asian cu ltures may feel that using anger lo get their way in a negotiation is not a legitimate tactic, so they refuse lo cooperate when their opponents become upset. --- Summary Wh ile many people assume tha t conflict lowers group and organizationa l perfor- mance, this assumption is frequent ly incorrect. Conflict can be e ither constructive or destructive to the function ing of a group or un it. Levels of conflict can be either too high or too low to be constructive. Either extreme hinders performance. An opti- mal level is one that prevents stagnation, stimulates creativity, allows tensions to be released, and initia tes the seeds of change without being disruptive or preventing coord ination of activ ities.
LESSONS LEARNED
• A medium level of conflict often results in higher pro- ductivity than no conflict.
• Negotiators should identify their BATNA (best alternative co a negotiated agreement).
• In relationships with long- term consequences, it's best to use a win- win strategy in bargaining.
336 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
Mylab Management
SNAPSHOT SUMMARY
Conflict Defined • Resolving Personality • Moods/Emotions in Negotiation • Functional vs. Dysfunctional Conflicts • Gender Differences in
Conflict Negotiation
• Types of Conflict Conflict Outcomes
• Loci of Conflict Negotiating in a Social
• Sources of Conflict Negotiation Context
• Bargaining Strategies • Reputation
Conflict Resolution • How to Negotiate • Relationships
• Conflict Management Third-Party Negotiations Strategies Based on Dual Individual Differences in
Concern Theory Negotiation Effectiveness • Mediator
• What Can Individuals Do to • Personality Traits in • AJbitrator Manage Conflict? Negotiation • Conciliator
Study, practise, and explore real business situations with these helpful resources:
• Study Plan: Check your understanding of chapter concepts with self-study quizzes.
• Online Lesson Presentations: Study key chapter topics and work through interactive assessments to test your knowledge and master management concepts.
• Videos: Learn more about the management practices and strategies of real companies.
• Simulations: Practise management decision-making in simulated business environments.
.,. for Review
1. What is co nflic t?
2. What are the th ree types of conflic t?
3. What are the th ree loci of conflic t?
4. What are the conditions that lead to conflic t?
5. What are the differences between distributive and
integrative bargaining ?
6. How d o individual d ifferences influence negotiatio ns?
7. What are the roles and functions of third -party negotiatio ns?
for Managers
• Seek integrative solutions when your objective is to learn, when
you want to merge insights from
people with different perspectives,
when you need to gain commit-
ment by incorporating concerns into a consensus, and when you
need to work through feelings that
have interfered with a relationship.
• You can build trust by accommo- dating others when you find you're
wrong, when you need to demon· strate reasonableness, when other
positions need to be heard, when issues are more important to others
than to yourself, when you want to satisfy others and maintain coop-
eration, when you can build social
credts for later issues, to minimize
loss when you are outmatched and
losing, and when others should
learn from their own mistakes.
• Consider compromising when goals are important but not worth
potential disruption, when oppo-
nents with equal power are com-
mitted to mutually exclusive goals,
and when you need temporary
settlements to complex issues.
• D istributive bargaining can resolve disputes, but it often reduces the
satisfaction of one or more nego-
tiators because it's confrontational
and focused on the short term.
Integrative bargaining, in contrast,
tends to provide outcomes that
satisfy all parties and build lasting
relationships.
• Try to find creative ways to achieve the negotiating objectives
of both parties, especially when
you value the long-term relation-
ship with the other party. That
does not mean sacrificing your
self-interest; rather, it means trying
to find creative solutions that g ive
both parties what they really want.
for You
• It may seem easier, but avoiding co nflict d oes not necessarily have
a mo re positive o utcome than
w o rking with someo ne to resolve
the conflic t.
• Trying to ach ieve a w in-win solu- tio n in a conflict situatio n tends to lead to better relatio nships and
greater trust.
• It's not always possible to resolve co nflict on o ne's own. There are
alternative disp ute resolutio n
optio ns, including having some -
one help mediate the co nflict.
• It's better to focus mo re o n inter- ests rather than po sitio ns w hen
engaged in a negotiatio n . Doing
so gives you the ability to arrive at
mo re flexible solutio ns.
0 ICll:I
"' -
338 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
-"' CCI 0
PRO SPORTS STRIKES ARE CAUSED BY GREEDY OWNERS
POI NT - It can be annoying to see the constant strikes, lockouts,
and back-and-forth negotiations between sports teams
and the players' unions. ,os Of the major pro sports leagues, Major League Baseball (MLB) is the only one without a strike since 1995-and it had eight in its his-
tory. You've got to wonder why this keeps happening.
Here is why: Owners' greed knows no limit.
In nearly every recent strike or lockout, the main issue
was money and how to divide it. When the National
Hockey League (NHL) locked out the players during the 2012-2013 season, the owners were the instigators.
They wanted to reduce the players' share of hockey
revenues. They wanted to eliminate salary arbitration.
They wanted to introduce term limits to contracts. They
wanted to change free-agency rules and eliminate sign- ing bonuses. On a philosophical level, some of these
proposals are interesting because they reveal that own-
ers want to restrict competition when it suits them and
increase it w hen it benefits them.
While the owners were whining about the unfairness
of long-term contracts, the Minnesota Wild's owner Craig Leipold signed Zach Parise and Ryan Suter to identical
13-year, $98 million contracts. Contracts like these sug -
gest that owners want the players' union to save them
from themselves.
Perhaps some of this behaviour would make sense if the owners were losing money, but that is hardly the case. The NHL has three teams worth over $1 billion
each, and few are worth less than $200 million. The
owners are not hurting, either. Most are millionaires many
times over. N. Murray Edwards, co-owner of the Calgary
Rames, had a net worth of $1.88 billion in 2017 and was ranked 23 of the 1 00 wealthiest Canadians.
In essence, what we have are rich owners trying to
negotiate rules that keep them from competing w ith
one another for players. It's a bald-faced and hypocriti-
cal attempt to use their own kind of union to negotiate favourable agreements, all the while criticizing the play-
ers' unions.
COUNTERPOINT - - Major league owners are an easy target. But they have
the most to lose from work stoppages. It's the players
and their unions who push the envelope.
It's true that most major league players are well rewarded for their exceptional talents and the risks they
take. It's also true that owners w ho are able to invest in
teams are wealthy-investors usually are. But the fault
for disputes lies w ith spoiled players-and the union
leaders who burnish their credentials and garner the
limelight by fanning the flames of discontent. On this latter point, give all the credit in the world to
the union negotiators (paid millions themselves), who do
nothing if not hawk publicity and use hardball negotiating
tactics. Take the NHL players' union boss Donald Fehr.
For a "negotiation" set to begin at 10 a.m., he arrived at 11 :15. At exactly 12:00, he announced he had a lunch
meeting uptown and left.
Do we really need labour unions for workers whose
average salaries for first team players in 20 16-20 17 are
$2.9 million (NHL), $4.4 million (MLB), and $6.4 million
(NBA)? NHL clubs spent 76 percent of their gross rev- enues on players' salaries and collectively lost $273 mil-
lion the year before the most recent lockout. It's easy to
argue that major league sports have an unusual number
of labour disputes, but that is not necessarily accurate.
Did you hear about the 20 15 largest strike of oil refinery
workers in decades or the ongoing worldwide strikes by low-paid workers in the fast-food industry? Somehow
these strikes don't make the news or our collective con-
sciousness as much as sports strikes. Sports strikes
interest us, but we should not fall into the trap of blaming
these on the owners.
340 Part 3 Interacting Effectively
The negotiation: Alex has a meeting scheduled with C .J. to discuss Lisa's performance review and salary adjustment. -: Take a couple o f minutes to think through the facts in this exercise and to prepare a strategy. Then you have up to
~ 15 minutes to conduct your negotiation. When your negotiation is complete, the class will compare the various strategies -"' used and the outcomes that resulted. CCI 0
ETHICAL DILEMMA
The Lowball Applicant Consider this first -person account:
I am a human resources manager, so I interview people
every day. Sometimes the managers in my company ask
me to pre -screen candidates, which I do after discuss-
ing the job at length w ith the manager. I usually start the
candidate screening with a few personality- job fit tests;
then conduct an interview, following a list of job-specific
questions the manager has given me; and finally discuss
the job requirements, our company, and the pay/benefits.
By that time in the process, the candidate usually has a
good idea of the job and is eager to suggest a level of pay
at the top of the advertised bracket or, often, above the
pay bracket. However, this isn't always the case.
One time in particular, an excellent candidate w ith
outstanding qualifications surprised me by saying that
since she wanted flextime, she would accept a rate be·
low the pay bracket. Confused, I asked her whether she
wanted a reduction in hours below full time. She said no,
she expected to work full time and only wanted to come
in a little late and would leave a little late to make up the
time. I guess she figured this was a concession worth
slashing her salary for, but our company has flextime. In
fact, she could have asked for five fewer hours per week,
still have been considered fu ll time by our company
policies, and negotiated for salary above the adVertised
pay grade.
I knew the manager would be highly interested in this
candidate and that he could probably get her to work the
longer full-time hours at a lower rate of pay. That out-
come might be best for the company, or it m ight not. The
candidate obviously didn't fully understand the company
policies in her favour, and she was unsophisticated about
her worth in the marketplace. What should I have done?
Quest.ions
1. If the human resources manager were to coach the applicant to request a higher salary, would the coach· ing work against the interests of the organization? Is it the responsibility of the human resources manager to put the organization's financial interests first?
2. What do you see as the potential downside of the human resources manager abstaining from discuss- ing the pay issue further with the candidate?
3. If the candidate were hired at the reduced rate she proposed, how m ight the situation play out over the next year when she gets to know the organization and its pay standards better?
CASE INCID E NT S
Disorderly Conduct The sound of Matt and Peter's arguing is familiar to every-
one in the office by now. ,os In an effort to make the best use of space and ensure a free flow of discussion and
ideas, the founder of Markay Design had decided to con-
vert the one-floor office of the company to an open plan with no walls between workers. The goal of such a layout
is to eliminate boundaries and enhance c reativity. But for
Matt and Peter, the new arrangement creates a growing
sense of tension.
The argument boils down to the question of work·
space order and organization. Peter prefers to keep his desk completely clean and c lear, and he keeps a stack of
cleaning wipes in a drawer to eliminate any dust or dirt. Matt, on the other hand, likes to keep all his work visible
on his desk, so sketches, plans, magazines, and photos
are scattered everywhere, alongside boxes of crackers
and coffee cups. Peter finds it hard to concentrate when
he sees Matt's piles of materials everywhere, while Matt
feels he can be more creative and free flow ing when he is not forced to clean and organize constantly. Many of
Matt and Peter's co-workers w ish they would just let the
issue drop. The men enjoyed a good working relationship
in the past, with Peter's attention to detail and thorough
planning serving to rein in som e of Matt's w ild inspira- tions. But of late, their collaborations have been derailed
in disputes.
Everyone knows it 's not productive to engage in con-
flicts over every sm all irritant in the workplace. However,
completely avoiding conflict can be equally negative.
An em erging body of research has examined •conflict
cultures" in organizations. The findings suggest having
a culture that actively avoids and suppresses conflicts is
associated w ith lower levels of c reativity. Moreover, cul-
tures that push conflict underground but do not succeed
Chapter 9 Conflict and Negot iation 341
in reducing the underlying tensions can become passive-
aggressive, marked by underhanded behaviour against
other co-workers.
Ultimately, finding a way through the clutter dispute is
probably going to be an ongoing process to find a balance
between perspectives. Both Matt and Peter worry that
if they cannot find a solut ion, their usually positive w ork
relationship will be too contentious to bear, and that would
be a real mess.
Questions
1. Describe some of the factors that led this situation to become an open conflict.
2. Do you think this is an issue worth generating con- flict over? What are the potential costs and benefits of Matt and Peter having an open discussion of the
issues?
3. How can Matt and Peter develop an active problem- solving discussion to resolve this conflict? What could effectively be changed, and w hat is probably going to just remain a problem?
The Pros and Cons of Collective Bargaining Fewer employees in the private sector are unionized,
compared with those who work in the public sector (15.2
vs. 71.3 percent in 2014).10 7 Does being in a labour union
make a difference for optimal wages and benefits?
On the positive side, by negotiating as a collective,
public-sector employees, who are more heavily unionized,
are able to ear n, on average, roughly 12 percent more
than employees w orking in the mostly non-unionized pri-
vate sector. Unions also can protect the rights of w orkers
against capric ious actions by employers. Consider the
follow ing example:
In a non-unionized workplace, Lydia criticized the
work of five of her co-workers. They were not
amused and posted angry messages on a Face-
book page. Lydia complained to her supervisor
that the postings violated the employer's "zero tol-
erance" policy against "bullying and harassment."
The employer investigated and, agreeing that its
policy had been violated, fired the five.
Most of us would probably prefer not to be fired for
Facebook posts. This is a protection unions can provide.
On the negative side, public -sector unions at tim es
have been able to negotiate employm ent arrangements
that are hard to sustain. According to the Fraser Institute,
almost 89.3 percent of those employed by the Canadian
government receive pension benefits as part of their
total compensation. Only 23.8 percent of private-sector
employees have these benefits. This allowed government
employees to retire about 2.3 years earlier than private-
sector employees.
Further, it 's often m ore difficult to fire a member of a
public-sector union, even if performance is exceptionally
poor. A recent report by the Fraser Institute indicated that
3.8 percent of private-sector employees were fired com -
pared to 0.6 percent of public -sector employees.
Reasonable people can disagree about the pros and
cons of unions and whether they help or hinder an orga-
nization's ability to be successful. There is no dispute,
however, that they often figure prominently in the study of
workplace conflict and negotiation strategies.
Questions
1. Labour-management negotiations might be charac- terized as more distributive than integrative. Do you agree? Why do you think this is the case? What, if anything, would you do about it?
342 Part 3 Interacting Effec tively
-"' CCI 0
2. If unions have negotiated unreasonable agreements, what responsibility does management or the admin- istration bear for agreeing to these terms? Why do you think they do agree?
3. If you were advising union and management repre- sentatives about how to negotiate an agreement, drawing from the concepts in this chapter, what would you tell them?
Negotiating Once you have taken the time to assess your own goals, con-
sider the other party's goals and
interests, and develop a strategy,
you are ready to begin actual
negotiations.
•••••••••••••••••••••
Practising Skills
The following five suggestions should improve your negotiating skills: 108
1. Begin with a positive overture. Studies on negotiation show that con- cessions tend to be reciprocated and lead to agreements. As a result, begin bargaining with a positive overture- perhaps a small conces- sion- and then reciprocate your opponent's concessions.
2. Address problems, not personalities. Concentrate on the negotiation issues, not on the personal characteristics of your opponent. When negotiations get tough, avoid the tendency to attack your opponent. It's your opponent's ideas or position that you disagree w ith, not him or her personally. Separate the people from the problem, and don't personalize differences.
3. Pay little attention to initial offers. Treat an initial offer as merely a point of departure. Everyone has to have an initial position. These initial offers tend to be extreme and idealistic. Treat them as such.
4. Emphasize win- win solutions. Inexperienced negotiators often assume that their gain must come at the expense of the other party. As noted w ith integrative bargaining, that need not be the case. There are often w in- w in solutions. Assuming a zero -sum game means missed opportunities for trade-offs that could benefit both sides. So if conditions are supportive, look for an integrative solu- tion. Frame op tions in terms of your opponent 's interests, and look for solutions that can allow your opponent, as well as yourself, to declare a victory.
5. Create an open and trusting climate. Skilled negotiators are better listeners, ask more questions, focus their arguments more directly, are less defensive, and have learned to avoid w ords and phrases that can irritate an opponent (for example, "generous offer," "fair price," "reasonable arrangement"). In other words, they are better at creating the open and trusting climate necessary for reaching an integrative settlement.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
A s marketing director for Done Right , a regional home-repair chain, you
have come up with a plan you believe has significant potential for future
sales. Your plan involves a customer information service designed to help
people make their homes more environmentally sensitive. Then, based on
homeowners' assessments of their homes' environmental impact, your
firm will be prepared to help them deal with problems or concerns they
may uncover. You are really excited about the competitive potential of
this new service. You envision pamphlets, in -store appearances by envi-
ronmental experts, as well as contests for consum ers and school kids.
After several weeks of preparations, you make your pitch to your boss,
Nick Castro. You point out how the market for environmentally sensitive
products is growing and how this growing demand represents the perfect
opportunity for Done Right. Nick seems impressed by your presentation,
but he has expressed one major concern: He thinks your workload is
already too heavy. He does not see how you are going to have enough
time to start this new service and still be able to look after all of your other
assigned marketing duties. You really want to start the new service. What
strategy w ill you follow in your negotiation with Nick?
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1. Negotiate with a team member or w ork colleague to handle a small section of work that you are not going to be able to get done in time for an important deadline.
2. The next time you purchase a relatively expensive item (such as an automobile, apartment lease, appliance, jewellery), attempt to negoti- ate a better price and gain some concessions such as an extended warranty, smaller down payment, m aintenance services, or the like.
Chapter 9 Conflict and Negotiation 3 43
Reinforcing Skills
• ••••••
344
LI.I ::c .... z Q
Certain Vancouver School Board (VSB) trustees (Allen Wong, Joy Alexander, Mike Lombardi, and Patti Bacchus, shown above) and the VSB staff were at loggerheads for most of 2016. 1 The trustees were trying to stand up to the provincial government, which had ordered the VSB to produce a balanced bud - get by June 30, 2016. The board resisted doing this for months after the deadline, in part because prod ucing a balanced budget would require more than $7 million in cuts and 12 school closures. School closures are always a difficult issue; parents do not want their child's school closed . Because the trustees are elected, they are more
interested in what constitu- ents want than what the pro- vincial government wants.
It is the job of the VSB staff to recommend to the trust- ees how to make the cuts and which schools to close. The staff prepared recommendations on these matters for the trustees. Throughout 2016, while staff prepared recommendations, tensions between the staff and trustees escalated. Staff started to fear for their jobs. The tipping point came at a September 2016 public meeting where citizens could watch trustees question the staff. The meeting became heated .
WorkSafeBC was alerted to tensions between staff and trustees, and an investigation into alleged bullying behaviour
VISION Vl:>ro,,, ___ _ Vi! " , r
began, with a report issued in March 2017. Among the con - clusions of the report were:
• Many witnesses described a "culture of fear" in which staff felt vulnerable and at risk of personal attack and ridicule.
• There was evid ence that the trustees' public attack of the work of the senior staff undermined the staff and publicly embarrassed and humiliated them .
• Indi vidual trustees acted contrary to the VSB Code of Ethics and engaged in conduct that constituted bullying and harassment.
Because the trustees had been fired by the provincial government months before the report was issued, no disciplin-
ary action was taken; however the VSB has since put together guide- lines against bullying for trustees and staff. Workplaces in many parts of Canada are required to address bullying. Bullying itself is not illegal, but some forms of it - for example, threats, assault, and harassment - are included in the Criminal Code.
\Vhat Is Happening in Our \Vorkplaces? Workplaces today receive high ly critical reviews, being called every- th ing from ' uncivil" to "toxic.• The
trend has been growing over time. One study showed that one-quarter of those surveyed in 1998 reported rude treatment at work at least once a week. In 2005, nearly half reported experiencing that behaviour, wh ile in 2011 just over half reported the same.
Peop le are feeling more stressed at work, often as the result of heavier
wo rkloads due to layoffs of fellow employees, pressures for increased
product ivity, and managers who do not know how to manage. Al l of th is has resulted in an increase in uncivil and aggressive workplace behaviours.2
What does workplace civility mean? Essentially it means acting politely and respectfully toward others.3 Worllplace incivilit)' means being disrespectful and uncaring about how one treats oth- ers. Different workplaces have d ifferent norms for what demonstrates mutual respect; however, many provinces now
require organ izations to develop poli- cies regard ing workplace bullying and respectful workplace p ractices.
Some behaviour goes beyond incivil ity to workplace bu lly ing. The Workplace Bullying Insti tute defines workplace bullying as
repeated, health-harm ing mis-
treatment of one or more persons (the targets) by one or more per-
petrators. It ,s abusive conduct
that is:
• Threa ten in g, humil iating, or intim idating
• Work interference -sabotage- which preven ts wo rk from get- ting done
• Verbal abuse4
What Do We Know about Workplace Bullying?
There are few statistics on workplace bu llying in Canada. The Workp lace Bullying Insti tu te conducts the larg- est scien tific study of bullying in the Un ited Sta tes, and a recent study of
1000 adults found the following:5
• The percentage of respondent~ who have suffered abus ive conduct at work is 27 percen t.
• The percentage of respondent~ who have witnessed abusive conduct at
work is 21 percent.
• A full 72 percent of respondents are aware tha t workplace bullying happens.
• Men are s ignificantly more likely to engage in bullying behaviour than women ( 69 percent vs. 31 percent).
• Women who bully are sign ificantly more likely to bully women rather than men (68 percent vs. 32 percent).
• Men who bully are more likely to target women rather than men (5 7 percent vs. 43 percent) .
• Overall, 60 percent of bullying tar- gets are women.
The evidence suggests that rudeness, bullying, and violence are a ll on th e rise. The behaviours are harmful in the workplace.7 The victims of these nega- t ive behaviours a re not the only ones who suffer, however. Witnesses to bul-
lying a lso suffer.8
Not a ll nega tive behaviour in the workplace is bullying. Yes, bullying is a workplace issue. However, it's some-
times hard to know if bullying is hap- pening at the workplace. Many studies
••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• •••••••••••••••
FACT BOX What happens when employees
experience rudeness in the work-
p lace?
• 48o/o decreased their work effort,
• 47% decreased their time at work,
• 38% decreased their work quafrty,
• 66% said their performance
declined,
• 80% lost work time worrying
about the incident,
• 63% lost time avo iding the
offender, and
• 78 % said their comm itment to the o rganizatio n d eclined .6
..... --· ....... --·~-----.-. acknowledge that there is a "fine line"
between s trong management and bul- lying. Comments that are objective and are intended to provide constructive feedback are no t usually cons idered bullying, but rather are intended to assist the employee with their work.
WorkSafeBC clarifies by noting that bullying and harass ing behaviour does not include the following behaviours, if approached in an appropriate manner:9
• Expressing differences of opin ion
• Offe ring construct ive feedback, gu idance, or advice about work-
related behaviour
• Taking reasonable action related to the managemen t and d irection of workers or the place of employment (e.g., an emp loyer or supervisor managing a worker's performance, tak ing reasonable discipl inary actions, assigning work)
Workplace Violence
Recently, researchers have suggested that incivility may be the beginn ing of more negative behaviours in the workplace, includ ing aggression and violence. 10
345
Kevin Douglas Add ison chose a deadly way to exhibit the anger he fe lt toward h is former employer. In April 2014, he took a shotgun and opened fire at h is former place of employment, the Western Forest Products mi ll in Nanaimo, British Columbia, killing two employees (one of them a foreman) and injuring two others. The mill had closed in 2008 and had re-opened in a smaller capacity in 2010. Co-workers speculated that financia l problems as well as not being rehired when the mill re-opened may have Jed Addison to engage in the shooting. Roy Robertson, a retired mill employee, called Addison •a n absolutely super n ice guy. But me, you, anyone e lse can crack under pres- sure. I don't know his situation.' 11
Workplace vio lence, acco rding to the International Labour Organization (ILO), includes
any incident in wh ich a person is abused, threatened or a~saulted in circumstances relating to their work. These behaviours would o rig inate from customers or co- workers at any level of the orga- nization. This definition would include all forms of harassment, bullying, intimidation, physical th reats, assaults, robbery and other intrus ive behaviour. 12
The numbers on wo rkplace abuse vary by occupation. Overall, in a 2016 study by Vector Poll, JS percen t o f Canadian employees reported experi- encing workplace abuse, hara~sment, or assault during the previou~ 24 months. 13
In a 2016 Canadian Federation of Nurse Unions (CFNU) s tudy, 61 percent of nurses reported experiencing those same behaviours in the previous 12 months. 14
A 2017 report from the Ontario English Cathol ic Teachers' Association found that ·60 percent o f (those] teachers have personally experienced violence in schools, while 70 percent have wit- nessed iL' 15
Glenn French, president and founder of the Toronto-based Canadian Initiative on Workplace Violence, acknowledges
346
that there is less gun violence in the workplace here than in the United States: ·vie do it the Canadian way: we don't kill you, we'll just make your life a living hell by harassing and intimidat- ing you on the job. The face of violence in Canada tends to be far more indirect than what we've seen (in the Western Forest Products mill in Nanaimo] .• 16
Sandra Rob inson and Jennife r Berdahl, both professors at the Sauder School of Business at the University of British Columbia, have recen tly been looking at the effects of being ignored ( ostracized) in the workplace. Thei r research found that while people tend to th ink that ostracism is Jess offensive than harassment, the people who are ostracized seem to suffer greater effects. •The experience of ostracism has a b igger impact on job d issatisfaction, on psychological well-being, on self- reported physical health, on intentions to quit the company,' Robinson said. 17
The study found that ostracism was quite widespread: 71 percent of employ- ees reported being ostracized in the pre- vious six months, compared with 48 percent who reported being bullied. 18
Those who are ostracized are more l ikely to quit the ir jobs wi thin three years than those who have been bu l- lied. Robinson concluded that because ostracism is less visible, it's harder to fighL ·victi ms of ostracism really feel they can't do anything about it. It's very difficult to call-out the absence of behaviour. A lot of people end up quitting for their own well-being." 19
What Causes Incivility (and Worse) in the Workplace? If emp loyers and employees are act- ing with less civil ity toward each other, what is causing this to happen?
Managers and employees often have differen t views of the employee's role
in the organ ization. Jeffrey Pfeffer, a professor of organizational behaviour at the Graduate School of Bus iness at Stanfo rd Un iversity, notes that many companies don't really value their employees: •Most managers, if they're being honest with themselves, will adm it it: When they look a t their people, they see costs, they see salaries, they see benefits, they see overhead. Very few companies look at their peo- ple and see assets:20
Most employees, however, like to think that they are assets to their orga- n ization. The real ization that they are simply costs and not valued members of an o rganization can cause frustra- tion for employees.
In addi tion, •employers' excessive demands and top-down style of man- agement are contributing to the rise of 'work rage," claims Gerry Smith, author of Wor/1 Rnge.21 He cites demands com- ing from a variety of sources: • over- time, downsizing, rapid technological changes, company restruct uring and difficulty balancing the demands of job and home."22 Smith worries about the consequences of these demands: •1f you push people too hard, set unreal- istic expecta tions and cut back the ir benefits, they're going to s trike back.'23
Sm ith's work supports the findings of studies that repo rt that the most common cause of anger and bullying is the actions of supervisors o r manag- ers.24 Other common causes of anger identified by the researchers include lack of productivity by co-workers and others, t ight deadl ines, heavy work- load, in teraction with the public, and bad treatment. The inset Do You Have a Bad Boss? describes some of the bad behaviour of bosses.
One s tudy found that how man- agers deal w ith d isplays of anger at work can do much to defuse tensions. Co-workers wan t to see the manager take some responsibil ity for a fellow employee's anger, rather than d iscipl in- ing the employee, if the manager or the working condi tions are the source of the anger. 25
Do You Have a Bad Boss?
You know You have a bad boss if he or she 26 • does not even want 10 be a b · ..
Some research on the psychologi- cal contract suggests that violations of im plici t o r explici t prom ises may not be necessary to affect employee inten- tions to s tay w ith the o rgan ization and/o r engage in cit izensh ip behav- iours. Professors Samantha Montes and David Zweig of the Rotman School of Management found that em p loyees expect decent pay, deve lopmental opportun ities, and support (whether o r not employers p rom ise to deliver such); and when th ey don' t receive those th ings, the ir behaviour toward the organ ization becomes negative.29
• ca . oss nnot admit mistakes • Spends too much time in the trenches • has unreasonable expectations
: exPects everyone to be like him or her fads to see employees as hum
• . ans ,s unable to build a cohesive team
The Psychological Contract Some researchers have looked at this frustrat ion in terms of a b reakdown of the psycho logical contract fo rmed between employees and em ployers.
An employer and employee begin to develop psychological contracts as they are firs t introduced to each other in the h iring p rocess. These contracts contin ue over ti me as th e employer and the employee come to understand each o ther's expecta tions abou t the
amounts and quality of work to be per- formed and the types of rewards to be g iven. For instance, when an employee is con tinually asked to work late and/ or be ava ila b le at a ll hours through pagers and ema il, the employee may assume tha t do ing so will result in g reater rewa rds or fas ter promo tion down the line. Th e em p loye r may have had no such intention, and may even be th ink ing th a t the employee shou ld be grateful sim p ly to h ave a job. Later, when the employee does not get expected (though never prom ised) rewards, he o r s he is disappoin ted.
San dra Robinson, an organizational behaviour p rofessor at the Sauder School of Busines.~ at the University of British Columb ia, and her colleagues
have found th a t when a psychologi- ca l contract is v iolated (pe rceptually or actually), the relationship between the em p loyee and t h e emp loyer is damaged. The result can be a Joss of t rust. 27 The b reakdown in trust can cause employees to be less ready to accept decis ions o r obey rules. The e ro- sion of trust can also lead employees to take revenge on the employer. So they don't carry out thei r end of a task. Or they refuse to pass on messages. They engage in any number of sub tle and not-so-subtle behaviou rs tha t affect the way work gets done-or p revents work from getting done. A recent study sugges ts th a t perceptions of th e psy- chological contract vary by culture. 28
The Toxic Organization Pfeffer suggests that compan ies have become 'toxic places to work. •3o He notes that compan ies, particularly in Silicon Valley, ask their employees to sign contracts on the firs t day of work indicating the employee's understand- ing that the company has the right to fire at w ill and for any reason. Some employers a lso ask their employees to choose between having a life and hav- ing a career. Pfeffer relates a joke people used to tell about t\,licrosoft: "We offer flex ible t ime-you can work any 18 hours you want."31 This kind of attitude can be toxic to employees, although it does not imply that Microsoft is a toxic
HoW to Deal with a Toxic Boss
/ly lt's difficult but if you t,y d d 't take it persona . ' • EmpathiZe, an on r e it may help you cope more
to understand your boss's perspec iv '
effectively. . . . propriate or abusive, stand up for • [)raw a ffne. When behaviour is _,nap rth being harassed or abused.
point no ]Ob IS WO yourself. At some ' . . . If u take revenge, you become
• Don't sabotage or be v1nd1ct,ve. yo
part of the problem. fi d it useful to have notes at k oles You may n 32 • Be patient and ta e n . . tr ht on you.
. I hould the boss shine the spo ig your d1sposa s
3 4 7
employer. The inset How to Deal with a Toxic Boss gives tips, should you fin d yourself in that situation.
Wha t does it mean to be a toxic organ ization? The inset \,Vfrat Does a Toxic Organization Looll Like? describes one. The late p rofessor Peter Frost of the Saud e r Schoo l of Bus iness at t h e Un ivers ity of Brit is h Co lumb ia noted that there w ill always be pain in organ izations, but that sometimes it becomes so intense or prolonged that cond itions w it h in th e organ iza tion begin to break down. In other words, the situation becomes toxic. This is not dissim ilar to what the liver or kidneys do when toxins become too intense in a human body.33
Wha t causes organ iza tions to be toxic? Like Pfeffer, Robinson and col- leagues identify a number of factors. Downsiz ing and organizational change a re two main factors, particularly in recen t years. Sometimes o rganizations experience unexpected evenL~-such a~ the sudden death of a key manager, an unwise move by sen io r management, s trong competition from a start-up company-that lead to toxicity. Other organ iza tions a re toxic th roughout their system d ue to policies and prac- tices that create d istress. Such factors as unreasonable s tretch goals or pe r- fo rmance targets, or un relenting inter- nal competit ion, can crea te tox icity. There are also toxic managers who lead through insens itivity, vindictiveness, and fa ilure to take responsibility, o r they a re control freak~ o r a re uneth ical.
What Are the Effects of Incivility andToxicity in the Workplace?
In gene ra l, researchers have foun d that the effects of workplace anger a re sometimes subtle: a hostile work envi- ronment and the tend ency to d o only enough work to get by. 34
348
Those who feel chronic anger in the wo rkplace are mo re likely to report "feelings of betrayal by the organiza- t ion, decreased fee lings of loyalty, a decreased sense that respondent values and the organization's values are sim i- lar, a decrea~ed sense that the employer t reated the respondent w ith dign ity and respect, and a decreased sense that employers had fu lfilled p rom ises mad e to responden ts. •35 So do these feel- ings make a difference? Apparently so. Researchers have found that those who fe lt angry wi th their emp loyers were less likely to put forth their best effort, more likely to be competitive toward other employees, and less likely to sug- gest •a quicker and better way to d o their job.' 36 All of these act ions tend to d ecrease the prod uctiv ity possible in the workplace.
It's not just those who work for an organ ization who are affected by inci- vility and toxicity. Poor service, from ind ifference to rudeness to ou tright hosti lity, characterizes many transac- t ions in Canadian businesses. "Across the country, better business bureaus, prov incia l government consumer- help agencies and media ombudsmen repo rt a lengthen ing l itany of com- plaints about contractors, car dealers,
•• • • • • • • • •
• ••• ••••••• ••••••
FACTBOX : The effects of incivility on the
workplace a re h igh: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• 80% of workers lost work time worrying about an offending
incident .
• 78o/o said their commitment to the organization declined.
• 66% reported their performance declined.
• 48% who had been on the receiving end of incivility intentionally decreased their work effort .
, • 47% intentionally decreased • • the time spent at work. • • • • • • • • •
• 80% of customers who witnessed rudeness among employees were unlikely to return to the business. 37
repa ir shops, moving compan ies, a ir- lines and departmen t s to res.' 38 Th is suggests t h a t custome rs and cl ients may well be feeling the impact of inter- nal workplace dynam ics.
What Does a ToxJc Organization Look Like? ToXJc organizations have the folfoWing cha . . • . . . ractenst,cs:39
inab1ilty to achieve OPeration goals and . • problem-sol · . commitments
ving Processes drrven b t . • POor internal communication Y ear with few good decisions
• huge amounts of waste that ~ rework esult from POor decisions, and lots of
• interpersonal relationships driven b . . agendas Y manipulative and self-centred
F A C E O F F
Manners are an over-rom anticized
concept. The big issue is not that
employees need to be concerned
about their mamers. Rather, employers should be paying better wages.
The dynam ics in t h e wo rkplace may be starting to change. In 2016 the Faculty of tvledicine at UBC circulated a video to its instructors that illustrated issues of s tudent mistreatment. Viewers were asked to ·avo id putting stud ents on the spot w ith questions, to m ini- m ize 'cold and cl in ical' interactions, and to cultivate 'safe' learn ing environ- men ts for the young residents.• Such a v ideo wou ld not h ave been made
JO years ago. But the cu rrent genera- tion of students is d emanding more respect and it has less tole rance for being exposed to bullying behaviour. This may tum out to be a good th ing.4 0
Legislation to Prevent Bullying
The Canad ian Cri m inal Cod e has no bullying offence, although depend- ing on the ci rcumstance, other charges cou ld be made, such as cr im inal harassment, uttering threa ts, assaul t, and sexua l assault. On a p rov in-
c ial level, only some p rovinces have ad opted legis la tion d irected at bully- ing. O thers are still working out poten- tial approaches.4 1 But some aspects o f bullying could be dealt wi th in so me p rovinces through exis ting provincial vio le nce and harassmen t legis lation .
For ins ta n ce, in 2012 WorkSafeBC
s ta rted to accept m ental d iso rder cla ims that we re the results of •a
cu mulative series o f s ign ifica n t work- related stresso rs. • That was a m ajor
The Golden Rule "Do unto o t hers
as you would have o thers do unto
you," should still have a role in today's
workplace. Being nice pays off.
sh ift for the o rgan ization, which pro- motes workplace heal th and safety in Brit ish Columb ia. Previously it had only p rocessed cla ims fo r stress from t raumatic events. Between 2012 and 2014, WorkSafeBC accepted 655 men-
tal s tress claims and pa id ou t more than $ JO m ill ion in damages. Wh ile the majority of claims were for trau- matic incidents, about 30 percent were for workplace s tress. 'Forty-five to 50
people a re a pplying for benefits every week. That's an indica tion that there are problems in the workplace,· says
Jennifer Leyen, d irecto r of special care services for WorkSafeBC.42
WorkSafeBC requi res employers in the province to have a pol icy in place to prevent bullying and hara~smen t. It also rem inds employers and employees what bullying includes: insults, sabo- tage, th reats. However, bullying does not include negative work evaluations, discipline, or firing. Some experts find tha t th is new po licy is not enough, howeve r. •1t overlooks o ther issues
like the damage caused by a constant thrum of low-level incivility-the eye roll ing, the interruptions, the d ism is- s iveness ..... 43
RESEARCH EXERCISES
1. Look for data on violence and anger in the workplace in other countries. How do these data oompare with the Canadian and .American data pre-
sented here? What might you con- clude about how violence and anger ill the workplace are expressed in d~- ferent cultures?
2. Identify three Canadian organizations that are trying to foster better and/ or less toxic environments for their employees. Wllat kind of effect is this having on the organizations' bottom Ines?
YOUR PERSPECTIVE
1 . Is tt reasonable to ru,;igest, as some researchers have, that you,g people today have not learned to be civi to others or do not place a high prior- ity on doing so? Do you see tlis as one of the causes of ilciviltty ill the workplace?
2. What should be done about manag- ers who create toxictty in the work· place while being rewarded because they achieve bottom~ine results? Should bottom-lile results justify their behaviour?
WANT TO KNOW MORE?
If you wou ld like to read more on
this topic, see P. K. Jonason, S.
Slomski, and J. Partyka, "The Dark
Triad at Work: How Toxic Employees
Get Their Way,• Personality and Individual Differences , February
2012, pp . 449-453; 8 . Schyns and J . Schilling, "How Bad Are the Effects
of Bad Leaders? A Meta-Analysis
of Destructive Leadership and Its
Outcomes," The Leadership Quarterly, February 2013, pp. 138-158; and Canadian Centre for Occup ational
Health and Safety, "B ul lying in the
Workplace,• www.ccohs.ca/oshan-
swers/psychosociaVbullying .html .
349
350
Organizational Culture
PA RT 4
SHAR I NG THE
ORGAN I ZATI ONA L VI SI ON
How can Hyat t Hot els
effect ively manage a g lobal corporation w it h multiple hotel chains and thousands of
employees? A strong organizat ional culture
is part of the answer.
O Describe the com mon characteristics of organ izational culture. f) Compare the functional and dysfunctional effects of organizational cultu re on people
and the organ ization.
9 Identify the factors that create and sustain an organization's culture. C, Show how culture is transmitted to employees. 0 Demonstrate how an ethical organ izational cultu re can be created. 0 Describe a positive organizational culture.
s CEO of Hyatt Hotels Corporation, Mark Hoplamazian (pictured here) was concerned with how he was going to introduce change to his employees after the global hotel company experienced significant growth
in 2013. 1 Hotels had been added to the brand, the organization was entering new areas of the hos-
pitality industry, and he had to work with over 90 000 employees in 45 different countries.
This presented significant implementation challenges. It was particularly vital for
Hyatt, spread across the globe and highly decentralized, to make sure
its associates understood and Richard 1xew1AP images shared the mission of the
company. To get the message across, Hoplamazian wanted to create a uniform employment expe- rience for each employee, starting with a cohesive orientation program for new hires.
Management at Hyatt had to determine how to socialize new employees into the company's culture, while being mindful that there could be some glitches, with perhaps not all aspects
of the company's culture translating equally well in the 45 different countries on six conti- nents Hyatt was in. Hyatt has multiple brands, including Hyatt, Park Hyatt, Andaz, Grand
Hyatt, Hyatt Regency, Hyatt Place, and Hyatt House, and each services different parts of the hotel customer market. Park Hyatt is the organization's luxury brand.
Andaz is a boutique category. Several of the other Hyatt brands are full -service hotels. Despite the differences in the needs they serve, the company's prop- erties "share core values across the Hyatt brand : exceptional guest service,
upscale amenities, popular food and beverage programs, and innovative interior designs that incorporate local art and style." These values need to be communicated
to all employees for the company to do well. In this chapter, we show that every organization has a culture. We examine how that
culture reveals itself and the impact it has on the attitudes and behaviours of members of that organization. An understanding of what makes up an organization's culture and how it
is created, sustained, and learned enhances our ability to explain and predict the behaviour of people at work.
• What does organizational cu lture do?
\ I I ' , : ;, : ,V, , '
'l'II E BIG IDEA • Is culture the same as rules? • What kind of organizational cultu re wou ld work best for you?
A slrong organizalional cullure can guide
indi\'idual decisions and help everyone \\'Ork
LogeLher LO\vard Lhe scune goals.
351
352 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
O Describe the common characteristics of organizational culture.
organi zati onal culture A system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes 1he organizalioo from o1her organizations.
What Is Organizational Culture? When Henry Mintzberg, professor at McG ill University and one of the world's leading management experts, was asked to compare organizational s tructure and corporate culture, he sa id, ·culture is the soul of the organ iza tion- the bel iefs and values, and how they are manifested. 1 think of the structure as the skeleton, and as the flesh and blood. And culture is the soul that holds the thing together and gives it life force. "2
Organizational culture refers to a system of shared meaning held by members that d istinguishes the organization from o ther organ izations.3 Mintzberg's culture metaphor provides a clear image of how to th ink about cu lture. Culture provides stability to an organization and gives emp loyees a clear understand ing of "the way things are done around here.• Culture sets the tone for how an organization operates and how individuals within the organization interact. Th ink of the d ifferent impres- s ions you have when a reception ist tells you that •Ms. Dettweiler• will be ava ilable shortly, wh ile at another organization you are told that •Emma• will be with you as soon as she gets off the phone. It's clear that in one organization the ru les are more formal than in the other.
Seven primary characteristics capture the essence of an organization's culture:4
• Innovation and risk-taliing. The degree to wh ich emp loyees are encouraged to be innovative and take r isks
• Attention to detail. The degree to which employees are expected to work with precis ion, analysis, and attention to deta il
• Ouccome orientation. The degree to which management focuses on resu lts, or ou tcomes, rather than on the techn iques and processes used to achieve these ou tcomes
• People orient.ation. The degree to which management decisions take into con- sideration the effect of outcomes on people within the organ ization
• Tea,n orienration. The degree to which work activities are organized around teams rather than individuals
• Aggressiveness. The degree to which people are aggressive and competitive rather than easygoing and supportive
• Stability. The degree to which organizational activities emphasize ma intain ing the status quo in contrast to growth
Each of these characteris tics exists on a conti nuum from low to h igh . When individuals consider their organization in terms of these seven characteristics,
they get a composite picture of the organization's culture. This picture becomes the basis for feelings of shared understand ing that members have about the organization, how things are done in it, and the way members are supposed to behave. Exh ib it 10-1 dem- onstrates how these characteristics can be mixed to crea te h ighly d iverse organ izations. Organizational characteristics are even reflected in your classroom, as the Experiential Exercise on page 376 shows.
Culture Is a Descriptive Term If yo u have ever been in an organization (certainly you have been in many!), yo u probably noticed a pervasive culture among the members. Organizational culture shows how employees perceive the characteristics of an organization, not whether they like them - that is, it's a descriptive term. Research on organizational culture has sought to measure how employees see their organization: Does it encourage teamwork? Does it reward innovation? Does it stifle in itiative? In contrast, job satisfaction seeks to measure
Chapter 1 O Organizational Culture 3 53
EXHIBIT 10-1 Contrasting Organizational Cultures
Organi zation A
• Managers must fully document all decisions.
• Creative decisions, change, and risks are not encouraged.
• Extensive rules and regulations exist for all employees.
• Productivity is valued over employee morale.
• Employees are encouraged to stay within their own department.
• Individual effort is encouraged.
Organization B
• Management encourages and rewards risk-taking and change.
• Employees are encouraged to "run with" ideas, and failures are treated as •1earning experiences. "
• Employees have few rules and regulations to follow.
• Productivity is balanced with treating its people right.
• Team members are encouraged to interact with people at all levels and functions.
• Many rewards are team-based.
how employees fee l about the organization's expectations, reward practices, and the like. Although the two terms have overlapping characteristics, keep in m ind that organiza- tional cu/cure is descriptive, whereas job satisfaction, for example, is eval uative.
Do Organizations Have Uniform Cultures? Organ iza tional culture represents a perception of the organization that employees hold in common. Statements about organizational cullure are valid only if individuals w ith different backgrounds or al d ifferent h ierarchical levels describe their organiza- tion's cu ltu re in s imilar lerms.5 The purchasing depa rtment can have a subculture that includes the core val ues of the dom ina nt culture, such as aggress iveness, p lus add itiona l val ues u nique to members of tha t department, s uch as risk-taki ng. The dominant culture expresses the core values a majority of members share a nd that give an organization its distinct personality.6 Subcultures tend lo develop in large
J I dominant culture A system of /,,., J shared meaning that expresses the
j core values shared by a majority of
Internet retailer Zappos understands how organizational behaviour affects an organization's perfor-
mance. Accord ing to the Zappos Insights website, employees are encouraged "to create fun and a little
weirdness," which helps the firm maintain a positive work environment.
_g the 0<ganization's members.
core values The primary or dominant values that are accepted throughout the organization.
subcultures Mini-cultures within an 0<ganization, typically defined by department designations and geographical separation.
354 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
f) Compare the functional and dysfunctional effects of organizational culture on people and the organization.
strong culture A culture in which the core values are intensely held and widely shared.
organ izations to reflect commo n problems, situations, or experiences faced by groups of members in the same department or location. Most large organizations have a dom inant culture and numerous subcultures. 7
If organizations were composed on ly of a variety of subcu lt ures, the dominant organizational culture wou ld be sign ifican tly less powerful. ll is the "shared mean- ing• aspect of cu lture that makes it such a potent device for gu iding and shaping behaviour. Th is is what allows us to say that the Zappos culture val ues customer care and ded icatio n over speed and efficiency, wh ich directs the behav iour of Zappos executives and employees.8
Strong vs. Weak Cultures It is possible to d ifferentiate between strong and weak cultures.9 If most emp loyees (respond ing to surveys) have the same op inions abou t the organ ization's m ission and values, the culture is strong; if opin ions vary widely, the culture is weak.
In a s trong culture, the organ ization's core val ues are both intensely held and widely shared. ID The more members who accept the core val ues and the greater their commitment, the stronger the culture and the greater its influence on member behav- iour. This is because the high degree of shared values and intensity create a climate of high behavioura l control. For instance, Nordstrom emp loyees know what is expected of them, and these expectations go a long way toward shaping their behaviour.
A strong culture should reduce employee turnover because it demonstrates high agreement about what the organization represents. Such unanimity of purpose builds cohesiveness, loyalty, and organ izational commitment. These qualities, in t urn, lessen employees' tendency to leave the organization. 11
Culture vs. Formalization We have seen in this text that high formalization creates pred ictability, orderliness, and consistency. A strong culture modifies behaviour s imi larly. Therefore, we should view formal ization and culture as two d ifferent roads to a common destination. The stronger an organ ization's culture, the less management needs to be concerned with developing forma l ru les and regulations to gu ide employee behaviour. Those guides will be inter- nalized in employees when they adopt the organization's culture.
What Do Cultures Do? Le t's discuss the role culture performs and whether it can ever be a liability for an organization.
Culture's Functions Cu lture defines the rules w ithin an organ ization:
• It has a boundary-defining role because it creates distinction between organizations.
• It conveys a sense of identity to organization members.
• It helps create commitment to something larger than an individual's self-interest.
• It enhances stability; it is the social glue that helps hold the organization together by providing standards for what employees shou ld say and do.
• It serves as a control mechanism that guides and shapes the altitudes and behaviour of employees, and helps them make sense of the organization.
Chapter 1 O Organizational Culture 3 55
This last function is of particular interest to us. 12 Culture defines the rules of the game.
A strong cuhure supported by formal rules and regula- tions ensures emp loyees will act in a relative ly u niform and predictable way. Today's trend toward decentra lized organizations makes culture more important than ever, but iron ically it also makes establishing a s trong cuhure
What does organizational
culture do'?
more difficul t When formal authority and control systems are reduced, culture's shared 1nea11ing can point everyone in the same d irection. However, employees orga nized in teams may show greater allegia nce to their team and its values than to the organ iza- tion as a who le. In virtual organ izations, the lack of frequent face-to-face co ntact makes establishing a common set of norms very difficult Strong leadership that communicates frequent ly about common goals and priorities is especially important in innovative organ izations. 13
Culture Creates Climate If you have worked w ith someone whose positive altitude insp ired you lo do your best, or with a lacklustre team that drained your motivation, you have experienced the effects of cl imate. Organizational climate refers lo the shared perceptions orga- nizational members have about their organization and work environment. 14 This aspect of cu ltu re is like team sp irit at the organizational level. When everyone has the same general feelings abou t what is important or how well things are working, the effect of these altitudes wi ll be more tha n the s um of the individua l parts. One meta-analysis found that across dozens of different samples, psychological climate was s trongly related to individuals' level of job satisfaction, involvemen t, commitment, and motivation. 15 A positive workplace climate has been linked to higher customer satisfaction and organizationa l fina ncial performance as well .16 Read more abo ut workplace cl imate in Case lncident- Accive Cultures on pages 378- 379.
Dozens of d imensions of cl imate have been studied, incl ud ing innovation, creativ- ity, comm unica tion, warmth and support, invo lvement, safety, justice, diversity, and customer service.17 For example, someone who encounters a diverse cl imate will feel more comfortable collaborating with co-workers regardless of their demograph ic back- grounds. Climates can interact with one another to produce behaviour. For example, a climate of worker empowerment can lead to h igher levels of performance in organi- zations that also have a cl imate of personal accountability. 18 Climate also influences the habits peop le adopt If there is a cl imate of safety, everyone wears safety gear and follows safety procedures even if individually they would not normally think very often about being safe- indeed, many studies have shown that a safety climate decreases the n umber of documented injuries on the job.19 West)el sets the lone for its customers by making sure its employees have fu n too, as OB in the Workplace shows.
The Ethical Dimension of Culture Organizatio nal cultures are not neutral in their eth ical orien tation, even when they are not openly pursuing ethical goals. Over ti me, the ethical wor k climat e ( EWC), or the shared concept of r ight and wrong behaviou r, develops as part of the organizational climate. The eth ical climate reflects the true values of the organization and shapes the eth ical decision-making of its members.
Researchers have developed ethical climate theory (ECT) and the ethical climate index (EC/) to categorize and measure the ethical dimensions of organ izational cultures. 20
Of the nine identified ethical di male categories, five have been most prevalent in orga- nizations: instrumental, caring, independence, Jaw and code, and niles. Each explains the general m indset, expectations, and values of the managers and emp loyees in relation
organizational climate The shared perceptions organizational members have about their organiza- tion and work environment.
ethical work climate (EWC) The shared concept of right and wrong behaviour in the workplace that reflects the true values of the organization and shapes the ethical decision-making of its members.
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WesU et Brings on th e Fun
How does a company ensure its cultural climate is maintained and supported? WestJet is a Canadian airl ine famous for its fun, customer-oriented corporate culture.21 Both employees and guests are encouraged to actually e njoy flyi ng- a goal that is rei nforced by a casual working environment in which jokes and innocuous s illiness are e ncour- aged . Mainta ining this positive and upbeat culture can be d iffi cu lt, especially with in a high-stress industry that experiences a great deal of uncertainty. WestJet management is well aware of the effects of the eco nomy o n its industry and ensures that, even in times of austerity, reso u rces are provided 10 maintain its cultu re. WestJet has over 200 emp loyee events a year that support an d reinforce its culture. Emp loyees who get it right are recognized through a "Kudos Corner"- an o n li ne program that all ows peers and customers to acknow ledge excellence wh en they see it.
Even WestJet's orga nizatio nal structure supports its culture. For example, the com- pany has a "WestJetters" committee of flight at1endan1s who meet in order to, among other things, write jokes th at ca n be used to amuse guests o n fl ights. Devoting time and money to th is son of work may seem frivolous to some, b ut WestJet sees it as a crucial component of cultura l maintena nce. "Everybody's unique: says Don Be ll, a WestJet foun der and the airli ne's executive vice-president, "an d if you embrace people's personalities rather than turn them into robo ts, and give them the guidelines and the worki ng environment to blossom, it creates something that's very hard to reckon with .•
WestJet has been able 10 demonstrate very clea rly that a direct link exists between maintaining its fun, upbeat cultu re a nd high levels of customer satisfaction . Vince Moli naro, managing director of Leadersh ip Solutio ns for Kn igh tsbridge Human Capital Solutio ns, observed that "far too ma ny organ izations operate on the b elief th at you can have one set of principles a nd sta ndards for employees, a nd a noth er completely d ifferent set for customers. WestJet is demonstrating the power of align- ment between employee and customer." _ . . .... . ... .. ... .. ... . .... . ... .. ... .... . _
Employees of French video game publisher Ubisoft are shown working on an upcoming version of the
Just Dance game at the firm's creative studio near Paris. Imaginative employees who work in teams on challenging projects at Ubisoft's 26 creative studios around the world share the positive climate of creative collaboration that reflects the diversity of team members.
Chapter 1 O Organizational Culture 3 57
to their organization. For instance, in an instrumental eth ical climate, ma nagers may frame their decision maki ng around the assumption that employees (and companies) are motiva ted by sel f-interest ( ego istic). Conversely, in a caring cl imate, managers may operate under the expectation that the ir decis ions w ill positively affect the greatest n umber of stakeholders ( emp loyees, customers, suppliers) possib le.
Eth ica l cl imates of independence rely on each ind ivid ual's personal moral ideas to d ictate his or h er workplace behaviour. Law and code climates require managers and employees to use an external standardized moral compass such as a professional code of conduct for norms, wh ile rules cl imates tend to operate by internal standardized expectations from, perhaps, an organizatio na l policy manua l. Organ iza tions often progress th ro ugh different categories as they move thro ugh their b usiness life cycle.
An organiza tion's ethica l cl imate powerfu lly in fluences t he way its ind ividua l members feel they shou ld behave, so much so that researchers have been able Lo pre- d ict organizational outcomes from the climate categories.22 Instrumental cl imates are negatively associated with employee job satisfaction and organizational commitment, even though those cl imates appeal to self-interest ( of the employee and the company) . They are positively associated with turnover intentions, workp lace bu llying, and devi- ant behaviour. Caring and ru les cl imates may bring greater job satisfaction. Caring, independence, rules, and law and code cl imates a lso reduce employee turnover inten- tions, workplace bullying, and dysfunctional behaviour. Research indicates that ethical cu ltures take a Jong-term perspective and balance the rights of multip le stakeholders including employees, stockholders, and the comm unity. Managers are supported for taking risks and innovating, d iscouraged from engaging in u nbridled competition, and guided to heed not just what goals are achieved b ut how.
Studies of ethical cl imates and workp lace outcomes suggest that some eth ical cl i- mate categories are l ikely to be fo und in certain organizations. Industries with exacting standards, such as engineering, accounting, and Jaw, tend to have a ru les or law and code climate. Industries that thrive on competitiveness, such as financial trading, often have an instrumen tal climate. Industries with m issio ns of benevolence are likely to have a caring cl imate, even if they are for profi t as in an environmental pro tection firm.
Research is exploring why organizations tend to fall into certain ethical climate categories by industry, especially successful organizations. We cannot conclude that instrumental cl imates are bad or that caring climates are good. Instrumental climates may foster the individual-level successes their companies need to th rive, for examp le, and they may help underperformers Lo recognize their self-interest is beller served else- where. Managers in caring climates may be thwarted in making the best decisions when only choices that serve the greatest number of employees are acceptable.23 The ECI, firs t introduced in 2010, is a new way researchers are seeking to understand the context of eth ical drivers in organizations. By measuring the collective levels of moral sensitivity, judgment, motivation, and character of our organ izatio ns, we may be able to judge the strength of the infl uence our eth ical climates have on us.24
Although ECT was first introduced more than 25 years ago, researchers have recently been studying ethics in organizations more closely to determ ine not o nly how ethical climates behave, b u t also how they might be fostered and even changed.25 Eventually, we w ill be ab le to provide leaders with clear b lueprints for designing effective ethical climates.
Culture and Sustainability As the name impl ies, s u s taina bility refers to practices tha t can be ma inta ined over very Jong periods of time26 because the tools or structures th a t support the practices are not damaged by the processes. One survey found that a great majority of executives saw sustainab ility as an important part of future success.27 Concepts of s ustainable management have their origins in the enviro nmental movement, so processes that are in h armony with the natural enviro nment are encouraged. Social sustainability practices
sustainability Organization prac- tices that can be sustained over a long period of time because the tools or structures that support them are not damaged by the processes.
358 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
address the ways socia l systems are affected by an organization's actions over time and, in turn, how changing social systems may affect the organization.
Sustainable management doesn't need to be purely altru istic. Systematic reviews of the research literature show a generally positive relationsh ip between sustainability and financia l performance. 28 However, there is often a strong moral and ethical component that shapes organ izationa l cu lture, and sustainabi lity must be a core value in order for the relationship to exist.
To create a truly sustainable business, an organization must develop a long-term culture and pul its val ues into practice.29 In other words, there must be a susta inable system for creating susta inability! In one workplace s tudy, a company seeking lo reduce energy consumption found that soliciti ng group feedback reduced energy use s ignifi- can tly more than simply issuing read ing materials about the importance of conserva- tion.30 Talki ng about energy conservation and bu ilding the value in to the organizational culture results in positive employee behavioural changes. Like other cultural practices we have discussed, sustainab ility needs time and nurturing lo grow.
Culture and Innovation The most innovative compa nies are often characterized by their open, unconventional, collaborative, vision-driven, accelerating cultures.31 Start-up firms often have innova- tive cultures by definition because they are usually small, agile, and focused on solving problems in order to survive and grow. Consider d igital music leader The Echo Nest, recently bought by Spotify. As a start-up, the organization was unconventional, flexible, and open, hosting music app "hack• days for users and fostering a music cuhure.32 All these are hallmark~ of Spotify's culture, too, making the fit rather seamless.33 Because of the sim ilar organizational cultures, The Echo Nest and Spotify may be able to continue their start-up level of innovation.
Founded in 1969, Samsung Electronics of South Korea is past the usual innovation l~e cycle stage, yet continues to foster a climate of creativity and idea generation. Samsung emulates a start-up culture
through its Creative Labs, where employees like engineer Ki Yuhoon, shown here, take up to a year off from their regular jobs to work on innovative projects.
Chapter 1 O Organizational Culture 3 59
Al the other end of the start-up spectrum, consider 30-year-old Intui t, one of the World's 100 Most Innovative Companies according to Forbes. Int uit employees attend workshops that teach them how to th ink creatively .. . and unconventionally. Sessions have led lo managers talking through puppets and hold ing bake sales to sell pro totype apps with their cupcakes. The culture stresses open accountability. "I saw one senior guy whose idea they'd been working on for nine months get disproved in a day because someone had a beuer way. He got up in front of eveiyone and said, This is my bad. I should have checked my hypothesis earlier;• said Eric Ries, author of The Lean Startup. As a consultant for entrepreneurs, Ries considers the o lder software company equally innovative to start-ups because of its culture.34
Culture as a Liability Culture can enhance organ izational commitment and increase the consis tency of employee behaviour, which clearly benefits an organ ization. Culture is va luab le to employees too, because il spells out how th ings are done and what is important. Bu t we should not ignore the potentially dysfunctional aspects of culture, especially a strong one, on an organization's effectiveness. Hewleu-Packard, once known as a premier computer manufacturer, rap idly lost market share and profits as dysfunction in its top management team trickled down, leaving employees disengaged, uncreative, unappre- ciated, and polarized.35 Let's consider some of the major factors that s ignal a negative organ izational cu lture, beginn ing with institu tionalization.
Institutional ization When an organ ization undergoes ins titutionalization-that is, it becomes valued for itself and not for the goods or services it produces- it takes on a l ife of its own, apart from its founders or members.36 Instit utional ized organ izations often don't go out of business even if the original goals are no longer relevant. Acceptable modes of behav- iour become largely self-evident to members, and although th is isn't enti rely negative, it does mean behaviours and habits go unquestioned, which can stifle innovation and make maintain ing the organization's culture an end in itself.
Barriers to Change Cu lture is a liab ility when shared val ues don't agree with those that further the orga- nization's effectiveness. This is most likely when an organ ization's environment is undergoing rapid change, and its entrenched culture may no longer be appropriate.37
Consistency of behaviour, an asset in a stable environment, may then burden the orga- nization and make it difficult to respond to changes.
Barriers to Divers ity Hiring new employees who differ from the majority in race, age, gender, d isab ility, or other characteristics crea tes a paradox:38 Management wants to demonstrate support for the d ifferences these employees bring to the workplace, but newcomers who wish to fit in must accept the organization's core cul ture. Second, because diverse behaviours and unique strengths are likely lo dimin ish as people assimilate, s trong cultures can become liab ilities when they effectively e lim inate the advantages of diversity. Third, a strong culture that condones prejudice, supports bias, or becomes insensitive to d iffer- ences can underm ine formal corporate diversity po licies.
Strengthening Dysfunctions In general, we have discussed cultures that cohere around a positive set of va lues and altit udes. This co nsensus can create powerful forward momentum. However, coher- ence around negativity and dysfunctional management systems in a corporation can produce downward forces that are equally powerfu l. One study of thousands of
institutionalization A condtion that occurs when an 0<ganization takes on a life of its mm. apart from any of its members, and acquires immO<tality.
360 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
8 Identify the factors that create and sustain an organization's culture.
hospi tality-industry employees in hundreds of locations found that local organizational cultures marked by low or decreasing job satisfaction had h igher levels of turnover.39
A~ we know from th is text, low job satisfaction and h igh turnover ind icate dysfunction on the organization's part. Negative atti tudes in groups add to negative outcomes, sug- gesting a powerful influence of culture on ind ividuals.
Barriers to Acqu isitions and Mergers Historically, when management looked at acquisition or merger decisions, the key decision factors were poten tial financia l advantage and product synergy. In recent years, cultural compatibi lity has become the primary concern.40 Al l things being equal, \vhether the acquisition works seems to have much to do with how well the two orga- nizations' cultures match up. When they don't mesh well, the organ izational cultures of both become a liability to the whole new organization. A study conducted by Bain & Company found that 70 percent of mergers failed to increase shareholder values, and Hay Group found that more than 90 percent of mergers in Europe fa iled to reach financia l goa ls. Considering this d ismal rate of success, Lawrence Ch ia from Deloitte Consu lting observed, •o ne of the biggest fai lings is people. The peop le at Company A have a d ifferent way of do ing th ings from Company B . .. you can't find commonali ty in goals. "41 Culture dash was commonly argued to be one of the causes of AOL-Time Warner's problems.
Creating and Sustaining an Organization's Culture As Mark Hoplamazian, CEO of Hyatt Hotels, sought to give a better sense of the hotel's culture to employees, he recognized that to genuinely support the culture, some changes
were needed.42 Making meaningful and personal connections with guests, a core value, was
difficult when associates had to divide their attention between the guest in front of them and the computer screen providing the information necessary to help that guest. Changing to a
more user-friendly interface on various hotel operating systems allowed associates to engage more directly with guests.
Hoplamazian also wanted Hyatt to be an employee-friendly workplace. One of the issues
he found as he talked to employees was that scheduling of work hours was an annoyance. So the company developed an app so employees could schedule their work from their mobile
I phones. What role does culture play in creating high-performing organizations? An organization's culture does not pop out of thin air, and once establ ished, it rarely fades away. What influences the creation of a culture? What reinforces and sustains these forces once they are in place? Exhibit 10-2 summarizes how an organization's culture is established and sustained. We describe each part of this process next.
EXHIBIT 10-2 How Organizational Cultures Form
Phi losophy of
organization 's founders
Select ion criteria
Top man agement
Socialization
Is cultu re the same as ru les'!
Organization's cult ure
Chapter 1 O Organizational Culture 3 61
How a Culture Begins An organization's customs, traditions, and general way of doing things are largely due lo what il has done before and how successfu l it was in doing il. Th is leads us to the ulti- mate source of an organization's culture: the founders.43 Founders have a vision of what the organ ization should be, and the firm's in itial small size makes it easy to impose that vision on all organizational members. In the case of the Calgary Stampede, early found- ers were willing lo fight much larger pol itical and legal systems, including the Ind ian Act iL~elf. lo ensure that Indigenous peop le could participate in the event Th is ph ilosophy would have senl a very strong message to Stampede workers and volunteers, reinforcing their culture of inclusion in a time period no t known for tolerance in general and cer- tainly not distinguished by any widespread inclusion of Indigenous cultures and people.
Cul lure creation occurs in three ways.44 First, founders only h ire and keep employees who th ink and feel the way they do. Second, they indocLrinate and socialize emp loyees to their way of thinking and feeling. Finally, the founders' own behaviour encourages employees lo identify with the founders and thereby internal ize those beliefs, val ues, and assumptions. When the organ ization succeeds, the founders' personal ities become embedded in the cul lure.
The cu lture al Toronto-based PCL, the largest general contracting organ ization in Canada, is still strongly influenced by the vision of Ernest Poole, who founded the com- pany in 1906. "Poole's ru les," \vh ich include •Employ highest grade people ob tainable" and •Encourage integrity, loyalty and efficiencies," s till influence the way the company hires and tra ins its employees long after the founder's death.4 5 Other con tempo rary examples of founders who have had an immeasurable impact on their organizations' cultures are the late Ted Rogers of Toronto-based Rogers Commun ications, Frank Stronach of Aurora, Ontario-based Magna Interna tional. and Richard Branson of UK-based Virgin Group.
Keeping a Culture Alive Once a culture is in p lace, practices with in the organization maintain it b y giving employees a set of simi lar experiences.46 The selection process, performance eval uation criteria, Lrain ing and career development activities, and promotion procedures e nsure that those hired fi t in w ith the culture, that employees who support it are rewarded, and tha t those who challenge il are penalized ( or even expelled) . Three forces play a particularly important part in sustain ing a culture : selection practices, the actions of top management, and socialization methods. Let's look at each.
Selection The explicit goa l of the selection process is lo identify and hire individuals who have the knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform successfully.
The final decis ion, because it's s ign ificantly influenced by the decis ion maker's judgment of how well cand idates will fit into the organ ization, identi fies people whose values are consistent with at least a good portion of the organ iza tion.47
The selection process also provides information to app licants. Those who perceive a conflict between their values and those of the organ ization can remove themselves from the appl icant poo l. Selection thus becomes a two-way s treet, allowing employer and applicant to avoid a m ismatch and sustaining an organization's culture by remov- ing those who m ight auack or underm ine its core va lues. Windsor, Ontario-based Windsor Family Credit Union makes job cand idates go through a process that has as many as eight s teps so that the organ ization and the employee can determine if they are a good fi t for each other.48 To signal that d ignity and respect are important parts of Kitchener, Ontario-based Mennonite Savings and Credit Union's culture, job candidates are provided with interview questions in advance. The cred it union encourages two-way communication throughout the h iring process.49
C, Show how culture is transmitted to employees.
362 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
socialization The process that adapts new employees to an organization's culture.
prearrival stage The period of learning in the socialization process that occurs before a new employee joins the organization.
Top Management The actions of top management have a ma jor impact on the organizatio n's culture. 50
Through words and behaviou r, sen ior executives establish norms that filter through the organization about, for instance, whether risk-taki ng is desirable; h ow much freedom managers give their employees; appropriate dress; and what actions will pay off in terms of pay raises, promotions, and other rewards.
Socialization No matter how effectively the organiza tion recruits and selects new emp loyees, they need help adapting to the preva iling culture. That help is s odaliza tion.51 Socialization can help alleviate the problem many employees report that their new jobs are different than expected. Socialization done well will develop a new employee's self-efficacy, hope,
optimism, and resil ience.52 Case Incident- The Place Makes the People on page 377- 378 describes how even office space has socializing power.
New emp loyees at the Japanese e lectron ics company Sanyo are socialized through a particularly long tra ining program. At their in tensive five-month course, trainees ea t and sleep together in company-subsidized dorms and are required to vacation together at company-owned resorts. They learn the Sanyo way of doing everything- from how to speak to managers to proper groom ing and dress.53 The company considers th is pro- gram essential for transform ing young employees, fresh out of schoo l, into dedicated kaisha senshi, or corporate warriors.
Starbucks does not go to the extreme that Sanyo does, b ut it seeks the same out- come.54 All new employees go through 24 hours of training. C lasses cover everything
necessary to transform new employees into brewing consultants . They learn t he Starbucks philosophy, the company jargon, and even how to help customers make deci- sions about beans and grind, as well as about espresso mach ines. The result is employees who understand Starbucks' culture and who project an enthusiastic and knowledgeable
image to customers. We can think of socialization as a process composed of three stages: prearriva l,
encounter, and metamorphosis.55 This process (illustrated in Exh ibit 10-3) has an impact on the new employee's work productivity, commitment to the organ ization's objectives, and decision to stay with the organization. OB in the Workplace discusses how TELUS starts to socialize future employees from the time they visit the company's Careers web page.
The Prearrival Stage The prearrlval s tage explicitly recognizes that each individual arrives with a set of val ues, attitudes, and expectations about both the work and the orga- n ization. One major purpose of a business school, for examp le, is to social ize students
to the attitudes and behaviours companies want. Newcomers to high-profile organ iza- tions with strong market positions have their own assumptions about what it's like to work there.56 How accurately people judge an organ ization's culture before they jo in
the organization and how proactive their personal ities are become critical predictors of how well they adjust.57
EXHIBIT 10-3 A Socializa tion Model
Socia liza t io n Process Outcomes
Productivity
Prearrival I Encounter t-+I M etamorphosis - -+--..i Commitment
Turnover
Chapter 1 O Organizational Culture 363
Allen Lau, CEO of Toronto-based Wattpad , a mobile reading app, carefully considers who to hire for his company. The app 's users form a diverse community and while Lau believes he should hire for cultural
fit, his employees need to mirror his users in some way. "If a company is lacking diversity ... because everyone has blind spots, and if the employee base is similar in terms of thinkin g and perspec tive, then n aturally the blind spots will be larger. •58
Making Culture Work
How early on should socialization take place? Leaders al Burnaby, BC-based TELUS recognize that in order for an organ izationa l culture to work, that culture needs lo be establ ished early, preferably during the hiring process.59 ll also needs to be continually supported and reinforced.
TELUS prides itself on a culture focused on collaborative learning. Th is culture is heavily reinforced on its Careers web page. TELUS asks prospective candidates whether they b uild "spirited relationships." Prospective candidates are also informed that they should expect to • roster a strong collaborative network,• and "continually drive their own learning." Thal learning is expected to begin immedia tely. Unlike most employ- ers, TELUS offers job applicants tips about what specifically to include in their resume and cover letter and how best to prepare for an interview with the company. It even offers a · career Tools" page that helps job seekers identify their goals, ou tl ine their personal strengths, and match those goals and strengths with open positions within the organization.
This focus on learning is further reinforced after the hiring process. For example, collaboration tools and internal social networking sites are provided lo all employees, and open-door policies encourage the free flow of information between staff and man- agement. Regu lar web inars are offered on a variety of topics and mentors and coaches assist with the learning process. Dan Pontefract, chief envisioner al TELUS, explains the company's approach : "the more open and collaborative you are w ith peop le, the healthier yo ur culture becomes." A healthy, established cul lure that emphasizes ongo- ing learn ing helps TELUS stay ahead of the curve in a h igh ly competitive, innovation-
~ focused industry . . . ..... . ...... . ..... . ..... . ...... . ..... . ..... .. ..... . ..... . ... .
364 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
encounter stage The stage in lhe socializalioo process in which a new employee sees what the 0<ganization is really like and C011fronts the pos- sibility that expectations and reality may diverge.
metamorphosis stage The stage in lhe socialization process in which a new employee adjusts to lhe values and norms of lhe job, w0<k group, and organizalioo.
One way to capital ize on preh ire characteristics in social ization is to use the selec- tion process lo inform prospective employees about the organization as a who le. We have also seen how the selection process ensures the inclusion of the •right type"- those who will fit in.
The Encounter Stage Upon entry into the organ ization, the new employee begins the e ncoun te r s ta ge and confronts the poss ibil ity that expectations- of the job, co-workers, boss, and organization in general- may differ from real ity. If the expecta- tions were fairly accurate, this stage merely reaffirms earlier perceptions.
However, this is often not the case. Al the extreme, new members may become totally d isillus ioned with the realities of their job and resign. Proper recruiting and selection should sign ificantly reduce the probabil ity of this outcome, and so too should encouraging friendship lies in the organ ization- newcomers are more committed when friendly co-workers help them "learn the ropes."60 A study by professor Alan Saks of the Rotman School of Management al the University of Toronto and professor Jamie Gruman of the Schoo l of Hospitality and Tourism Management at the University of Guelph demonstra tes the benefits of orientation, tra ining, and mentorship programs for new employees. These activities help employees ad just better because they make them feel happier, more confident that they w ill more likely fit with the organization, and therefore more engaged. 61
The Metamorphosis Stage Finally, lo work out any problems d iscovered during the encounter stage, the new employee changes or goes through the metamorphosis s tage. The options presented in Exhibi t 10-4 are designed to bring about metamorphosis. The more management relies on formal, collective, fixed, and serial socialization programs while emphasizing divesti ture, the more likely newcomers' d ifferences and perspec- tives will be stripped away and replaced by standard ized and predictable behaviours.
In a study conducted by Peter B. Gustavson School of Business at the University of Victoria in 2015, Tim Hortons was rated the most trusted brand in Canada. However, franchisees do not believe that reputation will last much longer, now that the company is no longer private but is owned by Restaurant Brands, which is backed by the Brazilian investment firm 3G Capital.
Chapter 1 O Organizational Culture 365
EXHIBIT 11>-4 Entry Socialization Options
Formal vs. Informal The more a new employee is segregated from the ongoing work setting and differentiated in some way to make explicit his or her newcomer's role, the more formal socialization is. Specific orientation and training programs are examples. Informal socialization puts the new employee directly into his or her job, with little or no special attention.
Individual vs. Collective New members can be socialized individually. This describes how it's done in many professional offices. They can also be grouped together and processed through an identical set of experiences, as in military boot camp.
Fixed vs. Variable This refers to the time schedule in which newcomers make the transition from outsider to insider. A fixed schedule establishes standardized stages of transition. This characterizes rotational training programs. It also includes probationary periods, such as the 8- to 10-year "associate" status accounting and law firms use before deciding whether to name a candidate as a partner. Variable schedules give no advance notice of their transition timetable. variable schedules describe the typical promotion system, where individuals are not advanced to the nex1 stage until they are "ready."
Serial vs. Random Serial socialization is characterized by the use of role models who train and encourage the newcomer. Apprenticeship and mentoring programs are examples. In random socialization, role models are deliberately withheld. The new employee is left on his or her own to figure things out.
Investiture vs. Divestiture Investiture socialization assumes that the newcomer's qualities and qualifications are the necessary ingredients for job success, so these qualities and qualifications are confirmed and supported. Divestiture socialization tries to strip away certain characteristics of the recruit. Fraternity and sorority "pledges" go through divestiture socialization to shape them into the proper role.
Sources: Based on J. Van Maanen, "People Processing: Strategies of Organizational Socialization,' Organizational Dynamics, Summer 1978, pp. 19-36; and E. H. Schein, "Organizational Culture,' American Psychologist, February 1990, p. 116.
These institutional practices are common in police departments, fire departments, and other organiza tions that val ue rule following and order. Programs that are informal, individual , variable, and random wh ile emphasizing investi ture are more l ikely lo give newcomers an innovative sense of their role and methods of working. Creative fields,
such as research and development, advertising, and filmmaking, rely on these individual practices. Most research suggests that high l evels of institutional practices encourage
person- organization fi t and h igh l evels of commi tment, whereas individual practices produce more role i nnovation.62
The three-part entry social ization process is complete when
• The new emp loyee has become comfortable w i th the organization and his or
her job
• The new emp loyee has internalized the norms of the organ izati on and the work group, and understands and accepts these norms
• The new emp loyee feels accepted by his or her peers as a trusted and valued
individual, is self-confident that he or she has the competence to complete the
job successfully, and understands the system- not only his or her own tasks but also the rules, procedures, and informally accepted practices
• The new emp loyee understands how he or she will be eva lua ted and knows
what criteria w i ll be used lo measure and appraise h is or her work; he or she knows what is expected and what constitutes a j ob 'well done•
As Exh ib it 10 -5 shows, successful metamorphosis should have a posi live impact on
the new empl oyee's productivity and comm itment to the organ iza tion. I t should also
reduce the tendency lo l eave the organizati on (turnover). Researchers examine how emp loyee alti tudes change during social izati on by measur-
ing those attit udes at several points over the first few months. Several studies have now documen ted pauerns of "honeymoons• and "hangovers• for new workers, showing
that the period of i nitial adj ustment is often marked by decreases i n job satisfaction as
ideal ized hopes come into contact with the real ity of organ izati onal l ife.63 N ewcomers
366 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
EXHIBIT 10-S How Organizational Cultures Have an Impact on Employee Performance and Satisfaction
Objective factors St rength
High • Innovation and risk-
taking • Attention to detail Perceived as Organizational r---~, culture /
Performance J • Outcome orientation • People orientation
Satisfaction I • Team orientation • Aggressiveness
Low • Stability
may find lhal lhe level of social supporl Lhey receive from supervisors a nd co-workers is gradually withd rawn over Lhe firsl few weeks on the job, as everyone relurns lo "business as usual. "64 Role confl ict and role overload may rise fo r newcomers over lime, and employees wilh lhe largest increases in Lhese role problems experience Lhe largesl decreases in com m it ment a nd satisfaction.65 It may be Lhat the in itial ad just- ment period for newcomers presents increasing demands and difficulties, at leasl in lhe short term .
How Employees Learn Culture
I As Hyatt Hotels CEO Mark Hoplamazian talked to employees about how they learned the
company culture, he began to reth ink how culture was implemented at Hyatt.66 He felt the company already hired great people. He talked to associates (as Hyatt's employees are known)
to learn more about what happened when people joined the company, and how policies and
procedures played a role in the working and private lives of those in the Hyatt family. He looked at lhe situation from different perspectives to see where things were not connecting.
One employee who had previously worked for a hotel in Mexico that Hyatt acquired was asked
what her first day at work for Hyatt was like. Hoplamazian found it was difficult for her to say anything more than "it was great." He wanted her to be more explicit, so he kept talking wilh
her. Finally, she burst into tears. "tn the first 48 hours of our management, she had learned
moslly about how she could get fired' The on boarding/orientation program was all about compliance and policies and rules and regulations-like it is at so many companies. And
the result was that it had terrified her," said Hoplamazian . He was dismayed that employees
saw orientation, a foundational part of introducing employees to an organization's culture, as a negative experience. He went to work immediately to take orientation out of lhe hands
of HR and legal, and make it a more welcoming experience. "We went back and redesigned the entire orientation process. The entirety of the first day of onboarding is now about what
we stand for, what it means to be part of the Hyatt family-viewed and presented from an
emotional perspective. Not from a left-brain, commercial perspective bu t from a right-brain experiential perspective."
I Why does culture have such a strong influence on people's behaviour' Cu lture is Lransm iued to employees in a number of fo rms, lhe most potenl being stories, rituals, mate rial symbols, and language. These forms enable bot h employees and lhe outside world lo read lhe organization's culture. From Concepts to Skills on pages 379 - 381 offers add itional ideas on how to read an organization's culture.
v\lhat kind of organizational cultrure ~,·ould work best for
you'!
Chapter 1 O Organizational Culture 3 67
Stories When Toronto-based Bank of Montrea l (BMO) decided severa l years ago to become a leader in customer service in the banking industry, it needed a way of commun icat- ing th is message to the bank's employees. The decision: "Every meeting starts with a customer story.• No mauer what kind of meeting is being held, one staff member has to tell a recent s tory about an interaction with a customer- ranging from feel-good stories to horror stories of something that went wrong for the customer. By focusing on customer stories, emp loyees know they need to pay attention to interactions so that they can share the stories. Susan Brown, a sen ior v ice-president with BMO, explains the importance of the story focus for the bank: "If you want to change culture, a great way to do it is the customer story. It's part of the evo lution of develop ing a customer- cen tr ic culture."67
Stories circu late through many organizations, anchoring the present in the past and legitimating current practices. They typically include narratives about the organ ization's founders, ru le breaking, rags-Lo-riches successes, workforce reductions, relocations of employees, reactions to past m istakes, and organ izational coping.68 Employees also create their own narratives about how they came to either fit or not fit with the organiza- tion during the process of socialization, including first days on the job, early interactions with others, and first impressions of organizational life.69
Rituals Rituals are repetitive sequences of activities that express and reinforce the key values of the organ ization; wha t goals are most important; and/or wh ich people are important vs. which are expendab le.70
One well-known corporate ritual is Wal mart's company chant. Begun by the com- pany's founder, Sam Walton, as a way to motiva te and unite his workforce, "Gimme a W, gimme an A, gimme an L, give me an M, A, R, T! • has become a company r it ual that bonds Walman employees and reinforces Walton's belief in the importance of his emp loyees to the company's success. Similar corporate chants are used by IBM, Ericsson, Novell, Deutsche Bank, and PricewaterhouseCoopers.71
Material Symbols The layout of corporate headquarters, the types of cars given to top executives, and the presence or absence of corporate a ircraft are a few examples of ma ter ial symbols. O thers include the s ize of offices, the e legance of furn ishings, executive perks, and dress code.72 In addition, corporate logos, signs, brochures, and advertisements reveal aspects of the organization's culture.73 These ma terial symbo ls convey to employees, customers, and clients who is important, the degree of egalitarian ism top management desires, and the kinds of behaviour that are appropriate ( such as risk-taking, conserva- tive, authoritarian, participat ive, individualistic, social) .
Some cultures are known for the perks in their environments, such as Google's bocce courts, SAS's free hea lt h care clinic, and Microsoft's organ ic spa. Al Bolton, Ontario-based Husky Injection Molding Systems, a more egal itarian culture is favoured. Employees and management share the parking lot, d in ing room, and even washrooms.
Language Many organizations and subunits within them use language to help members iden- tify with the culture, show their acceptance of it, and help preserve it. Unique terms describe equ ipment, offices, key individuals, suppliers, customers, or products that rela te to the business. New employees may al firs t be overwhelmed by acronyms and jargon that, once assimila ted, act as a common denom inator to unite members of a
rituals Repetitive sequences of actil/ities that express and reinforce the key values of the organization; what goals are most important: and which people are important and which are expendable.
material symbol s What conveys to employees who is important, the oogree of egal~arianism top man- agement desires, and the kinds of behaviour that are appropriate.
368 Part 4 Sharing the Org anizat ional Vision
Baidu, a Chinese web services firm, describes its culture as "simple" - m eaning direct, open, and uncomplicated -and "reliable" - meaning trusting the competence of colleagues. Baidu's casual work- places reflect this trust w it h lounges, gyms, yoga studios, and dome-shaped nap rooms employees may use at any time.
given cultu re or subculture. Baristas al Starbucks call drinks short, tall, grande, and venti instead of small, medium, large, and extra-large, a nd they know th e d ifference between a hal f-decaf double tall almond skin ny mocha a nd a n iced sh ort schizo ski nny hazel- n ut cappuccino with w ings. Students and employees al Grant MacEwa n College are informed by the ph ilosophy of the college's namesake. Dr. Grant MacEwan, histo rian, writer, po litician, and enviro n mentalist, was never a formal part of the ma nagement o f the organ izatio n. However, many ph rases from h is writing and creed have fou nd their way into forma l college p ubl ications a nd ca lendars, as well as informal commu- nications, incl ud ing his most well known, "I have tried to leave things in the vi neyard better than I found them."74
Changing Organizational Culture
I One of the challenges Mark Hoplamazian, CEO of Hyatt, faced was how to communicate the company's commitment to the environment, one of Hyatt's global platforms, to the hotels.75 The principle of thinking globally while acting locally was truly put to the test. Not all locations had
the same resources or needs, and cities and countries had their own environmental regulations
and polic ies. Hoplamazian wanted each hotel to contribute to Hyatt's corporate social responsi-
bility (CSR) initiatives in a meaningful way, yet it would not be possible to implement one policy across the company. To address this, he decided to stop giving associates mapped-out plans
for their decisions and instead "give them a compass and say 'You figure out how you want to
bring yourself to bear.' A compass instead of a map is really one of the key concepts that we
are moving towards." In providing a compass instead of a map, Hoplamazian communicated
the need for c hange and new expectations for employees. Why has Hyatt been so successful
in c reating an organizational culture that enables change'
Changing an organization's culture is difficult and requ ires tha t many aspects of the organization change al the same time, especially the reward s truct ure. Cu lture is such a challenge lo change because il often represents the establish ed mindset of employees and managers.
Chapter 1 O Organizational Culture 369
John Ko tler, professor of leadersh ip al Haivard Business School, h as created a detailed approach lo implementing change, which we discuss in Chapter 14.76 Efforts d irected at changing organ izational culture do not usually yield immediate or dramatic results. Cultural change is actually a lengthy process- measured in years, not months. But we can ask the question, "Can culture be changed?" The answer is, "Yes!• The evidence suggests that cu ltural change is most l ikely to occur when most or all of the fo llowing conditions exist:
• A dramatic crisis. A shock that undermines the status quo calls into question the relevance of the current cul lure. Examples of a crisis m ight be a surpris ing financia l setback, the loss of a major customer, or a dramatic techno logical breakthrough by a competitor.
• Turnover in leadership. New lop leadership, who can provide an alternative set of key values, may be perceived as more capable of responding lo the cris is. Top leadership definitely refers lo the organization's ch ief executive, but also m ight need to include all sen ior management positions.
• Young and small organization. The younger the organization, the less entrenched its culture will be. It's a lso eas ier for management to commun icate its new val- ues when the organization is small.
• Weal/ culture. The more widely held a culture is, and the higher the agreement among members on its values, the more difficult it will be to change. Weak cu ltures are more open to change than strong ones.
Next we discuss two specific ki nds of cultural change: creating an eth ical organ iza- tio nal culture and creating a positive organizational culture.
Creating an Ethica l Organizational Culture Despite d ifferences across industries and cu ltures, ethical organizational cultures share some common values and processes.77 Therefore, managers can create a more ethical cu lture by adhering to the following principles:78
• Be a visible role model. Employees will look to the actions of lop management as a benchmark for appropriate behaviour, b ut eveiyone can be a role model to positively in fl uence the ethical atmosphere. Sen ior managers who take the eth ical h igh road send a positive message.
• Communicate ethical expectati.ons. Whenever you seive in a leadership capacity, m inimize eth ical amb igu ities by sharing a code of ethics that s tates the organi- za tion's primaiy val ues and the judgment rules that employees must follow.
• Provide ethics training. Set up seminars, workshops, and tra ining programs lo reinforce the organization's s tandards of conduct, to clarify what practices are permissib le, and to address possible eth ical d ilemmas.
• Visibly reward ethical acts and punish unethical ones. Eval uate subordinates on how their decisions measured against the organization's code of eth ics. Review the means taken to achieve goals, as well as the ends themselves. Visibly reward those who act ethically and co nsp icuously pun ish those who do not.
• Provide protective mechanisms. Provide formal mechanisms so eveiyone can d iscuss eth ical d ilemmas and report uneth ical behaviour without fear of repri- mand. These might include identifying eth ics counsellors, ombudspersons, or eth ics officers for liaison ro les.
The work of setti ng a positive eth ical cl imate has to start al the top of the organiza- tion.79 One study demonstrated that when top management emphasizes strong eth ical
C, Demonstrate how an ethical organizational culture can be created.
370 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
0 Describe a positive organizational culture.
positive organizational culture A culture that emphasizes building on employee strengths, rewards m0<e than punishes. and emphasizes individual vitality and growth.
values, supervisors are more likely to practise ethical leadership. Positive attitudes trans- fer down to line employees, who show lower levels of deviant behaviour and higher levels of cooperation and assistance. Several other studies have come to the same general conclusion: The values of top management are a good predictor of ethical behaviour among employees. One study involving aud itors found perceived pressure from orga- nizational leaders to behave unethically was associated with increased intentions to engage in uneth ical practices.8° Clearly the wrong type of organizational culture can negatively influence employees' eth ical behaviour. Finally, employees whose ethical val- ues are s im ilar to those of their department are more likely to be promoted, so we can think of ethical culture as flow ing from the bottom up as well.81 The Ethical Dilemma on page 377 discusses the importance of honesty as an ethical base.
Creating a Positive Organizational Culture At first blush, creating a positive culture may sound hopelessly naive, or like a Dilberl- style conspiracy. The one thing that makes us bel ieve th is trend is here to stay is that there are signs that management practice and OB research are converging.
A posi tive organiza tional cultu re emphasizes bu ild ing on emp loyee strengths, rewards more often than it punishes, and emphasizes individual vital ity and growth.82
Let's consider each of these areas.
Building on Employee Strengths Although a positive organizational cul ture does not ignore problems, it emphas izes showing employees ho\v they can capitalize on the ir strengths. As management guru Peter Drucker sa id, •Most [ emp loyees J do not know what their strengths are. When you ask them, they look at you with a blank stare, or they respond in terms of subject know ledge, which is the wrong answer.• Wouldn't it be better to be in an organizationa l culture that helped yo u discover your strengths and how to make the most of them7
As CEO of Auglaize Provico, an agribusiness based in Ohio, Larry Hammond used th is approach in the midst of the firm's worst financial struggles. When the organization had to lay off one-quarter of its workforce, he took advantage of what was right, rather than dwelling on what went wrong. "If you really want to [exce)I, you have to know yourself- you have to know what you're good at, and you have to know what you're not so good at: says Hammond. With the help of Gallup consultant Barry Conch ie, Hammond focused on discovering and using employee strengths to help turn the com- pany around. "You ask Larry [Hammond] what the difference is, and he' ll say that it's individuals using their natural talents,• says Conch ie.83
Rewa rding More Often Than Punishing Although most organizations are sufficiently focused on extrinsic rewards such as pay and promotions, they often forget about the power of smaller (and cheaper) rewards like pra ise. Part of creating a pos itive organizational cul ture is •catch ing employees do ing something right. • Many managers withhold praise because they are afraid emp loyees will coast or because they think praise is not valued. Emp loyees generally don't ask for praise, and managers usually don' t realize the costs of fa iling to give it.
Consider Elzbieta G6rska-Kolodziejczyk, a plant manager for International Paper's faci lity in Kwidzyn, Poland. Employees worked in a bleak windowless basement. Staff- ing became rough ly one-th ird of its prior level, while production tripled. These chal- lenges had done in the previous three managers. So when she took over, at the top of her lis t was recognition and pra ise for staff. She initially found it difficult to give praise to those who were not used to it, especially men. "They were like cemen t at the begin- ning,• she said . "Like cement.• Over time, however, she found they valued and even
1\ 0 )'1 -+ CAREER OBJECTIVES
I ~ How Do I Learn to Lead? I' ll be sta rting a ne w job in a fe w w eeks. It's my first t ime working as a lead er for a t eam, a nd I know I have a lot t o learn. Is t here a ny way I can be s ure I'll a ch ieve suc- cess as a leader?
-Gordon
Dear Gordon: Learning about a new job is always complicated . Learning how to be a leader is doubly complicated. It's expected that you have the capacity to provide direction and purpose for employees, and that you will respect the existing culture of the group as well as the capacities of individual members. Here are a few key insights toward making your transition into leadership successful:
• Ask questions. New leaders are often anxious about asking ques- tions of direct reports for fear of being seen as incompetent or weak. However, inquiring about how things have been done in the past and asking about individual goals signal that you are concerned
about the team members. Familiar- izing yourself w ith the group's cul- ture and practices can also help you develop techniques to harness the team's strengths and overcome challenges.
• Build relationships with other lead-
ers. Remember- you were put into this role for a reason, and the com- pany wants to see you succeed, so make the most of the resources of others. Take detailed notes regard- ing specific activities and strategies that were successful, and schedule a check-in to discuss how these strategies have worked over time. If you can show you are truly engaged in the learning process, you will find others are more willing to provide you with assistance and advice.
• Start small. Much has been w rit- ten about the importance of gaining small wins early on to build your rep- utation. The old saying "you never get a second chance to make a first impression" definitely holds true in the workplace. Try to develop new initiatives with clear outcomes that
Chapter 1 O Organizational Culture 3 71
w ill allow you to demonstrate your leadership traits.
The best leadership transitions include learning what the situation calls for, and setting your team up for success from the start.
Be proactive!
Sources: Based on T. 8. Harris, N. U, W. R. Boswell, X. Zhang, and z. Xie, •Gelling What's New fro m Newcomers: Empowering Leader- ship, Creativity, and Adjustment in the Socializa- tion Context," Personnel Psychology 67 (2014), pp. 567-604; Y. H. Ji, N. A Cohen, A. Daly, K. Finnigan, and K. Klein, 'The Dynamics o f Voice Behavior and Leaders' Network Ties in Times of Leadership Successions,• Academy of Manage- ment Proceedings, 2014, 16324; and B . Eckfeldt, "5 Things New CEOS Should Focus on: Business Insider, June 1, 2015, http:// www.businessinsider.com/5-things-new-ceos- should· focus-on- 2015-6.
The opinions provided here are of the manag- ers and authors only and do nor necessariy reflect those of their organizations. The authors or managers are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for the results obtained from the use of this information. In no event will the authors or managers, or their related partner- ships or corporations thereof, be liable ro you or anyone else for any decision made or action taken In reliance on the opinions provided here.
reciprocated praise. One day a department supervisor p ulled her over to tell her she was doing a good job. "This I do remember, yes; she sa id.84
Emphasizing Vitality and Growth No organiza tion will get the best o ut of emp loyees who see themse lves as cogs in the mach ine. A positive culture realizes the d ifference between a job and a career. ll supports not only wh at the employee contrib utes to organizational effectiveness, but a lso how the organ ization can make the employee more effective personally and profess iona lly.
Limits of Positive Culture Is a posi tive culture the answer to all organizational problems? Although compan ies have embraced aspects of a positive organizational culture, it's a new enough area that there is some uncertainty about how and when it works best.
Not all nationa l cultures value being positive as much as Canadian and US cultures do and, even within these countries, there surely are limi ts to how far organizations should go. For example, Adm iral. a Br itish insurance company, has
372 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
established a Ministry of Fun in its call centres to organize poem writing, foosball, conkers (a British game involving chestnuts), and fancy dress days, which may clash with an industry value of more serious cultures. When does the pursu it of a pos itive culture start to seem coercive? As one critic notes, "Promoting a social orthodoxy of pos itive ness focuses on a particular constellation of des irable states and tra its but, in so doing, can stigmatize those who fail to fit the template. "85 There may be benefits to establish ing a pos itive culture, but an organization also needs to be objective and not pursue it pas t the po int of effectiveness. See Point/Counterpoint on page 375 for additiona l thoughts on whether organizations shou ld create a positive organ izational cu lture.
(0) :~:~,~~~ M;~:l~~~~~l : ua ( coll<ctoism aod illdi~du,lion ,_, ~ distance, and so on) in Chapter 3 . Here, our focus is a bit narrower: How is
organizational culture affected by a global context? Organ izational cultures often reflect nationa l cu lture. The culture at AirAsia, a
Malaysian-based airline, emphas izes openness and friendship. The ca rrier has a lot of parties, a participative management, and no private offices, reflecting Malaysia's relatively collectivistic culture. However, the culture of Air Canada does not reflect the same degree of informality. If Ai r Canada were to set up operations in Malaysia or merge with Ai rAsia, it would need to take these cultural differences into account. When an organiza tion opens up operations in another cou ntry, it ignores the local cu lt ure at its own r isk.
Three limes a week, employees at the Canadian unit of Japanese video game maker Koei Tecmo begin the day by stand ing next to their desks, facing their boss, and saying "Good morning• in unison. Employees then deliver short speeches on topics that range from corporate princip les to 30 game engines. Koei Tecmo also has employees punch a time clock and asks women to serve tea to top executive guests. Although these practices are consistent with Koei Tecmo's culture, they do not fi t Canad ian cul ture very well. •1t's kind of like school; says one Canadian employee.s6
The management of ethical behaviour is one area where nationa l cu lture can rub against corporate culture.87 Canadian managers te nd to endorse the supremacy of anonymous market forces as a moral obl igation for business organiza tions. This world - view sees bribery, nepotism, and favouring personal contacts as h ighly uneth ical. They also va lue profit maximization, so any action that deviates from profit maxim ization may suggest inappropriate or corrupt behaviour. In contrast, managers in developing economies are more likely to see ethical decis ions as embedded in the social environ- ment. That means doing special favours for family and friends is not only appropriate but possibly even an ethical responsib ility. Managers in many nations view cap italism skeptically and believe the interests of emp loyees shou ld be put on a par with the inter- ests of shareholders, which may lim it profit maximization.
Creating a multina tional organizational culture can initiate strife between employees of trad itionally competing countries. When Swedish, Norwegian, Finnish, and Danish banks combined to form Nordea Bank AB, the stereotypes some employees held based on the coun tries' historical relationships created tensions. Finland had originally been a colony of Sweden, and Norway had been a pan of Denmark and then ofS\veden. The fact that none of the employees had yet been born when their cou ntries were colonies d idn't matter; complex all ia nces within Nordea formed along na tional istic lines. To bridge these gaps, Nordea employed s torytell ing to help employees iden ti fy w ith posi- tive aspects of their shared geographical region. The organ ization reinforced the shared identity through press releases, corporate correspondence, equal country representation
Chapter 1 O Organizational Culture 3 7 3
in top management, and champ ion ing of shared val ues. Al though the organization co ntinues lo struggle with a multinational culture, the successes it has enjoyed can b e attribu ted to carefu l a uention lo national differences.88
Because culture strongly affects performance, organ izations that have units in d if- ferent countries need lo construct and clearly communicate a m ultina tional cu lture that focuses on corporate values. These values should be unique and separate from identifiable country norms, emphasize respect and tolerance for cultural differences, and address the issue of cultural identity. Global ization can be an opportunity to positively change organizational cul ture.
Summary Exh ib it 10-5 depicts the impact of o rganizational culture. Employees form an overall subjective percep tion of the o rgan ization based on factors such as the degree of risk to lerance, team emphasis, and support of people. This overall perception represents, in effect, the organ ization's culture or persona lity and affects employee performance and satisfaction, with stronger cul lures having greater impact.
SNAPSHOT SUMMARY I
What Is Organizational • Culture and Sustainability • Material Symbols Culture? • Culture and Innovation • Language • Culture Is a Descriptive Term • Culture as a Liability • Do Organizations Have Changing Organizational
Uniform Cultures? Creating and Sustaining an Cutture
• Strong vs. Weak Cultures Organization's Culture • Creating an Ethical
• Culture vs. Formalization • How a Culture Begins Organizational Culture
• Keeping a Culture Alive • Creating a Positive What Do Cultures Do? Organizational Culture
• Culture's Functions How Employees Learn
• Culture Creates Climate Culture
• The Ethical Dimension of • Stolies
Culture • Rituals
LESSONS LEARNED
• Reward systen1s generally signal the parrn of the orga- nizational culture that are valued.
• Culture can have both posi- tive and negative effect~ on organizations.
• Organizational culture can make change difficult, if not impossible.
Mylab Management Study, practise, and explore real business situations with these helpful resources: • Study Plan: Check your understanding of chapter concepts with self-study quizzes.
• Online Lesson Presentations: Study key chapter topics and work through interactive assessments to test your knowledge and master management concepts.
• Videos: Learn more about the management practices and strategies of real companies.
• Simulations: Practise management decision-making in simulated business environments.
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.,. for Review
What is organizational culture, and what are its common characteristics?
What are the functional and dysfunctional effects of org ani- zational culture?
What factors create and sustain an organization's culture?
How is culture transmitted to employees?
How can an eth ical org aniza- tional culture be created?
What is a po sitive organizational culture?
for Managers
• Realize that an organization's cul- ture is relatively fixed in the short term. To effect change, involve top management and strategize a long-term p lan.
• Hire individuals whose values align with those o f the organiza- tion; these employees will tend to remain committed and satisfied. Not surprisingly, "misfits" have considerably higher turnover
rates.
• Understand that employees' performance and socialization depend to a considerable degree on their knowing what to do and not do. Train your emp loyees well and keep them informed of changes to their job roles.
• Be aware that your company's organizational culture may not be "transportable" to other countries. Understand the cultural relevance of your organization's norms before introducing new p lans or initiatives overseas.
for You
• Increase your understanding of culture by looking for similarities and differences across groups and organizations. For instance, do you have two courses where the classroom environm ent dif - fers considerab ly? What d oes this suggest about the underlying assumptions in teaching stu - dents? Similarly, com pare cus- tomer service at two local coffee shops or sandwich shop s. What does the employee behaviour
suggest about each organiza - l ion's cultu re?
• Carefully consid er the culture of any organization at w hich you are thinking of being em ployed. You will feel more com fortab le in cul- tures that share your values and expectations. You may find your- self reacting very negatively if an org anization's culture (and values) does not match your own.
• Keep in m ind that groups create m ini-cultures of their own. When you work in a group on a student p roject, be aware of the values and norms that are being sup- ported early on in the group's life. These w ill greatly influence the group's culture.
Chapter 1 O Organizational Culture 3 75
ORGANIZATIONS SHOULD STRIVE TO CREATE A POSITIVE ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
POI NT Organizations should do everything they can to establish
a positive culture, because it works.89 Scores of recent
studies have shown that individuals who are in positive
states of mind at work and in life lead happier, more pro-
ductive, and more fulfilling lives. Given the accumulating
evidence, researchers are now studying ways to make
that happen.
A HaNard Business Review article discussed an
interesting concept: outsourcing inspiration. What is
meant by that? "A growing body of research shows that
end users-customers, clients, patients, and others Who
benefit from a company's products and services-are
surprisingly effective in motivating people to work harder,
smarter, and more productively.•
Some examples of how this might work:
• A "buddy program" that introduces Alzheimer's
patients to scientists working to develop treatments
for the disease
• Wee',<Jy team meetings that begin with stories about
how the team has made a difference in customers'
lives
• Health care workers coming face to face with a
patient whose story deeply touches them
Of course, there are other ways of creating a positive organizational culture, including building on strengths
and rewarding more than punishing.
Outsourcing inspiration is a great way for employ- ees to feel appreciated, to experience empathy, and to
see the impact of their work-all motivating outcomes that will lead organizations to be more effective and
individuals more fulfilled in their work. Creating a posi-
tive organizational culture is not magic, but it tends to
have extremely positive benefits for organizations that
embrace it.
COUNTERPOINT - - - There are many unanswered questions about the merits
of using positive organizational scholarship to build posi-
tive organizational cultures. Let's focus on three.
What is a positive culture? The employment rela-
tionship can be amicable and even mutually beneficial.
However, glossing over natural differences in interests
with the frosting of positive culture is intellectually dis-
honest and potentially harmful. From time to time, any
organization needs to undertake unpopular actions. Can
anyone dismiss an employee positively (and honestly), or
explain to someone why others received a raise? There
is a danger in trying to sugarcoat. Positive relationships
will develop-or not-on their own. We would be bet-
ter off preaching that people, and organizational cul-
tures, should be honest and fair rather than unabashedly
positive. Is practice ahead of science? Before we start
beseeching organizations to build positive cultures, we
should make sure these initiatives work as expected.
Many have unintended consequences, and we simply
don't have enough research to support the claims. As
one reviewer noted, "Everyone wants to believe they could have greater control over their lives by simply
changing the way they think. Research that supports this
idea gets promoted loudly and widely." But it's not based
on a mountain of evidence.
Is building a positive culture manipulative? Psycholo- gist Lisa Aspinwall writes of "saccharine terrorism,"
where employees are coerced into positive mindsets by
happiness coaches. You may think this an exaggeration,
but companies like UBS, American Express, KPMG,
FedEx, Adobe, and IBM have used happiness coaches
to do exactly that. As one critic noted, "Encouraging people to maintain a happy outlook in the face of less-
than-ideal conditions is a good way of keeping citizens
under control in spite of severe societal problems, or
keeping employees productive while keeping pay and
benefits low." Rather than insisting on positive cultures,
how about promoting honest cultures as an idea?
376 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES .x j Fenn small groups to discuss the following topics, as assigned by your instructor: -"' 1. Choose 2 courses that you are taking this term, ideally in different faculties, and describe the culture of the !l c lassroom in each. What are the similarities and differences? What values about learning might you infer from
your observations of culture?
2 . Identify artifacts of culture in your current or previous workplace. From these artifacts, would you conclude that the organization had a strong or weak culture?
3 . Have you or someone you know worked somewhere where the culture was strong? What was your reaction to that strong culture? Did you like that environment, or would you prefer to work where there is a weaker culture? Why?
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
Greeting Newcomers Divide into groups of 3-4 students. Discuss these four primary issues:
• Describe your first impressions of the university when you applied. This is important because it helps to iden-
tify assumptions other new students may have coming in.
• Describe some of your early experiences in the new environment, and how they either reinforced or changed
your pre-entry expectations. Include activities officially sponsored by your school, as well as unplanned experi-
ences that told you what the culture was like.
• Identify key issues you wish you had learned more about when you arrived. Think of the sorts of things that
caused the most trouble for you, or that were difficult for you to figure out on your own.
• Contrast your early experiences with your current knowledge of what the culture is like. How has long -tern,
interaction changed your ideas about the culture of the university?
After describing your school's culture as a whole, consider the same four issues as they relate to your major field
of study.
Design a Program Use the material from the chapter to develop an "ideal" program that could be used to introduce new students to the
culture. This m ight closely resemble what you have experienced, or it may be very different. The goal should be to
reduce student anxiety and stress during the transition, and to promote a culture that helps newcomers meet their
goals as efficiently and effectively as possible. Your socialization program should include pre-entry messages, recruiting
infonnation, early orientation sessions, and long-term follow-up. You will want to detennine, at each phase, who should
be sending these messages so they have the most impact on newcomers.
Questions
1. Based on your observations and group discussion, what seem to be the most important elements of the culture that newcomers need to adjust to?
2. Do you think your school doesn't communicate some aspects of the culture to newcomers? If so, why?
3. How is the introduction to a business organizational culture and department similar to, or different from, introduc- tion into a university and field of study?
Chapter 1 O Organizational Culture 377
ETHICAL DILEMMA
Culture of Deceit We have noted throughout this chapter, and the text
overall, that honesty is generally the best policy in manag-
ing 08.90 But that doesn't mean honest dealing is always
the rule in business.
Studies have found, in fact, that w hole industries may
encourage dishonesty. In one experiment, subjects were
first asked either to think about their professional iden-
tities, or to complete a generic survey. They were then
asked to report on a series of coin flips; they were told in
advance that the more times the coin showed heads, the
more money they would make. The bankers w ho took
the generic survey were about as honest in reporting coin
flips as people w ho worked in other fields. The bankers
told to think about their professional identities, however,
exaggerated how often the coin turned up heads. People
in other professions didn't do so - the tie between pro-
fessional identity and dishonesty was unique to those
Who worked in banking. These results are certainly not
limited to the banking industry. Many other ways of prim-
ing people to think about financial transactions seem to
generate more dishonesty. Studies have also found that
many individuals feel pressured to engage in dishonest
behaviour to meet the bottom line. Whenever money is
under consideration, there are powerful motives.
Money motivations are strong in professional sports.
For example, the number of top leaders in Fl FA (world
soccer 's governing body) w ho were indicted in 2015
suggests that behaving dishonestly has been accepted
w ithin FIFA, and covering up for the dishonesty of oth-
ers has been encouraged. Domenico Scala, FI FA's audit
and compliance committee chair, noted, "To support the
change we need a culture that censures inappropriate
behaviour and enforces rules vigorously, fairly, and (is)
responsive ." There is general consensus that to over-
come corrup tion, those in positions of authority must
demonstrate commitment to an ethical culture. As Scala
noted, "It is the leaders' tone that ensures it is embedded
at all levels of the organization. This must be honest and
communicated w ith sincerity in both words and actions."
There may well be a tendency to become d ishonest
when there is money to be made, so leaders may need
to be especially vigilant and communicate clear expecta-
tions for ethical behaviour.
Fortunately, evidence shows t hat asking people to
focus on relationships and the way they spend their time
can actually make them behave more honestly and help-
fully. This suggests that a focus on the social conse-
quences of our actions can indeed help to overcome
corruption.
Quest.ions
1. What are the negative effects of a culture that encourages dishonesty and corruption on its reputation and employees?
2. Why might some organizations push employees to behave in a dishonest or corrupt manner? Are there personal benefits to corruption that culture can counteract?
3. What actions can you take as a new employee if you are pressured to violate your own ethical stan- dards at work? How might mid-level employees' responses to this question differ from those of more senior managers?
CASE I NCIDENTS
The Place Makes the People At Gerson Lehrman Group, you w on' t find an employee
working in a cubicle day after day.91 You also won' t find
an employee w orking in a free-form open-office area
consistently either. The reason is that Gerson Lehrman
is invested in "activ ity-based w orking. " In this system,
employees have access to cubicle spaces for privacy,
conference rooms for group meetings, cafe seating
for w orking w ith a laptop, and full open-office environ-
ments. Where you w ork on a particular day is entirely
up to you.
378 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
It may be hard to remember, but office allocations
were a uniform signal of hierarchical status and part of
organizational culture until fairly recently. As organizations
have become flatter and the need for creativity and flex-
ib ility has increased, the "open-office" plan has become
a mainstay of the business world. The goal is to encour-
age free-flowing conversation and discussion, enhance
creativity, and minimize hierarchy - in other words, to fos-
ter a creative and collaborative culture and remove office
space from its status posit ion.
Research on open offices, however, shows there is a
downside. Open offices decrease the sense of privacy,
reduce the feeling of owning your own space, and create
a distracting level of background stimulation. As p sychol-
ogy writer Maria Konnikova noted, 'When we' re exposed
to too many inputs at once - a com puter screen, music,
a colleague's conversation, the ping of an instant mes-
sage - our senses become overloaded, and it requires
more work to achieve a given result."
So is the act ivity-based hybrid described earlier a
potential solution? With its constantly shifting workspace
and lack of consistent locations, this may be an even less
contro lled environment than an open office. However, it
does signal a culture that values the autonomy of indi-
vidual workers to choose their own best environment at
a particular time. The lack of consistency creates o ther
problems, though. Workers cannot achieve even t he
modest level of personal control over any specific space
that they had w ith the open design. Design expert Louis
Lhoest notes that m anagers in an activity-based office
"have to learn to cope with not having people w ithin their
line of sight.• This is a difficult transition for many manag-
ers to make, especially if they are used to a comm and-
and-control culture.
Whether a traditional, open, or activity-based design
is best overall is obviously hard to say. Perhap s the bet-
ter question is, w hich type will be appropriate for each
organization?
Quest.ions
1. How m ight different types of office design influ- ence employee social interaction, collaboration, and creativity? Should these be encouraged even in organizations w ithout an innovative culture?
2. Can the effects of a new office design be assessed objectively? How could you go about measuring whether new office designs are improving the orga- nizational culture?
3. What types of job s do you think might benefit most from the various forms of office design described
above?
Active Cultures Em ployees at many successfu l comp anies start the
day by checking the economic forecast.92 Patagonia's
em ployees start the day by checking the weather forecast.
The outdoor clothing company encourages its workforce
to take tim e from the work day to get outside and get
active. For Patagonia, linking employees with the natural
environment is a major part of the culture.
New hires are introduced to this mindset very quickly.
Soon after starting at Patagonia, marketing executive Joy
Howard was immediately encouraged to go fly fishing ,
surfing, and rock clim bing all around the world. She notes
that all this vacationing is not just playing around - it's an
important part o f her job. "I needed to be familiar w ith
the products we market," she said. Other practices sup-
port this outdoors- oriented, healthy culture. The com-
pany has an on-site organic cafe featuring locally grown
produce. Employees at all levels are encouraged through
an em ployee discount program to try out activewear in the
field. Highly flexible hours ensure that employees feel free
to take the occasional afternoon off to catch the waves or
get out of town for a weekend hiking trip.
Are there bo ttom -line benefits to this organizational
culture? Patagonia CEO Rose Marcano thinks so: "People
recognize Patagonia as a company that's .. . looking at
business through a more holistic lens other than profit.•
However, she is quick to add, "Profit is important ; if it
wasn't, you wouldn't be talking to me."
Patagonia's culture obviously makes for an ideal work-
place for some people - but not for ot hers who don 't
share its values. People who are just not outdoor types
would likely feel excluded . While the unique mission and
values o f Patagonia m ay no t be for everyone, for it s
Chapter 1 O Organizational Culture 379
sp ecific nic he in t he product and employment market,
the culture fits like a glove.
Questions
2. Does Patagonia use strategies to build its culture that you think could work for other companies? Is the company a useful model for others that are not so tied to a lifestyle? Why or why not?
3. What are the drawbacks of Patagonia's culture? 1. What key dim ensions of its culture do you think
make Patagonia successful? How does the organi- zation help to foster this culture?
M ight it som etimes be a liability, and if so, in what situations?
If you are looking for a job, you will want to choose an em ployer w hose
culture is compatible with your values and in which you will feel comfort -
able. If you can accurately assess a prospective em ployer's culture before
you m ake your decision, you may be able to save yourself a lot of grief and
reduce the likelihood of making a poor choice. Similarly, you will undoubt -
edly have business transactions with numerous organizations during your
professional career. You will be trying to sell a product or service, negotiate
a contract, or arrange a joint venture, or you may merely be seeking out
which individual in an organization controls certain decisions. The ability to
assess another organization's culture can be a definite plus in successfully
completing these pursuits.
For the sake of simplicity, we will approach the problem of reading an
organization's culture from the point of view of a job applicant. We will
assume you are interviewing for a job. Here is a list of things you can do to
help learn about a potential employer's culture:
• Observe the physical surroundings. Pay attention to signs, pictures,
style of dress, leng th of hair, degree of openness between offices,
and office furnishings and arrangements.
• With w hom did you meet? Just the person who would be your
immediate manager? Or potential colleagues, managers from other
departments, or senior executives? Based on what they revealed,
to what degree do people other than the im mediate manager have
input into the hiring decision?
• How would you characterize the style of the people you met? For-
mal? Casual? Serious? Jovial?
• Does the organization have formal rules and regulations printed
in a human resource p olicy manual? If so, how detailed are these
polic ies?
• Ask questions of the people you meet. The most valid and reliable
information tends to come from asking the same questions of many
people (to see how closely their responses align) and by talking w ith
boundary spanners. Boundary spanners are employees w hose work
How to "Read" an Organization's Culture The ability to read and assess an
organization's culture can be a
valuable skill.93
380 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
••••••••••
Practising Skills
links them to the external environm ent and includes jobs such as
human resources interviewer, salesperson, purchasing agent, labour
negotiator, public relations specialist, and company lawyer.
Questions that will give you insights into organizational processes and
practices might include the following:
• What is the background of the founders?
• What is the background of current senior m anagers? What are their
functional specializations? Were they promoted from w ithin or hired
from outside?
• How does the organization integrate new employees? Is there
an orientation program? Training? If so, could you describe these
features?
• How does your manager define his or her job success? (Amount of
profit? Serving customers? Meeting deadlines? Acquiring budget
increases?)
• How would you define fairness in tenns of reward allocations?
• Can you identify som e people here w ho are on the "fast track"?
What do you think has put them on the fast track?
• Can you identify som eone w ho seem s to be considered a deviant
in the organization? How has the organization responded to this
person?
• Can you describe a decision that someone made here that was well
received?
• Can you describe a decision that did not work out well? What were
the consequences for the decision m aker?
• Could you describe a crisis or critical event that has occurred
recently in the organization? How did top managem ent respond?
What was learned from this experience?
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
After spending your first three years after college graduation as a free-
lance graphic designer, you are looking at pursuing a job as an account
executive at a graphic design firm. You feel that the scope of assign -
m ents and potential for technical training far exceed what you would be
able to do on your own, and you are looking to expand your skills and
m eet a brand -new set of challenges. However, you want to make sure
you "fit" into the organization where you are going to be spending more
than eight hours every workday. What is the best way for you to find a
place where you w ill be happy, and where your style and personality w ill
be appreciated?
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1. Do some comparisons of the atmosphere or feeling you get from various organizations. It will probably be easiest for you to do this exercise using restaurants, retail stores, or banks. Based on the atmosphere that you observe, what type of organizational culture do you think these organizations might have? If you can, interview three employees at each organization for their descriptions of their organization's culture.
2. Think about changes (major and minor) that you have dealt with over the past year. Perhaps these changes involved other people and perhaps they were personal. Did you resist the change? Did others resist the change? How did you overcome your resistance or the resistance of others to the change?
Chapter 1 O Organizational Culture 38 1
•••••••••••••••••••••
Reinforcing Skills
Leadership
0 Contrast leadership and management. 0 Summarize the conclusions of trait theories of
leadership.
e Identify the central tenets and main lim itations of behavioural theories of leadersh ip.
e Assess contingency theories of leadership by their level of support.
0 Contrast inspirational and responsible leadership.
382
Kelly Lovell has won many
awards for her work w ith
young entrepreneurs and helps business leaders better
understand the needs of
youth. What makes
0 f) 9 0 ~
a successful leader?
Identify the leadership roles available to nonmanagers.
Deline authentic leadership.
Discuss the requirements of ethical leadership.
Deline servant leadership.
Identify the challenges to our understanding of leadership.
. inc-. elly Lovell, founder and CEO of
Waterloo-based Lovell Corpora- tion, is a 25-year-old entrepre- neur who received her first recognition as a leader at age 19
'\l'\\' <\. \ il0 \\,
when she earned the Ontario Ministry of Citizenship & Immigration's Newcomer Champion Award, the Rogers' Young Woman of the Year Award, Ontario's Change the World Youth Ambassador Award, and the Kitchener-Watertoo Community Caregiver and Service Award.1 In 2016 Lovell was named Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth ll 's Young Leader of 2016-an award given to youth leaders from Commonwealth coun-
tries who have made a difference in their communities. In total she has won 15
awards for her leadership activities and has spoken at TEDx three
times. She also did much of this while earning an hon-
ours degrees in biomed- ical science and in
business adminis- tration from
Wes t e r n University.
Counesy of Lovell Ccxporafun
Lovell focuses on helping corporations develop effective youth marketing pro- grams and guides them in how best to engage youth with their products and ser-
vices. As well, she helps organizations develop employee retention strategies for Millennials and Generation Z. She also provides mentoring, skill develop- ment, and entrepreneurship coaching to young people.
Lovell is making a difference in the business community and the youth com- munity, and she has travelled to a variety of places around the wortd to lend people
her expertise. What kinds of leadership skills do people need to make a difference in the world? In this chapter, we review leadership studies to determine what makes an effective
leader. We consider factors that affect one's ability to lead and examine different leadership styles. Finally, we discuss challenges to our understanding of leadership.
\ I I
:'o': , ' , '
• Have you ever wondered if there was one right way to lead? 'l'IIE BIG IDEA • What are ways to practise leadership?
• Do perceptions of a leader matter? Kno\ving ho,,· Lo lead \vell does noL co1ne naLurally. EffecLiYe
leadership requires an undersLanding of ho,v
Lo inspire individuals Lo achieYe com1non goals.
383
•
384 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
O Contrast leadership and management.
f) Summarize the conclu- sions of trait theories of leadership.
leadership The ability lo influence a group toward !he achievement of a vision or set of goals.
trait theories of leadership The- ories !hat ooosider persooal qualities and characteristics that differentiate leaders from nonleaders.
What Is Leadership? We define leadership as lh e ability lo in fl uence a group loward the ach ievemenl of a visio n or sel of goals. Bul nol all leaders are managers, nor are all managers leaders. Just because an organizalion provides its managers with certain formal rights is no assurance they will lead effectively. leaders can emerge from with in a group as well as by formal appointment. Nonsanctioned leadersh ip- the ab ility to influence that arises outside the forma l structure of the organization- is often as important or more important than forma l infl uence.
Organ izations need slrong leadership and slrong management for optimal effec- liveness. We need leaders to challenge the status quo, create vis ions of the future, and inspire organ izational members lo achieve the v is ions. We need managers to form u- lale detailed p lans, create efficient organ izational slructures, and oversee day-lo-day operations.
In our discussion of leadersh ip, we will focus on two major tasks of those who lead in organizations: managing those around them lo get the day-to -day tasks done, and insp iring others lo do the extraordinary. It will become clear thal successfu l leaders rely on a variety of interpersonal skills in order to encourage others to perform at their best. It will also become clear that, no mauer the place in the hierarchy, from CEO lo team leader, a variety of individuals can be called on to perform leadership roles. Think about your own defin ition of leadership as you participa te in the Experiential Exercise- What ls Leadership? on page 409.
Leadership as Supervision In this section, we discuss theories of leadersh ip that were developed before 1980. These early theories focused on the supervisory nature of leadership- that is, how individuals managed t he day-to -day function ing of employees. Th e t heories look different approaches in understand ing h ow best lo lead in a supervisory capacity. The three gen- eral types of lh eories lh al emerged were ( 1) lra it theories, wh ich propose leaders have a parlicu lar set of lrails that makes them d ifferen t from nonleaders; (2) behavio ural theories, which propose thal particular behaviours make for beuer leaders; and (3) contingency theories, which propose the situation has an effect on leaders. When you th ink abou t these theories, remember that although they have been considered "theories of leadership: they rely on an older understanding ofwhal •leadersh ip" means, and don't convey a dislinction between leadersh ip and supervis ion.
Trait Theories: Are Leaders Different from Others? Have you ever wondered whe ther some fu ndamental personality difference makes some people "born leaders"? The search for personal ity, social, physical, or intellectual attrib utes that differen tiate leaders from nonleaders goes back to lhe earliest stages of leadership research. Trait theories of leaders hip focus on personal qual ities and characteristics. Leadersh ip emergence and effecliveness are often evalua ted separately vis-a-vis trait studies. Trail theory emerged in the hope that if it were possible to identify the tra its of leaders, il would be easier lo select people to fill leadership ro les. Being able to select good leaders is important because nol all people know how to be good leaders, as Focus on Research shows.
A comprehensive review of the leadership literature, organized around the Big Five framework, has found extraversion to be lhe mosl predictive lrail of effeclive leader- ship. 2 However, extraversion is more slrongly related to the way leaders emerge than lo their effectiveness. Sociable and dominant people are more likely to assert themselves in group situations, which can help extraverts be idenlified as leaders, but effeclive leaders are not domineering. One study found lh al leaders who scored very h igh in
FD c us ~NESEARCH Bad Bosses Everywhere
Doesn 't leadership come naturally? Although much is expected of leaders, what is
surprising is how rarely they seem to meet the most basic definitions of effectiveness. 3
A recent study of 700 employees revealed that many believe their supervisors don't give
c redit when it's due, gossip about them behind their backs, and don 't keep their word.
The situation is so bad that for many employees, the study's lead author says, ''They don't leave their company, they leave their boss."
Key findings of the study are as follows:
• 39 percent said their supervisor failed to keep promises. • 37 percent said their supervisor failed to give credit when due.
• 31 percent said their supervisor gave them the "silent treatment" in the past year.
• 27 percent said their supervisor made negative comments about them to other employees or managers.
• 24 percent said their supervisor invaded their privacy.
• 23 percent said their supervisor blames others to cover up mistakes or minimize embarrassment.
Why do companies promote such people into leadership positions? One reason may be the Peter Principle. When people are promoted into one job (say, as a supervisor or
coach) based on how well they did another (say, salesperson or player), that assumes
that the skills of one role are the same as the other. The only time such people stop being promoted is when they reach their level of incompetence. Judging from the results of this
study, that level of leadership incompetence is reached all too often.
A recent study found that lack of respect for a leader by employees-for instance, when employees feel that the leader is not the best person for the job-has a significant impact
on whether employees will follow that leader. The researchers found that simply naming
• someone "the leader" did not by itself create effective leadership. 4 •.• . •..• . •.• . •.• . •.••
assertiveness, a face t of extraversion, were less effective than those who scored moder- ately h igh.5 So although extraversion can predict effective leadersh ip, the relationsh ip may be due to unique face ts of the trail.
Unl ike agreeab leness and emo tional stab ility, which do not seem to predict leadership, conscientiousness and openness to experience may predict leadership, especially leader effectiveness. For example, one recent st udy indicated that top management teams that were high in conscientiousness positively influenced organ i- zational performance through their leadership.6 Conscientiousness and extraversion are positively related 10 leaders' self-efficacy,7 and people are more likely to follow someone who is confident he or she is going in the right direction, allowing these leaders to emerge.
In sum, leaders who like being around people and are able lo assert themselves (extraverted), are d iscipl ined and keep commitments they make (conscien tious), and are creative and flexib le (open) do have an advantage when it comes to leadership.
What about the Dark Triad personality trai ts of Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy (see Chapter 2)? Research indicates they are not all bad for leadership. A study in Europe and the United States found that normative (mid-range) scores on the Dark Triad personal ity tra its were optimal, wh ile low (and high) scores were associ- ated with ineffective leadersh ip. Furthermore, the s tudy suggested that high emotional s tability may actua lly accen tuate the ineffective behaviours.8 However, h igher scores on Dark Triad trai ts and emotional stab ility can contribute to leadersh ip emergence.
Chapter 11 Leadership 385
386 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
9 Identify the central tenets and main limita- tions of behavioural theories of leadership.
behavioural theories of leadership Theories that propose that specific behaviours differentiate leaders from nooleaders.
initiating structure The extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and the roles of employees in order to at1ain goals.
consi deration The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relation- ships characterized by mutual trust, respect for employees' ideas, and regard for their feelings.
empl oyee-oriented leader A leader who emphasizes interpersonal relations.
production-ori ented leader A leader who emphasizes the technical or task aspects of the job.
Thankfully, both this study and other interna tional research ind icate that building self. awareness and self-regulation ski lls may be helpfu l for leaders to control the effects of their Dark Triad traits.9
Another trait that may ind icate effective leadership is emotional intell igence (EI), d iscussed in Chapter 2. A core component of EI is empathy. Empathetic leaders can sense others' needs, listen to what followers say (and don' t say), and read the reactions of others. A leader who effectively displays and manages emotions will find it easier to influence the fee lings of followers by expressing genuine sympathy and enthusiasm for good performance, and by showing irritation when employees fa il to perform. JO
The link between EI and leadersh ip effectiveness may be worth investigating in greater detail. 11 Research has a lso demonstrated that peop le high in EI are more likely to emerge as leaders, even after taking cogn itive ability and personality into account. 12
Based on the latest findings, we offer two conclusions. First, we can say that traits can predict leadership. Second, traits do a beuer job at pred icting the emergence of leaders and the appearance of leadership than in distinguish ing between effective and ineffecrive leaders. 13 The fact that an individual exhibits the right traits and that others consider that person lo be a leader does not necessarily mean that the leader is successful at get- ting a group to achieve its goals.
Behavioural Theories: Do Leaders Behave in Particular Ways? Trait research provides a basis for select.ing the right people for leadersh ip. In contrast, behavioural theories o f leadership imply we could train people to be leaders. Case Incident- Leadership Mettle Forged in Battle on page 410 talks about how leadership learned in one field ca n be appl ied elsewhere.
The Ohio State Studies The most comprehensive behavioural theories resulted from the Oh io State Stud ies in the late 1940s, 14 which sought to identify independent dimensions of leader behav- iour. Beginning with more than a thousand dimensions, the studies narrowed the list to two that substantially accounted for most of the leadership behaviour described by employees: initiating structure and consideration.
Initiating s tructure is the extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure h is or her role and those of employees in order to attain goals; it includes behaviour that attempts lo organize work, work relationships, and goals. A leader high in ini tiat- ing structure is someone who assigns followers particular tasks, sets defin ite s tandards of performance, and emphasizes deadlines.
Consider ation is the extent to wh ich a leader's job relationships are characterized by mutual trust, respect for employees' ideas, and regard for their feel ings. A leader high in consideration helps employees with personal prob lems, is fr iendly and approach- able, treats all employees as equa ls, and expresses appreciation and support (is people- oriented). Most of us wan t lo work for considera te leaders- when asked to indicate the factors that most motivated them al work, 66 percent of employees mentioned appreciation. 15
The Michigan Studies Leadership studies at the University of Michigan's Survey Research Center had sim ilar objectives to the Oh io Stale Stud ies: lo locate behavioural characteristics of leaders that appeared related to performance effectiveness. 16 The Mich igan group identified two behavioural types: employee-orie n ted leaders , who emphasized interpersonal relations by taking a personal interest in the needs of employees and accepting indi- vidual d ifferences among them; and production-oriented leader s, who emphasized the technical or task aspects of the job- focusing on accomplishing the group's task. These d imensions are closely related to the Oh io Sta te dimensions. Employee-oriented
Indra Nooyi, CEO and board chairman of PepsiCo, is described as fun-loving, sociable, agreeable, con-
scientious, emotionally stable, and open to experiences. Recognized as one of the most powerful women in business, Nooyi's personal qualities and traits have contributed to her job performance and success.
leadership is sim ilar to consideratio n, and production-oriented leadersh ip is s imi lar to in itialing slructure. In fact, most leadership researchers use the terms synonymously. 17
The results of testing behavioural theory studies have been mixed. However, one review found the followers of leaders high in consideration were more satisfied with their jobs, were more motivated, and had more respect for their leaders. Initia ting struc- ture was more strongly rela ted to higher levels of group and organization productivity and more positive performance evaluations.
[[ .,...,,.,. ]] RESEARCH FINDINGS: Behavioural Theories (.:-&' of Leadership
One study integrated the resu lts of 59 previous studies in order to determine the impact of specific leader behaviours on leadership effectiveness, group performance, and employee job sat isfaction.18 Task-oriented behaviours explained 47.6 percent of the variance in group performance and 33.3 percent of the variance in overall leadership effectiveness. Change-oriented Lransformational leadership behaviours were also slrongly associated with group performance and overall effectiveness, expla ining 28.5 percent and 22.5 percent, respectively, of the variance in these areas. Consideration behaviours (such as provid ing emo tional support) had a smaller but still significant impact on performance and leadership effectiveness {16 .6 percent and 19.5 percent of total vari- ance, respectively). Being supportive was associated with employee job satisfaction {21 percent of variance), bul provid ing a reward slruclure had a greater impact, explain- ing 43.9 percent of the variance in employee job satisfaction. These results suggest that wh ile all of these leader behaviours are important, task-oriented behaviours are essential lo leadership effectiveness.
Summary of Trait Theories and Behavioural Theories In general, research indicates there is validity for both the Lrait and behavioural theories. Pans of each theory can help explain facets of leadersh ip emergence and effectiveness.
Chapter 11 Leadership 3 87
388 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
e Assess contingency theories of leadership by their level of support.
Fiedler contingency model A leadership theory that proposes that effective group performance depends oo the proper match between the leader's style and the degree to which the situation gives the leader control.
least pref erred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire An instrument that purports to measure whether a per- son is task or relationship oriented.
However, idenlifying the exact relationships is not a s imple Lask. The firs t difficulty is in correclly identifying whether a trail or a behaviour predicts a certain outcome. The second is in exp loring which combinalions of traits and behaviours yield cerLain out- comes. The th ird challenge is to determine the ca usality of tra its to behaviours so that predictions toward desirable leadership outcomes can be made.
Leaders who have cerLa in lraits desirable to Lheir posi tions and who d isplay cu llur- ally appropriale behaviours thal initiate slructure and show consideration do appear lo be more effeclive. Beyond that, the delerminalions are less clear. For example, perhaps you are wondering whether conscienlious leaders {lrail) are more likely to be slructuring (behaviour), and extra- verted leaders {trail) are more considerate (behav iour). Unfortunately, we are not sure there is a connection. Future research is needed.
As important as lrails and behaviours are in idenlifying effeclive or ineffective leaders, lhey do no t guarantee suc- cess. Some leaders may have the right traits or display the right behaviours and slill fail. Context mailers loo, wh ich has given rise to the contingency theories we discuss next
Contingency Theories: Does the Situation Matter?
Have you e,·er \·vondered if
there was one right ~vay to
lead"?
Some tough-m inded leaders seem to gain a lol of adm irers when they take over strug- gl ing companies and lurn them around. However, predicting leadership success is more complex Lhan finding a few hero examp les. Also, the leadership slyle Lhal works in very bad times does not necessarily lranslale into long-term success. When researchers looked at si tuationa l influences, it appeared that under condition a, leadership style x would be appropriate, whereas style y was more su ilable for cond ilion b, and slyle z for condilion c. Bul what were conditions a, b, and c? We consider three situational theories: the Fied ler contingency model, Hersey and Blanchard's Siluational Leadership'", and path-goal theory.
The Fiedler Contingency Model Fred Fiedler developed the firsl comprehensive conlingency model for leadersh ip. 19 The Fiedle r contingen cy mod el proposes that group performance depends on the proper malch between Lhe leader's slyle and Lhe degree to which the situation gives the leader control. With the model, the individual's leadership style is assumed to be permanent. The lea st pre ferre d co -worker {LPC) q ue stionnaire idenlifies whether a person is r.ask-oriented or relationship-oriented by aski ng respondents to th ink of all the co-workers they have ever had and describe Lhe one they least enjoyed working with. If you describe this person in favourab le terms (a h igh LPC score), you are relationsh ip oriented. If you see your leasl preferred co-worker in unfavourable lerms (a low LPC score), you are primarily inleresled in productivily and are task orienled.
After finding a score, a fil must be found between the organizational situation and the leader's style for Lhere lo be leadership effectiveness. We can assess the sit uation in lerms of three conlingency or silualional dimensions:
• Leader- member relati.ons. The degree of confidence, lrust, and respecl members have for their leader
• Tash structure. The degree lo which job assignments are procedurized ( thal is, slructured or unstructured)
• Position power. The degree of influence a leader has over power-based activities such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases
Accord ing lo the model, the higher the task structure becomes, the more procedures are added; and the slronger the posilion power, lhe more conlrol the leader has. A very
favourable situation ( in which the leader has a great deal of control) might include a payroll manager who has the respect and confidence of h is or her employees (good leader-member relations); activities that are clear and specific- such as wage com- putation, payroll processing, and report filing (high task structure); and considerable freedom to reward and punish employees (strong position power). The favourab le situ- ations are on the left side of the model in Exhibit 11-1. An unfavourable s ituation, to the right in the model, migh t be that of the disliked cha irperson of a volunteer United Way fundraising team (low leader-member relations, low task structure, low position power). In th is job, the leader has very little control.
When faced with a category I, II, Ill, Vll, or VIII situa tion, task-oriented leaders perform better. Relationship-oriented leaders (represented by the solid line), however, perform bener in moderately favourable situations- categories IV, V, and VI.
How would you apply Fiedler's findings? You would match leaders with the type of situation- in terms of leader-member relations, task structure, and position power- for which they were best su ited. Because Fiedler views an individual's leadership style as fixed, there are only two ways to improve leader effectiveness.
First, you can change the leader to fit the s ituation- as a baseball manager puts a right- or left-handed pi tcher into the game depend ing on the h itter. If a group si tuation rates as h ighly unfavourable bul is currently led by a relationship-oriented manager, the group's performance could be improved under a manager who is task oriented. The second alternative is lo change the situation lo fit the leader, by restructuring tasks or increasing or decreasing the leader's power lo control factors such as salary increases, promotions, and d iscipl inary actions.
Studies testing the overall val idity of the Fiedler model were initially supportive, but the model has not been studied much in recent years. While it provides some insights we should consider, its strict practica l appl ication is problematic.
Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leade rship® Situational Leaders h i p® ( SL) focuses on followers. SL says successfu l leadership depends on selecting the right leadership style conti ngent on the fo llowers' readiness,
EXHIBIT 11-1 Findings from the Fiedler Model
- - - - - - Task oriented
--- Relati onship ori ented
Good
t
, I , I , ______ ....
Poor
Favourable Moderate
Category II 111 IV v
Leader- member relati ons Good Good Good Good Poor
Task structure High High Low Low High
Posit ion power Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong
, ,
, , , ,
VI
Poor
High
Weak
, , ,
, , , , ,
/---- .-,
Unf avourable
VII VIII
Poor Poor
Low Low
Strong Weak
Chapter 11 Leadership 389
Situational leadership® (SL} A leadership theoiy that focuses on the readiness of followers.
390 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
path-goal theory A leaoorship theory that says it is the leader's job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide lhe necessary direction and/0< support to ensure that !heir goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group°' 0<ganization.
•
or Lhe extenl to which they are willing and able lo accomp lish a specific task. A leader shou ld choose one of four behaviours, depend ing on follower read iness. This idea is illuslraled in Exhibit 11-2.
If followers are unable and unwilling to do a Lask, the leader needs lo give dear and specific directions; if lhey are unable and willing, the leader needs to disp lay high Lask orienlalion lo compensale for followers' lack of abil ily and h igh relalionship orienta- lion lo get them to "buy into• the leader's desires. If followers are able and unwilling, the leader needs to use a supportive and participalive slyle; if they are both able and willing, the leader does nol need lo do much.
SL has intu il ive appeal. It ackno\vledges the importance of followers and builds on the logic that leaders can compensate for followers' lim iled ab ility and molivation. Yet research efforts to test and support the theory have generally been disappoinling.20
Why? Possible exp lanalions include inlernal ambiguilies and inconsistencies in lhe model itself as well as problems wilh research methodology. So desp ite its inlu itive appeal and wide popularily, any endorsement must be cautious for now.
Path-Goal Theory Deve loped by Universily ofToronto professor Martin Evans in the late 1960s and subse- quently expanded upon by Robert House (formerly at the University of Toronto, but now at the Wharton School of Business al the Un iversity of Pennsylvania), p ath-go al theo ry exlracts elemenls from the Ohio State leadership research on in itialing slruclure and consideralion and the expectancy theory of molivation.21 Path-goal theory suggests tha t it's the leader's job lo provide followers with the information, support, or other resources necessary to achieve their goals. {The lerm path-goal implies effeclive leaders clarify fol - lowers' paths to their work goals and make the journey easier by reducing roadb locks.)
Path-goal theory idenlifies four leadersh ip behaviours that m ighl be used in d ifferen t s iluations to molivale individuals:
• The directive leader lets followers know what is expecled of them, schedules work to be done, and gives specific gu idance as to how lo accompl ish tasks. Th is closely parallels the Oh io State dimension of in il iating structure. This behaviour is best used when individuals have difficulty do ing tasks or the
EXHIBIT 11-2 Hersey and Blanchard 's Situational Leadership®
(High)
• ~ ::, .2 > .. ii a,
.!!-
~ .2 ~
.!!I .. "' t
leader Behaviours
S2
(Low) _.•---+-------+, Task Behaviour +------+---.,_ (High) Follower Readiness
R4
Able and w illing
High
R3 Able and unwilling/
apprehensive
R2
I
Unable and wllllng
Moderate
R1 Unable and unwllllng/ lnsecuN
Low
EXHIBIT 11 -3 Path-Goal Theory
Leader Behaviour
• Directive
• Supportive
• Partici pative
• Achievement-oriented
• •
Environmental
• Task structure
• Fo rmal authority system
• Work group
• Performance ~~~~~~~~~~~~~1
• Satisfaction
Subordinate
• locus of control • Experience
• Perceived ability
tasks are ambiguous. ll would not be very helpful when used w ith individuals who are a lready high ly motivated, have the skills and abili ties to do the task,
and understand the requirements of the task.
• The supportive leader is friendly and shows concern for the needs of followers. Th is is essentially synonymous with the Ohio State dimension of consid- eration. Th is behaviour is often recommended when individuals are under stress, or otherwise show that they need to be supported.
• The participative leader consu lts with followers and uses their suggestions before making a decision. This behaviour is most appropriate \vhen individu- als need to buy in to decisions.
• The achievement-oriented leader sets challenging goals and expects followers to perform at their highest level. This behaviour works well with individuals who like challenges and are h igh ly motivated. ll would be less effective with less capable ind ividuals, or those who are highly stressed from overwork.
As Exh ib it 11 -3 illustrates, path-goal theory proposes two types of contingency vari- ables that affect the leadersh ip behaviour-outcome relationsh ip: environmental variables that are outside the control of the employee and variables that are part of the personal characteristics of the employee. The theory proposes that employee performance and satisfaction are likely to be positively in fl uenced when the leader compensates for what is lacking in either the employee or the work setting. However, the leader who spends
time explaining tasks when those tasks are already clear or when the employee has the ab ility and experience to handle them w ithout interference is likely to be ineffective because the employee will see such d irective behaviour as redundant or even insulting.
[[~ ]] RESEARCH FINDINGS: Path-G oal Theory ~ The match between leadership style and si tuation can be individualistic and ~ mercurial. Some tasks might be both stressful and highly structured, and
employees may have high ab ility or experience in some tasks and not others. Research has found that goal-focused leadersh ip can lead to higher levels of emotional exhaus- tion for subordinates who are low in conscientiousness and emotional stability.22 Th is
Chapter 11 Leadership 3 91
392 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
O Contrast inspirational and responsible leadership.
charismatic leadership theory A leadership theory Iha! states Iha! followers make attn1>utions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviours.
suggests th at leaders who set goals enable conscient io us followers to achieve h igh er performance but may cause s tress for employees wh o are low in conscient iousness.
Like SLT, path-goal theory h as intuitive appea l, especially from a goal attainment perspective. Also like SLT, the theory can be only caut iously adop ted for application, but il is a useful framework in exami ning the importan t role of leadership.23
Case Incident- Leadership by Algorithm o n pages 410- 41 1 explores ways lo learn how lo adapt your leadersh ip sty le lo beuer fit the situation.
Inspirational Leadership
I Kelly Lovell inspires young people by relating stories from her early teenage years. 24 She says
that she struggled to find her voice, was bullied, and had poor self-esteem. She felt she was the butt of all jokes. Finally, she got involved in volunteer work.
Lovell attributes her success to her early experiences with volunteering and she encourages
young people to follow her lead. "Volunteering equipped me with the experiences and skills I was missing to attract the supporters I needed. It was through volunteerism [lhal] I was able
to understand my abilities because there is no pressure." Lovell's volunteer experience led her
to develop an app to help other young people track their volunteer opportunities, and also the leadership skills that they learn from these activities.
Lovell won the Queen's Young Leaders Award for 2016, an award given to 60 youth from Com- monwealth countries who are "taking the lead to transform the lives of others." Lovell was excited that this allowed her to meet the Queen, and she hopes the award will inspire the young people
she reaches out to. "To make it to Buckingham Palace strengthens my message of what is possible
I with passion and drive, and how far a person can go if they take their own future into their hands." What does it take to be an inspirational leader' The leadersh ip theories we have d iscussed so far ignore the importance of the leader as a commun icator who inspires others to act beyond their immediate self-in terests. In this section, we present two contemporary leadersh ip theories with a commo n theme. They view leaders as individuals who insp ire followers through their words, ideas, and behavio urs. These theories are charismatic leadership and transformational leadersh ip.
Charismatic Leadership The follow ing indiv iduals are often cited as being charismatic leaders: Frank Stronach of Aurora, O ntario-based Magna In ternational; Mogens Smed, CEO of Calgary-based DIRTT (Doing It Right This Time) Envi ronmental Solutions; Pierre Trudeau, the late prime mi nister; Michaelle Jean, former Governor General; and Craig Kielburger, founder of WE Charily (formerly Free the Chi ldren). So what do they have in common?
What Is Charismatic Leadership? Max Weber, a sociologist, defined charisma (from the Greek word for "gift• ) as "acer- tain q uality of an indiv idual personality, by virtue of wh ich he or she is set apart from ord inary people and treated as endowed with supernatura l, superhuman, or al least specifi ca lly exceptional powers or qual ities. Th ese are not accessible lo the ordinary person and are regarded as of d ivine origin or as exemplary, and on the basis of them the individual concerned is treated as a leade r. •2s
The first researcher to consider charismatic leadership in terms of OB wa~ Robert House. According to House's charismatic leaders hip theo ry, followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadersh ip abilities when they observe certain behaviours, and tend to give these leaders power.26 A number of studies h ave attempted to identify the charac- teristics of the charismatic leader and have documented four- they have a vision, they are will ing to take personal risk~ to achieve that vision, they are sensitive lo followers' needs, and they exhibit extraord inary behaviours (see Exhibit 11-4 ).2 7 Recent research in Greece suggested that charismatic leadersh ip increases follower organizational identificatio n
EXHIBIT 11-4 Key Characteristics of Charismatic Leaders
1. Vision and articulation. Has a vision - expressed as an idealized goal - that pro- poses a future better than the status quo; and is able to clarify the importance of the vision in terms that are understandable to others.
2. Personal risk. Willing to take on high personal risk, incur high costs, and engage in self-sacrifice to achieve the vision.
3 . Sensitivity to followers' needs. Perceptive of others' abilities and responsive to their needs and feelings.
4. Unconventional behaviour. Engages in behaviours that are perceived as novel and counter to norms.
Sourr:e: Based o n J. A. Conger and R. N. Kanungo, Charismatic Leadership In Organizations (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998), p . 94.
( commiunent) by building a shared group identity among follo\vers.28 Other research
indicates that charismatic leadersh ip may predict follower job satisfaction.29
Are the heroic qualities ascribed to charismatic leaders part of their DNA? Point/ Counterpoint on page 408 considers the question.
How Cha rismatic Leaders Influence Fo llowers How do charismatic leaders actua lly influence fo llowers? They articulate an appeal- ing vis ion-a long-term strategy for how lo attain a goa l by linking the present with a beuer fu ture for the organization. Desirable visions fi t the limes and circumstances and reflect the uniqueness of the organ ization. Thus, followers are inspired nol on ly by how passionately the leader communicates-there musl be an underlying vision that appeals to followers as well.
A vision needs an accompanying vi s ion s tatement, a forma l articu lation of an organ ization's vision or mission. Charismatic leaders may use vision statements to
imprint on followers an overarch ing goal and purpose. These leaders also set a tone of cooperation and mutual support. They bu ild followers' self-esteem and confidence with high performance expectations and the bel ief that followers can attain them. Through words and actions, the leader conveys a new set of values and sets an example for fol- lowers to imitate.
Finally, the charismatic leader engages in emotion-inducing and often unconven- tional behaviour to demonstrate courage and convictions about the vision.
[[~ ]] RESEARCH FI NDINGS: Charismatic Leadershi p ~ Charismatic leaders are able lo reduce stress for their employees, perhaps ~ because they help make work seem more meaningful and interesting.30
Some personalities are especially suscep tible to charismatic leadership.31 For instance, an individual who lacks self-esteem and questions his or her self-worth is more likely to absorb a leader's d irection rather than establ ish an individual way of lead ing or think- ing. For these people, the si tuation may matter much less than the charismatic qualities of the leader. A recen t study found tha t it is possible for a person to learn how lo com- municate charismatically, which would then cause that person to be perceived more as a leader. People who are perceived to be charismatic show empathy, enthusiasm, and self-confidence; have good speaking and listen ing ski lls; and make eye contact.3 2
Research indicates that charismatic leadership works as followers "catch• the emo-
tions their leader is conveying.33 One study found employees had a stronger sense of persona l belonging at \vork when they had charismatic leaders, and increased their
will ingness to engage in helping and comp liance-oriented behaviours.34
Chapter 11 Leadership 393
vision A loog-term slrategy 10< attaining a goal or goals.
vision statement A formal articula- tion of an 0<ganization's vision or mission.
394 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
transactional leaders Leaders who guide or motivate their follow- ers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements.
transformational leaders Leaders who inspire followers to transcend their own sett -interests and who are capable of having a profound and extra0<dinary effect on followers.
t €
I ! f'!l"'-.....1 -0 ~ "'-.........
Nick Woodman, founder and CEO of digital camcorder company GoPro, is a charismatic leader: energetic, enthusiastic, optimistic, confident, and extraverted. Woodman's charisma inspires his employees to work toward GoPro's vision of enabling people to share their lives through photos and videos.
The Dark Side of Charismatic Leadership Unfortunately, charismatic leaders who are larger than life don't necessarily act in the best interests of their organizations.35 Research has shown that individ uals who are narcissistic are also higher in some behaviours associated with charismatic leadersh ip. 36
Many charismatic- but corrupt- leaders have allowed their personal goals to override the goals of their organizations. Leaders at Enron, Tyco, WorldCom, and Hea lthSouth recklessly used organizationa l resources for their personal benefit and v iolated laws and eth ics to inflate stock prices, and then cashed in millions of dollars in personal s tock options. Some charismatic leaders- Hitler, for example- are all too successful a t convincing their followers to pursue a disastrous vision. If charisma is power, then that power can be used for good- and for ill.
It's not that charismatic leadersh ip isn't effective; overall, it is. But a charismatic leader isn't always the answer. Success depends, lo some extent, on the situation and on the leader's v is ion, and on the organizational checks and balances in place lo mon itor the o utcomes.
Transactional and Transformational Leadership Fied ler's contingency model, si tuational leadership t heory, and path -goal theory describe tran sactional l ead ers - those who guide their followers toward established goa ls by clarify ing role and task requirements. A s tream of research has focused on d ifferen tiating transactional from transformational leaders ,37 who inspire follow - ers lo transcend their self-interests for the good of the organ ization. Transformational leaders can have an extraordinary effect on their followers, who respond with increased levels of commitrnen t.38 Richard Branson of the Virgin Group is a good example of a transformational leader. He pays attention to the concerns and developmental needs of individua l followers; changes followers' awareness of issues by help ing them to look at old problems in new ways; and excites and insp ires followers to pu t out extra effort to ach ieve group goa ls. Research suggests that transformational leaders are most effective
EXHIBIT 11-5 Characteristics of Transactional and Transformational Leaders
Transactio na l Le ader
Contingent Reward: Contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishments.
Management by Exception (active): Watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards , takes correct action .
Management by Exception (passive): Intervenes only if standards are not met.
Laissez-Faire: Abdicates responsibilities, avoids making decisions.
Tra nsformationa l Leader
Idealized Influence: Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains respect and trust.
Inspirational Motivation: Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses important purposes in simple ways.
Intellectual Stimulation: Promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful problem solving.
Individualized Consideration: Gives personal attention , treats each employee individu- ally, coaches, advises.
Source: Republished with permission of Elsevier, from "Transactional to Transformational Leadership: Learning to Share the Vision", B. M. Bass, Organizational Dynamics, Winter 1990; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
when lheir followers are ab le lo see the posilive impact of their work lhrough d irect in teraction with cuslomers or other beneficiaries.39 Exh ib it 11 -5 briefly identifies and defines the characleristics that differen tiate lransactional from lransformational leaders.
Transactional and transforma tional leadership complement each other; they are not opposing approaches lo gelling things done.40 Toe besl leaders are lransactional and lrans- formalional. Transformalional leadership builds on transactional leadership and produces levels of follower effort and performance that go beyond what transactional leadership alone can do. But the reverse is not lrue. So if you are a good lransactional leader bul do nol have lransformational qual ilies, you will likely only be a mediocre leader.
Full Range of Leadership Model Exhibi t 11 -6 shows lhe fu ll ran ge of l eader s hip m ode l. Laissez-fa ire is the mos t
passive and therefore the least effeclive of the leader behaviours.41 Managemenl by exception- active or passive- is s lightly better than laissez-fa ire, bul il's slill considered
ineffective. Managemenl-by-exceplion leaders lend lo be avai lable only when there is a problem, which is oflen too !ale. Conlingenl reward leadership can be an effective style of leadership, bul will nol gel employees to go above and beyond the call of duty.
On ly with the four rema ining leadership styles- all aspects of lransformaliona l leadersh ip- are leaders able to mo tivate followers to perform above expectations and lranscend their own self- in teresl for the sake of the organization. Individualized con- s ideration, intellectual slimu lalion, inspirational motivation, and ideal ized influence (known as the "four ts•) all resu lt in exlra effort from emp loyees, h igher produclivity, higher mora le and satisfaction, higher organizational effectiveness, lower turnover,
lower absenteeism, and greater organizational adaptability. Based on this model, leaders are generally mosl effective when they regularly use each of the four I's.
How Transformational Leadership Works Organizations with lransformational leaders generally have greater decenlralization of responsibi lity, managers with more propensity to take risks, and compensation plans
Chapter 11 Leadership 3 9 5
full range of leadership model A model that depicts se'Jen manage- ment styles on a continuum: laissez- faire, management by exception, contingent reward leadership, indi- vidualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation, and idealized influence.
396 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
[[
EXHIBIT 11-6 Full Range of Leadership Model
Effective
Idealized Influence
Inspirational Motivation
Intellectual Stimulation
lndividualize:_j Consideration
•
Contingent Reward
Management by Exception
Laissez-Faire
Ineffective
geared toward long-term resu lts, all of which facilitate corporate entrepreneurship.42
One study of information-technology workers in Ch ina found empowering leadership behaviour led to feelings of positive personal control among workers, which increased their crea tivity al work. 43 Other research in Germany found that transforma tiona l leadership positively influenced workers' crea tivity, but suggested leaders need to guard against dependent leader relationsh ips, wh ich lower employee creativity.44
Companies with transformational leaders often show greater agreement among top managers about the organ ization's goals, wh ich yields superior organizational perfor- mance.45 The Israeli m ilitary have seen similar results, showing that transformational leaders improve performance by bu ilding consensus among group members.46
]] RESEARCH FINDINGS: Transform atio nal Leade rship Transformational leadership has been supported al diverse job levels and
• occupations (school principals, marine commanders, ministers, presidents of MBA associations, military cadets, union shop stewards, schoolteachers, sales reps). One study of research and development firms found that teams whose project leaders scored high on transformational leadership produced better-quality products as judged one year later and were more profitable five years later.47 A review of 117 studies testing transformational leadership found that it was related to h igher levels of individual fol - lower performance, team performance, and organizational performance.48
The effect of transformational leadership on performance can vary by the situation. In general, transformational leadership has a greater impact on the bottom line in smaller, privately held firms than in more complex organizations.49 Transformational leadership can also vary depending on whether work is evaluated al the team or the individual level.50 Individual-focused transformational leadership is behaviour that empowers individual followers lo develop ideas, enhance their abilities, and increase self-efficacy. Team-focused transformational leadership emphasizes group goals, shared va lues and beliefs, and unified efforts. However, research in China suggested that, in
team sit uations, the members' identifica tion with the group could override the effects of transformational leadersh ip. 5t
Just as vision helps explain how charismatic leadership works, it also exp lains part of the effect of transformational leadersh ip. The GLOBE s tudy links a number of ele- ments of transformational leadership with effective leadership, regardless of country.52
The GLOBE team concluded that "effective business leaders in any country are expected by their subord inates to provide a powerful and proactive vision to guide the company into the future, strong motivational skills to stimu late all employees to fulfill the vis ion, and excellent planning skills to assist in implementing the vision. •53
Although vision is important in any culture, the way it is formed and communicated may need to be adapted. Transformational leadership may be more effective when lead- ers can directly interact with the workforce to make decisions than when they report to an external board of directors or deal with a complex bureaucratic structure. One study showed transformational leaders were more effective in improving group potency in teams h igher in power d istance and collectivism.54 Transformational leaders also obtain higher levels of trust, which reduces stress for followers. 55
Transformational leaders are more effective not only because they are creative, but also because they encourage those \vho follow them to be creative, too.56 Creativity and empowerment are key to organizational success, and transformational leaders are able to increase follower self-efficacy, giving the group a "can do• sp irit.57 One s tudy looking at employee creativity and transformational leadership found employees with transfor- mational leaders had more confidence in their abil ity to be creative at work and realized higher levels of creative performance.58 Empowered followers are more likely to pursue amb itious goals, agree on the strategic goals of the organization, and believe the goals they are pursuing are personally important. 59
A recent study also d istingu ished between an individual employee's perception of leadership behaviours and the collective perception shared by a group of followers. The researchers found that transformational leadership consistently increased the number of organizationa l citizenship behaviours engaged in by employees. That effect was s ignificantly stronger when the group as a whole agreed that the leader's behaviours were empowering. If only some ind ividuals fe lt empowered, the positive impact was lessened considerably.60
We have seen that transformational leadership yields many desirable organizational outcomes. When comparing transformational leadership with transactional leadersh ip, research indicates transformational leadership is more strongly correlated than transac- tional leadership with lower t urnover rates, h igher productivity, lower employee stress and burnout, and h igher employee satisfaction.61 However, transformational leadersh ip theory is not perfect. The full range of leadership model shows a clear divis ion between transactional and transformational leadersh ip that may not fully exist in effective lead- ership. Contrary to the full range of leadership model, the four l's in transformational leadersh ip are not always superior in effectiveness to transactional leadership; contin- gent reward leadership, in which leaders dole out rewards as certa in goals are reached by emp loyees, sometimes works as well as transformational leadersh ip. More research is needed, but the general supportable conclusion is that transformational leadersh ip is desirable and effective, given the right application.
Transformational vs. Cha rismatic Leadership In considering transformational and charismatic leadersh ip, you surely noticed some commonalities. There are differences, too. Charismatic leadersh ip places somewhat more emphasis on the way leaders commun icate ( are they passionate and dynamic7), while transformational leadersh ip focuses more on what they are communicating (is it a com- pelling vision?). Still, the theories are more alike than different. Al their heart, both focus on the leader's abil ity to inspire followers, and sometimes they do so in the same way. Because of this, some researchers believe the concepts are somewhat interchangeable.
Chapter 11 Leadership 3 97
3 9 8 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
I\ 0 l' ~ CAREER OBJECTIVES
L~ How Can I Get My Boss to Be a Better Leader? My boss is the CEO, and she's a gossipy, in-you r-bus iness over- sha rer. She's always asking o u r t op mana g e me nt tea m person a l questio ns a nd sha ring info rma- t ion with a nyone. The other day, I caug ht her emai ling my colleag ue abou t my sa la ry a nd career p ros- pects! What shou ld I d o about h er poor leadership?
- Phil
Dear Phil: Nobody likes an oversharer! Perhaps your boss isn't aware of the impact of her behaviour and thinks she is just being friendly. Assuming this is the case, you might be able to make her think first before sharing. If you're comfortable addressing her, you may suggest a private meeting to discuss your concerns. You should bring a list of the types of information she solic- its and shares-with an example or two - and, if she is open to discus- sion, problem-solve with her about her habit. She may see that her "open book" approach is undermining her leadership effectiveness.
Another tactic might start with your researching the best privacy practices,
laws, and business guidelines. Be sure to source your organization's HR handbook for any mentions of privacy expectations. Then in your meet- ing you could present your research findings.
With both direct approaches, you run the risk of offending your boss, which may very well happen if she becomes embarrassed. Moreover, she may defend her behaviour if her over- sharing is actually strategic gossip and not see the problem, which could have ramifications for what she then thinks and says about you!
These approaches still might be worth trying, but from what you 've said about her, it's highly unlikely she will change her general behaviour. Research indicates that her personal tendencies will prevail over time. It sounds like she is extraverted, for instance - you're not going to change that. She may be clever and manipula- tive, purposefully leveraging her infor- mation for personal gain without a concern for others (high-Machiavellian or narcissistic). In that case sett-aware- ness can help, but her behaviour won't change unless she is willing to practise sett-regulation.
Responsible Leadership
Perhaps most importantly, it doesn't seem that you like your boss. This may be a real problem that you cannot surmount. How are you going to build a relationship of trust with her, trust that will be needed for you to continue to feel motivated and work hard? Unfortunately, if you cannot thrive in this environment, it may be best to move on.
Good luck for your best possible
outcome!
Sources: Based on A. E. Colbert, M. R. Barrick, and 8. H. Bradley, "Personal~y and Leader- ship Composition in Top Management Teams: Implications for Organizational Effectiveness," Personnel Psychology 67 (2014), pp. 351-387; R. 8 . Kaiser, J. M. LeBreton, and J . Hogan, "The Dark Side of Personaity and Extreme Leader Behavior," Applied Psychology: An Inter- national Review 64, no. 1 (2015), pp. 55-92; and R. Walker, "A Boss Who Shares Too Much," The New York Times, December 28, 2014, p. 7.
The opinions provided here are of the manag· ers and authors Ollly and do not necessarily reflect those of their organizations. The authors or managers are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for the results obtained from the use of this information. In no event wlll the authors or managers, or their related partner· ships or corporations thereof, be liable to you or anyone else for any decision made or action taken in reliance on the opinions provided here.
O Identify the leader- ship roles available to nonmanagers. I Kelly Lovell, who has ded icated her career to helping empower Millenn ials, explains what effective leadership means to her.62 "If you want to make a change there is no better way to do
so than doing it yourself. And with time, the attraction will all be organic. Stop listening to no; society is full of negativity. Your focus should be to use the doubts as a pivot. Hence, motivating
yourself to make your plans work."
I Lovell is an example of an authentic leader who knows who she is and what she believes
and acts on her values and beliefs. How important is authentic leadership'
What is authentic leadership? Is there an ethical dimension to leadership? What is seivant leadership? What is the leader's role in mentoring? In this section, we briefly address these contemporary issues in leadership.
Authentic leadership Campbell Soup's CEO Denise Morrison decided lo lower sod ium in the company's soup products s imply because il was the right th ing to do.63 Kath leen Taylor, chair of the Royal Bank of Canada {RBC), believes that being a successful leader requ ires being authentic: "authentic leaders build meaningful relationsh ips that y ield far beuer results than command and control of the past:64
Authentic leadership focuses on the moral aspects of being a leader. Authe ntic leade rs know who they are, know what they believe in, and act on those values and bel iefs openly and candidly. Their followers consider them to be eth ical people. The primary quality produced by authentic leadership is trust. Authentic leaders share infor- mation, encourage open communication, and stick lo their
What are ways t o pr actise
leadership'!
ideals. The resu lt: Peop le come to have faith in them. Related to this behaviour is the concept of humbleness, another characteristic of being authentic. Research ind icates that leaders who model hum ility help followers lo understand the growth process for their own development.Gs
Authentic leadersh ip, especially when shared among top management team mem- bers, creates a posi tive energizing effect that heightens firm performance.66 Transforma- tional or charismatic leaders can have a vision and communicate it persuasively, bul sometimes the vis ion is wrong (as in the case of Hitler), or the leader is more concerned with his own needs or pleasures, as in the case of President Donald Trump.67 Authentic leaders do no t exh ib it these behaviours. They may also be more likely to promote cor- porate socia l responsibil ity (CSR) .
Ethical leadership Leadership is not value free. In assessing ils effectiveness, we need to address the means a leader uses to achieve goals as well as the content of those goals. The role of the leader
Entrepreneur Grace Liu {third from the right, in the first row) is an authentic leader. Shown here wijh her employees, Liu is co-founder and managing director of Asianera, a maker of hand-painted bone china
She built her successful business of high-qualfy porcelain and innovative design based on her strong personal core values of respecting the individual and operating with integrity.
Chapter 11 Leadership 399
f) Define authentic leadership.
Ci) Discuss the require- ments of ethical leadership.
authentic leaders Leaders who know who they are, know what they believe in and value, and act on these values and beliefs openly and can- didly. Their followers could consider them to be ethical people.
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0 Define servant leadership.
socialized charismatic leadership A leadership concept that states that leaders convey values that are other-centred vs. self-centred and who model ethical conduct.
servant l eadership A leadership style marked by going beyood the leader's own self-interest and instead focusing on opportunities to help fol- lowers grow and develop.
in creating the eth ical expectations for all members is crucial.68 Ethical top leadersh ip influences not only d irect followers b ut all the way down the command structure as well, because top leaders create an ethical culture and expect lower-level leaders to behave along eth ical guidel ines.69 Leaders rated as highly ethical tend to have followers \vho engage in more organizational citizenship behaviours ( OCBs) and who are more will ing to bring prob lems to the leaders' allention.70 Research also found that ethical leadersh ip reduced interpersonal con fli cts. 71
Eth ical and a u thentic leadership intersect al a number of junctures. Leaders who treat their followers e thically and a uthentically- w it h fairness, especially by providing honest, frequent, and accu rate information- are seen as more effective.72
Transforma tiona l leadership has eth ica l impl ications s ince these leaders change the way followers think. Charisma, too, has an ethical component. Uneth ical leaders use their charisma lo enhance power over followers, directed toward self-serving ends. To integra te eth ical and charismatic leadership, scholars have advanced the idea of socialized char is m a tic le a dersh ip-convey ing other-cent red ( not self-cent red) val ues thro ugh leaders who model eth ica l conduct.73 Charismatic leaders are able to bring emp loyee va lues in l ine with their own values thro ugh their words and actions.74
Altho ugh every member of an organization is responsible for e th ical behaviour, many initiatives a imed a t increasing organizational ethical behaviour are focused on the leaders. Because top executives set the moral tone for an organ iza tion, they need to set high e th ical standards, demonstrate them through their own behavio ur, and encourage and reward integrity in others wh ile avoiding abuses of power. One recent research review found that role modelling by top leaders positively influenced man- agers throughout their organ izations to behave eth ica lly and fostered a climate that reinforced group-level eth ical conduct. The findings suggest that organizations should invest in ethical leadership training programs, especially in industries with few ethical regu lations. Leadership train ing programs that incorporate cu ltural val ues shou ld be especially mandated for leaders who take foreign assignments or manage mu lticultural work teams.75 Read the Ethical Dilemma on page 409 and consider how personal, work, and social values and work ethics intersect.
For ethical leadersh ip to be effective, it's not enough for the leader lo simply possess high moral character. After all, no universa l standard for ethical behaviour exists, and ethica l norms vary by culture, by industry, and even sometimes within an organization. Leaders must be willing to express their eth ical belief.~ and persuade others lo follow their standards. Fo llowers must bel ieve in both the leader and the overlying principles, even if they don't personally agree with every minor stance.
To convey their beliefs, leaders should learn to express their moral convictions in s tatements that reflect va lues shared w ith their organization's members. Leaders can bu ild on this foundat ion of trust to show their character, enhance a sense of un ity, and create buy-in from fo llowers. The leader's message should announce h igh goals and express confidence that they can be reached.
Servant Leadership Scholars have recently considered ethical leadership from a new angle by examin ing servant lead er ship. 76 Servant leaders go beyond their self-interest and focus on oppor- tunities to help followers grow and develop. Characteristic behaviours include listening, empathizing, persuading, accepting stewardsh ip, and actively developing fo llowers' potential. Because servant leadersh ip focuses on serving the needs of others, research has focused on its outcomes for the well-being of followers. Perhaps not surprisingly, a study of 126 CEOs found that servant leadersh ip is negatively correlated with the trait of narcissism. 77
Craig Kielburger was just 12 years old when he read abou1 a young Pakistani b oy of the same age who
was murdered while engaged in child labour, and rallied his d assmates to b ecome involved in stopping the practice. This work eventually led to the creation of Free the Children (now WE Charity). WE Charity supports community development in nine countries w here there is a high rate of child labour, child exploita-
tion, and minimal opp ortunities for girls. Kielburger is an example of someone showing ethical leadership
at a very early age.
What are the effects of servant leadership? One study of 123 supervisors found il resulted in higher levels of commitment to the supervisor, self-efficacy, and percep- t ions of justice, all of which were rela ted lo OCB.7 8 This relationsh ip between servant
leadersh ip and follower OCB appears to be stronger when fo llowers are encouraged lo focus on being dutiful and responsible.79 Second, servant leadership increases team po tency (a belief lhat one's learn has above-average skills and abilities), which in
turn leads lo h igher levels of group performance.80 Third, a s tudy wilh a nationally representative samp le found higher levels of OCB were associated with a focus on growth and advancement, which in turn was associated wilh higher levels of creative
performance.81 Olher research found that servant leadersh ip and a resulting cu lture of serving increased employee job performance and creativity, while reducing turnover inlentions.8 2
Mentoring Many leaders take responsibility for develop ing future leaders through men toring relationsh ips. A mentor is often a senior emp loyee who sponsors and suppons a less-experienced employee ( a men tee), bul mentoring can happen much lower in lhe organ ization as well. The mentoring ro le includes coach ing, counselling, and sponsor- ship to help menlees develop ski lls, to provide support and help bolster mentees' self- confidence, and to lobby so lhal men tees get good assignments, promotions, and salary increases.83 Al lo\ver levels in lhe organization, men tors can help new employees learn to be successfu l. Successful mentors are good teachers. They present ideas clearly, listen well, and empathize wilh mentees' problems.
In formal mentoring relationships, protege candidates are identified according to assessments of leadership potentia l, and then ma tched wilh leaders in correspond ing organizational functions. Informal mentoring relationships develop when leaders
Chapter 11 Leadership 401
mentor An employee who sponsors and supports a less-experienced employee.
402 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
Ed Clari< (right), who stepped down as CEO of TD Bank in October 2014, spotted something in Bharat Masrani (left) the first time he met him in 2002. Clari< soon became Masrani's mentor and champion,
providing him with a variety of career opportunities. The mentoring paid off, as Masrani became Clar1<'s
successor.
identify a less experienced, lower-level emp loyee who appears to have potential for fu ture development.84 The mentee will often be tested with a particularly challenging assignment. If he or she performs acceptably, the mentor will develop the relationship, informally showi ng the mentee how the organ ization really works o utside its forma l structures and procedures.
Are all employees in an organiza tion equally likely to pa rticipate in a mentor- ing relationsh ip? Unfortunately, no.85 One s tudy in South Korea fo und that mentors ach ieved h igher levels of transformational leadership as a result of the process, wh ile organizational commitment and well-being increased for both mentors and mentees.86
Although begun with the best intentions, forma l relationsh ips are not as effective as informal o nes, 87 perhaps due 10 poor p lann ing, design, and communication. Men- tors must see the relationship as beneficial to themselves and the mentee, too, must have input into the relationship.88 Formal mentoring programs are a lso most likely to succeed if they appropriately ma tch the work style, needs, and ski lls of men tee and mentor.89
Mentors may be effective not beca use of the functions they provide, b ut because of the resources they can obta in; a mentor connected to a powerful network can bu ild relationsh ips that will help the protege advance. Network ties, whether b u ilt through a mentor or not, are a sign ifican t predictor of career success.90 If a mentor is not well connected or not a very strong performer, the best mentoring advice in the world will not be very beneficial.
You m ight assume that mentoring is val uable for obj ective o utcomes such as compensation and job performance, but research suggests the ga ins are primarily psychological. Thus, wh ile mentoring can have an impact on career success, it's not as much of a contrib u ti ng factor as ab ility and personality. It may feel n ice to have a mentor, bu t it does not appear that having a mentor, or even having a good mentor who provides both support and advice, is critical to one's career. The mentor is a b oost to your confidence.
Challenges to Our Understanding of Leadership Kelly Lovell works with business leaders to help them understand Generation Z reten tion
issues.91 "Generation Z want to be spoken with versus at by companies. We want to be involved, have some sense our voice and opinion matters. We gravitate to opportunities with companies
where our ideas can be recognized and heard," she says.
Lovell recently wrote a book, The Power of YOUth, to help inspire young people to take action using stories of 200 young people who have taken action and made a d~ference. She hopes the
book will help young people see their potential. "It is my hope that after reading a story, a youth can
think, 'If they can overcome these challenges to make a difference, then I can, too,"' Lovell says.
"In the 1500s, people ascribed all evenL~ they d idn't understand to God. Why d id the crops
fail7 God. Why did someone d ie? God. Now our all-purpose explanation is leadersh ip. "92
This may be an astute obseivation from management consulting, but of course much of an organization's success or failure is due to factors outside the influence of leadership. Sometimes it's a matter of being in the right or wrong p lace at a given time. In this section,
we present challenges to the accepted beliefs about the val ue of leadersh ip.
Leadership as an Attribution As you may remember from Chapter 2, at tribution theory examines how people try to make sense of cause-and-effect relationsh ips. The attribution theo ry of leadership says leadership is merely an attribution people make about other individua ls. 93 We at tribute the fo llow ing to lead- ers: in telligence, outgoing personality, strong verbal skills, aggressiveness, understand ing, and industriousness.94 At the organizational level, we tend, rightly or wrongly, to
see leaders as responsible for both extremely negative and extremely positive performance.95
Do perceptions of a leader
ma tter .. ?
Perceptions of leaders by their followers strongly affect leaders' ab ility to be effec- t ive. First, one st udy of 128 major US corporatio ns found that whereas perceptions of CEO charisma did not lead to objectively beuer company performance, company performance did lead to perceptions of charisma.96 Second, employee perceptions of leaders' behaviours are significant pred ictors of whether they blame the leader for fail- ure, regardless of how the leader assesses him- or herself.97 Third, a study of more than 3000 emp loyees from Western Europe, the United States, and the Midd le East found people who tended to •roma nticize" leadersh ip in general were more likely to bel ieve their own leaders were transforma tionaJ. 98
We also make demographic assumptions about leaders. Respondents in a study assumed a leader described with no identifying racial information was white at a rate beyond the base rate of white employees in that company. Furthermore, where identical leadership situations are described but the leaders' race is man ipulated, wh ite leaders are rated as more effective
than leaders of other racial groups.9 9 One large-scale summary study (a meta-analysis) found that many individuals hold stereotypes of men as having more leadership charac- teristics than women, although, as you m ight expect, this tendency to equate leadership with masculinity has decreased over time.100 Other data suggest women's perceived success
as transformational leaders may be based on situations. Teams prefer male leaders when aggressively competing against other teams, but they prefer fema le leaders when the com- petition is within teams and calls for improving positive relationsh ips with in the group. JO I
Attribution theory suggests what is important is projecting the appearance of being a leader rather than focusing on actual accomplishnienr.s. Leader-wannabes who can shape the perception that they are smart, personable, verbally adep t, aggressive, hard-working, and consistent in their style can increase the probabil ity their bosses, co lleagues, and
employees will view them as effective leaders.
Chapter 11 Leadership 403
Cii) Identify the challenges to our understanding of leadership.
attribution theory of leadership A leadership lheo,y that says !hat leadership is merely an attribution !hat people make about olher individuals.
4 0 4 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
substitutes Attributes. such as experience and training, !hat can replace !he need for a leader's sup- port or ability to create structure.
neutralizers Attributes that make it impossible for leader behaviour to make any difference to follower outcomes.
identifi cation-based trust Trust based on a mutual understanding of each other's intentions and appre- ciation of each other's wants and desires.
l
Substitutes for and Neutralizers of Leadership O ne theory of leadersh ip suggests that in many si tuations, leaders' actions are irrel - evan t. 102 Experience and tra ini ng are amo ng the substit u tes that can rep lace the need fo r a leader's support or abil ity to create structure. Organizatio ns such as v ideogame producer Valve Co rpora tion, Go re-Tex maker W. L. Gore, and co ll aboration-software firm GitHub have experimented with el iminating leaders and management. Governance in the •bossless• work environment is achieved through accountabil ity to co-workers, who determi ne team composition and sometimes even pay. 103 Organizational ch arac- teristics such as expl icit formal ized goals, rigid rules and procedures, and cohesive work groups can replace for mal lead ership, whi le indifference to organizational rewards can neutralize its effects. Neu tralizers make it impossible for leader behaviour to make any d ifference to fo llower outcomes (see Exh ibit 11 -7).
Someti mes the difference between substitutes and neutra lizers is fuzzy. If I am working on a task that is intrinsically enjoyable, theory pred icts leadership will be less importan t beca use the task provides motivation. But does that mean intrinsically enjoyable tasks neutral ize leadership effects, or substitute for them, or both? Another problem is that while substitutes for leadership (such as employee characteris tics, th e nature of the task, etc.) matter to performance, that d oesn't necessari ly mean leadership doesn't matter. 104 H's s implistic to th ink employees are guided to goal accompl ishments solely by the actio ns of their leaders. We have introduced a number of variables- such as altitud es, personality, abil ity, an d group norms- that affect employee performa nce and satisfactio n. Leadership is s imply another independen t variable in o ur overall OB mod el.
On line Leadership How do you lead people who are physically separated from you with whom you com- mun icate e lectro nica lly? This question needs atten tio n fro m OB researchers. 105 Today's managers and their employees are increasingly being l inked by networks rather tha n geograph ical proxim ity.
We propose that o nl ine lead ers h ave to think carefully about what actions they wan t the ir digi tal messages to initiate. They co nfront unique challenges, the greatest of which appears to be developi ng and mai n ta ining trust. Identifica tion-ba sed trust,
EXHIBIT 11-7 Substitutes for and Neutralizers of Leadership
Defining Characteristics
Individual
Experi ence/tr aining Professi ona lism Indi fference to rew ards
Job
Highly structured task Provides its ow n feedback Intrinsically satisfying
Organizat ion
Explicit f o rmalized goals Rigi d rul es and proced ures Coh esive w ork g roups
Relationship· Oriented leadership
No effect o n Substitutes f or Neutralizes
No effect o n No effect o n Substitutes for
No effect o n No effect o n Substitutes f or
Task- Oriented leadership
Substitutes f or Substitutes f or Neutralizes
Substitutes for Substitutes for No effect o n
Substitutes f or Substitutes f or Substitutes f or
Source: Based on K. B. Lowe and W. L. Gardner, "Ten Years of lhe Leadership Quarterly: Contributions and Challenges for the Future," Leadership Quarterly 11, no. 4 (2000), pp. 459-514.
based on a mu tual understand ing of each other's intentions and appreciation of the other person's wants and desires, is particularly difficu lt to achieve without face-to-face interaction. JOG Online negotiations can also be hindered because parties tend to express lower levels of trust. w7
We believe good leadership skills will soon include the abil ity to communicate sup- port, trust, and insp iration through electronic communication and to accurately read emotions in others' messages. In electronic communication, writi ng skills are likely to become an extension of interpersonal skills in ways that are not yet defined.
How to l ead Most of the research d iscussed in this chapter was conducted in Engl ish-speaking coun- tries. We know very li ttle abou t how culture m ight influence the va lid ity of the theories, particularly in Eastern cultures. However, a recent analysis of the GLOBE research pro- gram (see Chapter 3 for more deta ils) has produced some useful prelim inary insights about how to manage in Brazil. France, Egypt, and China. JOS Let's consider each.
• Brazil. Based on the values of Brazil ian employees, a manager leading a team in Brazil wou ld need to be team oriented, participative, and humane. Leaders high on consideration who emphasize participative decision making and have high LPC scores would be best sui ted to managing employees in th is culture. As one Brazil ian manager said in the study, "We do not prefer leaders who take self-governing decis ions and act alone without engaging the group. That's part of who we are."
• France. French employees have a more bureaucratic v iew of leaders and are less likely to expect them to be humane and considerate than Canadian and American employees. A leader high on initialing s tructure ( relatively task ori- ented) will do best and can make decis ions in a relatively autocratic manner. A manager who scores high on consideration (people oriented) may find that s ty le backfiring in France.
• Egypt. Employees in Egypt are more likely to va lue team-oriented and partici- pative leadership than Canadian and American employees. However, Egypt is also a relatively high-power-distance culture, mean ing status d ifferences between leaders and followers are expected. To be participative yet demon- strate one's s tatus, the leader should ask employees for their opin ions, try to m inimize conflicts, and not be afraid to take charge and make the final deci- s ion (after consulti ng team members) .
• China. Accord ing to the GLOBE study, Chinese culture emphasizes being pol ite, considerate, and unselfish, but it also has a high performance orien ta- tion. These two factors suggest consideration and initiating structure may both be important. Although Ch inese culture is rela tively participative compared with the cu ltures of Canada and the United States, there are also s tatus differ- ences between leaders and emp loyees. These find ings suggest that a moder- ately participative sty le may work best with Chinese employees.
Servant leadership Servant leadership may be more prevalent and effective in certa in cultures. w9 When asked to draw images of leaders, for example, US subjects tended to draw them in fron t
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LESSON S LEARNED
• Leaders provide vision and strategy; managers imple- ment that vision and strategy.
• Leaders need to have a vision, they need to commu- nicate that vision, and they must have followers.
• Leaders need to adjust their behaviours, depending on the s ituation and the needs of employees.
Mylab Management
of the group, giving orders to fo llowers. Singaporeans tended to draw leaders at the back of the group, acting more to gather a group's op inions together and then unify them from the rear. This suggests the East Asian prototype is more l ike a servant leader, which might mean servant leadership is more effective in these cultures.
--- Summary Leadership plays a central pan in understanding group behaviour because it's the leader \vho usually directs us toward our goa ls. Knowing what makes a good leader should thus be valuable toward improving group performance. The Big Five Personal ity Model shows strong and consistent relationsh ips between personality and leadersh ip. The behavioural approach's major contribution was narrowing leadersh ip into task-oriented {in itiating structure) and people-oriented ( consideration) styles. By considering the s itu- ation in which the leader operates, conti ngency theories prom ised to improve on the behavioural approach. Contemporary theories have made ma jor contributions to our understanding of leadersh ip effectiveness, and studies of eth ics and positive leadersh ip offer exciting promise.
SNAPSHOT SUMMARY
What Is Leadership? • Contingency Theolies: Does • Servant Leadership the Situation Mattel? • Mentoring
Leadership as Supervision
• Trait Theories: Are Leaders Inspirational Leadership Challenges to Our Different from Others? • Charismatic Leadership Understanding of
• Behavioural Theories: Do • Transactional and Leadership Leaders Behave in Particular Transformational Leadership • Leadership as an Attribution Ways? • Substitutes for and
• Summary of Trait Theories Responsible Leadership Neutralizers of Leadership and Behavioural Theories • Authentic Leadership • Online Leadership
• Ethical Leadership
Study, practise, and explore real business situations with these helpful resources:
• Study Plan: Check your understanding of chapter concepts with self-study quizzes.
• Online Lesson Presentations: Study key chapter topics and work through interactive assessments to test your knowledge and master management concepts.
• Videos: Learn more about the management practices and strategies of real companies.
• Simulations: Practise management decision-making in simulated business environments.
.,. for Review
1. How are leadership and man - agement different from one
another?
2. What are the conclusions of trait theories of leadership?
3. What are the central tenets and main limitations of behavioural theories of leadership?
4. What are the contingency theo- ries of leadership?
5. How do inspirational and responsible leadership compare
and contrast?
6. What leadership roles are avail- able to nonmanagers?
7. What is authentic lead ership?
8. What are the requirements of ethical leadership?
9. What is servant leadership? How does it make a difference in organizations?
10. What challenges do we face in understanding leadership?
for Managers
• For maximum leadership effec- tiveness, ensure that your prefer- ences on the initiating structure and consideration dimensions are a match for your work dynamics and culture.
• Hire candidates who exhibit transformational leadership quali- ties and who have demonstrated success in working through oth- ers to meet a long-term vision. Personality tests can reveal candi- dates higher in extraversion, con- scientiousness, and openness, which may indicate leadership readiness.
• Hire candidates whom you believe are ethical and trustwor- thy for management roles, and train current managers in your organization's ethical standards in order to increase leadership effectiveness.
• Seek to develop trusting relation- ships with followers because, as organizations have become less stable and predictable, strong bonds of trust are replac- ing bureaucratic rules in defining expectations and relationships.
• Consider investing in leadership training such as formal courses, workshops, and mentoring.
for You
• It's easy to imagine that theories of leadership are more important to those who are leaders or w ho plan in the near future to become leaders. However, leadership opportunities occur throughout an organization. You have n o doub t seen a student leader who did not have any formal authority be extremely successful.
• Leaders are not born, they learn how to lead by paying attention to the situation and what needs to be done.
• There is no one best w ay to lead. It's important to consider the situ- ation and the needs of the people who will be led .
• Sometim es no leader is needed - the individuals in the group simply w ork well enough together that each takes turns at leadership w ithout appointing a formal leader.
0 ICll:I
"' -
408 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
HEROES ARE MADE, NOT BORN -"' CCI 0 POI NT
We often ascribe heroic qualities to our leaders. 110 They
are courageous in the face of great risk. They persevere
when few would. They take action when most sit by.
Heroes are exceptional people who display exceptional
behaviour.
But some social psychologists question this conven- tional wisdom. They note that heroism can be found in
many spheres of life, including in the behaviour of whis-
tle-blowers, explorers, religious leaders, scientists, Good
Samaritans, and those who beat the odds. At some
time in our lives, we all show heroism when the situation
allows us to. If we want to see more heroic behaviour, we need to create more situations that produce it.
Stanford psychologist Philip Zimbardo goes even fur-
ther to argue that our romantic view that heroes are born
is misplaced:
The banality of evil is matched by the banality of heroism. Neither is the consequence of disposi-
tional tendencies. . . . Both emerge in particular
situations at particular times, when situational
forces play a compelling role in moving individuals
across the line from inaction to action.
People exhibit brave behaviour every day. The work- ers who risked their lives to contain Japan's earthquake-
ravaged nuclear reactors in 2011 are a great example.
Thus, we err when we think leaders are uniquely posi-
tioned to behave heroically. We all can be heroes in the
right situation.
COUNTERPOINT Of course heroes are not like everyone else. That is what makes them heroes.
A generation of evidence from behavioural genetics
reveals that •everything is genetic," meaning we have
yet to discover an important human behaviour that does
not have genetic origins. Although we are not aware of any such study with respect to heroism, it would be sur-
prising if courageous behaviour were not at least partly
genetic.
It's foolish to think courageous people are not excep-
tional because of who they are. Just as we know there
is an entrepreneurial personality and a leader personal- ity, there is a heroic personality. Research suggests, for
example, that people who score high on conscientious-
ness are more likely to engage in courageous behaviour.
Not all leaders are heroes, but many have exhib-
ited courageous behaviour. CEO Richard Branson may or may not be a hero, but when he launches his latest
attempt to set the world record for an around-the-world
balloon flight or sloop sailing, he exhibits the same cou-
rageous behaviour as when he is leading conglomer-
ate Virgin Group. Virgin Group now includes more than
400 companies, including Virgin Galactic, a space tour- ism company, and Virgin Fuels, whose goal is to revo-
lutionize the industry by providing sustainable fuels for
automobiles and aircraft. Same leader, same heroic
behaviour- in work and in life.
Are we really to believe that Richard Branson and
other courageous leaders are just like everyone else?
Chapter 11 Leadership 409
BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES
Forn, small groups to discuss the following topics, as assigned by your instructor:
1. Identify an example of someone you think of as a good leader (currently or in the past). What traits did he or she have? How did these traits differ from those in someone you identify as a bad leader?
2. Identify a situation when you were in a leadership po sition (in a group, in the workplace, w ithin your fam ily, etc.). To w hat extent were you able to use a contingency approach to leadership? What made that easier or m ore difficult for you?
3. When you have worked in student groups, how frequently have leaders emerged in the groups? What difficulties occur when leaders are leading peers? Are there ways to overcom e these difficulties?
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
What Is Leadership? Break the class into six groups: GROUP A : Government Leaders (prime m inister, senator, premier, M LA, mayor); GROUP
B: Business Leaders (CEO, president, leader in business); GROUP C: School Leaders (class president , informal leader);
GROUP D: Sports Leaders (team captain, informal team leader, coach); GROUPS E and F: Effective Managers (man-
ager who dem onstrates com petence/ effectiveness in po sition).
1. Each group identifies separately the defining characteristics of leadership and management for the assigned role, not simp ly by brainstorming, but by deciding upon descriptors that most of the group agrees are the defining characteristics of leadership and management.
2. Reconvene the class. Draw six columns for each group and list the characteristics for each group. What similari - ties do you see between the lists? From the results of this exercise, does it appear that what it takes to be a good leader is different depending on the classification? Does it seem that the characteristics for leaders differ greatly from those needed for good managers?
ETHICAL DILEMMA
Smoking Success "I've been high since I' m 13," Justin Hartfield observed,
admitting that his resume includes a stint as a high-school
marijuana distributor and a m ember of a group of web-
site hackers. 111 Now in his 30s, Hartfield is a successful
entrepreneur and investor. So what if he is dealing in the
same venues of his childhood passions - marijuana and
websites? He says, "Marijuana is not going to be profit-
able to m ake in the long term, it's going to be a do llar a
gram . And so someone . .. needs to step in and make
it profitable to grow. I' m the best guy to do it ." Hartfield
envisions himself as the top leader of a newly legalized
industry. Obviously, he has no issue with the ethics of marijuana
consumption or distribution. He created Weedmaps
.com, a large directory for medical -marijuana users to find
accessible doctors and dispensaries, and charges sub-
scribers $295+ per month; his other business through
Ghost Group invests in start-up marijuana operations.
"I'm doing everything I can in this industry legally that isn't
going to throw me in jail," he said.
4 1 O Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
-"' CCI 0
Hartfield hopes recreational marijuana use is legalized
everywhere soon. "I care about the least amount of people
suffering under prohibition,• he said, "and secondarily the
more money I can make."
Questions
1. Hartfield is a leader in his industry, and he hopes to sell the most marijuana possible. Meanwhile, a study published by the National Academy of Sciences
indicated that New Zealand teenagers who were heavy marijuana smokers lost up to 8 IQ points. Do you think that as a leader, Hartfield has a responsi- bility for the health of his customers?
2. How do you think the ethical responsibilities of lead- ers in this industry compare to those of leaders in, say, the tobacco and alcohol industries?
3. Would you take a leadership role in an organization if you had an ethical issue with its product or service? Why or why not?
CASE INCID E N T S
Leadership Mettle Forged in Battle In 2008, facing a serious shortage of leadership-ready
employees at the store management level, Walmart
decided to recruit from the military. 112 The company
sent recruiters to military job fairs and hired 150 junior
military officers, pairing them with store mentors to learn
on the job. The result: Walmart claims that it has been
able to bring in world-c lass leaders who were ready to
take over once they had learned the retail business.
Other organizations that have heavily recruited from
the military in recent years include Home Depot, Shell
Canada, and Lowe's.
It is not really surprising to see companies tum to
the military for leadership potential. A long tradition of
books and seminars advises leaders to think like military
leaders, ranging from Sun Tzu to Norman Schwarzkopf.
Military veterans do have a variety of valuable skills
learned through experience. General David Petraeus
notes, "Tell me anywhere in the business world where
a 22- or 23-year-old is responsible for 35 or 40 other
individuals on missions that involve life and death ....
They're under enormous scrutiny, on top of everything
else. These are pretty formative experiences. It's a bit
of a crucible-like experience that they go through." Mili-
tary leaders are also accustomed to having to make
do in less-than-optimal conditions, negotiate across
cultures, be highly accountable, and operate under
extreme stress.
However, veterans do have to relearn some lessons.
Some may not be used to leading someone like an eccen-
tric computer programmer who works strange hours and
dresses like a slob, but brings more to the company's
bottom line than a conventional employee. Indeed, in
some companies, such as Google, there is nothing like
the chain of command military leaders are used to. Still,
there is an ample supply of battle-tested military leaders
ready to report for corporate duty, and many companies
are eager to have them.
Questions
1. Do you think leaders in military contexts exhibit the same qualities as organizational leaders? Why or why not?
2. In what ways not mentioned in the case would mili- tary leadership lessons not apply in the private sec- tor? What might military leaders have to relearn to work in business?
3. Are specific types of work or situations more likely to benefit from the presence of "battle-tested" leaders? list a few examples.
Leadership by Algorithm Is there one right way to lead? 11 3 Research suggests
not, the methods explored in this chapter text suggest
not, and common sense suggests a "one-size-fi1s-all"
approach could be disastrous because organizations
exist for diverse purposes and develop unique cultures.
Leadership development programs generally teach a
best-practices model, but experts suggest that individu-
als trained in leadership techniques that are contrary to
their own natures risk losing the authenticity crucial to
effective leadership. A promising path to leadership may
thus lie in algorithm s.
If you have ever taken a strengths-based assessment
such as the Harrison Assessment or Gallup's Clifton
StrengthsFinder, you know that surveys aimed at discov-
ering your personality, skills, and preferences result in a
personal profile. These tools are help ful, but algorithms
can take your leadership development to the next level of
personalization and application. They can take the results
from each survey you complete, for instance, and use
them to create a leadership program that m atches your
needs and abilities.
As the founder of managem ent coaching organization
TMBC and author of Standout, Marcus Buckingham is an expert on creating leadership programs. He recomm ends
the following step s:
Step 1.
Step 2.
Step 3.
Find or develop assessment tools. These might include a personality com - ponent, such as a Big Five inventory test, and will include other tests compa- nies can resource or create according to What leadership characteristics they are seeking to monitor.
Identify the top leaders in the orga- nization and administer tests to them. This step is not to determine what all the leaders have in common, but to group the top leaders into cat - egories by their similar profiles.
Interview the leaders within each profile category to learn about the techniques they use that work. Often these will be unique, unscripted, and
Step 4.
Chapter 11 Leadership 411
revealingly correlated to the strengths in their assessment profiles. Compile the techniques within each profile category.
The results of top leader profile cat- egories and their techniques can be used to create an algorithm, or tai- lored method, for developing lead- ers. Administer the assessment tests to developing leaders and determine their profile categories. The techniques from successful leaders can now be shared w ith the developing leaders w ho are most like them because they share the same profile category.
These step s provide a means for successful leaders
to pass along to developing leaders techniques that are
likely to feel authentic to the developing leaders and that
encourage creativity. The techniques can be delivered in
an ongoing process as short, personalized, interactive,
and readily applicable tips and advice, yielding results
no two-week leadership development course could
achieve.
Quest.ions
1. If you have participated in leadership development programs, how effective did you find them in (a) teaching you techniques and (b) giving you practi- cal strategies you could use? What could they do
better?
2 . What are som e potential negatives of using Buckingham 's approach to leadership development?
3 . Would you suggest applying Buckingham's steps to an organization in which you have worked? Why or
why not?
In order to be charismatic in your leadership style, you need to engage in
the following behaviours: 114 Practising to be Charismatic 1. Project a powerful, confident, and dynamic presence. This has both
verbal and nonverbal components. Use a captivating and engag- ing voice tone. Convey confidence. Talk directly to people, maintain direct eye contact, and hold your body posture in a way that says you are sure of yourself. Speak clearly, avoid stamm ering, and avoid sp rinkling your sentences w ith noncontent phrases such as "ahhh"
and "you know."
Not everyone is born charismatic.
However, it's possible to develop
this skill.
4 1 2 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
-"' CCI 0
• • • •
Practising Skills
• •••••
2 . Articulate an overarching goal. You need to share a vision for the future, develop an unconventional way of achieving the vision, and have the ability to communicate the vision to others.
The vision is a clear statement of Where you want to go and how
you are going to get there. You need to persuade others that the
achievement of this vision is in their self-interest.
You need to look for fresh and radically different approaches to
problems. The road to achieving your vision should be seen as novel,
but also appropriate to the context.
Charismatic individuals not only have a vision, but they are also able to get others to buy into it. The real power of Martin Luther King
Jr. was not that he had a dream, but that he could articulate it in
terms that made it accessible to millions.
3 . Communicate high performance expectations and confidence in oth- ers ' ability to meet these expectations. You need to demonstrate your confidence in people by stating ambitious goals for them individually and as a group. You then convey absolute belief that they will achieve their expectations.
4. Be sensitive to the needs of followers. Charismatic leaders get to know their followers individually. You need to understand their indi- vidual needs and develop intensely personal relationships with each. This is done through encouraging followers to express their points of view, being approachable, genuinely listening to and caring about followers' concerns, and asking questions so that followers can learn what is really important to them.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
You are a manufacturing manager in a large electronics plant. 1 15 The
company's management is always searching for ways to increase effi-
ciency. They recently installed new machines and set up a new simpli-
fied work system, but to the surprise of everyone-including you - the
expected increase in production was not realized. In fact, production has
begun to drop, quality has fallen off, and the number of employee resigna-
tions has risen.
You do not think that there is anything wrong with the machines. You
have had reports from other companies that are using them, and they
confirm your opinion. You have also had representatives from the firm that
built the machines go over them, and they report that the machines are
operating at peak efficiency.
You know that some aspect of the new work system must be respon-
sible for the change, but you are getting no help from your immediate
team members- four first-line supervisors who report to you and Who are
each in charge of a section - or your supply manager. The drop in produc-
tion has been variously attributed to poor training of the operators, lack
of an adequate system of financial incentives, and poor morale. All of the
individuals involved have deep feelings about this issue. Your team does
not agree with you or with one another.
This morning you received a phone call from your division manager. He had just received your production figures for the past six months and was
calling to express his concern. He indicated that the problem was yours to
solve in any way that you think best, but that he would like to know within
a week What steps you plan to take.
You share your division manager 's concern w ith the falling produc-
tivity and know that your employees are also concerned. Using your
knowledge of leadership concepts, which leadership style would you
choose? Why?
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1. Think of a group 0< team to which you currently belong or of which you have been a part. W hat type of leadership style did the leader of this group appear to exhibit? Give some specific examples of the types of leadership behaviours he or she used. Evaluate the leadership style. Was it appropriate for the group? Why or w hy not? What would you have done differently? Why?
2. Observe two sports team s (either college/university or professional - one that you consider successful and the other unsuccessfuQ. What leadership styles appear to be used in these team situations? Give some specific examples of the types of leadership behaviours you observe. How would you evaluate the leadership style? Was it appro- priate f0< the team? Why or w hy not? To what degree do you think leadership style influenced the team's outcomes?
Chapter 11 Leadership 413
Reinforcing Skills
•••••••
4 1 4
Decision Making, Creativity, and Ethics
TD raised its sales targets and
some of its employees felt pressured to meet goals. Can people act ethically
while trying to save their jobs?
O Contrast the rational model of decision making with bounded rationality and intuition. f) Describe common decision biases and errors. f) Contrast the strengths and weaknesses of group decision making. C, Compare the effectiveness of interacting groups, brainstorming, and the nominal group technique. 0 Define creativity, and describe the three-stage model of creativity. O Describe the four criteria used in making eth ical decisions.
T
•
nearly 2017, Bev Beaton noticed a new $29.95 rorontonian/ AlamyStock l'hoto charge on her TO Bank statement. 1 When she called for an explanation, she was told that she was in a new account that required her to keep a minimum monthly balance of $5000 in the account. Beaton immediately disputed this change, saying
she had not made a request to change her account type . The bank employee she was speaking to told her, "You must have."
Beaton was not alone in finding questionable charges and changes from TO. In spring of 2017, the CBC reported investigated the practice of upselling by TO employees. It heard from hundreds of current
and former employees about how sales goals were driving some employees to engage in unethical behaviour. Employees said that sales goals were unreasonable and had tripled during the past three
years . The sales targets put the employees in an ethical bind. As one teller noted, "It's a choice between keeping my job and feeding my family . . . or doing what's right for the customer. "
Another teller, Oalisha Dyal, who worked at a Vancouver TO for four years, quit because of the pressure. "I was made to feel as if I was committing a huge wrong for looking
out for the best interests of my customer over the interests of the bank," she said. How do managers make decisions about sales targets? What governs employ-
ees' decisions about responding to these sales targets? What about the ethics of these decisions? In this chapter, we describe how decisions in organizations are
made, as well as how creativity is linked to decision making. We also look at the ethical and socially responsible aspects of decision making. Decision making affects people at all
levels of the organization, and it's engaged in by both ind ividuals and groups. Therefore, we also consider the special characteristics of group decision making.
• Do people really consider every alternative when making a decision?
\ I I ' , :o:
~ ' , '
'l'IIE BIG IDEA • Is it okay to use intuition when making decisions?
• Why is it that we sometimes make bad decisions?
• Why are some people more creative than others?
• How can people make more ethical decisions?
Decision 1naking can be improYed
Lhro ugh systernalic Lhinking and an
a\\'areness of common biases.
4 15
4 16 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
O Contrast the rational model of decision mak· ing with bounded ratio· nality and intuition.
decision The choice made from two or ITlOfe alternatives.
rational Refers to choices that are coosistent and value-maximizing within specified ooostraints.
rational decisi on-making model A six-step decision-making model Iha! describes how individuals should behave in order to maximize some outcome.
How Should Decisions Be Made? A d ecision is the choice made from two or more alternatives. Decision making hap- pens a t a ll levels of an organization. Business schools train studenL~ to fo llo\v rational decision-making models. While models have merit, they don't always describe h ow people make decisions. There are decision-making errors people comm it in add itio n to the perceptual errors we discussed in Chapter 2.
Knowing how to make decisions is an important part of everyday life. Below we consider various decis ion-making models that apply to both individ ual a nd group choices. (Later in the chapter, we d iscuss special aspects of group decision making.) We start with the rational decis io n-making model, which describes decision making in the ideal world, a situation that rarely exis ts. We then look at alternatives to the rational model, an d how decis ions actually get made.
The Rational Decision-Making Process We often think that the best decis io n maker is the rational decision maker, who makes consistent, value-maximizing choices withi n specified co nstrai nts.2 These choices are made following a six-step r a tiona l d ecision-mak ing model.3 Moreover, specific assumptions u nderlie th is model.
The Six-Step Rational Model The six steps in the rational decis ion-making model are p resented in Exh ibit 12-1.
First, th e decisio n maker must define the problem. If you calcu late your monthly expenses an d find you are spend ing $50 more than your monthly earnings, you have defi ned a problem. Ma ny poor decisions can be traced to the decision maker overlook- ing a prob lem or defini ng the wrong prob lem.
The decision maker then needs to identify the criteria that are relevant to making the decision. This step brings the decision maker's interests, values, and similar personal preferences into the process, because not all ind ividua ls wi ll consider the same factors relevant for any particular decis io n.
EXHIBIT 12-1 Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Model
6. Select the
best altern ative
5. Evaluate the alternat ives
1. Define the
problem
Making a Decision
4. Develop
alternat ives
2. Identify the
criteria
3. Allocate weig hts
to the crite ria
Chapter 12 Decision Making, Creativity, and Ethics 4 17
To understand the types of criteria that m ight be used to make a decis ion, consider how Toronto-based Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce (CIBC) hand les the many sponsorsh ip requests il receives each year. When il makes a decision abou t whether to support a request, the bank takes into accoun t a number of criteria. Specificall y, lo be el igible for fund ing, a request must
• Be aligned to the bank's comm itment to Kids, Cures, or Community
• Be a Canadian registered charity or non-profi t, using funds in Canada
• Have achievements and goa ls in line with CIBCs overall goals
• Address a community need and provide d irect impact to the commun ity served
• Include p lanned and measurab le outcomes that can be evaluated
• Have audited financial statements, principled financia l practices, and sustain- able funding4
If the sponsorsh ip request does not meet these cri teria, il is not funded. Because the criteria identified are rarely all equal in importance, the th ird step
requires the decision maker lo allocate weights Lo the criteria. The fourth step requires the decision maker to develop alternatives that could succeed
in resolv ing the prob lem. The decision maker then critically evaluates the a/1en1acives, using the previously
established criteria and weights. Finally, the decis ion maker selects the best alternative by evaluating each alternative
aga inst the weighted criteria and selecting the alterna tive with the h ighest total score.
Assumptions of the Model The rationa l decision-making model assumes that the decision maker has complete information, is able to identi fy all the relevant op tions in an unbiased manner, and chooses the option wi th the highest u ti lity.5 Most decis ions don't follow the rational model; people are usually content to find an acceptable or reasonable solu tion to a problem rather than an optimal one. Choices tend lo be limited to the neighbourhood of the problem's sy mptom and the current alternative.
How Do Individuals Actually Make Decisions? It can be difficult to make a rational decision if scmeone is pressuring you to make a different
decision .6 One TD teller on sick leave noted that her manager stood behind her three limes a
day to oversee her work. "They just really stress you out and say, 'You're not doing good. I need
you to do double the amount you've been doing.' I couldn't sleep. I'd be thinking . . . 'What can
I do tomorrow to try and get sales?"'
Another teller reported to CBC that she was put on a Performance Improvement Plan
because she was falling below lhe sales targets. The plan involved coaching, and could result
in discipline if her sales didn't increase. The pressure was so great that "I have invested clients'
savings into funds which were not suitable, because of the SR [sales revenue] pressure," she
said. "That's very difficult to admit. I didn't do this lightly."
The bank has a lot of information about its customers. When a customer goes to his or her
branch and interacts with the teller, even for something as simple as to make a deposit, the
computer screen in front of lhe teller makes suggestions about what products could be sold to
the customer. This adds to the pressure tellers feel. Many of the longer-term employees did not
envision a job as a sales clerk when they first started as tellers. Their fear of losing their jobs
affects them on a daily basis.
What sorts of perceptual biases might affect the decisions people make'
4 18 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
I\ 0 l' ~ CAREER OBJECTIVES
L~ How Can I Make My Job Better? Hon est l y, I hat e my job. But t here are reasons I should stay: Th is i s my f irst job o ut of colleg e, it pays p ret t y w ell, and it w i ll establ ish my career. Is t h ere any hope, or am I d oomed u nt il I q uit?
- Taylor
Dear Taylor: You're not doomed! You can work on your attitude to either improve your experience or find a positive per- spective. In other words, if you can turn "I hate my job" into "this is what I'm doing to make my situation bet- ter, " your job satisfaction is likely to improve. Try this: • Write down everything you hate
about your job, but wait until you have a few days off so you can get a more objective viewpoint. Be spe- cific. Keep asking yourself why, as in, ''Why do I dislike my office mate?" Also, consider your history: Was the job always a problem, or have cir- cumstances changed?
• Now write down everything you like about the job. Again, be specific. Think about the environment, the people, and the work separately.
Find something positive, even if it's just the coffee in the break room.
• Compare your lists tor clues about your attitude and job satisfaction. Look for mentions of the work or the people. Job satisfaction is generally more strongly related to how interesting your work is than it is to other factors. People, espe- cially your supervisor, are impor- tant to your attitude toward work
as well. • Read your lists aloud to a few
trusted friends (you don't want to rant about your boss with your co-worker). Ask them to help pro- cess your grievances. Are there deal-breakers like harassment?
• Decide whether you can talk with your manager about this. According to Roy L. Cohen, author of The Wall Street Protessional's Survival Guide, "consider whether how you' re being treated is unique to you or shared by your colleagues." If everyone has the same problem, especially if the problem is the boss, you probably should not approach your manager. But changes can be made in most situations.
Based on the sources of your grievances and your ability to make changes in the workplace, you may choose to address the issues, or develop skills for your next job. Mean- while, don't sabotage yourself with sloppy performance and complaints. Instead, look for positive reinforcement, join a professional organization, or vol- unteer. Happy employees are healthier. You deserve to be one of them.
Sources: "Employee Engagement," Workf0it:e Management (Februa,y 2013): 19 ; A. Hurst, "Being 'Good' Isn't the Only Way to Go," New York 77mes, April 20, 2014, 4; R. E. Silverman, "Worl< as Labor or Love?" Wal Street Journal, October 18, 2012, D3; H. J. Smith, T. F. Pettigrew, G. M. Pippin, ands. Bialosiewicz, •Relative Deprivation: A Theoretical and Meta-Analy1ic Review,• Persooality and Social Psychology Review 16 (2012): 203-32; and A. Tugend, "Survival Skllls for a Job You Detest," Wall Street Journal, April 7, 2012, BS.
The opinions provided here are of the manag· ers and authors only and do not necessarily reflect those of their organizations. The authors or managers are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for the results obtained from the use of this information. In no event will the authors or managers, or their related partner- ships or corporations thereof, be liable to you or anyone else for any decision made or action taken in reliance or, the opln/orJs provided here.
Most decisions in the real world don't follow the rational model. As one expert in deci- s ion making has concluded, "Most significant decis ions are made by judgment, rather than by a defined prescriptive model."7 Whal is more, people are remarkably u naware of making suboptimal decisio ns.8
In the follow ing sections, we ind icate areas where the reality of decision making conflicts with the rational model. 9 None of these ways of making decis ions should be considered irrat.ional; they simply depart from the rational model when information is unavai lab le or too costly to collect.
Bounded Rationality in Considering Alternatives Our limited information-processing capab ility makes it impossible lo assim ilate all the information necessary to optim ize decision making, even if the information is read ily obtainable. 10 Many problems don't have an optimal sol ution beca use they are too complicated to fit the rational decision-making mode l. so people satisfice;
Chapter 12 Decision Making, Creativity, and Et hics 4 19
they seek so lutions that are satisfactory and suffi cient. We tend lo reduce complex prob lems to a level we ca n read ily u nderstand.
Wh en you conside red wh ich un ivers ity or college to auend, did yo u look at every workable a lterna tive? Did you carefully identify all the criteria that were important in your decision? Did you evaluate each al ternative aga inst the criteria in order to fi nd the optimum school? The answer to these q uestions is p robably no. But don't feel bad, because few people selected lheir educational institutio n this way.
Do people really consider every alterna-
tive ,vhen 1nak- ing a decision'?
Because the human m ind cannot formula te and solve complex problems with full rationality, we operate within the confines of bounded r ationali ty. We construct sim- plified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their comp lexity. We can then behave rationally within the limits of lhe simple model.
How does b oun ded ratio nality work for the typical individua l? Once we have iden- tified a problem, \Ve b egi n to search for criteria and alternatives. But the crite ria are unl ikely to be exhaustive. We identify alternatives that are h ighly visib le and lhal usually represent familiar criteria and tried-and-true sol utions. Next, we begin reviewi ng th e alternatives, focusi ng on choices lhat differ lit tle from the current stale unti l we identify o ne lhat is "good enough•- that meets an acceptab le level of performance. That ends our search. So the sol utio n represents a satis fidn g choice- the first acceptable one we encounter- ra ther lha n an opti mal one.
Satisficing is not always bad- a simple process may frequen tly be more sensible than the traditional rational decision-making model. 11 To use the ratio nal model, you need to gather a great deal of information about a ll lhe options, compute app licable weights, and lhen calculate va lues across a huge n umber of criteria. All these processes can cost time, e nergy, a nd money. If lhere are many u nkn own weigh ts and preferences, the fully rational model may not be any more accurate than a best guess. Sometimes a
Nin
Nintendo president Satoru Iwata (right} and DeNA president lsao Moriyasu operated wijhin the confines
of bounded rationality in deciding to form an alliance to develop and operate new game applications for mobile devices. The alliance brings Nintendo's games and characters to the mobile user market and strengthens DeNA's mobile gaming business.
bounded rationality Limijations oo a person's ability to interpret, process, and act oo information.
satisficing To provide a solution that is both satisfactory and sufficient.
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intuitive decision making An un0011scious process created out of a person's many experiences.
fast-and-frugal process of solving problems m ight be your best option. Return ing lo your college or university cho ice, would it be best to fly around the country lo visit dozens of potential campuses and pay application fees for all? It might be smarter lo satisfice by finding a few colleges or universities that match most of your preferences and then focus your atten tion on differentiating among those.
Intuition Perhaps the least rationa l way of making decisions is int ui tive decis ion making, an unconscious process created from d istilled experience. 12 Intuitive decision making occurs outside conscious thought; relies on hol istic associations, or links between dispa- rate p ieces of information; is fast; and is affectively charged, mean ing tha t it engages the emotions. 13
While int uition is not rationa l, it's not necessarily wrong. Nor does il always contrad ict rational analys is; rather, the two can complement each other. Intuition can be a powerful force in decision making. Intuition is com- plex and based on years of experience and learn ing. OB in tile Street shows how intuition app lies to grand master chess players.
OB IN THE STREET Intu ition Comes to t he Chessboard
Ls it okay to use intuition
""hen makin~ decisions'?
Can intuition really help you win a chess game? Apparently so. 14 Novice chess play- ers and grand masters were shown an actual, but unfamiliar, chess game with about 25 p ieces on the board. After 5 or 10 seconds, the pieces were removed, and each subject was asked to reconstruct the pieces by position. On average, the grand master could pul 23 or 24 pieces in their correct squares, while the novice was able to replace only 6. Then the exercise was changed. This time, the pieces were placed randomly on the board. Aga in, the novice got only about 6 correct, but so d id the grand master! The second exercise demonstrated that the grand master did not have a better memory than the novice. Whal the grand master did have was the ab ility, based on the experience of having played thousands of chess games, to recognize patterns and dusters of p ieces that occur on chessboards in the course of games. Studies also show that chess professionals can play 50 or more games simultaneously, making decisions in seconds, and exh ib it only a moderately lower level of ski ll than when playing one game under tournament conditions, where decisions take hal f an hour or longer. The expert's experience allows him or her to recognize the pattern in a s it uation and draw on previously learned information associated with that pauern to arrive al a decision quickly. The resu lt is that the intui tive decision maker can decide rapidly based on what appears to be very
: limiled i11 formation . . .. .. .... .. ..... .. .... .. ..... . ..... .. ..... . ..... .. .... .. .. .
As the example of the chess players shows, those who use intuition effectively often rely on their experiences to help guide and assess their intu itions. That may be why senior managers are more likely to turn to intu ition when they are lacking full informa- tion, as Focus 011 Research shows.
Does intu ition contribute to effective decision making? Researchers are d ivided, but most experts are skeptical, in part because intuition is hard to measure and analyze. A recent study that examined peop le's abil ity to ·use their gu t• to make decisions found
•
Chapter 12 Decision Making, Creativity, and Et hics 421
FD c us ~NESEARCH Putting Intuition to Work in the Workplace
How do senior managers use intuition in their decision making? A study of 57 Australian
senior executives who make marketing sponsorship decisions found that almost all of them used intuition to help guide their decisions at least some of the time. 15 Organizations that
placed a high value on trust when selecting sponsorship opportunities were more likely to
have managers who based their decisions on intuition. Not surprisingly, managers at orga- nizations with highly formalized decision-making processes reported less use of intuition,
although even they reported using it moderately frequently. Managers were more likely to
rely on their intuition when the factors under consideration were vague or complex, or the benefits of sponsorship were largely nonmonetary and intangible. Uncertainty in the envi-
ronment, it seems, increased their reliance on "gut feel. " While intuition can help us make
better decisions if we have the appropriate tacit knowledge, it's worthwhile to double-check to ensure that perceptual errors are not biasing our thought processes. • ... . . . . . .... . .•
that no t everyone's gut is reliable. For some, the physiol ogical feeling that one associ-
ates with intuition works, but for others it does not. 16 Probably the best advice from
one expert is this: "Intuition can be very useful as a way of setting up a hypothesis but is unacceptab le as 'proof:" 17 Use hunches based on experience to speculate, yes, but
always make sure to test those hunches with objective data and rational analysis.
As you can see, the more we use objective processes for decision maki ng, the more likely we are to correct some of the problems with our perceptual process. Just as there
are biases and errors in the perception process, it stands to reason there are identifiable b iases and errors in our decision making, which we will ou tline next.
Judgment Shortcuts Decision makers engage in bounded rationality, but they also allow systemat ic biases and errors to creep into their
judgments. 18 To min i m ize effort and avoid trade-offs,
people tend to rely too heav i ly on experience, impulses, gut feel ings, and convenient rules of thumb. Shortcuts can
d istort rationality, as OB in the Street shows.
OB IN TH E STREET Penalty Kick Decisions
v\lhy is it that we someti1nes
1n ake bad d ecisions·?
Should you stand still or leap into action? This is the classic question facing a goal ie in
a faceoff against a midfiel der for a penalty kick. 19 Ofer H. Azar, a lecturer in the School of Management at Ben-Gurion University in Israel, finds that goal ies often make the wrong decision.
Why? The goalie tries to anticipate where the ball w ill go after the kick. There is only a spl it second to do anything after the kick, so anticipati ng and acting seem like
a good decision. Azar became interested in studying goal ie behaviour after real izing that the •incen-
tives are huge• for the goalie to get it right. "Goalkeepers face penalty kicks regularly, so they are not only h igh-motivated decision makers, bu t al so very experienced ones,•
Describe common deci· sion biases and errors.
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overconfidence bias Err0< in judgment that arises from being far too optimistic about one's own performance.
anchoring bias A tendency to fix- ate on inijial information, fr0<n which one then fails to adequately adjust for subsequent inf0<mation.
he explains. That said, 80 percent of penalty kicks score, so goalies are in a d iffic ult s ituation at that instant the kick goes off.
Azar's study found that goa lies rarely stayed in the centre of the net as the ball was fired (just 6.3 percent of the time). But staying in the centre is actually the best strategy. Goalies h alted pena lty kicks when staying in the centre 33.3 percent of the time. They were successful only 14.2 percent of the time when they moved left and on ly 12.6 per- cent of the ti me when they moved right.
Azar argues that the resu lts show that there is a "b ias for action,• exp la ining that goalies think they will fee l worse if they do nothing and miss, than if they do something and miss. This b ias then clouds their judgment, encouraging them to move to one side or the other, rather than just s taying in the centre, where the odds are actually more in lhe.ir favour . .................................................................. .
In wha t follows, we discuss some of the most commo n judgmen t shortcuts to alert you to m istakes that are often made when maki ng decisions.
Overconfidence Bias We tend to be overconfident about our abili ties and the ab ilities of others; also, we are usually not aware of this b ias.20 It's been sa id that •no prob lem in judgment and deci- sion making is more prevalent and more potentially catastroph ic than overconfidence. "21
When we are given fact ual questions and asked to judge the probability that our answers are correct, we tend to be overly optim istic. This is known as overconfid ence bias . In a study of confidence intervals ( educated guesses abou t some characteris tic of a population), when people said they were 90 percent confident that their answers were correct, their answers were correct only about 50 percent of the ti me- and experts were no more accurate in their esti mation of confidence intervals than were novices.22
Individuals whose intellectual and interpersonal abilities are wealiesi are most likely to overestimate their performance and ab ility.23 Also, a negative relationsh ip exists bet,veen e ntrepreneurs' optimism and performance of their new ventures: The more optimistic, the less successful.24 The tendency to be too confident about their ideas m ight keep some from plan ni ng how to avoid problems that arise.
Investor overconfidence operates in a variety of ways.25 Finance professor Terrance Odean says, •reople think they know more than they do, and it costs them.• Investors, especially novices, overestimate not just their skill in processing information, but also the q uality of the information. Most investors will do o nly as well as or just sl ightly better than the market.
Anchoring Bias The anchoring bias is a tendency to fixate on initial informa tion and fail to adequa tely adjust for subsequent information.26 ll occurs because the m ind gives a disproportion- ate amoun t of emphasis to the firs t information it receives.27 Anchors are widely used by people in professions where persuasion skills are important- such as advertising, management, pol itics, real estate, and Jaw.
Any time a negotiation takes p lace, so does anchoring. As soon as someone states a number, your abi lity to ignore that number has been compromised. For instance, when a prospective emp loyer asks h ow much you were maki ng in your prior job, your answer typically anchors the employer's offer. You may want to keep this in mind when you negotiate your salary, but remember to set the anchor only as high as you real is tically can. The more precise your anchor, the smaller the adjustment. Some research suggests that people th ink of making an adj ustment after an anchor is set as rounding off a number. If you suggest a salary of $55 000, your boss will consider $50 000 to $60 000 a reasonable range for negotiation, but if you mention $55 650, your boss is more likely to consider $55 000 to $56 000 the range of likely va lues for negotiation.28
Chapter 12 Decision Making, Creativity, and Ethics 423
Confirmation Bias The rational decision-making process assumes t hat we objectively gather informa- t ion . Bul we don' t. We selectively gather it. The confirmation bia s represents a case of selective perception. We seek oul information that reaffirms our past cho ices, and we discoun t in formation that contradicts them.29 We also tend to accept at face value information that confirms our preconceived views, while we are skeptical of informa-
tion that challenges these views. We even tend to seek out sources most l ikely to tell us what we want to hear, and give too much weight to supporting information and too little to contrad ictory information.3° Fortuna tely, those who fee l there is a strong need to be accurate in making a decision are less prone to confirmation bias.
Avai labil ity Bias The availability b ias is the tendency for people lo base their judgments on readi ly available information. A combination of readi ly available information and our previ- ous d irect experience with s imi lar information has a particularly strong impact on our decision making. Events that evoke emo tions, that are particularly vivid, or that have
occurred more recently tend lo be more available in our memory. As a resu lt, we lend to overestimate unlikely even ls, such as being in an airplane crash, suffering complications from medical treatment, or getting fired.31 The availab ility b ias can a lso exp lain why managers, when doing annual performance appraisals, tend lo give more weight to the recent behavio ur of an employee than to tha t of six or nine months ago.
Escalation of Comm itment Some decision makers escalate comm itment to a fai ling course of action.32 Escal ation o f commitment refers to staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence that it's wrong. For example, a friend has been dating someone for several years. Although she admits that th ings are nol going well, she is determined to marry h im anyway. Her justification: "I have a lot invested in the relationsh ip !"
When is escala tion of comm itment most likely lo occur? Evidence indicates that it tends lo occur when individuals view themselves as responsib le for the outcome. The fear of personal fail ure even b iases the way we search for and eval uate information so that we choose only information that supports our ded ication. 33
It does not appear to matter whether we chose the fa iling course of action or it was assigned to us- we feel responsible and escalate comm itment in either case. Also, the
sharing of decision-making authority- as when others review the choice we made- can lead to higher esca lation of comm itment.34 Finally, awareness of sunk costs associated with the decision reduces escalation of commitment when ind ividuals feel responsible (i t gives them an "escape cla use") _3s
We usually th ink of esca lation of comm itment as ungrounded. However, pers is - tence in the face of fail ure is respo nsible for a great many of history's greatest feats, the bui lding of the Pyram ids, the Great Wall of China, the Panama Canal. an d the Emp ire Stale Building among them. Researchers suggest a balanced approach includes frequen t evaluation of the spen t costs and whether the next step is worth the an ticipated costs.36
What we want lo combat is th us the tendency lo automatically escalate comm itment.
Randomness Error Most of us like lo th ink we have some co ntrol over our world and our destiny. Our ten-
dency lo believe we can predict the o utcome of random events is the randomness error. Decision making suffers when we try to create meaning in ra ndom events, particu-
larly when we turn imaginary patterns into superstitions.37 These can be completely contrived, such as "I never make important decis ions on Friday the 13th." They can also evolve from a certain pattern of behaviour that has been reinforced previously. For example, Mikael Ki ngsbury, a world champion in moguls who won a silver medal at the Sochi Olymp ics wh ile represen ti ng Canada, wears the same T-sh irt under his ski
confirmation bias The tendency to seek out information !hat reaffirms past choices and to discount informa- tion that 0011tradicts past judgments.
availability bias The tendency for people to base their judgments on informalioo that is readily available to them rather than complete data.
escalation of commitment An increased commitment to a previous decision despite negative informalioo.
randomness error The tendency of individlJals to believe !hat they can predict !he outcome of random events.
4 2 4 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
~ OB ~cr10N clothing al every competition. The T-shirt says "ll's good to be the King." He wore il the first time he won a medal in a Wo rld Cup event, and then s tarted wearing it lo every major competi- tion. "Even if I do badly, it's still got some magic,• he said.39
Decisions based on random occurrences can hand icap us when they affect our judgment or b ias our major decisions.
Reducing Biases and Errors in Decision Making
-+ Focus on goals . Clear goals make decision making easier and help you eliminate options that are inconsistent with your interests.
Risk Aversion Mathematically, we should find a 50- 50 flip of a coin for $100 to be worth as much as a sure promise of $50. After all, the expected va lue of the gamble over a number of trials is $50. However, nearly everyo ne but commined gamblers would rather have the sure thing than a risky prospect.4° For many people, a 50- 50 flip of a coin even for $200 m ight nol be worth as much as a sure prom ise of $50, even though the gamble is mathemati- cally worth tw ice as much! This tendency lo prefer a sure thing over a risky outcome is risk avers ion .
-+ Look for infor mation that disconflrms your beliefs. When we deliberately consider various ways we could be wrong, we challenge our tendencies lo th ink we are smarter than we actually are.
-+ Don' t create meaning out of random events. Ask yourself if patterns can be meaningfully Risk aversion has important impl ications. First, to offset the
risks inherent in a comm iss ion-based wage, companies may pay commissioned employees considerably more than they do those on straight sa laries. Second, risk-averse employees will s tick w ith the established way of do ing their jobs rather than take a chance on innovative methods. Continuing with a strat- egy that has worked in the past minim izes risk, bul it wi ll lead lo s tagnation. Th ird, ambitious people with power that can be
exp lained or whether they are merely coinci- dence. Don't auempl to create meaning out of co incidence.
-+ Increase your options. The more alternatives you can generate, and the more diverse those alternatives, the greater your chance of finding an ou tstanding one.38
taken away ( most managers) appear lo be especially risk averse, perhaps because they don't want lo gamble everything they have
risk aversion The tendency to pre· fer a sure gain of a moderate amount over a riskier outcome, Mn ij the riskier outcome might have a higher expected payoff.
hindsight bias The tendency to believe falsely, after an outcome of an event is actually known, that one could have accurately predicted that outcome.
worked so hard lo achieve.41 CEOs at risk of d ism issal are also excep tionally risk averse, even when a riskier investment strategy is in their firms' best inlerests.42
Risk preference is sometimes reversed: People take chances when trying to prevent a negative ou tcome.43 They may thus risk losing a lot of money al trial rather than settle for less out of court Stressful si tuations can make risk preferences stronger. People under stress will more likely engage in risk-seeking behaviour to avoid negative outcomes, and risk-averse behaviour seeking positive outcomes.44
Hindsight Bias The h indsight bias is the te ndency lo believe falsely, after the outcome of an even t is actually known, that we cou ld have accurately predicted that outcome.45 When we have accurate feedback on the outcome, we seem lo be pretty good al conclud ing that il was obvious.
For instance, the original home video ren tal industry, ren ti ng movies al brick-and- mortar stores, collapsed as online d is tribution outlets ate away al the market.46 Some have suggested that if rental compan ies like Blockbuster had leveraged their brand lo offer onl ine stream ing and kiosks, they could have avoided failure. Whi le tha t seems obvious now in hindsight, tempting us to th ink we would have predicted it, many experts failed to predict industry trends in advance. Though cri ticisms of decision mak- ers may have merit, as Malcolm Gladwell, author of Blinh and The Tipping Point, writes, "What is clear in h indsight is rarely clear before the fact •47
We are all susceptible lo b iases like hindsight bias, but are we all susceptib le lo the same degree? ll is not likely. Our individual differences p lay a sign ifican t role in our decis ion-making processes, while our organizations constrain the range of our ava ilable decision choices.
OB in Action- Reducing Biases and Errors in Decision Making provides you with some ideas for improving your decis ion making.
Chapter 12 Decision Making, Creativity, and Et hics 425
Group Decision Making The belief- characterized by juries- that two heads are better than one has Jo ng been accepted as a basic component of North American and many other countries' legal systems. Many decisions in organizations are made by groups, teams, or commiuees. In this sec- tion, we review group decision maki ng and compare it with individual decision making.
Groups vs. th e Individual Decisio n-maki ng groups may be widely used in organizations, b ut are group decisio ns preferable lo those made by an ind ividua l alone? The a nswer to th is depends on a n u mber of factors we consider below. See Exhibit 12-2 for a su mmary of our major poi nts. Point/ Co11nrerpoint o n page 443 also considers whether people are more creative when they work a lone or with others.
Strengths of Group Decision Making Groups generate more complete infonnation and knowledge. By combin ing the resources of several ind ividuals, groups bring more input into the decision-making process. They offer increased diversity of views, which opens up the opportu nity lo consider more approaches and alternatives. Finally, groups lead to increased acceptance of a solution. Group members who participate in making a decision are l ikely lo support il enthusi- astically and encourage others to accep t il later.
Weaknesses of Group Decision Making Group decisions are tinie-consuming because groups typically take more time to reach a solution. There are confonnity press11res. The desire by group members lo be accepted and considered an asset to the group can result in squash ing any overt disagreement. Group d iscussion can be dominaced by one or a few members. If they are low- and medium-abi lity members, the group's overall effectiveness will suffer. Finally; group decisions suffer from ambiguous responsibility. In an individual decision, it's clear who is accountable for the final outcome. In a group decision, the responsibil ity of any single member is watered down.
Effectiveness and Efficiency Whether groups are more effective than individuals depends on how you define effec- tiveness. Group decisions are generally more acc11rate than the decisions of the average individual in a group, b ut they are less accurate than the judgmenL~ of the most accurate group member.48 If decision effectiveness is defined in terms of speed, individuals are superior. If creativity is important, groups lend to be more effective than individuals. If effectiveness means the degree of acceptance the final solution achieves, the nod again goes to the group. 49
But we cannot consider effectiveness without a lso assessing efficiency. With few exceptions, group decision making co nsumes more work hours t han having an
EXHIBIT 12-2 Group vs. Individual Decision Making
Criteria of Effectiveness
More complete infonnation
Diversity of views
Decision quality
Accuracy
Creativity
Degree of acceptance
Speed
Efficiency
Groups
./
./
./
./
./
./
Individuals
./
./
8 Contrast the strengths and weaknesses of group decision making.
426 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
groupthink A phenomenon in which group pressures 10< cooformity prevent lhe group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views.
individual tackle the same problem. The exceptions tend to be the instances in which, to achieve comparable quantities of d iverse input, the single decision maker must spend a great deal of time reviewing files and talking to o ther peop le. In deciding whether to use groups, then, consideration should be given to assessing whether increases in effectiveness are more than enough to off~el the reductions in efficiency. The Experiential Exercise on pages 444-446 gives you an opportun ity to assess the effectiveness and effi- ciency of group decision maki ng vs. individual decis ion making.
In summary, groups are an excellent vehicle for perform ing many s teps in the deci- s ion-making process and offer both breadth and depth of input for information gath- ering. If group members have diverse backgrounds, the alternatives generated should be more extensive and the analysis more critical. When the fina l solution is agreed on, there are more people in a group decision to support and imp lemen t it. These p luses, however, may be more than offset by the time consumed by group decisions, the inter- nal conflicts they create, and the pressures they generate toward conform ity. We must be carefu l to define the types of conflicts, however. Research in South Korea indicates that group conflicts about tasks may increase group performance, wh ile conflicts in relation- ships may decrease performance.50 In some cases, therefore, we can expect individua ls to make better decisions than groups.
Groupthink and Groupshift Two by-products of group decision making, groupthink and groupshifl, can affect the group's ab ility to appra ise alternatives objectively and achieve h igh-qua lity solutions.
Groupthink Have you ever felt like speaking up in a meeting, classroom, or informal group, but decided aga inst it? One reason may have been shyness. On the other hand, you may have been a victi m of groupthink. Groupth ink relates to norms. It describes sit uations in which group pressures for conform ity deter the group from critically appraising unusual, m inority, or unpopular views. Groupthink attacks many groups and can dra- matically hinder their performance.
We have all seen the symptoms of the groupth ink phenomenon:51
• Illusion of invulnerability. Group members become overconfident among them- selves, allowing them to take extraord inary risks.
• Assumption. of morality. Group members believe highly in the moral rightness of the group's objectives and do not feel the need to debate the ethics of their actions.
• Rationalized resistance. Group members rationalize any resistance to the assumptions they have made. No matter how strongly the evidence may contradict their basic assumptions, members behave so as to reinforce those assumptions continually.
• Peer pressure. Group members apply direct pressure on those who momen- tarily express doubts about any of the group's shared views or who question the val idity of arguments supporti ng the alternative favoured by the majority.
• Minimized doubts. Those group members who have doubts or hold d iffering po ints of view seek to avo id deviating from \vhat appears to be group consen- sus by keeping silent about misgivings and even min imizing to themselves the importance of their doubts.
• Illusion of unanimity. If someone does not speak, it's assumed that he or she is in full agreement. In other words, abstention becomes viewed as a yes vote.
Groupthink can also take place among strategic decis ion-makers, as OB in the Street shows.
OB IN THE STREET Groupthink at Target Canada
Chapter 12 Decision Making, Creativity, and Ethics 427
Why did a large, experienced retai ler make so many basic errors when launching its Canadian outlets? In 2013, US-based Target brought its mass-merchand ise s tores to Canada, open ing over 100 stores in under a year.s2 Things did not go well over 2013 and 2014. The stores drastically underperformed, with customers complain ing about poor selection, high prices, and empty store shelves. The retailer adm its lo poor planning, fail ing to research the prices charged by its Canadian competitors, and not making sure its supply chains would work properly.
Even with these difficulties, Target Chief Financial Officer John Mull igan said the reta iler was in Canada for the long hau l. Mulligan admitted that "we bit off way too much, too early. In retrospect we should've probably opened five to 10 stores [in 2013 J-refined the operations, refined the supp ly chain, the techno logy, got our store teams trained. But again, that's all hindsight, we are where we are right now and we're focused on moving forward to fix th is for our guests." Despi te th is s ta tement, in 2015 the US paren t company's CEO, Brian Cornell, announced that Target was pulling ou t of Canada and closing all 133 stores across the country.
Why did Target's Canadian management team choose to continue to open even more new stores in 2014 after its first stores opened with a strategy that was h ighly problematic? Groupthink is part of the answer. As one former emp loyee stated: •[Key team members from the Uni ted States I were not guides or resources, as much as they were obstacles to progress. If it didn' t come from/work in the U.S. then it was not a d iscussion point. " The same employee added: "To ... assume that the same 'playbook' used in the U.S. wou ld work in Canada was incredible. The inability of the (key team members from the Un ited States] to think and work beyond this led to us attempting to Xerox the U.S. s tore culture (for Team Members and Guests) instead of develop one
• that is tailored to Canadian tastes and attitudes." .. .............. ................ .
Groupthink appears to be closely aligned with the conclusions psychologist Solomon Asch drew in his experimen ts with a lone dissenter, which we described in Chapter 6. Ind ividua ls who hold a position that is d ifferent from that of the dominant ma jority are under pressure to suppress, withhold, or mod ify their true feelings and beliefs. As members of a group, we find it more p leasant to be in agreement-to be a positive part of the group-than to be a d isruptive force, even if disruption is necessary to improve the effectiveness of the group's decisions. Groups that are more focused on performance than on learning are especially likely to fall v ictim to groupthink and to suppress the opinions of those who do not agree with the majority.s3
Do all groups suffer from groupthink? No. It seems to occur most often where there is a clear group identity; where members ho ld a positive image of their group, which they want to protect; and where the group perceives a collective threat to its pos itive image.s4 One study showed that those influenced by groupthink were more confident about their course of action early on.ss Groups that believe too strongly in the correctness of their course of action are more likely to suppress d issent and encourage conform ity than are groups that are more skeptical about their course of action.
What can managers do to m inimize groupthink?s6
• Monitor group size. People grow more intim ida ted and hesitant as group s ize increases, and, although there is no magic number that will elim inate group· think, individuals are likely to fee l Jess persona l responsibility when groups get larger than abou t 10.
4 28 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
groupshift A phenomenon in which the initial pooitions of individual group members become exagger- ated because of the interactions of the group.
• Enccnirage group leaders to play an impartial role. Leaders shou ld actively seek input from all members and avoid expressing their own opin ions, especially in the early stages of deliberation.
• Appoint one group member w play the role of devil's advocate. Th is mem- ber's role is to overtly challenge the majority pos ition and offer divergent perspectives.
• Stimulate active discussion of diverse alternatives w encourage dissenting views and more objective evaluat.ions. Group members might delay discussion of possible gains so they can first talk about the dangers or risks inherent in a decision. Requ iring members to first focus on the negatives of an alternative makes the group less likely to s tifle d issenting views and more l ikely to gain an objective evaluation.
Groupshift or Group Polarization There are differences between group decis ions and the individual decisions of group members.57 In groups, discussion leads members toward a more extreme view of the position they already held. Conservative types become more cau tious, and aggressive types take on more r isk. Participants have engaged in groups hift, a phenomenon in which the in itial posi tions of ind ividual group members become exaggerated because of the interactions of the group.
Group polarization is a special type of groupth ink. The group's decision reflects the dominant decision-making norm- toward greater caution or more risk- that develops during discussion.
The sh ift toward polarization has severa l explanations.58 It has been argued, for instance, that the discussion makes members more comfortable with one another, and, thus, more willing to express extreme versions of their original positions. Another argument is that the group diffuses responsib ility. Group decisions free any s ingle member from accountabil ity for the group's final cho ice, so greater risks can be taken.
When Volkswagen was caught in a scandal for falsifying emission data, both groupthink and autocratic leadership may have been at play. One author describing the situation said, "Employees who had reser- vations about the illegal software-and there were some-had no place to turn."59 Senior management refused to listen to engineers who complained.
Chapter 12 Decision Making, Creativity, and Ethics 429
It's also likely that people take on extreme positions because they wanl to demonstrate how different they are from the outgroup.60 People on the fr inges of political or social movements take on ever-more extreme positions just to prove they are really comm itted to the cause, whereas those who are more cautious tend lo take moderate positions to demonstrate how reasonable they are.
How should you use the findings on groupshift? Recognize that group decisions exaggerate the initial position of the individual members, that the sh ift has been shown more often to be toward greater risk, and that the direction in which a group will sh ift is a function of the members' prediscussion inclinations. Case Incident- If 1luo Heads Are Better Than One, Are Four Even Beuer? on page 44 7 considers the impact of groupshift on investment decisions.
Group Decision-Making Techniques Groups can use a variety of techniques to make decisions. We outline three of them below.
Interacting Groups The most common form of group decision making takes place in interacting groups. Members meet face lo face and rely on both verbal and nonverbal interaction to communicate wi th one ano ther. Bu t as our d iscussion of groupth ink demonstrated, interacting groups often censor themselves and pressure individua l members toward conform ity of opin ion. Brainstorming and lhe nominal group technique can reduce many of lhe problems inherent in the traditional interacting group.
Brainstorming Brainstorming can overcome the pressures for con form ity that dampen creativity61 by encouraging any and all alternatives wh ile withhold ing criticism.
In a typ ical bra instorm ing session, 6 lo 12 people s it around a tab le. The group leader s tates the problem in a clear manner so that all participants unders tand it. Members then "free-wheel" as many alternatives as lhey can in a given period of lime. To encourage group members to "th ink lhe unusual,• no criticism is allowed, and all ideas are recorded for later d iscussion and analysis.
Brainstorm ing may indeed generate ideas- but not in a very efficient manner. Research consistently shows lhat individuals working alone generate more ideas than a group in a bra instorm ingsession.62 One reason for this is "production b locking." When people generate ideas in a group, many are talking at once, which blocks the individuals' thought process and eventually impedes the sharing of ideas.63
Nominal Group Technique The nominal group techniq ue may be more effective. This techn ique restricts discus- s ion and interpersona l communication during the decision-making process, hence the term nominal (which means "in name only"). Group members are all physically present, as in a trad itional commiu ee meeting, but lhey operate independently. Specifically, a problem is presented and then the group takes the following s teps:
• Before any d iscussion takes place, each member independently writes down his or her ideas on the prob lem.
• After this s ilent period, each member presents one idea lo the group. No d is- cussion takes place until all ideas have been recorded.
• The group discusses the ideas for clarity and evaluates them.
• Each group member si lently and independently ranks the ideas. The idea with the highest aggregate ranking determines the final decision.
C, Compare the effective - ness of interacting groups, brainstorming, and the nominal group technique.
interacting groups Typical groups in which members interact with one another face to face.
brainstorming An idea-generation process that specifically encour- ages any and all alternatives, while withholding any criticism of those alternatives.
nominal group technique A group decision-making method in which individual members meet face to face to pool their judgments in a system- atic but independent fashion.
4 30 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
EXHIBIT 12-3 Nominal Group Technique
Team members receive description of problem.
O Define creativity, and describe the three-stage model of creativity.
creativity The ability to produce novel and useful ideas.
three-stage model of creativity The proposition that creativity involves three stages: causes (creative potential and creative environment), creative behaviour, and creative out - comes (innovation).
Individual Activity
Individuals silently w rite down possible solutions.
Group Activity
Individuals take turns describing solutions to each other; group then discusses and evaluates ideas.
Individual Activity
Individuals silently rank (or vote on) each solution presented.
The steps of the nominal group technique are ill ustrated in Exhibit 12-3. The chief advantage of the techn ique is that il perm its the group lo meet formally b ut does not restrict independent thinking. Research generally shows that nom inal groups outper- form brainstorming groups.64
Each of these group decis ion tech niques has its own strengths and weaknesses. The choice depends on what criteria you want to emphasize and the cost-benefit trade-off. A~ Exh ibit 12-4 indica tes, an interacting group is good for achieving comm itment to a sol ution, brainstorming develops group cohesiveness, and the nominal group technique
is an inexpensive means for generating a large number of ideas.
Creativity in Organizational Decision Making Although the rational decision-making model will often improve decisions, a decision maker also needs crea tivity; that is, the abil ity to produce novel and useful ideas.65
Novel ideas are d ifferent from what has been done before but are appropriate for the problem presented.
Crea tivity allows the decis io n maker lo fully appraise and understand prob lems, including seeing prob lems others cannot see. Such th inking is becom ing more impor- tant. Although all aspects of organizational behaviour are complex, that is especially true for creativity. To s implify, Exhibit 12-5 provides a thr ee-sta ge model of creativ- ity in organizations. The core of the model is creative behaviour, wh ich has both causes (predictors of creative behaviour) an d outcomes (innovation). In th is section, we d iscuss the three stages of crea tivity, s tarting with the centre, creative behaviour.
EXHIBIT 12-4 Evaluating Group Effectiveness
Type of Group
Effectiveness Criteria Interacting Brainstorming Nominal Electronic
Number and quality of ideas Low Moderate High High
Social pressure High Low Moderate Low
Money costs Low Low Low High
Speed Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Task orientation Low High High High
Potential for interpersonal conflict High Low Moderate Low
Commitment to solution High Not applicable Moderate Moderate
Development of group cohesiveness High High Moderate Low
Source: Based on C. Woodyard, "Toyota Brass Shakeup Alms to Give Regions More Control,' USA Today, March 6, 20 13, www.usatoday.com/ story/money/cars/2013/00/06/toyota-shakeup/1966489/.
Chapter 12 Decision Making, Creativity, and Ethics 431
EXHIBIT 12-5 Three-Stage Model of Creativity in Organizatio ns
Causes of creative behavi our
Creative potential Creative environment
Novelty Usefulness
Creative Behaviour Creative behaviour occurs in four steps, each of which leads lo the next:
• Problem fonn11/atio11 . Any act of creativity begins with a problem that the behaviour is designed lo solve. Thus, problem formulation is defined as the s tage of creative behaviour in which we identify a problem or an opportu- nity that requ ires a solu tion as yet unknown. For examp le, Brendan Brazier believed at an early age that a p lant-based d iet could transform him into a professional athlete, so he set out to prove that by following such a d iet Bra- z ier attributes •c1ean eating• to his seven-year career as an Ironman Lriath lele and two-time winner of the Canadian SO-kilometre Ultra Marathon. He is also the formu lator of a line of plant-based nutr itional products through his com- pany, Vega, as well as a bestsell ing author. 66
• Inforniation gathering. Given a problem, the so lution is rarely directly al hand. We need time to learn more and lo process that learning. Thus, information gathering is the stage of creative behaviour when knowledge is sought and possible solutions to a prob lem incubate in an individual's mind. Informa- tion gathering leads us to identifying innovation opportunities.67 Niklas Laninge of Hoa's Tool Shop, a Stoclcho lm-based company that helps organi- zations become more innovative, argues that creative informa tion gathering means th inking b eyond usual rou ti nes and comfort zones. For examp le, have lunch with someone outside your field to d iscuss the prob lem. "It's so easy, and you're forced to speak about your business and the things that you want to accomplish in new terms. You can't use buzzwords because people don't know what you mean: Lan inge says.68
• Idea generation. Once we have collected the relevant information, it's time lo translate knowledge into ideas. Thus, ide a generation is the process of cre- ative behaviour in wh ich we develop possible solutions lo a problem from rel- evant information and knowledge. Sometimes we do this a lone, when tr iclcs like taking a walk69 and dood ling70 can jumpstart the process. Increasingly, though, idea generation is collaborative. For example, when NASA engineers developed the idea for landing a spacecraft on Mars, they did so collabora- tively. Before com ing up with the Curiosity- an SUV-sized rover that lands on Mars from a sky crane- the team spent three days scribbling potential ideas on whiteboards.71
• Idea evaluation. Finally, it's Lime to choose from the ideas we have gener- ated. Thus, idea evalua tion is the process of creative behaviour in wh ich we
problem formulation The s1age of creative behaviour that involves identifying a problem or an oppor- tunity that requires a solution as yet unknown.
information gathering The stage of creative behaviour when possible solutions to a problem incubate in an individual's mind.
idea generation The process of creative behaviour that involves developing possible solutions to a problem from relevant inf0<mation and knowledge.
idea evaluation The process of creative behaviour involving the evaluation of potential solutions to problems to identify the best one.
4 32 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
evaluate potential solu tions to identi fy the b est o ne. Sometimes the method of choosing can be innovative. When Dallas Mavericks owner Mark Cuban was unhappy with the b asketball team's uniforms, he asked fans lo help design and choose the best un iform. Cuban sa id, "What's the best way lo come up with creative ideas7 You ask for them. So we are go ing lo crowd source the design and co lors of our uni forms."72 Generally, you want those wh o evaluate ideas lo be d ifferent from those who generate them, lo eliminate the obvious biases.
Case Incident- The Youngest Female Self-Made Billionaire on pages 446 - 447 asks you lo consider how the three-stage model of creativity appl ies lo the success of Spanx owner Sara Blakely.
Causes of Creative Behaviour Having defined creative behaviour, th e main stage in the three-stage model, we now look back lo th e ca uses of cre- ativity: creative po tentia l and creative environment.
Creative Potential Is there s uch a thing as a creative persona lity? Indeed. Wh ile creative genius is rare- whether in science (Stephen Hawking), art (Pablo Picasso), or b usiness (Steve Jobs)-
\.Vhy are so1ne people n1ore creative than
others"?
most people have some of the characteristics shared by exceptionally creative people. The more of these characteristics we have, the higher our creative potential. Innovation is one of the lop organ izational goals for leaders. Consider these facets of po tential:
Intelligence and Creativity Intell igence is related lo creativity. Smart people are more creative beca use they are beuer al solving complex problems. However, intelligent individ uals may also be more crea tive because they have greater "worki ng memory"; that is, they can recall more information that is related lo the task al hand.73 Along the same lines, recent research in the Netherlands ind icates that an individual's high need for cognition ( desire to learn) is correlated with greater creativity. 74
Personality and Creativity The Big Five personality trail of openness to experience (see Chapter 2) correlates with creat ivity, probably because open individuals are less conformist in action and more divergent in th inking.75 Other traits of creative people include proactive personality, self-confidence, risk-taking, tolerance for ambiguity, and perseverance.76 Hope, self-efficacy (belief in yo u r capabi lities), and positive affect also predict an ind ividual's crealivity.77 Furthermore, research in Ch ina suggests that people w ith h igh core self-eva luations are be!ler able than o thers lo ma intain crea tiv ity in negative siluations.78 Perhaps counlerintuilively, some research supports the "mad genius" theory that some people \V it h menta l illness are wildly creative partially due lo the ir psychopathology; history certa inly provides examples, s uch as Vincent Van Gogh, John Forbes Nash, and others. However, the converse isn't true- people who are creative may have less psychopathology as a group than the genera l pop ulation.79
Expertise and Creativity Expertise is the founda tion for all creative work and th us is the single most important predictor of creative potential. Fi lm writer, producer, and director Quentin Tarantino spent his youth working in a video renta l store, where he bu ilt up an encycloped ic knowledge of movies. The potential for creativity is enhanced when individuals have ab ilities, knowledge, proficiencies, and sim ilar expertise lo their field of endeavour. For instance, you would nol expect someone with minimal knowledge of programming to be very creative as a software engineer. The expertise of others is
Chapter 12 Decision Making, Creativity, and Et hics 4 33
important, too. People with larger social networks have greater exposure lo diverse ideas and in formal access to the expertise and resources o f others. 80
Eth ics and Creativity Although creativity is linked to many desirab le individual char- acteristics, il is no t correlated with ethical i ty. People who cheat may actually be more creative than those who behave eth ically, accord ing to recent research. It may be tha t d ishonesty and creativity can both stem from a rule-breaking desire.81
Creative Environment Most of us have creative potential we can learn to apply, bul as important as creative potential is, by itself il is nol enough. We need lo be in an environment where creative potential can be realized. Wha t environmental factors affect whether creative potential translates into creative behaviours?
First and perhaps most important is molivacion. If you are nol motivated to be creative, it is unlikely that you will be. Intrinsic motivation, or the desire to work on something because it's interesting, exciting, satisfying, and challenging ( discussed in more detail in Chap ters 4 and 5), correlates fai rly strongly with crea tive ou tcomes.82
It's also val uable to work in an environment that rewards and recogn izes creative work. A study of health care teams found that team creativity translated into innova- tion on ly when the climate actively supported innovation.83 The organ ization should fos ter the free flow of ideas, including provid ing fair and constructive judgment. Free- dom from excessive rules encourages creativity; emp loyees should have the freedom to decide what work is to be done and how lo do it. One s tudy in China revealed that both structural empowermen t (in wh ich the structure of the work un it allows sufficient employee freedom) and psychological empowermen t (which lets the individua l feel personally enabled lo decide) were related lo employee creativity.84 However, research in Slovenia found that creating a competitive cl imate where achievemen t a t any cost is valued will stymie creativity.85
Shahrzad Rafati, founder and CEO of Vancouver-based BroadbandTV, made Fast Company's 2014 Most Creative People in Business 1000 list. When she was still an undergraduate computer science major at UBC, she came up with the idea of taking video uploaded to sites like You Tube and merging it with online advertising opportunities-bringing together both "pirates" and corporate content providers. Her com-
pany's MultiChannel Network (MCN) was ranked the third-largest on You Tube in 2014 with more than 1 .6 billion monthly views.
434 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
You may be wondering about the link between organizational resources and creativ- ity. While il is said that "necessity is the mother of invention; recent research ind icates that creativity can be inspired by an abundance of resources as well. It appears that managers greatly affect the outcomes. They may be able to heighten innovation, when resources are lim ited, by e ncouraging employees to find resources for their novel ideas, and by giving direct attention to appropriate tools when resources are plentiful. 86 Man- agers also serve an important bridge role for knowledge transfer. When managers link teams to add itional information and resources, radical creativity (introducing crea tive ideas that break the status quo) is more likely.87 The weaker lies between team members and manager networks may actually have more impact on creativity than the d irect, s tronger ties that team members have with their own networks, because the weaker sources provide more d ivergent thinking. 88
Good leadership matters to creativity. One study of more than 100 teams working in a large bank revealed that when the leader behaved in a pun itive, unsupporlive manner, the teams were less creative.89 By contrast, when leaders are encouraging in tone, run their units in a transparent fashion, and encourage the development of their emp loyees, the individuals they supervise are more crea tive.90
As we learned in Chap ter 6, more work today is being done in teams, and many people believe d iversity will increase team creativity. Past research has suggested that d iverse teams are not more creative. More recently, however, a study of Dutch teams revealed that when team members were explicitly asked to understand and consider the po int of view of the other team members ( an exercise called perspective-taking), diverse teams were more creative than those wi th less diversity.91 Leadership m ight make the difference. One study of 68 Chinese teams reported that diversity was positively related to team creativity only when the team's leader was inspirational and instilled members with confidence. 92
There are other worthwh ile find ings regarding creativity. One s tudy in a multina- tional pharmaceutical company found that teams that comprised members with d iverse business functions were more creative when they shared knowledge of one another's areas of expertise.93 However, if team members have a s imilar background, creativity may be heightened only when the members are sharing specific, detailed informalion,94
s ince general information may be dismissed by members with the same expertise. As you m ight expect, newcomers to a team can be a rich source of creative ideas, although they are unfortunate ly often expected to contribute less early on.95 Putti ng ind ividuals who are resistant to change into teams that are supportive of change can increase total creativity, 96 perhaps because of the group's positive influence. Collectively, these studies show that d iverse teams can be more creative, especially if they are intentionally led.
Creative Outcomes (Innovation ) The final stage in our model of creativity is the outcome. Creative behaviour does not always produce an innovative outcome. An employee might generate a creative idea and never share it. Management might reject a creative so lution. Teams migh t squelch creative behaviours by isolating those who propose different ideas. A 2012 study showed that most people have a bias aga inst accepting creative ideas because ideas create uncer- tainty. When people feel uncerta in, their ability to see any idea as creative is blocked.97
We can define creative outcomes as ideas or solutions judged to be novel and usefu l by releva nt s takeholders. Novelty itself does not generate a creative ou tcome if it is not usefu l. Thus, •off-the-wall" solutions are creative only if they help solve the problem. The usefulness of the solu tion might be self-evident (for example, the iPad), or il might be considered successful by only the stakeholders initially.98
An organization may harvest many creative ideas from its employees and call itself innovative. However, as one expert stated, • ideas are useless unless used." Soft skills help translate ideas into results. One study found that in a large agribusiness company;
Chapter 12 Decision Making, Creativity, and Ethics 435
crealive ideas were most likely to be implemented when a n ind ividual was motivated lo lranslate the idea into practice- and had strong networking abil ity. 99 These s tudies high lighl an important fact: Crealive ideas do not implement themselves; Lranslaling lhem inlo crealive oulcomes is a social process thal requires use of olh er concepls addressed in this book, including power and politics (Chapter 8), leadersh ip (Chapter 11 ), and motivalio n (Chapters 4 and 5).
From Concepts ro Shills o n pages 448 - 449 provides suggestions on how yo u can become more effective at solving problems creatively.
What About Ethics in Decision Making? TD's management, in response to the CBC report on the bank's aggressive sates goals, said that
all employees are expected to follow the company's code of ethics_ Joo TD spokesperson Daria
Hill stated that every employee must "act ethica lly and . . . not allow a focus on business
results to come before our focus on customers." Employees report that this makes it difficult to
meet sales targets. "I've increased people's lines of credit by a couple thousand dollars, just to
get SR [sates revenue) points," said a former teller from a Windsor, Ontario TD branch. Doing
this violated the Federal Bank Act.
How does ethics influence decision making'
No contemporary examination of decision making wou ld be complete without the d iscussio n of ethics, because ethical consideralions should be an important crilerion in organ iza tional decisio n making. Ethics is lh e sludy of moral val ues or principles that guide our beh avio ur and inform us whether aclio ns are right or wrong. Ethical princi- ples help us "do the righ t thing." In th is section, we presenl four ways lo ethically frame decisions and exami ne the factors tha t shape an individual's eth ical decision-making behaviour. We also exam ine ways to encourage more ethical decis ions. To learn more about yo ur approach lo eth ical decis ion making, see the Ethical Dilemma on page 446.
Four Ethical Decision Criteria An individual can use four criteria in making ethical ch oices. The firsl is utilitarianism, in wh ich decisions are made solely o n the basis of their outcomes, ideally lo provide the greatesl good for the greatesl number_ IO I Th is view dominales business decision making and is consislenl with goals such as efficiency, productivily, and high profi ts. Keep in m ind thal ulili tarianism is not always as objective as it sounds. A recent study ind icated that the eth ical ity of utilitarian ism is influenced in ways we don' t rea lize. Parlicipanls were given a moral dilemma: The \veight of five people bends a footbridge soil is low lo some lrain tracks. A Lrain is about to h it the bridge. The choice is to let all five people perish, or p ush lh e one h eavy man off the bridge lo save four people. In the Un ited Stales, South Korea, France, and Israel, 20 percenl of respondenlS chose lo push the man off the bridge, in Spa in, 18 percenl, and in Korea, none. These might speak to cullural util itarian val ues, bul a mi nor change, asking people to anS\ver in a non-native language they knew, caused more participants to push the ma n overboard: In one group, 33 per- cenl pushed the man, and in another group 44 percent did. lD2 The emolional distance of answering in a non-native language thus seemed to fosler a ulili tarian viewpoint. It appears thal even our view of what we consider pragmatic is changeable.
A second eth ica l crilerion is lo make decisions consislenl with fundamen ta l liber- l ies and privileges as sel forth in docu ments such as lhe Canadian Ch arler of Rights and Freedoms. An emphas is on rights in decision maki ng means respecting and pro- lecling lh e basic rights of individ uals, such as lhe rights lo privacy, free speech, and due process. This criterion protects whis tle-blower s rn3 wh en they reporl unethical or illega l practices b y their organ izations to the media or lo government agencies, using lheir right to free speech.
O Describe the four criteria used in making ethical decisions.
ethics The study of moral values or principles that guide our behaviour and inform us whether actions are right or wrong.
utilitarianism A decision focused on outcomes or consequences that emphasizes the greatest good for the greatest number.
whistle-blowers Individuals who report unethical practices by their employer to outsiders.
436 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
A third criterion is lo impose and enforce rules fa ir ly and impartially lo ensure justice or an equitable d isuibu tion of benefits and costs. 104 Justice perspectives are sometimes used to justify paying people the same wage for a given job, regardless of performance differences, and using sen iority as the primary determinant in making layoff decisions. A focus on justice protects the interes ts of the underrepresented and less powerfu l, bul it can encourage a sense of entitlemen t that reduces risk-taking, innovation, and productivity.
A fourth eth ical cri terion is care. The eth ics of care can be s tated as follows: "The morally correct action is the one that expresses care in protecting the special relation- sh ips that ind ividuals have with each other." 1°5 The care crite rion suggests that we shou ld be aware of the needs, desires, and well-being of those to \vhom we are closely connected. This perspective does remind us of the d ifficulty of being impartial in all decisions.
To summarize, a focus on utilitarianism promotes efficiency and productivity, but can sidel ine the rights of individuals with minority representation, . The use of rights pro tects ind ividuals but can create a legal is tic environment that hinders productivity and efficiency. A focus on justice protects the interests of the underrepresented and Jess powerful, but it can reduce risk-taking, innovation, and productivity.
Decision makers, particularly in for-profit organizations, feel comfortable with u tili- tarianism. The "best interests" of the organization and stockholders can justify a lol of questionable actions, such as large layoffs. Bul many critics fee l th is perspective needs to change. Publ ic concern about individual rights and social justice suggests that managers shou ld d evelop ethica l s tandards based on nonutilitarian criteria. Th is presents a chal- lenge because satisfying ind ividual rights and social justice creates far more ambiguities than utilitarian effects on efficiency and profits. However, wh ile raising prices, selling products with questionable effects on consumer health, dosing down inefficient p lants, laying off large numbers of employees, and moving production overseas to cut costs can be justified in utilitarian terms, there may no longer be a s ingle measure by which good decisions are judged.
Murad Al-Katib, president of Regina-based AGT Food and Ingredients Inc., wanted to do good for Syrian refugees. Through his company, he got 700 million meals made from lentils, chickpeas, and wheat into the United Nations Syrian refugee program. For this he won the Oslo Business for Peace Award in 2017 .106
•
. .
Chapter 12 Decision Making, Creativity, and Et hics 437
This is where corporate social responsibility (CSR) comes in to effect a positive change. A~ we can see by looking at utilitarian ideals, organ izations are not motivated to respond equitably when they are looking only al a balance sh eet. However, pub lic pressure o n
organ izations lo behave responsibly has mean t sustainab ility issues now affect the bottom line: Consumers increasingly choose to purchase goods and services from organizations with effective CSR initiatives, h igh performers are attracted to work at CSR organizations, governments offer incentives lo organizations for sustainabi lity efforts, and so forth. CSR is now begin ning lo make good business sense, fo ldi ng eth ics into utilitarian computations.
Increasingly, researchers are turni ng to behavioural ethics-an area of study that ana lyzes how people behave when co nfronted with eth ical di lemmas. Their research
tells us tha t while eth ica l standards exist collectively in societies and organizations and individ ually in the form of persona l ethics, we do not a lways follow eth ical stan dards promoted by our organ izations, and we sometimes violate our own s tandards. Our ethical beh aviour varies widely from o ne situation to the next. Focus on Research consid- ers why peop le cheat, and what organ iza tions ca n do to limit cheati ng.
FD c us ~NESEARCH Why People Cheat
What makes individuals decide to cheat? We all have cheated at something.107 We could assume that deciding to cheat is a product of cold hard calculus: Is the benefit of cheating
worth the cost? Research shows, however, that cheating is less rational than expected. Several 20 12 research projects yielded the following insights about how organizations can
stem cheating and other unethical behaviour:
• Cheating happens away from the cash. One study found that pecple steal more when they are a couple of steps removed from the cash . For example, one gallery's
gift shop was hemorrhaging money, but the reason was that volunteers were helping
themselves to merchandise, not the cash drawer. Similarly, when researchers put six packs of Coke and six $1 bills in dorm fridges, every Coke was gone within 72 hours,
but none of the cash.
• Cheating is contagious. A study of high school students in upper-middle-class com- munities revealed that among the 93 percent who admitted to cheating, the top
reason was the peNasiveness of cheating by others. A recent study of accounting
undergraduates revealed that cheating was most likely among students who reported having recently seen cheating and having friends who cheated .
• Moods affect cheating. Research shows that people cheat more when they are angry or tired. This insight reveals another positive dividend of trying to reduce negative
moods at work. • Incentives matter. Studies suggest that high-stakes outcomes c reate cheating as an
inevitable consequence. Coaches, CEOs, and po litical leaders should still be held
accountable, but it's helpful to understand circumstances in which expectations may
seem attainable only by cheating . •..........................................•
Making Ethical Deci sions How m ight we increase ethical decision-maki ng in organ izations? First, sociologist James Q. Wilso n proposed the brohen windows theory- th e idea th at decayed an d disorderly urba n environments may faci l itate criminal behaviour because they signal antisocial norms. Although controversial, the theory does fit with behavioural ethics research show- ing that seemingly superficial aspects of the environment- such as ligh ti ng, outward d isp lays of wealth an d s tatus, and cleanliness- can affect eth ical behaviour in organiza- tions_ IDS Managers m us t first realize that ethical behaviour can be affected by s igna ls;
behavioural ethics Analyzing how people actually behave when con- fronted with ethical dilemmas.
4 38 Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision
for example, if signs of status and money are everywhere, an employee may perceive those, rather than eth ical standards, to be of the highest importance. Second, managers should e ncourage conversations about moral issues; they may serve as a reminder and increase ethical decision making. One st udy found that simply asking business school students to th ink of an ethi- cal s ituation had powerfu l effects when they were making ethical cho ices later.1D9 Finally, we shou ld be aware of our own moral "blind spots•- the te ndency to see ourselves as more mora l than we are and others as Jess moral than
How can people make 1nore
ethical they are. An environment that encourages open d iscussions decisions'? and does no t penalize people for coming forward is key to overcoming blind spots and increasing the e thicality of decision making. 110
Behavioural e th ics research stresses the importance of culture to ethical decision making. There are few global standards for e th ical decision making, 111 as co ntrasts between A~ia and the West illustrate. For example, because bribery is more common in cou ntries such as China, a Canadian worki ng in China might face a dilemma: Should I pay a bribe to secure business if it's an accepted part of that country's culture? Although some compan ies such as IBM explicilly address this issue, many don't. Without sensitiv- ity to cultural d ifferences as part of the definition of eth ical co nduct, organizations may encourage unethical conduct withou t even knowing it.
Whi le the d ifference between an ethical and unethical decis ion is not always clear- cut, there are some questions you should co nsider. Exhibit 12-6 illustrates a decision tree to gu ide ethical decision making. 112 Th is tree is built on three of the ethical deci- s ion criteria- utilitaria nism, rights, and justice- presented earlier. The first question you need to answer addresses self-in terest vs. organizational goals.
r \
Some retailers refused to carry lvanka Trump clothes, and Silicon Valley executives h ave spoken out against Donald Trump. But Ottawa-based Shopify has resisted calls to not allow Breitbart News to use their plat-
fonn to sell political merchandise. Breitbart had been one of the most outspoken supporters of Donald Trump before the election, and continues to be so. Shopify co-founder Tobias Lutke calls it a free speech matter. "This means protecting the right o f organizations to use our platform even if they are unpopular or if we disagree with their premise, as long as they are within the law. That being said, if Breitbart calls us tomorrow and tells us that they are going to switch to another platform, we would be delighted." 113 Liitke's choice shows that ethical decision making is not easy, and different people can make different choices.
0
Chapter 12 Decision Making, Creativity, and Et hics 439
EXHIBIT 12-6 Is a Decision Ethical?
Is the decision motivated by self-serving
interests?
Unethical I
Question 2
Does the decision respect the
rights o f the individuals affected?
Question 3
Is t he d ecision fair and equitable?
Unethical
The second question concerns the rights of other parties. If the decis ion vio lates the rights of someone else (the person's r ight lo privacy, for instance), then the decision is unethical.
The final q uestion that needs lo be addressed relates lo whether the decision con- forms lo standards of fa irness and equ ily. The department head who infla tes the perfor- mance evaluation of a favoured employee and deflates the evaluation of a disfavoured emp loyee- and then uses these evaluations to justi fy giving Lhe former a big raise and nothing lo the lauer- has treated the d isfavoured employee unfairly.
Unfortunately, the answers lo the questions in Exh ib it 12-6 are often argued in ways lo make unethical decisions seem ethical. Powerfu l people, for examp le, can become very adept al expla in ing self-serving behavio u rs in terms of Lhe organization's besl interests. Similarly, they can persuasively argue that unfair actions are really fa ir and jus t. Our point is thal immoral people can justify almost any behaviour. Those who are powerful, articu late, and persuasive are the mosl likely lo be ab le lo get away with uneth ical actions successfully. When faced with an eth ical di lemma, try to answer the questions in Exhib it 12-6 truthfully. Organizations that don'l foster a strong cu lture of ethics may find themselves facing disaster, as the story of now-bankrupl Montreal, Ma ine and Atlantic Ra ilway (MMA), d iscussed in OB in the Workplace, shows.
OB IN THE =.... WORKPLACE The Et hics of Fostering a "Culture of Shortcuts"
How can a n organization's culture contribute to a deadly disaster? The Transportation Safely Board of Canada's reporl aboul the Lac-Megan tic, Quebec, derai lment that killed 47 people and obl iterated part of Lhe town indicated that MMA's lax at titude toward safety conlribuled lo Lhe d isaster. 114 "'The TSB fo und MMA was a company with a weak safely culture tha t did not have a func tioning sa fely management system lo manage risks," the agency said. The company's approach lo safely represents a sign ificant breach of ethics given the threat posed by a lack of appropriate s tandards in the rai l industry. Gaps in training, emp loyee monitoring, and ma intenance were noted. One such gap, a fa ilure to properly lest the air brake system, contributed directly to the tragic events of July 6, 2013. From all ind ications, th is •culture of shortcuts" was well established. Management's decision to let lh is culture flour ish ullimalely led MMA to disaster, bankruplcy, and ruin . ......................................................... .
Ethical
Unethical
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Decision Making The rational decision-making model makes no acknowledgment of cu ltural differences, nor does the bu lk of OB research literature on decision making.
However, we need lo recogn ize that the cultural background of a decis ion maker can have a significant influence on the selection of problems, the depth of analysis, the importance placed on logic and rationality, and whether organizational decisions shou ld be made au tocratically by an individual manager or collectively in groups.
Cultures differ in their t ime orientation, the importance of rational ity, their belief in the abil ity of people to solve problems, and their preference for collective decision making. Differences in time orientation help us understand why managers in Egypt make decisions at a much slower and more deliberate pace than their US counterparts. While rationality is valued in North America, that is not true elsewhere in the world. A North American manager might make an important decision intuitively but know it's important lo appear to proceed in a rational fashion because rationality is h ighly va lued in the West. In countries such as Iran, where rationality is not as paramount as other factors, efforts to appear rational are nol necessary.
Some cul lures emphasize solving problems, wh ile others focus on accepting situa- tions as they are. Canada falls in the first category; Thai land and Indonesia are examples of the second. Because problem-solving managers believe they can and should change s ituations to their benefit, Canad ian managers migh t identify a problem long before their Thai or Indonesian counterparts would choose to recogn ize il as such. Decision making by Japanese managers is much more group-oriented than in Canada . The Japa- nese value conformity and cooperation. So before Japanese CEOs make an important decision, they collect a large amount of information, which they use to form consensus when making group decisions.
In short, there are probably important cultural differences in decision making, but unfortunately no t yet much research to iden ti fy them.
Creativity One study suggests that countries scoring high on Hofstede's culture d imension of indi- viduali ty (d iscussed in Chapter 3) are more creative. 115 Western countries such as the United States, Ita ly, and Belgium score high on individual ity, and South American and Eastern countries such as China, Colombia, and Pakistan score low. Do these findings mean that Western cul lures are more creative? Some evidence suggests that this is true. Another study compared the crea tive projects of German and Ch inese college students, some of whom were studying in their homeland, and some of whom were s tudy ing abroad. An independent panel of Chinese and German judges determined that the German students were most creative and that Asian German s tudents were more creative than domestic Chinese s tudents. These resu lts suggested that the German cu lture was more crealive.116 However, even if some cu ltures are more creative on average, strong varia tions always occur with in cul lures. Put another way, mill ions of Chinese are more creative than their US counterparts.
Ethics Although eth ical standards may seem ambiguous in the West, criteria defining right and wrong are actually much clearer there than in Asia, where few issues are black and wh ite and most are grey. In Japan, people doing business together often exchange gifts, even
Cha pter 12 Decision Making, Creativity, and Ethics 441
expensive o nes. This is part of Jap anese traditio n. When North American and European comp an ies s tarted doing b usi ness in Japan, most No rth American executives were not aware of the Japanese trad itio n of exchanging gifts an d wondered wh ether this was a fo rm of bribery. Most have come to accept th is trad itio n now, and have even set differ- ent lim its o n gift givi ng in Japan than in other countries.
Global orga nizations must estab lish eth ical principles for decisio n makers in coun - tries such as India and Ch ina and mod ify them to reflect cultural norms if they want lo uphold h igh standards an d consis tent practices. Having agreements among countries to police bribery may not be enough, h owever. The 34 countr ies of the Organisation fo r Eco nomic Co-operation and Developmen t (OECD) entered into an agreement to tackle corporate brib ery in 1997. However, a s tudy by Berlin-based Transparency Inter- nat ional fo und that 21 o f the OECD cou ntries are "doing little or nothing" to e nforce the agreement. Canada came under strong criticism for being "the o nly G7 coun try in the little or no enforcement ca tegory." The United States and Germany rated h igh est o n n umber o f cases filed. Transpa rency International noted that Canada needed lo enforce more of its Jaws in th is area. 11 7
Summary An understan d ing of the way people make decis ions can help us expla in and predict behavio ur, b u t few important decisions are simple or unambiguous enough for the rational decision-making model's assumptions to app ly. We find individuals looking for solutions that satisfice rather th an optim ize, injecti ng b iases into the decision process, and relying on intu ition. Managers should encourage creativity in employees and teams to create a route to innovative decision-making. Individ uals are more like ly to make ethical decisions when the culture in wh ich they work supports ethical decision making.
SNAPSHOT SUMMARY ·
How Should Decisions Be Made? • The Rational Decision-Making
Process
How Do Individuals Actually Make Decisions?
• Bounded Rationality in Considering Alternatives
• Intuition • Judgment Shortcuts
Group Deci sion Making
• Groups vs. the Individual
• Groupthink and Groupshift • Group Decision-Making
Techniques
Creativity in Organizational Decision Making
• Creative Behaviour
• Causes of Creative Behaviour
• Creative Outcomes Qnnovation)
What About Ethics in Decision Making?
• Four Ethical Decision Criteria • Making Ethical Decisions
LESSONS LEARNED
• Individuals often short-cut the decision-maki ng pro- cess and do not consider all options.
• In tuition leads to better results w hen supple mented with evidence and good judgment.
• Exceptional creativity is rare, but expertise in a subjea and a creative environment encourage novel and useful creative outcomes.
Myl ab Management Study, practise, and explore real business situations with these helpful resources:
• Study Plan: Check your understanding of chapter concepts with self-study quizzes.
• Online Lesson Presentations: Study key chapter topics and work through interactive assessments to test your knowledge and master management concepts.
• Y-Kleos: learn more about the management practices and strategies of real companies.
• Simulations: Practise management decision-making in simulated business environments.
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.,. for Review
1 . What is the rational model of decision making? How is it dif- ferent from bounded rationality and intuition?
2. What are some common deci- sion biases or errors people
make?
3. What are the strengths and weaknesses of group (vs. individual) decision making?
4. How effective are interacting groups, brainstorming, and the nominal group technique?
5. What is creativity, and what is the three-stage model of
creativity?
6. What are the four criteria used in making ethical decisions, and how do they differ?
for Managers
• Make better decisions by rec- ognizing perceptual biases and decision-making errors we tend to commit. Leaming about these problems doesn't always prevent us from making m istakes, but it does help.
• Adjust your decision-making approach to the national culture you are operating in and to the criteria your organization values. If you operate in a country that does not value rationality, don't feel compelled to follow the ratio- nal decision-making model or to try to make your decisions appear rational. Adjust your decision- making approach to ensure com- patibility with the organizational culture.
• Combine rational analysis with intuition. These are not conflicting approaches to decision making. By using both, you can actually improve your decision-making effectiveness.
• Try to enhance your creativity. Actively look for novel solutions to problems, attempt to see prob- lems in new ways, use analogies, and hire creative talent. Try to remove work and organizational barriers that might impede your creativity.
for You
• In some decision situations, consider following the rational decision-making model. Doing so will ensure that you review a wider variety of options before commit - ting to a partic ular decision.
• Analyze the decision situation and be aware of your biases. We all bring biases to the decisions we make.
• Combine rational analysis with intuition. As you gain experience, you should feel increasingly con - fident in imposing your intuitive processes on top of your rational analysis.
• Use creativity-stimulation tech- niques. You can improve your overall decision-making effective - ness by searching for innovative solutions to problems. This can be as basic as te lling yourself to think creatively and to look spe- cifically for unique alternatives.
• When making decisions, think about their ethical implications. A quick way to do this is to ask yourself: Would I be em barrassed if this action were printed on the front page of the newspaper?
Chapter 12 Decision Making, Creativity, and Et hics
PEOPLE ARE MORE CREATIVE WHEN THEY WORK ALONE
POI NT COUNTERPOINT - - - - I know groups are all the rage. 118 Businesses are knocking down walls and cubicles to create more open, •collaborative" environments. "Self-managing teams• are replacing the traditional middle manager. Students in universities are constantly working on group projects, and even young children are finding themselves learning in small groups.
I also know why groups are all the rage. Work, they say, has become too complex for individuals to perform alone. Groups are better at brainstorming and coming up with creative solutions to complicated problems. Groups also produce higher levels of commitment and satisfaction - so long as group members develop feel- ings of cohesiveness and trust one another.
For every group that comes up with a creative solu- tion, I'll show you twice as many individuals who would come up with a better solution had they only been left alone. Consider creative geniuses like Leonardo DaVinci, Isaac Newton, and Pablo Picasso- or, more recently, Steve Wozniak, the co-founder of Apple Computer. All were introverts who toiled by themselves. Wozniak has been quoted as saying "Work alone ... not on a com- mittee. Not on a team.•
Enough anecdotal evidence. Research has also shown that groups can kill creativity. One study found that computer programmers at companies that give them privacy and freedom from interruptions outperformed their counterparts at companies that forced more open- ness and collaboration. Or consider Adrian Fumham, an organizational psychologist whose research led him to conclude that "business people must be insane to use brainstorming groups." People slack off in groups, and they are afraid to communicate any ideas that might make them sound dumb. These problems don't exist when people work alone. So take Picasso's advice: "Without great solitude, no serious work is possible."
I will grant your point that there are circumstances in which groups can hinder creative progress, but if the right conditions are put in place, groups are simply much better at coming up with novel solutions to prob- lems than are individuals. Using strategies such as the nominal group technique, generating ideas electronically rather than face to face, and ensuring that individuals do not evaluate others' ideas until all have been generated are just a few ways you can set up groups for creative
success. The fact of the matter is that problems are too com-
plex these days for individuals to effectively perform alone. Consider the Rovers launched by NASA to roam around Mars collecting data. An accomplishment like that is made possible only by a group, not a lone indi· vidual. Steve Wozniak's collaboration with Steve Jobs is what really made Apple sail as a company.
In addition, the most influential research is conducted by teams of academics, rather than individuals. Indeed, if you look at recent Nobel Prize winners in areas such as economics, physics, and chemistry, the majority have been academics who collaborated on the research.
So if you want creativity, two heads are in fact better than one.
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BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES
Forni small groups to discuss the following topics, as assigned by your instructor:
1. Apply the rational decision-making model to deciding where your group might eat dinner this evening. How closely were you able to follow the rational model in making this decision?
2. The company that makes your favourite snack product has been accused of being weak in its social responsibil- ity efforts. What impact will this have on your purchase of any more products from that company?
3. You have seen a classmate cheat on an exam or an assignment. Do you do something about this or ignore it?
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
Wilder ness Survival You are a member of a hiking party. After reaching base camp on the first day, you decide to take a quick sunset hike
by yourself. After a few exhilarating miles, you decide to return to camp. On your way back, you realize that you are lost.
You have shouted for help, to no avail. It is now dark and getting cold.
Your Task
Without communicating with anyone else in your group, read the following scenarios and choose the best answer. Keep
track of your answers on a sheet of paper. You have 10 m inutes to answer the 10 questions.
1. The first thing you decide to do is to build a fire. However, you have no matches, so you use the bow and drill method. What is the bow and drill method?
a. A dry, soft stick is rubbed between one's hands against a board of supple green wood.
b. A soft green stick is rubbed between one's hands against a hardwood board.
c . A straight stick of wood is quickly rubbed back and forth against a dead tree.
d. Two sticks (one being the bow, the other the drill) are struck to create a spark.
2. It occurs to you that you can also use the fire as a distress signal. How do you forn, the international distress signal?
a. 2 fires
b. 4 fires in a square
c . 4 fires in a cross
d. 3 fires in a triangle
3. You are very thirsty. You go to a nearby stream and collect some water in the small metal cup you have in your backpack. How long should you boil the water?
a. 15 minutes
b. 1 m inute
c . A few seconds
d. It depends on the altitude.
4. You are very hungry, so you decide to eat what appear to be edible berries. When pertonning the universal edibil- ity test, what should you do?
a. Do not eat for 2 hours before the test.
b. If the plant stings your lip, confirn, the sting by holding it under your tongue for 15 minutes.
c . If nothing bad has happened 2 hours after digestion, eat half a cup of the plant and wait again.
d. Separate the plant into its basic components and eat each component, one at a time.
5. Next, you decide to build a shelter for the evening. In selecting a site, what do you not have to consider? a. It must contain material to make the type of shelter you need.
b. It must be free of insects, reptiles, and poisonous plants.
c . It must be large enough and level enough for you to lie down comfortably.
d. It must be on a hill so you can signal rescuers and keep an eye on your surroundings.
Chapter 12 Decision Making, Creat ivity, and Et hics 445
6. In the shelter that you built, you notice a spid er. You heard from a fellow hiker that black w idow spiders populate the area. How do you identify a black w idow spider?
a. Its head and abdomen are black; its thorax is red.
b. It is attracted to light.
c. It runs away from light.
d. It is dark with a red or orange marking on the female's abdomen.
7. After getting some sleep, you notice that the night sky has cleared, so you decide to try to find your way back to base camp. You believe you should travel north and can use the North Star for navigation. How do you locate the North Star?
a. Hold your right hand up as far as you can and look between your index and middle fingers.
b. Rnd Sirius and look 60 degrees above ii and to the right.
c. Look for the Big Dipper and follow the line created by its cup end.
d. Follow the line of Orion's belt.
8. You come across a fast -moving stream. What is the best way to cross it?
a. Rnd a spot downstream from a sandbar, where the water will be calm er.
b. Build a bridge.
c. Rnd a rocky area, because the water will be shallow and you will have hand- and footholds.
d. Rnd a level stretch where it breaks into a few channels.
9. After walking for about an hour, you feel several spiders in your clothes. You don't feel any pain, but you know some spider bites are painless. Which of these spider bites is painless?
a. Black widow
b. Brown recluse
c. Wolf spider
d. Harvestman (daddy longlegsJ
10. You decide to eat some insects. Which insects should you avoid?
a. Adults that sting or bite
b. Caterpillars and insects that have a pungent odour
c. Hairy or brightly coloured ones
d. All the above
Group Task Break into groups of 5 or 6 people. Now imagine that your w hole group is lost. Having w ritten down your own answers
first, com pile your group's answers using consensus to reach each decision. Once the group comes to an agreement, write the group decisions down on the same sheet of paper that you used for your individual answers. You will have
approxim ately 20 minutes for the group task.
Scoring Your Answers Your instructor w ill provide you with the correct answers, w hich are based on expert judgm ents in these situations. Once
you have received the answers, calculate (AJ your individual score; (BJ your group's score; (C) the average individual score in the group; and (DJ the best individual score in the group. Write these dow n and consult w ith your group to
ensure that these scores are accurate.
(A) Your individual score ___ _
(Bl Your group's score ___ _
(C) Average individual score in group ___ _
(D) Best individual score in group ___ _
Discussion Questions
1. How did your group (B) perform relative to yourself (AJ?
2. How did your group (B) perform relative to the average individual score in the group (CJ?
3 . How did your group (B) perform relative to the best individual score in the group (D)?
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4. Compare your results with those of other groups. Did some groups do a better job of outperforming individuals than others?
5.
6.
What do these results tell you about the effectiveness of group d ecision making?
What can groups do to make group decision making more effective?
7. What circumstances might cause a group to perform worse than its best individual?
ETHICAL DILEMMA
Five Ethical Decisions: What Would You Do? Assume that you are a m iddle manager in a company
with about 1000 employees. How would you respond to
each of the following situations? 119
1. You are negotiating a contract with a potentially very large customer whose representative has hinted that you could almost certainly be assured of get- ting his business if you gave him and his wife an all- expenses-paid cruise to the Caribbean. You know the representative's employer would not approve of such a "payoff," but you have the discretion to authorize such an expenditure. What would you do?
2. You have an autographed CD by Sam Roberts and put it up for sale on eBay. So far, the highest bid is $7 4.50. A friend has offered you $100 for the CD, commenting that he could get $ 150 for it on eBay in a year. You know th is is highly unlikely. Should you sell your friend the CD for what he offered ($ 100)? Do you have an obligation to tell your friend you have listed your CD on eBay?
3. Your company policy on reimbursement for meals while travelling on company business is that you will be repaid for your out-of-pocket costs, which are not to exceed $80 a day. You don't need receipts for these expenses- the company will take your
word. When travelling, you tend to eat at fast-food p laces and rarely spend in excess of $20 a day. Most of your colleagues submit reimbursement requests in the range of $55 to $60 a day regard - less of what their actual expenses are. How much would you request for your meal reimb ursements?
4. You are the manager at a galling company, and you are responsible for hiring a group to outsource the production of a highly anticipated new game. Because your company is a giant in the induslly, numerous companies are trying to get the bid. One of them offers you some kickbacks if you give that firm the bid, but ultimately, it is up to your bosses to decide on the company. You don't mention the incentive, but you push upper management to give the bid to the com- pany that offered you the kickback. Is withholding the truth as bad as lying? Why or why not?
5. You have discovered that one of your closest friends at work has stolen a large sum of money from the company. Would you do nothing? Go directly to an executive to report the incident before talking about it with the offender? Confront the individual before tak- ing action? Make contact with the individual with the goal of persuading that person to return the money?
CASE INCID E NT S
The Youngest Female Self-Made Billionaire Picture this: 120 The billionaire owner and founder stands
in the conference room trying on b ras while the CEO
stands behind her, adjusting the straps. The floor is lit-
tered with underwear. The owner takes off one bra and
puts on another. Rve executives in the conference room
barely blink.
Welcome to Sara Blakely's company, Spanx. In just a
few years, Spanx became to slimming underwear what
JELL-0 is to gelatin and Kleenex is to facial tissue: So
dominant that its name is synonymous with the industry.
At 45, Blakely is one of the youngest billionaires in the
world. Like many stories of entrepreneurial success, hers
is part gritty determination, part inspiration, and part c ir-
cumstance. The grit was easy to see early on. As a child
she lured friends into doing her chores by setting up a
competition. At 16, Blakely was so intent on success that
Chapter 12 Decision Making, Creat ivity, and Et hics 447
she listened to self-help guru Wayne Dyer's recording s
incessantly. Friends refused to ride in her car. "No! She's
g oing to make us listen to that motivatio nal crap!" Blakely
recalls they said.
After twice failing to get into law school, Blakely started
her first business in 1990, run ning a kids' club at the
Clearwater Beach Hilton . It worked until the Hilton's g en-
e ral manager found o ut. Later, while wo rking full -time in
sales, Blakely began learning how to start a mo re viable
business. Her inspiratio n for Spanx came w hile she was
cold -calling custo me rs as a sales manager fo r an office
supply company. She hated pantyhose. "It's Flo rida, it's
hot, I' m carrying copy machines," she noted.
At t he library, Blakely researched every p ant yhose
patent ever filed. She w rote her patent ap plicatio n by fo l-
low ing a textboo k she read in Barnes & Nob le. Then she worked on marketing, manufacturing, and financing, treat- ing each as its own project. After numerous rejections, she
finally found mill owners in North Carolina willing to finance
the manufacturing. "At the end of the day, the guy end ed
up just wanting to help me,• Blakely said . "He d id n't even
believe in the id ea."
For a time, Blakely relied on US sto res such as Neiman
Marcus to set up her tab le and o n word-of-m outh to get
the news o ut to the p ublic. Her big b reak came when she
sent samp les to Oprah W infrey's stylist. Harpo Produc-
tions called to say that W infrey would nam e Spanx her
favourite product of the year and warned Blakely to get
her web site ready. She d id not have a website.
Billions of dollars in sales later, Blake ly has no p lans
to slow d own. Spanx is sold in 55 co untries, and Blakely
wants to double international sales. She says: "The biggest
risk in life is not risking. Every risk you take in life is in d irect
proportio n to the reward. If I' m afraid of so mething, it's the
next thing I have to go do. That 's just the way I've been.•
Questions
1. Does hindsight b ias affect the factors to w hich yo u m ig ht attribute Blakely's success? Why or why not?
2. Use the three-stage model of creativity to analyze
Blakely's decisio n making. What can yo u learn from
her story that might help you be more creative in the
future?
If Two Heads Are Better Than One, Are Four Even Better?
Magg ie Becker, age 24, is a m arketing manager for
a small chain of shops in Halifax. Recently, Maggie's
wealthy uncle passed away and left her, his o nly niece,
$ 100 000. Mag gie considers her current salary ad equate
to meet her current living expenses, so she would like to
invest the mo ney so that when she buys a ho use she will
have a nice nest egg on which to d raw.
One o f Maggie 's neig hbours , Br ian, is a fi na nc ia l
adviser. Brian told Maggie that the array of investment
o ptio ns is virtually endless. She asked him to p resent her
with two of the best o ptions, and this is w hat he offered
her:
1. A very low- risk AAA bond fund. W ith this optio n, based o n the information Brian p rovid ed, Mag gie
estimates that after five years she stands virtually
zero chance of losing mo ney, with an expected g ain
of approximately $ 7000.
2. A moderate-risk m utual fund. Based o n the infor-
mation Brian p rovid ed her, Maggie estimates that
with th is option she stands a 50 percent chance of
making $40 000 b ut also a 50 percent chance of
lo sing $20 000.
Mag gie prides herself o n being ratio nal and o bjective
in her thinking. However, she is unsure o f what to do in
th is case. Brian refuses to help her, telling her that she has
already limited herself by asking for only two o ptions. While
driving to her parents' house fo r the weekend , Maggie
finds herself vacillating between the two options. Her older
b rothe r is also visiting the folks th is weekend, so Magg ie
d ecides to gather her family around the tab le after dinner,
lay o ut the two o ptio ns, and go with their d ecision. "Yo u
know the old saying - t wo head s are better than one,"
she says to herself, "so four heads should be even better."
Questions
1. Has Mag gie made a good d ecisio n about the way she is go ing to make the decisio n?
2. Which investment would you choose? Why?
3. Which investment do yo u think most people would
choose?
4. Based o n what you have learned about groupshift, which investm ent do you think Mag gie's family will
choose?
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Solving Problems Creatively Reaching creative solutions
to problems can improve one's
decision -making abilities .
You can be more effective at solving problems creatively if you use the
following 1 O suggestions: 121
1. Think of yourself as creative. Research shows that if you think you cannot be creative, you won't be. Believing in your ability to be creative is the first step in becoming more c reative.
2. Pay attention to your intuition. Every individual has a subconscious m ind that works well. Sometimes answers will come to you when you least expect them. Listen to that "inner voice." In fact, most creative people will keep a notepad near their bed and write down ideas when the thoughts come to them.
3 . Move away from your comfort zone. Every individual has a comfort zone in which certainty exists. But creativity and the known often do not mix. To be creative, you need to move away from the status quo and focus your mind on something new.
4 . Determine what you want to do. This includes such things as taking time to understand a problem before beginning to try to resolve it, getting all the facts in mind, and trying to identify the most important facts.
5. Think outside the box. Use analogies whenever possible (for example, could you approach your problem like a fish out of water and look at what the fish does to cope? Or can you use the things you have to do to find your way when it's foggy to help you solve your problem?). Use different problem-solving strategies, such as verbal, visual, mathemati- cal, or theatrical. Look at your problem from a different perspective, or ask yourself what someone else, such as your grandmother, m ight do if faced with the same situation.
6 . Look for ways to do things better. This may involve trying consciously to be original, not worrying about looking foolish, keeping an open mind, being alert to odd or puzzling facts, thinking of unconventional ways to use objects and the environment, discarding usual or habitual ways of doing things, and striving for objectivity by being as critical of your own ideas as you would be of someone else's.
7. Rnd several right answers. Being creative means continuing to look for other solutions even when you think you have solved the problem. A better, more creative solution just might be found.
8 . Believe in finding a workable solution. Like believing in yourself, you also need to believe in your ideas. If you don't think you can find a solution, you probably won't.
9 . Brainstorm with others. Creativity is not an isolated activity. Bouncing ideas off of others c reates a synergistic effect.
10. Turn creative ideas into action. Coming up with creative ideas is only part of the process. Once the ideas are generated, they must be implemented. Keeping great ideas in your mind, or on papers that no one will read, does little to expand your c reative abilities.
Chapter 12 Decision Making, Creativity, and Ethics 449
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Every time the phone rings, your stomach clenches and your palms start
to sweat. And it's no wonder! As sales manager for Brinkers, a m achine
tool parts manufacturer, you are besieged by calls from customers Who
are upset about late deliveries. Your boss, Carter Hererra, acts as both
production manager and scheduler. Every time your sales representatives
negotiate a sale, it 's up to Carter to determine Whether production can
actually meet the delivery date the customer specifies. Carter invariably
says, "No problem. " The good thing about this is that you make a lot of ini-
tial sales. The bad news is that production hardly ever meets the shipment
dates that Carter authorizes. Moreover, he does not seem to be all that
concerned about the aftermath of late deliveries. He says: •o ur customers
know they're getting outstanding quality at a great price. Just let them try
to match that anywhere. It can't be done. So even if they have to wait a
couple of extra days or weeks, they' re still getting the best deal they can."
Som ehow the custom ers don't see it that way, and they let you know
about their unhappiness. Then it's up to you to try to soothe the relation-
ship. You know this problem has to be taken care of, but What possible
solutions are there? After all, how are you going to keep from m aking your
manager angry or making the customers angry? Use your know ledge of
creative problem solving to com e up with solutions.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1. Take 20 m inutes to list as many words as you can using the letters in the word brainstorm. (There are at least 95.) If you run out of listings before time is up, it's okay to quit early. But try to be as creative as
you can.
2. List on a piece of paper some common terms that apply to both water and finance. How many were you able to come up w ith?
•••••••••••••••••••••
Practising Skills
Reinforcing Skills
• ••••••
Cl co
"' -
450
------ •
Savannah Olsen won the National Youth Aboriginal Entrepreneur Award in 2014 for creating the Old Faithful store, located in Vancouver. 1
She has always been an entrepreneur, with lots of busi- ness ideas running around in her head. In 2016 she opened a new store in Vancouver, The Good Spirit, right next door to Old Faithful.
The award was developed by the Canadian Council for
•
• · "r1o "
Aboriginal Business. CCAB board member and co-chair Erin Meehan congratulated Olsen by saying, "Your accom- plishments are proof that when you dream, big things happen and lives change."
Olsen is back to dream- ing about changing lives. The Good Spirit caters to the spiritual side of one's nature. "My vision was to conjure all those factors together in one store that would encourage
younger people, and anyone really, to explore their own path of spirituality," she said.
Olsen's store sells carefully selected tools to help peo- ple in their personal spiritual development. There is also a tarot studio where custom- ers can get readings. Olsen hopes what she has created with The Good Spirit will help her customers "approach spirituality in an easy, open and accessible way."
While it might not be common to find spirituality stores on every street corner, spirituality is also coming to the workplace.
\Vhat Is Spirituality? Workp lace sp iri tuality is not a bou t organ ized religious practices. It's not about God or theology. This po in t was made clear in a recen t stud y of 275 natural a n d social scientists at el ite un iversities. About 25 percent "said they have a spiritual ity that is cons is- tent with science, although they are not formally rel igious.'2
Wor kplace s pir ituality recogn izes tha t people have an inner l ife that nourishes and is nourished by mean- ingful work in th e context of commu- n ity. 3 Organ izations t h at support a spiritual culture recogn ize that people seek to find mean ing and purpose in their work and desire to connect with o ther human beings as part of a com- mu n ity. Many of the topics we h ave d iscussed-ranging from job design to corporate social responsibility (CSR)- are well ma tc h ed to the concept of orga niza tional sp iri tuality. When a company em pha~izes its comm itment to pay ing supp liers in develop ing countries a fa ir (above-market) p rice for their goods to faci litate community development-as do Vancouver-based Ma iwa Handprints; Ha li fax-based Fib res of Life; Hudson, Quebec-based Pure Art; and Whitehorse-based Bean North Cafe- it encourages a more
spiritual culture.4
workplace spirituality The recognition !hat people ha11e an inner life !hat nourishes and is nourished by meaningful wor1< that takes place in the 0011text of community.
\Vhy Spirituality Now?
Blake Ashforth of Arizona State Un ivers ity and M ichae l Pratt of the Univers ity of Ill ino is propose that workplace sp iritual ity has three major dimens ions:
• Transcendence of self a connection to something greater than one's self, and encom passing other peo p le and th ings
• Ho/ism and harmony: integration of self in such a way that it informs one's behaviour
• Growtlr: self-develo p men t, self- actualization, and ach ieving one's hopes and potential
When pursued together, these three dimensions lead to connection, coher- ence, and com ple teness. 5
As noted in our discuss ion of emo- tions in Chapter 3, there is con troversy over wh ether feelings should be d is- p layed in the workplace. At the same t ime, em p loyers a re show ing more concern about an employee's inner li fe. Just as the stud y of emot ions improves our understanding of orga- n izational behaviour, an awareness of spiritua lity can help us better under- s tand employee behaviou r. Similarly, organizations that are concerned w ith sp irituality a re more likely to d irectly address problems created by confl icts that occur in everyday life. G
Reasons for the Growt Interest In •-•rttu ng -- •• ,.,. • Spirituality a t c s as a counterbal
of a turbulent pace of life C ance to the pressures and stres families geo . . ontemporary lifest I . s
· graphical mobility th Y es-s,ngle-parent technologies that create dist . e temporary nature of jobs new the lack f ance between P · o community man eople-underscore involvement and connectio:. People feel and increase the need for
• Formalized religion has not continue to look tor worked for many people g . anchors to repl . and they
rowing feeling of emptiness. ace lack of faith and to fill a • Jobd . emands have made the w
lives. yet they continue to questi~:ace dominant in many PeOp/e's • More People desire to . e meaning of work.
Professional life. integrate Persona/ life values with their
• An increasing number of peop1 material acquisitions leaves th e are finding that the Pursuit of mo
em unfulfilled. re
45 1
Of course, em p loyees have a lways had an inner l ife. So why has the search fo r meaning and purpose- fulness in work surfaced now? We summarize the reasons in the inset Reasons for tire Growing Interest in Spiriwality.
Spirituality and Mindfulness
Recently, m indfulness has become part of the discussion on sp iritua l- ity in the wo rkplace. Ellen J. Langer, Harvard professor of psychology, has been studyi ng mindfulness fo r much of her academ ic career. She defines m indfulness as ' the process of actively no tic ing new th ings. When you do that, it puts you in the p resent. It makes you more sens itive to context and perspective . It's the essence of engagemenL •7
tvl indfulness means staying aware in the present and no t simply accept- ing that ' this is the way we have always done th ings." Langer expla ins
how to make th is possible: ' When you' re m indful, rules, routines, and goa ls gu ide you ; they don ' t gov- ern you. • 9 The inset Advantages to Mindfulness presen ts Langer's reasons to be m indful.
What is Lange r' s advice about being m indful? ' Life consists only of moments, noth ing more than thaL So if you make the moment matter, it all matters. You can be mindful, you can be mindless. You can win, you can lose. The worst case is to be mindless and lose. So when you're doing anything, be mind- ful, notice new th ings, make it meaning- ful to you, and you'll prosper."10
Medi tation is one way to become more mindful. P rofessor Jamie Gruman, a t the College of Bus iness and Econom ics a t the Un iversity of Guelph, who studies meditation in the workplace, notes that "research shows people who meditate suffer from less s tress, are less rigid in their thinking and are less likely to have overly emo- t ional reactions to d ifficulties. All of these th ings a re qualities of effective
P ay attention.
• It's easier to t ou've done . You remember more of wha y
• . they present • You're more creatNe, i opportunities when
t take advantage o
• You' re able o
themselves. et arisen . u're rt the danger not y . better, because yo
• y0u ave d eople like you • You like people better, an P
452
less evaluative. · matic.8
• You're more chans
work ing and management decis ion making." 11
Research also shows that engaging in med itation helps people be more creative;12 and that just three succes- sive days of 25 m inu tes of m indful- ness med ita tion can effectively reduce stress. 13 Fifteen m inutes of m indful medi tation was found to be helpful in stopping ind ividuals from th inking about sunk costs when making deci- sions, making them more able to focus on the p resent and make clearer deci- s ions. 14
Mindful meditation is easy to prac- tice, "doesn' t requ ire a rigid schedule,' and can easi ly become pa rt of one's work routine, notes Maria Gonza lez, p resident ofToronto-based Argonauta Strateg ic All iances Consu lting. 1 5
Her cl ients include Btv!O Financial Group, On tar io ' s Hyd ro One, and the Conference Board of Canada. She is also the author of Mindful Leaderslrip .16 Bus iness meetings are a good example of why m indful- ness is needed . "In many conversa- tions, neither s ide is fully there for the d iscussion. It's become a con- stant that peop le are trying to mu l- ti task and hold ing their BlackBerrys under the table a t meetings and never focus ing on the issue at hand, • says Gonzalez. 1 7
Stud ies on m indful med itat ion have shown pos itive results. One study found that ' M indfulness medi- tation has been reported to enhance numerous mental abilities, includ ing rap id memory recall." 18 One me ta- ana lys is (a study that examined a la rge number of previous studies), determined that m indful medi tation can help ease psycho logica l stresses like anxie ty, dep ress ion, and pa in. 19
Another study found that med itation and m indfu lness lower levels of the stress hormone cortisoJ.20
Characteristics of a Spiritual Organization Sp iritual organ izations a re concerned with help ing people develop and reach their full poten tial. Th is is analogous to Ab raham tvlaslow's description o f self-actua lization that we d iscus.~ed in relation to motiva tion in Chapter 4. Sim ilarly, organ iza tions concerned w ith sp irituality are more l ikely to di rectly address p rob lems crea ted by work-l ife co nfl icts.21
The Vancouver Is l and Heal t h Author ity recognizes that sp ir itual care can be helpful to those faced w ith stressful health care decis ions. 22
Consequently, Nana imo Reg ional General Hospi tal offers s taff, patients, and patienL~' famil ies access to spiritual health services that match their belief perspectives.
London, Ontario-ba~ed 3M Canada also p rovides a quiet room for med i- tation and reflect ion, wh ich was o ne of the facto rs cited in expla ining why it was chosen as one o f Canada's top JOO employers fo r 2014_ 23 Calgary- based Shell Canada p rovides a med i- tation and reflection cen tre so that its employees can have a more mindful, calm ing experience at work.24
\"/hat d ifferen tiates spiritual organ i- zatio ns from their nonspiritual coun- terparts? Although resea rch on th is question is o nly prelim inary, several cul tural characteristics tend to be evi- dent in spiritual o rganizations.25
Benevolence
Spi ritual o rgan izations value s howing kindnes.~ toward o thers and promoting the happiness of employees an d other o rganizational s takeholders.
Strong Sense of Purpose
Spiritual o rganizations build their cul- tures around a meaningfu l p urpose. Wh ile p rofits may be importan t, they are not the primary value of these orga- n izations. People want to be insp ired by a purpose that they bel ieve is impor- tant and worthwh ile.
Charl lo tt e Kwon, owner and CEO o f Vancouve r-based Ma iwa Handp ri nts, pays t h e artisans from developing coun tries who provide tex- t iles fo r her reta il s to res substan tially mo re than what others pay them. She wants to p rotect craftspeople so th at t h ey can con tinue to produce t h e ir artwork. She also wants to make sure that their trad itional arts will survive. "I d on' t want to Jose tradit ional dyes made with s pecific reci pes that are rarely written down. Without care, that information could be Jost forever.' 26
She a lso notes that she does not need to pay the artisans minimum p rices to survive: "I Jive okay. I d on' t need anyth ing more.' 27
Trust and Respect
Spi ritual organizations a re character- ized by mutua l t rust, hones ty, and openness. Managers are no t afra id to admit m is takes. Steve Reaume, dealer principal of Windso r-based Reaume Chevro le t Bu ick GMC, a company foun d ed by his grandfather, attributes the success of the business to the trust h is fam ily has built in the community. The company d isplays "A Trad ition of Trust . . . since 1931 • banner in its showroom and on its website. Reaume expla ins the company' s app roach: "Genera tion after gene ration we' ve been earning people' s trust. Treating cus tomers right, every time, is all it takes."28 Trust is also a b ig part o f how Reaume treats its workforce and fos ters employee loyalty.
••• . ............... . • • • ,c --..,,-~ FACT BOX
l • L J • • • • • • • • •
• 64% of Canadians consider
themselves spiritual.
• • 71 % of Canadians attend • • religious services at least • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
sometimes .
• 50% of Canadians report that they are religious .
• 60% of Canadians think that pub lic schools should be doctrine-free. 29
Humanistic Work Practices
The practices embraced by sp iritual organ izations includ e flexible wo rk sch edules, g roup- and organ ization- based reward s, narrowing of pay and s ta tus d ifferentia ls, guarantees of indi- vidual emp loyee r igh ts, emp loyee empowe rmen t, and job security. Hewlett-Packa rd , for instance, has handled temporary downturns through voluntary attr ition and sho rtened workweeks (shared by all), and it has handled Jonger-terrn decl ines th rough early retiremen ts and buyouts.
Toleration of Employee Expression
Finally, spiritual o rgan iza tions don' t s tifle em ployee emotions. They allow people to be themselves- to express the ir moods and feel ings w ithout guilt o r fear of reprimand. Employees at Calgary-based WestJet Ai rlines, fo r instance, are encouraged to express thei r sense o f humour on the job, to act spon taneously, and to make their work fun.
4 53
OBI
Ol9•riz•ll oul Uoclela
for Poatert e:1 Spkllu•
lltr
• Religion- based o,ga
niZation: The OfQanization
's practices are conS1S
tent with bib lical teachrn
gs; there is an emphas
is
on prayer a s a primary
form of intr afirm oomm
unication; e mployees a
re expected to accept c
Ofe ChriSlia n principles
as guides to decision ma
king.
• Evolution ary organiza
tion: Spritua l openness i
s encourag ed; the guid
ing texts are a miXtua of
Christian sc rt,tures
and philoso phical WOtk
S (Kant, Nie buhr, Buber
); there is a n emphasiS
on serving th e customer, p
reservi1g th e
environmen t, and resp
ecting stak eholders.
• Recovemg o rganiZation
: The orgao zation mod
els itself aft er the 12-s
tep program of Alcoholic
s Anonymou s;
spirituality i s discussed
in ways tha t are accepta
ble to the la rgest numb
er of peopl e. The 12-st
ep program
emphaslZes ronfession
(of failures), acceptanc
e of God's w il and guid
ance, and re liance on th
e help of ot hers. This
model is int requenti,,, fo
und in the b usiness wo
od.
• Socialy re sponsible or
ganization: S ocial concer
ns and valu es are part
of ~ business a
cti111ties; th e
organizatio n emphasiz
es the expr ession of th
e in<frviduaf 's "whole pe
rson" and s oul; custom
ers. supplie rs. and oth
er
stakeholde rs are expe
cted to bon d more read
ily to the fir m; spirituali
ty and soul are explicit
core busin ess pmcip
les.
• VBJues-b ased organi
zation: The o rgantzation
firmly reiect s aft nolJOnS
of religioUS doctrine; it
favours non religlOUS an
d
nonspiritua l secular va
lues or virtu es (e.g., aw
areness, co nsciousnes
s, dignity, h onesty, ope
nness. resp ect, integrit
y,
and, above all, trust); va
lues are gu ides for pol
icy setting a nd dec1s1on
making thr oughout th
e firm. The G olden Rule
1s the prime business p
rinciple.
• Best-pra ctice modeJ
: The organi zation comb
ines parts o f an of the above
modelS; it e mphasizes
values-bas ed
secular orie ntation; it ad
ds an openl y expresse
d spiituaf d imension; r
t emphasiz es the impo
rtance of ·a higher
power," pe riodic mora
l audits, an d a broadly
inclusive a pproach to
stakeholde rs.":io
The inse1 O rganizar ·
Fostering Sp iritua/i d
ion~/ Mode ls for
for spirirua u b ty
escnbes m odels
y ased 0 rga niza lions.
~n facili1a 1e a spirit
ual
•nduding th
Workplace, JI
I.
ose thar s
•fe balance . Lead
uppon wo rk-
vaJ eis can d
ues, a rtitud - d
emoos1ra1 e
· . ~.an beh
·
I . ams. Many
chapla ·
agencies, su ch as ~~ are
employed by
Achieving
a Spiritt1al
Organization
tngger m•..:o s· .
aviours tha t
u, ic mo1wa ·
of fulfill· t:lon and a
=n·-
•ng a Cllli n h
-..,.,
Second en . g
I rough wor k
. , c ouragmg em 1
•
sider how th ·
P oyees to c on.
e,r \VOrk pr avjd
Pllrpose ca n also he!
. es a sense of
workplace. Ofi p
ach1eve a spiri rual
US,\ while some co,;,:~ Oiaplains
R. J. Rrynold s TobaQ-o
llons, such as
employ cb apJ . .
and T~n ~
I a1os direaJ
,.,,,
p ace Prese nce of co
y. • ue work -
who are ofi en ord . I
J>Oraie cha plains,
. amed Chris .
Many oro, n, __ .
. .,..."41llon s have
ESled in spi rituali
grown inte r-
enced d'ff, ty
but have e xper;
• 1 iaJlry puiri
n · •
1010 praa; ~ S
g •ts princi ples
-~- evera1 " "'-- ·,~ of Pr
aaices
4 5 4
en this · d
group CQU n•-"'
IS one thr ough
d ~..,.,,,mg a
nd o · ·
evelopme nt 7h. d
rgan1za1ion a1
ber of compa nies ':a. a growing num.
counseJlin se . er e
mployees t he
g Mees o f colJ>O rate chap-
iers, IS obvi ous I
t:lan minis-
lheir role i s no; rCO~tr
oversiaL alt hough
b O IOCTP
••- · .
Ut 10 help h
-....,,c spintu ality
umao reso
11lents serv e the em J
urces depan-
have Chris tian beJfe:>:;s wh~ alre
ady
for leader.; of ,L •
• S,m,la r roles
be Ou,er lanbs
.
encouraged .
certainly m usr
F A C E O F F
Organizatio ns that encourage spir- ituality as part of their culture are
bo und to have more positive bot-
tom lines, because everyone in the organization will act mo re ethically.
Criticisms of Spirituality Critics of organ izations that embrace spiritual values have focused on three issues. First is the question of scientific founda tion. What, really, is workplace spi rituality? Is it just a new manage- ment buzzword? Second, are sp iritual o rgan izations legitimate? Specifically, do o rgan izations have the right to claim spiritual values? Th ird is the question of econom ics: Are spiritual- ity and profits compatible?
First, as you might imagine, com- paratively little research exisL~ on work- p lace spirituality. Sp iritual ity has been defi ned so b roadly in some sources tha t p ractices from job rota tion to corpora te retreats at med itation cen- tres have been iden tifi ed as s p iritual. Questions need to be answered before the concept ga ins fu ll cred ib il ity.
Second, an emphasis on spiritual- ity can dearly make some employees uneasy. Critics have argued that secular institutions, especially business fi rms, have no bus iness imposing sp iri tual values on emp loyees. T h is cri ticism is undoubtedly valid wh en spi ritu al- ity is defined as b ringing religion and God into the wo rkplace.33 However,
An emphasis o n s pirituality a t work d is tracts ind ivid uals from focusing
o n the demands of their jo bs, and
makes some people uncomfort- able. It sho uld not be encouraged .
it seems less stinging when the goal is limi ted to helping employees find mean ing and purpose in their wo rk I ives.
Fina lly, whether sp iritua lity an d p rofi ts are compatible objectives is a re levant concern fo r managers and investo rs in bus iness. The evid ence, although lim ited, indicates that they are. In one stud y, o rgan izations that provid ed thei r employees w ith oppor- tun ities fo r spi ritual development out- performed those that d id not.34 Other s tud ies repo rted th at s p iritua lity in organ izations was positively re lated to creativity, employee satisfaction, team performance, and organizational com- mitment 35
The cyn ic will say that all of th is car- ing stuff is in fact merely good public relations. Even so, the results at WestJet suggest that a ca ring o rgan ization is good for th e bottom line. WestJet is strongly comm itted to p rovid ing the lowes t a irfa res, on-t ime service, and a pleasant experience fo r customers. WestJet employees have one of the low- est turnover rates in the a irline indus- try, the com pa ny consistently has the lowest labour costs per m iles fl own of any ma jor a irline, and it h as proven itself to b e the most consisten tly profi t- able a irlin e in Canada.36
RESEARCH EXERCISES
1. Look for data on companies that foster spirituality in the workplace in Canada and the United States. Can you draw any inferences about whether incorporating spiri- tuality in the workplace is becom- ing a trend?
2. Identify three Canadian organiza- tions o r CEOs that have encour- aged more openness toward spirituality in their o rganizations. What, if any, commonalities exist in these o rganizations?
YOUR PERSPECTIVE
1. Have you ever tried meditation? If yes, d id it help you achieve more c larity in your thinking? If not, What a re your views on this p ractice?
2. What does spirituality mean to you?
WANT TO KNOW MORE?
Three top-selling books by Canadian
authors, based on international sales • are on sp irituality: A New Earth: Awakening to Your Life 's Purpose, by
Vancouver's Eckhart Tolle; The Power
of Now, by Eckhart Tolle; and The Shack, by William Paul Young.
455
456
Organizational Structure
PA RT 5
REORGAN IZ I NG THE WORK PL ACE
O Identify seven elements of an organization 's structure. f) Describe the characteristics of a bureaucracy. f) Describe the characteristics of a matrix organization.
Precision
Nutrition is a
fit ness and nutrition
coaching company w it h
a fl attened organizat ional structure. How has t his organizational structure
contributed to the
company's
success?
C, Describe the characteristics of virtual, team, and circular structures. 0 Describe the effects of downsizing on organizational structures and employees. O Contrast the reasons for mechanistic and organic structural models. f) Analyze the behaviou ral implications of different organizational designs.
n 2015, Toronto-based Precision Nutrition, a fitness and nutrition coach- ing company, was named one of Can- ada's most innovative fitness companies. 1 The company was started in 2005 by Phil Caravaggio (in the cen-
tre of the photo). His interest was in coaching and developing strategies for the company.
When he grew from 8 to 50 employees, he found almost all of his time was
spent managing employees, rather than getting his work done. He
wanted a new organizational structure to make things
more efficient. "I want to
Counesy of Precision rwtrition
be a leader," he says. "I don't want to be a manager." Caravaggio put in place a management system called holacracy, developed by Brian Robertson. Holacracy promotes a flatter organizational structure, empowering individuals to make more decisions for the work
that they do. As described on the HolacracyOne website, "In Holacracy, people have multiple roles, often on different teams, and those role descriptions are constantly updated by the team actually doing the
work. This allows people a lot more freedom to express their creative talents, and the company can take advantage of those skills in a way it couldn't before. Since roles are not directly tied to the
people filling them, people can hand-off and pick up new roles fairly easily." Organizations are looking for new ways to structure. Not all are going as far as hol-
acracy, though Zappos, with 4000 employees, is one of the largest using the system. Other organizations are flattening themselves to have fewer layers of bureaucracy.
Choosing an organizational structure requires far more than simply deciding who is the boss and how many employees are needed. The organization's structure will
determine what relationships form. the formality of those relationships, and many work outcomes . The structure may also change as organizations grow and shrink, as management
trends dictate, and as research uncovers better ways of maximizing productivity. Structural decisions are arguably the most fundamental ones a leader has to make toward sustain-
ing organizational growth.2 In this chapter, we will explore how structure affects employee behaviour and the organization as a whole.
\ I I
:'o': , ' , '
• What happens when a person performs the same task over and over again? 'l'IIE BIG IDEA • What happens when a person reports to two bosses? • What does technology mean?
Organizalional slruclure
delermines ,vhaL gets done in an
organizaLion, and ,vho does il.
457
4 58 Part 5 Reorganizing the Workplace
O Identify the seven elements of an organi· zation's structure.
organizational structure How job tasks are formally divided, grouped, and cOOfdinated.
work specializati on The degree to which tasks in the organization are subdivided into separate jobs.
What Is Organizational Structure? An o r ganizational structu re defines how job tasks are formally divided, grouped, and coordinated. Managers should address seven key elements when they design their orga- n ization's structure: work specialization, departmental ization, cha in of command, span of control, centralization and decentral ization, formal ization, and boundary spanning.3
Exhib it 13-1 presents each elemen t as the answer to an important structural question,
and the follow ing sections describe them.
Work Specialization Wor k s p ecialization, or division of labour, describes the degree to wh ich tasks in the organ ization are subd ivided into separate jobs. The essence of work specialization is that, rather than an entire job being completed by one ind ividual, it's broken down into a number of s teps, with each step being completed by a separate individual. Specialization is a means of making the most efficient use of employees' skills and even success- fully improving them through repetition. Less time is spent changing tasks, pu tti ng away tools and equ ipment from a prior s tep, and getting ready for another.
Specialization can be efficient. It's easier and less costly to find and tra in employees to do specific and repetitive tasks. This is especially true of h igh ly sophisticated and comp lex operations. For example, could Montreal -based
v\lhat hap pens when a person
per for1ns the same task over
and over again·?
Bombard ier produce even one Canadian regional jet a year if one person had to bu ild the enti re plane a lone? Not likely! Finally, work specialization increases efficiency and productivity by encouraging the creation of special inventions and mach inery.
However, specialization can lead to boredom, fa tigue, stress, low productivity, poor qual ity, increased absenteeism, and high turnover, so il is not always the best way to organize emp loyees. Giving employees a variety of activities to do, allowing them to do a whole and complete job, and putting them into teams with interchangeab le ski lls can resu lt in significantly h igher output and increased employee satisfaction.
Most managers today recognize that specialization provides econom ies in certa in types of jobs but problems when it's carried too far. High work specialization helps McDonald's make and sell hamburgers and fries efficiently, and a ids medical special- ists working in hosp itals. Wherever job roles can be broken down into specific tasks or projects, specia lization is possible. Specialization may still confer advantages outside manufacturing, particularly where job sharing and part-time work are prevalent.4
EXHIBIT 13-1 Seven Key Questions That Managers Need to Answer in Designing the Proper Organizational Structure
The Key Quest ion
1. To what degree are tasks subdivided into separate jobs?
2. On what basis will jobs be grouped together?
3. To whom do individuals and groups report?
4. How many individuals can a manager efficiently and effectively direct?
The Answer Is Provided By
Work specialization
Departmentalization
Chain of command
Span of control
5. Where does decision-making authority lie? Centralization and decentralization
6. To what degree will there be rules and regulations Formalization to direct employees and managers?
7. Do individuals from different areas need to Boundary spanning regularly interact?
I
Chap t er 13 Organizational Structure 459
Work is specialized at the Ru ssian factories that manufacture the wooden nesting dolls called malfyosh- kas. At this factOf)' outside Mosoow, individuals specialize in doing part of the doll production, from the
craftsmen who carve the dolls to the painters who decorate them. Work specialization brings efficiency to doll production, as some 50 employees can make 100 matryoshkas eve<y two days.
Amazon's Mechanical Turk program, TopCoder, and others like it have fac ilitated a new trend in microspecialization in which extremely small pieces of programming, data processing, or evaluation tasks are delegated lo a global network of ind ividuals by a program manager who then assembles the resulL~.5 Program specialization allows employers to use online p latforms to specialize- to assign multiple emp loyees to tasks in a broad functional role like marketing.6 Whereas specialization of yesteryear focused on breaking manufacturing tasks into specific duties within the same plant, today's special ization judiciously breaks complex tasks into specific elements by techno logy, by expertise, and region. Yet the core principle is the same.
Departmentalization Once jobs are divided through work specialization, they must be grouped so that com- mon tasks can be coord inated. The basis on wh ich jobs are grouped together is called departmen talization. One of the concerns related to departmental groups is that they can become silos within an organization. Often, departments start pro tecting their own turf and not interacting well with other departments, which can lead to a narrow vision with respect to organizational goals.
Functional Departmentalization One of t he most popu lar ways to group activ ities is by fun ctions performed. For example, a manufacturing company might separate engineering, accounting, manu- facturing, human resources, and purchasing specialists into common departments. Simi la rly, a hospital m ight have departments devoted to research, patient care, accounting, and so forth. The major advantage to functional group ings is obta in- ing efficiencies from pu tting peop le wi th common skills and orientations together into common units.
departmentalization The basis on which jobs are grouped together.
4 60 Part 5 Reorganizing the Workplace
Product Departmentalization Tasks can also be departmentalized by the type of product the organ izatio n produces. Procter & Gamble groups each ma jor product- such as Tid e, Pampers, Charm in, an d Pringles- und er an executive who has complete globa l responsibil ity for it. The major advantage to this type of groupi ng is increased accountab ility for product performance, s ince a ll activities related to a specific product line are under the directio n of a single manager.
Geographical Departmentalization Another way to departmental ize is o n the basis of geography, or territory. The sales func- tion, for instan ce, may be divided regionally wi th departments for Bri tish Columbia, the Prairies, Central Can ada, and Atlantic Canada. If an organ ization's customers are scattered over a large geographical area an d have s im ilar needs based on their location, then th is form of departmental ization can be valuable. Toyota changed its management s tr ucture into geographic regions •so that they may develop and deliver ever beuer products; said CEO Aldo Toyoda.7
Process Departmentalization Some companies organize departments by the processing that occurs. For example, an alum in um tub ing manufacturer migh t have the follow ing departments: casting; press; tubing; fin ishing; and inspecting, packing, an d sh ipping. Th is is an examp le of process departmentalizatio n, because each departme nt specializes in one specific phase in the production of al uminum tubing. Si nce each process requires different skills, th is method offers a basis for the homogeneous categorizi ng of activities.
Process departmentalization can be used for processing customers, as well as prod- ucts. For example, in some provinces, you may go th rough a series of steps h andled by several departments before receiving your driver's licence: (I) validatio n by a motor vehicles division; (2) processing by the licensing department; and (3) payment collec- tion by the treasury department.
The Carillon Generating Station on the Ottawa River (shown here) is one of Montreal-based Hydro- Quebec's hydroelectric pow er stations. Hydro-Quebec organizes its operations by functions so that the company can be more responsive to growth outside Quebec. It has four divisions : Hydro-Quebec Production, Hydro-Quebec TransEnergie, Hydro-Quebec Distribution, and Hydro-Quebec Eq uipement et services partages/Societe d 'energie de la Baie James.
Chapt er 13 Organizational Structure 461
Customer Departmentalization Yet another way to depanmentalize is on the basis o f the panicular type of customer the organization seeks lo reach. Microsoft, for example, is organized arou nd four customer markets: consumers, large corporations, software developers, and small businesses. Customers in each department have a common set of prob lems and needs best met by having specialists for each.
Large organizations may use all the forms of departmentalization we have described. A ma jor Japan ese electronics firm organizes each of its divisions along functional Jines, ils manufactur ing un its around processes, sales around seven geograph ical regions, and each sales region inlo four customer groupings. In a strong recent trend among organi- zations of all sizes, rigid functional departmental ization is increasingly complemented by teams that cross traditional departmental lines. A~ we described in Chapter 6, as tasks have become more complex, and more diverse skills are needed to accomplish those tasks, management has turned to cross-functional teams.
Chain of Command Whi le the chain of command was once a basic cornerstone in the design of organ iza- tions, it has far less imponance today.8 Bul contemporary managers shou ld still consider its implications, particularly for industries that dea l with po tentia l life-or-death s itua- tions when people need to qu ickly rely on decision makers. The chain o f command is an unbroken line of authority that extends from upper organ izational levels lo the lowest level and clarifies who reports Lo whom.
We cannot d iscuss the chain of command without also discuss ing authority and unity of command. Authority refers lo the rights inherent in a managerial pos itio n lo give orders and expect them to be obeyed. To faci litate coord ination, each managerial posi tion is given a place in the chain of command, and each manager is given a degree of authority in order Lo meet his or her responsib ili ties. The principle of uni ty of com- mand helps preserve the concep t of an unbroken line of authority. It says a person should have one and on ly one superior Lo whom he or she is directly respo nsible. If the u nity of command is broken, an employee m ight have to cope with conflicting demands or priorities from several superiors, as is often the case in organization charts' doued-line reporting relationships dep icting an employee's accountab ility lo multiple managers.
Because managers have limited ti me and knowledge, they may choose lo delegate some of their respo ns ibilities lo other employees. Delegation is the assignmen t of authority Lo another person lo carry o ul specific duties, allowing the employee lo make some of the decisions. Delegation is an important pan of a manager's job, as it can ensure that the right people are pan of the decision-making process. Through delega- tio n, emp loyees are being empowered lo make decisions that previously were reserved for management. From Concepts w Skills on pages 488 - 489 presents strategies Lo be a better delegator.
Times change, a nd so do the basic tenets of organ iza tiona l design. A low-level employee today can access information in seconds that was available only lo top manag- ers a generation ago. Many employees are now empowered to make decisions previously reserved for management. Add the popularity of self-managed and cross-functional teams as well as the structural designs that incl ude mulliple bosses, and you can see why authority and unity of command may appear lo ho ld Jess relevance. Poi111/Co1111terpoi111 on page 484 co nsiders whether management as we know it is an outdated concept.
Ma ny organizations still find they can be most productive by enforcing the chain of command. Indeed, one survey of more than 1000 managers fo und that 59 percent agreed with the statement, "There is an imaginary line in my company's organ izational chart Strategy is created by people above this line, wh ile strategy is executed by people below the line."9 However, this same survey found that lower-level employees' buy-in
chain of command The unbroken line of authority !hat extends from upper organizational levels to the lowest level and clarifies who reports to whom.
authority The rights inherent in a managerial po5ition to give orders and to expect the orders to be obeyed.
unity of command The idea !hat a subordinate should have only ooe superior to whom he or she is directly responsible.
delegation Assignment of authority to another person to carry out specttic duties, allowing the employee to make some of the decisions.
4 62 Part 5 Reorganizing t he Workplace
span of control The number of employees who report to a manager.
(agreement and active suppon) to the organ ization's slfategy was inhibi ted because they d id not participate in the selling of the overall, big picture stra tegy but relied on those al the top of the hierarchy to do so.
Sometimes lower-level employees don' t fo llow the cha in of command and engage in creative deviance that results in very successful ideas, as Case Incident-Creative Devi- ance: Bucking the Hierarchy? on page 486 shows.
Span of Control Sp a n o f control refers lo the number of employees who report to a manager. Th is number will vary by organization, and by unil within an organization, and is deter- m ined by the number of employees a manager can efficiently and effectively direct. In an assembly-line factory, a manager may be able lo direct numerous employees, because the work is well defined and contro lled by machinery. A sales manager, by contrast, might have to give one-on-one supervision lo individual sales reps, and, therefore, fewer wou ld reporl to the sales manager. All things being equal, the wider or larger the span, the fewer levels, the more employees at each level, and the more efficient the organiza- tion. An example can illustrate the validity of this statement.
Assume that we have two organizations, both of which have approximately 4100 operative-level employees. As Exhibit 13-2 illustrates, if one has a uniform span of 4 and the other a span of 8, the wider span would have 2 fewer levels and approximately 800 fewer managers. If the average manager earned $56 000 a yea r, the wider span wou ld save abou t $45 million a year in management salaries. Obviously, wider spans are more efficient in terms of cost. However, at some po int when supervisors no longer have time to provide subordinates with the necessary leadership and support, effectiveness declines and employee performance suffers.
Na rrow or small spans have their advocates. By keeping the span of conlfo l to five or six emp loyees, a manager can maintain close conlro l. 10 Bul narrow spans have three major drawbacks. First, as a lready described, they are expensive because they add levels of management. Second, they make ven ical communication in the organ ization more comp lex. The added levels of h ierarchy slow down decision making and can isolate upper management. Third, narrow spans of control encourage overly tight supervision and discourage employee autonomy.
EXHIBIT 13-2 Contrasting Spans of Control
(Highest)
t 1 " > " ...,
2
"' 3 c .2 ~
"' 4
... ·2
5 "' "' ~ 0 6 7
(Lowest)
Members at Each Level
Assuming span of 4
1
4
16
64
256
1024
4096
Operat ives = 4096 Managers (Levels 1-6) = 1365
Assuming span of 8
~
8
64
512
4096
Operatives = 4096 Managers (Levels 1-4) = 585
Source: Based on J. H. Gittell, "SuperviSOIY Span, Relational Coordination, and Flight Departure Performance: A Reassessment of Postbureaucracy TheOIY: Organization Science, July-August 2001, 468-483.
Chapt er 13 Organizational Structure 463
The lrend in recen l years has been loward wider spans of contro l. 11 Wider spans of conlrol are consislenl with recenl efforts by companies lo reduce costs, cut overhead, speed up decision making, increase flexibility, gel closer lo cuslomers, and empower employees. However, lo ensure that performance does not suffer because of these wider spans, organ izations have been investing heavily in employee lrain ing. Managers rec- ognize tha t they can handle a wider span when employees know their jobs inside and out or can turn lo their co-workers when they have queslions.
Centralization and Decentralizati on Centralization refers lo the degree to wh ich decision making is concenlra ted at a single poinl in the organizalion. In centralized organizations, lop managers make all the deci- s ions, and lower-level managers merely carry out their d irectives. In organizalions al the other extreme, decentra lized decis ion making is pushed down lo the managers closest to the action or to work groups. The co ncept of centralization includes only formal aulhority- that is, the rights inherent lo a posilion.
An organizalion characterized by centralization is inherently d ifferent slructurally from one that is decenlral ized. In an organization characterized by decentralization, employees can act more quickly to solve problems, more people provide input into decisions, and employees are less likely to feel alienaled from those who make deci- s ions that affect their work lives. Decentral ized departments make it easier lo address customer concerns as well. The effects of central ization and decenlralization can be pred icted: Centralized organ izations are beuer for avoiding commission errors (bad choices), wh ile decentralized organizalions are beuer for avo id ing omission errors (lost opportunilies ). 12
Management efforts to make organizations more flexible and responsive have pro- duced a recent trend toward decentral ized decision making by lower-level managers, who are closer to lhe action and typically have more deta iled knowledge about prob- lems lhan top managers. Big retailers such as Hudson's Bay have given store managers
With more than 7000 neighbourhood and airport locations throughout North America and Europe, Enter- prise Rent-A-Car empowers employees at the local level to make decisions that affect their work. Decen- tralization gives Enterprise a competitive advantage by enabling employees to provide personalized service that resutts in high customer satisfaction.
centralization The degree lo which decision making is concentrated at a single point in lhe organization.
decentralization The degree to which decision making is <istributed to lower-level employees.
4 6 4 Part 5 Reorganizing the Workplace
formalization The degree to which jobs within the organization are standardized.
considerably more discretion in choosing what merchandise to stock in individual stores. Doing so allows the stores to compete more effectively against local merchants. When Procter & Gamble empowered small groups of employees to make decisions about new-product development independent of the usua l hierarchy, it was able to rap idly increase the proportion of new products ready for market. 13 Concerning creativ- ity, research investigating a large number of Finnish organizations demonstrated that compan ies with decentral ized research and developmen t offices in multiple locations were better at producing innovation than compan ies that central ized all research and development in a single office. 14
Decentralization is often necessary for companies with offshore sites because local- ized decision making is needed to respond to each region's profit opportunities, client base, and specific Jaws, while cen tralized oversight is needed to hold regional manag- ers accountable. Fai lure to successfully balance these priorities can harm not only the organization, bu t also its relationships with foreign governments. 15
Formalization Formalization refers to the degree to wh ich jobs within the organization are standard- ized. If a job is h ighly forma l ized, the employee has a m inimal amount of d iscretion over what to do and when and how to do it, resulting in consis tent and uni form out- put. There are expl icit job descriptions, lots of organizational rules, and clearly defined procedures covering work processes. Formal ization not only elim inates the possibility of employees engaging in alternative behaviours; it removes the need for them to con- s ider alternatives. Conversely, where forma lization is low, job behaviours are relatively nonprogrammed, and employees have a great dea l of freedom to exercise discretion in their work.
McDonald's is an example of a company where employee routines are h ighly for- malized. Employees are instructed in such things as how to greet the customer (smile, be sincere, make eye contact), ask for and receive payment (state amount of order clearly and loudly, announce the amount of money the customer gives to the employee, count change out loud and efficiently), and thank the customer (give a sincere thank you, make eye contact, ask customer to come again) . McDonald's includes this infor- mation in tra ining and employee handbooks, and managers are given a checkl ist of these behaviours so that they can observe their employees to ensure that the proper procedures are followed. 16
The degree of formaliza tion can vary wide ly among organ iza tions and wi thin organizations. In general, research from 94 high-technology Ch inese firms indica ted that formaliza tion is a detriment to team flexib ility in decentralized organ ization structures, suggesting that formalization does not work as well where duties are inherently interactive, or where there is a need to be flexib le and innova tive. 17 For example, publ ishing representatives who call on college and univers ity professors to inform them of their company's new publications have a grea t dea l of freedom in their jobs. They have only a genera l sa les p itch, \vhich they ta ilor as needed, and rules and procedures governing their behav iour may be little more than suggestions on what to emphasize about forthcoming titles and t he requireme nt to submit a weekly sales report. Al the other extreme, clerical and ed itoria l employees in the same pub lishing houses may need to be at their desks by 8 a.m. and follow a set of precise procedures dictated by management.
Boundary Spanning We have described ways that organizations create well-defined task structures and chains of authority. These systems facil itate control and coordination for specific tasks, but if there is too much divis ion with in an organization, attempts to coordinate across groups
Chapter 13 Organizational Structure 465
,0
f
i ~ ~ "' ~
- ---' { BMW encourages all employees, including this production worker at its plant in Jakarta, Indonesia, to O
build relationships t hroughout the global company. Boundary spanning at BMW links R & D, design, production, and marketing individuals to speed problem solving and innovation and to adapt to m arket fluctuations.
can be disastrous. One way to overcome compartmentalization and retain the positive elements of structure is to encourage or create boundary-spanning roles.
Within a s ingle organization, boundary s p anning occurs when ind ividuals form relationships with people outside their formally assigned groups. An HR executive who frequent ly engages with the IT group is engaged in boundary spanning, as is a mem- ber of an R & D team who implements ideas from a production team. These activ ities help prevent formal s tructures from becoming too rigid and, not surpris ingly, enhance organ ization and team creativity. I S
Boundary-spanning activities occur not on ly within but also between organizations. Gathering information from external knowledge sources is especially advantageous in high ly innovative industries where keeping up with the competition is challenging. Positive results are especially strong in organizations tha t encourage extensive internal communication; in other words, external boundary spann ing is most effective when it is followed up with internal boundary spanning. 19
Organizations can use formal mechanisms lo facil itate boundary-spanning activities through their structures. One method is to assign formal lia ison roles or deve lop com- m ittees of individuals from different areas of the organization. Development activ ities can also facilitate boundary spanning. Employees with experience in multiple functions, such as accoun ti ng and marketing, are more likely to engage in boundary spanning.20
Many organizations try to set the stage for these sorts of positive relationships by creating job rotation programs so new hires get a better sense of different areas of the organ ization. A final method to encourage boundary spanning is to bring atten tion to overall organizational goals and shared identity concep ts.
Common Organizational Designs We now turn lo describing some of the more common organizational designs: the simple structure, the bureaucracy, and the matrix scn1cture.
boundary spanning When indi- viduals form relationships outside their formally assigned groups.
4 66 Part 5 Reorganizing t he Workplace
f) Describe the character- istics of a bureaucracy.
simple structure An 0<ganizational design characterized by a low degree of departmentalization. wide spans of control, authority centralized in a single person, and little f0<malization.
The Simple Structure What do a small retail store, a start-up electronics firm run by a hard-driving entrepre- neur, and an airline "war room" in the midst of a company-wide pi loL~' strike have in common? They probably all use the s hnple s tructure .
The simple structure is sa id lo be characterized most by what it is not rather than by what il is. The s imple structure has a low degree of departmentalization, wide spans of control, authority cen tralized in a single person, and little forma l ization. ll is a fla t organization; it usually has only two or three vertica l levels, a loose body of employees, and one indiv idual with decision-making authority. Most companies start as a s imple structure, and many innovative technology-based firms with short lifespans, l ike cellphone app deve lopment firms, remain compact by design.21 The s imple structure is most widely adopted in small businesses in wh ich the manager and the owner are one and the same, such as the local corner grocery store.
The strength of the simple structure lies in its simplicity. H's fast, flexible, and inex- pensive to ma intain, and accountab ility is clear. One major weakness is that it's difficu lt to maintain in anything other than small organiza tions. fl becomes increasingly inad- equate as an organization grows because its low formalization and high centralization tend to create information overload a l the lop. Decision maki ng typically becomes slower as the single execu tive continues trying to do it al l. This proves to be the undo ing of many small businesses. If the structure is not changed and made more e laborate, the firm often loses momentum and can eventually fail. The s imple structure's other weak- ness is that it's risky- everything depends on one person. An illness al the lop can liter- ally halt the organization's information and decision-making capab ilities.
The Bureaucracy Standardization ' Thal is the key concept underlying all bureaucracies. Consider the bank where you keep your chequing account, the department store where you buy your clothes, or the government offices that collect your taxes, enforce health regula- tions, or provide loca l fire protection. They all rely on standard ized work processes for coord ination and control.
Hospitals benefit from standardized work processes and procedures common to bu neaucratic structure
because they help employees perform their jobs efficiently. The nursing staff in the maternity ward of a New Zealand hospital adhere to formal rules and regulations in providing care to moms and newborns.
Chapter 13 Organizational Structure 4 6 7
A bureaucracy is characterized by h igh ly routine operating tasks achieved through specialization, strictly formalized rules and regulations, tasks that are grouped into units, centralized authority, narrow spans of control, and decision making that follows the chain of command. Bureaucracy incorporates all the s trongest degrees of depart- mental ization described earlier.
Bureaucracy is a d irty word in many people's m inds. However, it does have advan- tages, primarily the ab ility to perform s tandardized activities in a h ighly efficient man- ner. Putting l ike specialties together in units results in economies of scale, minimum duplication of people and equipment, and a common language employees all share.
Strengths of Bureaucracy German sociologist Max Weber, writing in the early 1900s, described bureaucracy as an alternative to the traditional adm in istrative form. In the traditional model, leaders could be quite arb itrary, with authority based on personal relations. There were no general rules, and no separation between the leader's "p riva te• and "pub lic" business. Bureau- cracy sometimes solved the prob lem of leaders who took advantage of their situation.
The primary strength of the burea ucracy lies in its ab ility to perform standard ized activities in a highly efficien t manner. Bureaucracies can get by nicely with less tal- ented- and, hence, less costly- midd le- and lower-level managers. Rules and regu la- tions substitute for managerial discretion. Standardized operations, coupled with h igh formal ization, allow decision making to be central ized. There is little need for inno- vative and experienced decis ion makers below the level of sen ior executives. In short, bureaucracy is an effective structure for ensuring consistent application of policies and practices and for e nsuring accountab ility.
Weaknesses of Bureaucracy Bureaucracy is not without its problems. Listen in on a dialogue among four execu- tives in one company: ·vou know, nothing happens in th is place until we produce something," said the production execu tive. ·wrong,• commented the research and development manager. •Nothing happens until we design something!" 'What are you talking about1• asked the marketing execu tive. "No thing happens unti l we sell some- thing'• The exasperated accounting manager responded, "It doesn't mauer what you produce, design, or sell. No one knows what happens until we tally up the results '" This conversa tion h ighl ights that bureaucratic specialization can create confl icts in which unit perspectives override the overall goals of the organ ization.
The other major weakness of a bureaucracy is something we have all experienced: obsessive concern with following the ru les. When cases arise that don't precisely fi t the rules, there is no room for mod ification. The bureaucracy is efficient only as Jong as employees confront problems that they have previously encounte red and for which programmed decision rules have already been established. Case Incident- "! Detest Bureaucracy" on page 487 lets you cons ider alternatives to bureaucracy and how you m ight feel about these alternatives.
There are two aspects of bureaucracies we should explore: functional and divis ional structures.
The Functiona I Structure The fu nctio nal s tructure groups employees by their s im ilar specialties, roles, or tasks.22 An organization organized into production, marketing, human resources, and accounting departments is an examp le. Many large organizations u ti lize this structure, although this is evo lving to allow for quick changes in response to business opportuni- ties. Still, there are advantages, including that the func tional structure allows specialists to become experts more easily than if they worked in diversified un its. Emp loyees can also be motivated by a clear career path to the top of the organization chart specific to their specialties.
bureaucracy An organizational structure with highly routine operating tasks achieved through specializa- tion, formalized rules and regulations, tasks that are grouped into units, centralized authority, narrow spans of oootrol, and decision making that fol- lows the chain of command.
functional structure An organiza- tional structure that groups employ- ees by their similar specialties, roles. or tasks.
4 68 Part 5 Reorganizing t he Workplace
9 Describe the charac- teristics of a matrix organization.
divisional structure An 0<ga- nizational structure 1ha! groups em ployees into units by product, service, cust0<ner, Of geographical market area.
matrix structure An organizatiooal <resign 1ha! 00<nbines functional and product departmen!aliza!ion; ij has a dual chain of command.
The functiona l structure works well if the organization is focused on one product or service. Unfortunately it creates rigid, formal communications because the hierarchy
d ictates the communication protocol. Coordination among many units is a prob lem, and infighting in uni ts and between units can lead to reduced motivation.
The Divisional Structure The d ivi sional struct ure groups employees into un its by product, service, customer, or geographical market area.2 3 It is highly departmental ized. Sometimes this structure is known by the type o f division structure it uses: product/service organizational stn1cture (l ike units for cal food, dog food , and b ird food that report lo an animal food pro- ducer), cus101ner organizational stn1cture (l ike units for outpatient care, inpatient care, and pharmacy that report to hosp ita l administration), or geographic organizational stn1cture ( like units for Europe, Asia, and South America tha t report to corporate headquarters). 24
The d ivisional s tructure has the opposite benefi ts and disadvantages of the func- t ional structu re. It facilitates coordination in units to achieve on-time completion, budget targets, and development and introduction of new products to market, wh ile
addressing the speci fic concerns of each unit. It provides clear responsibility for all activit ies related to a product, but w ith duplication of functions and costs. Sometimes this is helpful, say when the organization has a unit in Spain and another in China, very different markets, and a marketing strategy is needed for a new product. Marketing experts in both p laces can incorporate the appropriate cultural perspectives into their region's marketing campaign. However, the organ ization's marketing function employ-
ees in two places may represent an increased cost, in doing basically the same task in two different countries.
The Matrix Structure The m atrix s truct ure combines the functiona l and product structures, and we find it being used in advertising agencies, aerospace firms, research and development laborato- ries, construction companies, hosp itals, government agencies, universities, management consu lting firms, and entertainment companies.2 5 It combines two forms of departmen-
talization: functional and product. Compan ies that use matrix-l ike structures include Boeing, BMW, IBM, and Procter & Gamble.
The most obvious structural characteristic of the matrix is that it breaks the un ity- of-command concept. Employees in the matrix have two bosses-their funct ional department managers and their product managers.
Exhib it 13-3 shows the matrix structure used in a fac- ulty of business adm in istration. The academic departments of accounting, administrative studies, finance, and so forth
are functional un its. Specific programs (that is, products) are overla id on the functions. Thus, members in a matrix s tructure have a dual chain of command: to their func-
tional department and lo their product groups. A professor of accounting who is teaching an undergraduate course reports to the d irector of undergraduate programs, as well
as to the cha ir of the accounting department.
Advantages of a Matrix Structure
v\lhat happens when a person repo11t5 to rn·o
bosses·?
The strength of the matrix is its ability to foster coordination when the organization has a number of complex and in terdependent activities. Informa tion permeates the organization and more quickly reaches those people who need it. Furthermore, the matrix reduces "bureaupathologies"-its dual lines of authority limi t people's tendency to pro tect their territories at the expense of the organization's goa ls.26 A matrix also ach ieves econom ies of sca le and facilitates the allocation of specialists by both prov id-
ing the best resources and ensuring they are efficiently used.
Chapter 13 Organizat ional Structure 4 6 9
EXHIBIT 13-3 Matrix Structure for a Faculty of Business Administration
Programs
Academic departments
Accounting
Administrative
studies
Finance
Information and decis ion sciences
Marketi ng
Organizational
behaviour
Quantitative methods
Undergraduate Master's PhD
Disadvantages of a Matrix Structure
Executive Research Community service
development
The ma jor disadvan tages of the matrix l ie in the co nfus ion il creates, its tendency to foster power struggles, an d the stress it p laces o n ind ividuals.2 7 For individ uals wh o desire security and absence of ambiguity, this work cl imate ca n be stressful. Repo rting to more than one manager introduces role co nfl ict, and unclear expectatio ns introduce role ambiguity. Without th e unity-of-command concept, amb iguity about who reports to whom is sign ifica ntly increased and often leads to co nfl ict and power struggles between fu nctiona l and product managers.
Alternate Design Options When Phil caravaggio of Toronto-based Precision Nutrition talks about the organizational
structure he has put in place, it sounds much like a team-based structure, which we describe below.28 "It's a system for giving everyone real clear autonomy without everything devolving into
chaos," he explains. There are few job titles, and no hierarchy. People are organized into circles
and he refers to himself as the "lead link of the general company circle." Holacracy generally groups people into au tonomous circles based on projects. Each
circle has a leader, but the leaders can change when necessary. Each circle also chooses
a representative to sit in on meetings with other circles so that commun ication flows. This type of system requires a clear governance process so that everyone knows and under-
stands the rules.
Caravaggio was able to test lhe system as Precision Nutrition undertook a big launch of a new certification program . He had to be out of town multiple limes during the preparation,
but said it was the smoothest launch they had ever had . He thought this signified that the
structure could work tor the company: "To me, it was the demarcation point between being a collection of heroic individuals, and having a system that is trusted by talented people to
do what needs to be done."
In what situations could new forms of organization be effective?
Sen ior managers in a number of organizatio ns h ave been developing new structural options wi th fewer layers of h ierarchy an d more emp hasis on opening the b oundaries of th e organ ization.2 9 In this section, we describ e three such designs: the virtual struc- ture, the team stn1cture, and the circular stn1cture. We also d iscuss h ow efforts to reduce bureaucracy a nd increase stra tegic focus have made d ownsizing routine.
470 Part 5 Reorganizing the Workplace
O Describe the character- istics of virtual, team, and circular structures.
virtual structure A small core organizalioo that outsources its major business functions.
The Virtual Structure Why own when you can rent? Thal question captures the essence of the virtual s truc- ture (a lso sometimes called the network or modular structure), typically a small, core organization that outsources its major business func tions. 30 The virtual structure is highly centralized, with little or no departmental ization.
The prototype of the virtual structure is today's film-making organization. In Hol- lywood's golden era, movies were made by huge, vertically integrated corporations. Studios such as MGM, Warner Brothers, and 20th Cent ury Fox owned large movie lots and employed thousands of fu ll-time specialists- set designers, camera peop le, film editors, d irectors, and even actors. Today, most movies are made by a collection of individuals and small companies who come together and make fi lms project by project. This structural form allows each project to be s taffed with the talent best sui ted to its demands, rather than just with the people employed by the studio. ll minim izes bureaucratic overhead because there is no lasting organization to main tain. And it less- ens long-term r isks and their costs because there is no long term- a team is assembled for a finite period and then disbanded.
About one in nine Canadian compan ies engages in some sort of all iance. These alli- ances take many forms, ranging from precompetitive consortia to coproduction, cross- equity arrangements, and equity jo int ventures with separate lega l entities.3 1 Amazon. ca partners with Canada Post in such an arrangement. Orders placed on Amazon.ca's website are fulfilled and shipped by Assured Logistics, which is part of Canada Post. Assured Logistics operates a Toronto-area warehouse that stores books, music, and mov- ies so that they can be shipped when ordered, thus eliminating the need for Amazon to set up its own warehouse faci lity in Canada. Newma n's Own, the food products com- pany founded by Paul Newman, sells hundreds of m ill ions of dollars in food every year yet employs only 28 peop le. This is possible because il ou tsources almost everything: manufacturing, procurement, shipping, and quality control.
Exhibit 13-4 shows a v irtual organization in wh ich management outsources all the primary functions of the business. The core of the organization is a small group of executives whose job is lo oversee directly any activi ties done in house and to coordinate relationships with organizations that manufacture, distribu te, and perform other crucial functions. The dotted lines represent the relationships typically maintained under con- tracts. In essence, managers in virtual structures spend most of their time coordinating and controll ing external relations.
The major advantage of the vi rtual structure is its flexib ility, which allows indi- viduals with an innovative idea and little money lo successfully compete against more estab lished organizations. The structure also saves a great deal of money by eliminating permanent offices and h ierarch ical roles. 32
EXHIBIT 13-4 A Virtual Organization
Independent research and development
consulti ng f i rm
' ' ' • , , ,
Executive , group J
, ~ ' -----~.' ' Factories
in South Korea
Advertisi ng agency
Commissioned sale s
representatives
Chapter 13 Organizational Structure 471
The drawbacks of vinual structures have become increasingly dear as their popularity has grown.33 They are in a state of perpetual flux and reorganization, wh ich means roles, goals, and responsibil ities are unclear, setting the stage for political behaviour. Cu ltural al ignment and shared goals can be lost because of the low degree of interaction among members. Team members who are geographically d ispersed and commun icate infre- quently find it difficult lo share information and knowledge, wh ich can limi t innovation and slow response lime. Sometimes- as with Vancouver-based Lu lu lemon's shipments of unintentionally see-through yoga pants, where the deficiencies were not noticed until many had been sold- the consequences of having geographically remote managers can be embarrassing and even financ ially harmful to the company. 34 Ironically, some virtual organizations are less adaptable and innovative than those with well-established communication and collaboration networks. A leadership presence that reinforces the organization's purpose and fac ilitates commun ication is thus especially valuable.
OB in the Workplace explores some of the issues involved in creating a global virtua l workplace.
The World Is My Corporate Headquarters
What does it mean to be a virtua l company? Neither Aulomallic Inc., with 123 employees working in 26 countries nor Ka lypso LP, with 150 emp loyees around the globe, has a corporate headquarters or, truly, an office of any sort.35 The imp lications of this new understanding of what il means to be a global virtual business are logistical, structural, and human.
On the logistics end of gelling work done, office- less compan ies uti lize every technology available, from Skype to b iogs. Sensitive information is lim ited to phone d iscussions, though the difficu lty of scheduling v irtual meetings can be tricky across a n umber of time zones. When needed and al least annually, employees fly lo designated intermediate spots for face-lo-face ti me. Employees live where they want or where a strategic company presence for clients is desired.
The office-less company is not a good fit for every industry. The complete decentral- ization of the organ ization's physical structure d ictates a nonhierarchical organization chart High employee autonomy and empowerment lo make decisions means supervi- s ion must be very light in order for the company to compete and take advantage of business opportunities specific to one employee's region, which the rest of the company cannot see.
With hiring possib ilities worldwide, the company mus t a lso be dear about who can recru it new candidates and how lo fit them into the organ izational structure. Though the office-less company sounds l ike a good opportunity lo maximize the worldwide talent pool, it presents challenges on a human level. According lo Bill Poston, fo unding- partner of Kalypso, the office-less company does not work for people •who are uncom- fortable with ambiguity." With the technology ava ilable, employees are not iso lated, but the necessary lack of h ierarchy means some employees may feel underappreciated.
The office-less company is still a rarity in the world, b ut its popularity is growing. It's very possible tha t truly global corporations of the future will need lo consider a decentral- ization strategy that includes either many headquarters- or no headquarters al all. _ . . . . _
The Team Structure The team s tructure seeks to eliminate the chain of command and replace depart- ments wit h empowered teams. 36 This structure removes vertical and horizontal
team structure An organizational structure !hat replaces departments with empowered teams, and that eliminates horizontal boundaries and external barriers between customers and suppliers.
4 72 Part 5 Reorganizing the Workplace
boundaries in additio n to breaking down external barriers between the compa ny and its customers a nd s uppliers.
By removi ng vertical boundaries, management fl attens the hierarchy and minimizes status and ran k. Cross-h ierarch ical teams (which incl ude top executives, middle manag- ers, supervisors, and operative employees), participative decision-making practices, and 360-degree performance appra isa ls ( in which peers and others eval uate performance) can be used. For examp le, at the Da nish firm Oticon A/S, the world's largest hearing- aid ma nufacturer, all traces of hierarchy have disappeared. Everyone works at u niform mobile workstations, and project teams, not functio ns or departments, coordinate work.
As previo usly d iscussed, functio nal departments create h orizonta l boundaries between fu nctions, product lines, and un its. The way to reduce them is to rep lace fu nc- tional departments with cross-functional teams and organize activi ties around processes. Xerox, for instance, develops new products through mu ltid iscipl inary teams that work o n a s ingle process instead of on narrow functional tasks.
When fully operational, the team structure may break down geograph ic barriers. Today, most large US compan ies see themselves as team-oriented global corporations; many, like Coca-Cola and McDonald's, do as much business overseas as in the United Sta tes, and some struggle to incorporate geographic regio ns into their structure. In other
I\ 0 JI ~ CAREER OBJECTIVES
I \i What Structu re Should I Choose? I'm running a small but growing busi ness a nd need help figuring out how to keep posit ions flexible as we expa nd. W hat advice ca n you give me about designing job st ruct ures t hat w ill he lp combi ne my success today w ith growth f or t omorrow?
-Anika
Dear Anika: A surprising number of small busi- nesses fail right at the point where they begin to grow. There are many reasons, including financing deficits and competitors that copy their good ideas. However, a common problem is that the structure the company began with is simply not right for a larger firm.
There are ways to meet the chal- lenge. Start by looking at individual jobs and their responsibilities. Make a list for each job. When job roles and responsibilities are not defined, you do pick up a great deal of flexibility, assigning employees to tasks exactly when needed. Unfortunately, this flex- ibility also means it's hard to determine
which skills are available, or to identify gaps between planned strategy and available human resources.
Second, you may want to now define roles based on broad sets of competencies that span multiple lev- els of organizational functioning. In this strategic competency model, job roles and incentives are defined based on a clear structure. Here are the steps:
• Look at the top level and think about the future. In the competency model, you should use the mission statement and overall organiza- tional strategies to evaluate your organization's future needs.
• Once you've identified the organi-
zation's future needs, figure out a smart way to assign responsibilities to individuals. You' II obviously need some specialization, but at the same time, consider general skills that will be useful for both growth and long-term sustainability.
• As your business grows, identify applicants with the potential to meet future needs, and develop employee incentives to encourage broad skills profiles. You ' II want to
structure your plan so employees increase in competency as they move up the organization chart.
The most important thing to remember is that you aren't creating a job structure just for today- make sure it's ready to grow and change with your business.
Grow well!
Sources: Based on G. W. Stevens, "A Critical Review of the Science and Practice of Compe- tency Modeling," Human Resource Develop- ment Review 12 (March 2013), pp. 86-107; P. Capelli and J. R. Keller, 'Talent Management: Conceptual Approaches and Practical Chal-
lenges," Annual Review of Organizational Psy- chology and Organizational Behavior 1 (March 2014), pp. 305-331; and c. Fernandez-Araoz, "21st Century Talent Spot1ing," Harvard Business Review, June 2014, https://hbr. org/2014/06/21 st-century-talent-spotting.
The opinions provided here are of the manag- ers and authors only and do not necessar- ily reflect those of their organizations. The authors or managers are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for the resuffs obtained from the use of this information. In no event will the authors or managers, or their related partnerships or corporations thereof,
be liable to you or anyone else for any decision made or action taken in reliance on the opin- ions provided here.
Chapter 13 Organizational Structure 473
cases, the team approach is need-based. Such is the case with some Ch inese companies, wh ich made 93 acquisi tions in the o il and gas indusuy in five years- incorporating each acqu isition as a new team unit- to meet forecasted demand their resources in Ch ina could not meet.37 The team structure provides a so lution because it considers geography as more of a tactical, logistica l issue than a structura l one. In short, the goal may be to break down cu l rura l barriers and open opportunities.
Some organizations create teams incorporating their employees and their custom- ers or suppl iers. For example, to ensure important product parts are rel iably made to exacting specifications by its suppliers, Honeywell International partners some of its engineers with managers at those supp liers.
The Circular Structure Picture the concentric rings of an archery target. In the centre are the executives, and radiating outward in rings grouped by function are the managers, then the specia lists, then the workers. This is the circul ar s tructure.38 Does it seem like organizational anarchy? Actually, there is still a h ierarchy; but top management is at the very heart of the organization, w ith its v is ion spread ing ou tward.
The circu lar structure has intuitive appeal for creative entrepreneurs, and some small innovative firms have claimed it. However, as in many of the current hybrid approaches, employees are apt to be unclear about whom they report to and who is runn ing the show. We are still likely to see the popu larity of the circular structure spread. The con- cept may have intuitive appeal for spread ing a vis ion of corporate social responsibility (CSR), for instance.
The Leaner Organization: Downsizing The goal of some organizational s tructures we have described is to improve agi lity by creating a lean, focused, and flexible organization. Downsizing is a systematic effort to make an organ ization leaner by closing locations, reducing staff, or sell ing off business units that do no t add val ue. Downsizing does not necessarily mean physically shrinking the size of your office, although that has been happening too.
The radical shrinking ofToronto-based Sears Canada was a case of downsizing due to loss of market share and changes in consumer demand. Online shopping became a much bigger part of the retail landscape. The company sold off its biggest urban store properties in 2013, and has had mediocre results in recent years. In 2017 the company announced tha t it was closing 59 s tores and eliminating 2900 jobs as part of a courl- supervised restructuring. Sears did not develop a strong on line presence, and that greatly affected its ab ility to meet the needs of consumers.39
Other firms downs ize to direct a ll their efforts toward their core competencies. American Express claims to have been doing th is in a series of layoffs over more than a decade: 7700 jobs in 2001; 6500 jobs in 2002; 7000 jobs ( 10 percent of its work- force) in 2008; and 4000 jobs in 2009. The 2013 cut of 5400 jobs (8 .5 percent of the remain ing workforce) represented •its biggest retrenchment in a decade."40 An add i- tional layoff of 4000 jobs was slated for 2015. Each layoff had been accompanied by a restructuring to reflect changing customer preferences, away from personal customer service and toward online customer service. Accord ing to CEO Ken Chenault, "Our bus iness and industry continue to become transformed by technology. As a result of these changes, we have the need and the opportunity to evolve our organ ization and cost s tructure."41
Some companies focus on lean management techniques to reduce bureaucracy and speed decision making. For example, Starbucks adopted lean initia tives in 2009, which encompassed all levels of management and also focused on faster barista techn iques and manufacturing processes. Customers have generally app lauded the shortened wail
O Describe the effects of downsizing on organi- zational structures and employees.
circular structure An organiza- tional structure in which executives are at the centre, spreading their visioo outward in rings grouped by function (managers, then specialists. then workers).
4 7 4 Part 5 Reorganizing t he Workplace
O Contrast the reasons for mechanistic and organic structu ral models.
mechani stic model A structure characterized by high specialization, rigid departmentalization, a clear chain of command, narrow spans of control, a limrted inf0<mation network, and centralization.
organic model A structure that is flat. uses cross-functional and cross-hierarchical teams, possesses a comprehensive information networ1<, has wide spans of control, and has low formalization.
limes and improved product consislency. Starbucks conlinues lo reap returns from ilS lean in il ialives, posting nolable revenue gains each quarler.42
Desp ile the advanlages of being a lean organization, the impact of downsizing on organizational performance is nol wilhoul controversy. Reducing the s ize of the work- force has an immed iately posilive outcome in the form of lower wage costs. Companies downsizing lo improve stralegic focus often see positive effeclS on s tock prices after the announcement. On lhe other hand, among companies that only cul employees bul don'l reslructure, profilS and slock prices usua lly decline. Pan of the problem is the effecl of downsizing on employee alliludes. Employees who remain oflen fee l worried aboul future layoffs and may be Jess committed lo the organizalion. Stress reactions can lead lo increased s ickness absences, lower concentralion on the job, and lower cre- ativity . Downsizing can also lead to more voluntary turnover, so vital human capital is Jost. The result is a company that is more anemic than Jean. The Ethical Dilemma on page 486 discusses the impact of job security on employee wellness and performance.
Compan ies can reduce negalive impacts by preparing in advance, thus allevialing some employee stress and strenglhening supporl for Lhe new strategic direclion.4 3 The fo llow ing are some effeclive s trategies for downsizing. Mosl are closely Jinked to the princip les for organizational justice \Ve discussed in Chapler 4 :
• Invest. Compan ies that downsize lo focus on core compelencies are more effeclive when they invest in high-involvemenl work praclices afterward.
• Communicate. When employers make efforlS lo discuss downsizing wilh employees early, employees are Jess worried about the outcomes and feel the company is taking Lheir perspective inlo account.
• Participate. Employees worry less if they can parlicipale in the process in some way. In some companies, voluntary early reliremenl programs or severance packages can help achieve leanness without layoffs.
• Assist. Severance, exlended health care benefi ts, and job search assis tance demonslrale a company cares about ilS employees and honours their contribulions.
Companies thal make themselves lean can be more agile, efficient, and productive- bu t on ly if they make cuts carefully and help employees through the process.
Why Do Structures Differ? One of the reasons why Phil Caravaggio put a new flattened organizational structure in place was lhat he didn't want to manage employees.44 He thought his talents were better suited to
leading and slrategizing for the company. He was convinced that employees were capable of
making decisions if they were empowered to do so. He also felt lhat roles could be stifling- that it might make more sense to have fluid roles where individuals helped wilh marketing on one
project, but maybe dealt with managing the team on another project. Thus work at Precision
Nutrition is organized into somewhat fl uid project-based teams that form and disband as
I necessary.
Precision Nutrition's model is very much an organic model, which we discuss below.
We have descr ibed many organizationa l des ign oplions. Exh ib it 13-5 recaps our discussions by presenting two extreme models of organ izationa l des ign . One we w ill call the me chanis tic mode l. [L's generally synonymous w ith Lhe bureaucracy in lhat it has h igh ly s tandardized processes for work, high forma l ization, and more managerial hierarchy. The olher exlreme is Lhe organic model. It's flal, has fewer forma l procedures for making decisions, has mulliple decision makers, and favours flexib le practices.4 5
Chapt er 13 Organizational Structure 4 75
EXHIBIT 13-5 Mechanistic vs. Organic Models
The M echani st i c Model The O rganic M odel
• High specialization • Cross-functional teams • Rigid departmentalization • Cross-hierarchical teams • Clear chain of command • Free flow of information • Narrow spans of control • Wide spans of control • Centralization • Decentralization • High formalization • Low formalization
With these two mode ls in mind, let's ask a few questions: Why are some orga- nizations structured along more mechanistic lines, whereas o thers follow organic characteristics? What forces influence the choice of design? In the following pages, we present the ma jor causes, or determ inants, of an organ ization's structure: strategy, orga- nizationa l size, technology, and environment.46 The Experiential Exercise on page 485 gives you the opportun ity to crea te different organ izational structures and see how they can affect productivity.
Organizational Strategies Because structure is a means to help management ach ieve its objectives, and objectives are derived from the organiza tion's overall strategy, it's only logical that structure follow strategy. If management sign ificantly changes the organ ization's strategy or its val ues, the structure must change to accommodate. For examp le, recent research ind icates tha t aspects of organ izational culture may influence the success of CSR ini tiatives.47 If the culture is supported by the structure, the initia tives are more likely to have clear paths toward app lication. Most current strategy frameworks focus on three strategy dimen- s ions- innovation, cost minim ization, and imitation- and the structural design that works best with each.48
Innovation Strategy To what degree does an organ ization introduce major new products or services? An innovation s trategy strives to achieve mean ingful and unique innovations. Obviously, not all firms pursue innovation. Apple and 3M do, but it certainly is not a strategy pursued by McDonald's. Innovative firms use competitive pay and benefits to at tract top candidates and mo tivate employees to take risks. Some degree of the mechanistic s tructure can actually benefi t innovation. Well -developed commun ication channels, pol icies for enhancing long-term comm itmen t, and clear channels of authority all may make it easier for rap id change to occur smooth ly.
Cost-Minimization Strategy An organization pursuing a cost-minimization s tra tegy tightly controls costs, refrains from incurring unnecessary innovation or marketing expenses, and cuts prices in selling a basic product. Th is would describe the strategy p ursued by Wal mart, as \veil as the
innovation strat egy A strategy that emphasizes the introduction of major new products and services.
cost-minimi zati on strategy A strategy that emphasizes tight cost 0011trols, avoidance of unnecessary innovatioo or marketing expenses. and price cutting.
4 76 Part 5 Reorganizing the Workplace
imitation strategy A strategy of moving into new products or new markets only after !heir viability has already been proven.
technology The way in which an organizatioo transfers ~s inputs into outputs.
sellers of generic grocery prod ucts. Cost-mi nimizing organizatio ns usually pursue fewer pol icies mean t to develop comm itment among their workforce.
Imitation Strategy Organizations followi ng an imitation strategy liy to both minimize risk and maximize opportun ity for profit, moving into new products or new markets o nly after in novators have proven their viability. Mass-market fashio n manufacturers l ike H&M that copy designer styles follow th is strategy, as do firms such as Hewleu-Packard and Caterpi l- lar. They follow smaller and more innovative competitors with superior products, but o nly after competitors have demo nstrated that the market is there. Italy's Moleskine, a small maker of fashionab le notebooks, is an o ther example of im itatio n strategy, but in a different way; looki ng to open more retail shops arou nd the world, it im itates the expansion strategies of larger, successful fash ion compa nies l ike Salva tore Ferragamo and Brunello Cucinelli.49
Exh ibit 13-6 describes th e structural option that best matches each s tra tegy. Inno- vators need the flexibility of the orga nic s tr ucture (alth o ugh, as we noted, they may use some e lements of the mechanistic structure as well), while cost minim izers seek the efficiency and stab ility of the mechan istic structure. Im itators comb ine th e two structures. They use a mechan istic structu re in order to maintai n tight controls and low costs in their cu rrent activities, bu t create organ ic subunits in which to p ursue
new undertakings.
Organizational Size An organization's s ize significa nt ly affects its structure. Organiza tions that employ 2000 or more people tend to have more specialization, more departmentalization, more vertical levels, and more rules and regulations than do small organizations. However, size becomes less important as an organization expands. Why is this? Al around 2000 employees an organ izatio n is already fairly mech anistic. An additional 500 employees will not h ave much impact. But adding 500 employees to an orga- nization that h as only 300 members is likely to signi fican tly shift it toward a more mechan istic s tructure.
Technology Tech nology describes the way an orga nizatio n transfers its inp uts int o outp u ts. Every organization has at least one tech no logy for converting financial, human, a nd physical resources into products or services. For example, the Ch inese consu mer e lectron ics company Ha ier uses an assembly-li ne process for mass-produced products, \vhich is complemented by more flexible and innovative
EXHIBIT 13-6 The Strat~~-St ructure Relationshi
Strategy Structural Option
What does technology
1nean'?
Innovation Organic: A loose structure; low specialization, low formalization, decentralized
Cost minimization Mechanistic: Tight control; extensive work specialization , high formalization, high centralization
Imitation Mechanistic and organic: Mix of loose with tight properties; tight con- trols over current activities and looser controls for new undertakings
Chapt er 13 Organizational Structure 477
s tructures to respond to customers and design new products.so Univers ities and col- leges may use a number of instruction technologies to teach students- the formal lecture method, case analysis, experien tial exercises, programmed learning, on line instruction, and distance learn ing. Regardless, organiza tional structures adapt to their technology.
Variations in Technology Numerous s tud ies have examined t he technology-structure relationsh ip.SI What differentiates technologies is their degree of routineness. Routine activities are charac- terized by automa ted and standardized operations, such as an assembly l ine, where one might affix a car door to a car at set intervals; automated transaction processing of sales transactions; and printing and b inding of th is book. Non routine activ ities are custom ized and requ ire frequent rev ision and updating. They include furniture restoring, custom shoemaking, genetic research, and t he writing and editing of th is book. In general, organizations engaged in nonroutine activities tend to prefer organic structures, whi le those perform ing routine activi ties prefer mechan istic structures.
Environment An organization's environment includes ouL~ide institutions or forces that can affect the organization's structure, such as suppliers, customers, competitors, and public pressure groups. Some organizations face dynamic environmen ts- rapidly changing govern- ment regulations affecting their business, new competitors, d ifficulties in acquiring raw ma terials, continually changing product preferences by customers, and so on. Other organ iza tions face rela tively static environments- few forces in their environment are changing. Dynamic environments create significantly more uncerta inty for managers than do s tatic ones. To m inimize uncerta inty in key market arenas, managers may broaden their structure to sense and respond to threats. Most companies, including Pepsi and WestJet Airlines, have added social networking departments to their structure so as to respond to negative information posted on biogs. Or compan ies may form strategic alliances with other compan ies.
Any organ ization's environment has three d imensions: capacity, vo latility, and complexity.s2
The capacity of an environment refers to the degree to which it can support growth. Rich and growing environments generate excess resources, which can buffer the orga- nization in times of relative scarcity.
Volatility describes the degree of instabi lity in an environment. A dynam ic environ- ment with a h igh degree of unpred ictable change makes it difficu lt for management to make accurate predictions. Because information technology changes al such a rapid pace, for instance, more organ izations' environments are becom ing volati le.
Finally, complexity is the degree of heterogeneity and concentration among environ- menta l elements. Simple environments- like the tobacco industry, where the methods of production, competi tive and regulatory pressures, and the like have not changed in quite some time- are homogeneous and concentra ted. Environments characterized by heterogeneity and d ispersion- like the broadband industry- are complex and diverse, with numerous competitors.
Exhib it 13-7 summarizes our definition of the environment along its three dimen- s ions. The arrows in this figure are meant to indicate movement toward higher uncer- tainty. Organ izations that operate in e nvironmen ts characterized as scarce, dynam ic, and complex face the greatest degree of uncertainty because they have high unpre- d ictability, lit tle room for error, and a diverse set of elements in the environment to monitor constantly.
environment Those institutioos or forces outside the organization that potentially affect the organization's performance.
4 78 Part 5 Reorganizing t he Workplace
institutions Cultural factOfs that lead many organizatioos to have similar structures, especially !hose factors that might not lead to adaptive consequences.
EXHIBIT 13-7 Three-Dimensional Model of the Environment
Stable
Abundan t
Simple Comple x
Scarce
Dynamic
Given this three-dimensio nal defini tion of environmen.t, we can offer some general conclusio ns abou t environmental uncerta inty an d structural arrangements. The more scarce, dynamic, and complex the environment, the more organ ic a structure should be. Th e more abu ndant, stable, and simp le the environment, the more mechanistic a structure should be.
Institutions Another factor that shapes organ izational structure is ins titutions . These are cultural factors that act as gu ideli nes for appropriate behaviour.53 Jnstitutional theory describes some of the forces that lead many organ izatio ns to have similar structures an d, unlike the theories we've described so far, foc uses on pressures that aren't necessarily adap- tive. In fact, many institutio nal theorists try to h ighligh t the ways corpora te behaviours sometimes seem to be performance oriented b ut are actually guided by unquestioned social norms a nd conformity.
The most obv ious instit utio na l factors come from regu la tory pressures; certain industries u nder govern ment contracts, for instance, m us t have clear reporting rela- tionships and strict information controls. Sometimes s imp le inertia determines an orga nizatio nal form - compan ies ca n be structured in a particular way just because that's the way things h ave a lways been done. Organizatio ns in countries w ith h igh power d is ta nce might have a structural form with strict a uthority relationships beca use it's seen as more legitimate in that culture. Some have a ttribu ted problems in adapt- ab ility in Japanese orga n izatio ns to the institutio na l pressure lo maintain a uth ority relationships.
Sometimes orga n izatio ns s tart to have a particular s tr ucture because of fads or trends. Organ izations can try to copy other successful compan ies just to look good to investors, and not because they need that structure lo perform better. Many compan ies have recently tried to copy the organic form of a company like Google only to find that such structures are a very poor fit with their operating environment. Insti tutional pres- sures are often difficult to see specifically because we take them for granted, but that doesn't mean they aren't powerful.
Organizational Designs and Employee Behaviour
I While Phil caravaggio might find that holacracy has worked at Precision Nutrition, not everyone finds such a system a great way to work.54 Zappos, the online shoe seller, had already intro- I duced holacracy and decided to go a step further. In 2015, CEO Tony Hsieh announced that all management positions were going to be eliminated, and that employees needed to "either get
Chapt er 13 Organizational Structure 479
on board with a bossless future or get out (with a generous severance)." Managers could keep
their salaries, but were told to find themselves new roles in the company. Many employees were confused, and by the end of 2015, 30 percent had resigned, which is
a large number for an organization that had previously prided itself on employee engagement.
Six months after Hsieh's announcement, some employees were still trying (unhappily) to figure out new roles for themselves.
We opened this chapter by implying that an organization's structure can have significant
effects on its members. What might those effects be'
A review of the evi dence leads to a pretty clear concl usion: You cannot generalize! Not everyone prefers the freedom and flexib ility of organic structu res. D ifferent fac- tors stand out in d i fferent structures as well. In high ly formalized, heavi ly structured, mechanistic organizations, the level of fa i rness in formal policies and procedures ( orga nizational justice) is a very important predictor of sati sfaction. In more perso nal, individually adaptive organic organizations, emp loyees va l ue i nterpersonal j ustice more. 55 Some peop le are most productive and sat isfied when work tasks are standard- ized and ambiguity minimized- that is, in mechanistic structures. So any discussion of the effect of organizational design on employee behavio ur has to address i ndividual d ifferences. To do so, let's consider employee preferences for work special ization, span of control, and central ization.56 Focus on Research looks at the impact of working from home on employ ee behaviour.
The ev idence generally ind ica tes that work specialization contributes to higher employee productivity- but at the price of job satisfaction. However, work specialization
FOCUS ~i sEARCH Working from Home
Are there advantages to companies that let employees work from home? Employees who work from home even part of t he time report they are hap pier, and as we saw in Chapter 3 , happ ier employees are likely to be more prod uctive than their d issatisfied counterparts.57 From an organization 's p erspective, companies are realizing gains of five to seven extra work hours a week for each employee working from home. There are also cost savings, from reduced overhead for office space and utilities to elimina- tion of unprod uctive social time. Employers of a home-based workforce can establish work team s and organizational reporting relationships w ith little attention to office poli- tics, opening the potential to more objectively assign roles and responsibilities. These may be some of the reasons organizations have increasingly endorsed the concept of telecommuting.
Although we can all think of jobs that may never be cond ucive to working from home (such as many in the service industry), not all positions that could be based from home should be. Research indicates t he success of a work-from -home position depends on the job's structure even more than on its tasks. The amount of interdependence needed between employees within a team or in a reporting relationship sometimes requires epis- temic interdependence, which is each employee's ability to predict what other employees will do. Organization consultants pay attention to how employee roles relate in the archi- tecture of the organization chart, realizing that intentional relationship building is key. Thus, while an employee may complete the tasks of a job well by working alone from home, the benefits of teamwork can be lost.
The success of a work-from-home program depends on the individual, the job, and the culture of the organization. Work from home can be satisfying for employees and efficient
: for organizations, but research suggests that there are limits. _ . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .
f) Analyze the behavioural implications of different organizational designs.
4 80 Part 5 Reorganizing the Workplace
is no t an un end ing source of h igher productivity. Prob lems start to surface, and prod uc- tivity begins lo suffer, wh en the h uman diseconomies of doing repetitive and narrow tasks overtake the economies of specializatio n. As the workforce has b ecome more h ighly educated and desirous of jobs that are intrinsically rewardi ng, we seem lo reach the po int al wh ich productivity begi ns to decline as a funct io n of specializatio n more qu ickly than in the past Wh ile decreased productivity often prompts companies lo ad d oversigh t a nd inspection roles, the better answer may be to reorganize work functions and accountabiliry.ss
There is still a segment of the workforce that prefers the routine and repetitiveness of h igh ly specialized jobs. Some individuals want work that makes minimal intellectual demands and provides the security of routine; for th em, h igh work special ization is a source of job satisfaction. The q uestion, of course, is whether they represent 2 percent of the workforce or 52 percent Given that some self-selection operates in the choice of careers, we migh t conclude that negative behavioural o utcomes from h igh specialization are most likely to surface in pro fessional jobs occupied by individuals with high needs for personal growth and d iversity.
ll's probably safe lo say th at no evidence supports a rela tionship between span of control and employee satisfaction or performance. Although it's intu itively attrac- tive lo argue t hat large spans might lead to higher employee performance b eca use they provide more distant supervision and more oppo rtu n ity for persona l in itia- tive, the research fails lo support t his notion . Some people l ike to be left a lone; others prefer th e security of a boss who is quickly available al all times. Cons isten t w ith several of the contingency theories of leadersh ip discussed in Chapter 11, we wo uld expect factors such as employees' experiences and abilities and the degree of structure in th eir tasks to explain when w ide or narrow spans of cont rol are likely lo cont ribute to th e ir performance and job satisfaction. However, some evidence indicates th at a manager's job satisfaction i ncreases as the number of employees s upervised increases.
We find fairly strong evidence linking central ization and job satisfaction. In general, less centralized organizations have a greater amount of autonomy. Autonomy appears positively related lo job satisfaction. But, again, whi le one employee may value freedom, another may find autonomous environments frustra tingly amb iguous.
We can dra\v one obvious insight: People don't select employers randomly. They are at tracted to, are selected by, and stay with organiza tions th at suit their persona l characteristics.59 Job candidates who prefer predictab ility are l ikely to seek o ut and take employment in mechanistic structures, and those who want autonomy are more likely lo end up in organic structures. So the effect of structure on emp loyee b ehaviour is undoubtedly reduced when th e selection process facilitates proper matching of individual characteristics with organ izational ch aracteristics. Furthermore, companies should strive lo establish, promote, and maintain the un ique identity of their structures s ince skilled employees may q uit as a result of dramatic changes.60
((F GLOBAL IMPLICATIONS \(~& When we think abou t how culture infl uences how organizations are to be ~ structured, severa l questio ns come to m ind. First, does culture really mauer lo organizationa l structure? Second, do employees in different countries vary in their perceptions of different types of organ izational structures? Finally, does downsizing have an effect for different cultures? let's tackle each question in turn.
Culture and Organizational Structure Does cu lture really affect organizational structure? The answer might seem obvious- yes! - bul there are reasons il may not matter as m uch as you th ink. The US model
Chapter 13 Organizational Structure 4 8 1
of business has been very influential on organizationa l structures in other coun tries. Moreover, US and Canadian structures themselves have been influenced by structures in other countries ( especially Japan, Grea t Britain, and Germany). However, cultural concerns still might be important. Bureaucratic structures still domina te in many parts of Europe and Asia. One management expert argues that US management often places too much emphasis on individual leadersh ip, which may be jarring in countries where decision making is more decentralized.61
Culture and Employee Structure Preferences Research suggests that national culture influences the preference for structure.62 Orga- nizations that operate with people from h igh power-distance cultures, such as Greece, France, and most of Latin America, find that their employees are much more accepting of mechanistic structures than are emp loyees from low power-distance countries. So cons ider cultural differences along with individual differences when predicting how structure will affect employee performance and satisfaction.
Culture and the Impact of Downsizing The changing landscape of organizational structure designs has imp lications for the individual progressing on a career path. Research w ith managers in Japan, the United Ki ngdom, and the United States indicated that employees who weathered downsiz- ing and resulting hybrid organ izational structures cons idered the ir future career prospects dim inished. While this may or may not have been correct, their th inking shows tha t organizational structure does affect the employee and thus must be care- fully designed.6 3
Summary The theme of this chapter is that an organization's interna l s tructure contributes lo exp la in ing and predicting behaviour. That is, in addition to individual and group factors, structural relationships in which people work have a bearing on employee attitudes. What is the bas is for this argument? To the degree that an organization's structure reduces ambigu ity for employees and clarifies concerns such as ·what am I supposed to do?" "How am I supposed to do it?" "To whom do I report?• and •To whom do I go if I have a problem?" il shapes their attitudes and facilitates and motiva tes them to higher levels of performance. Exh ibit 13-8 summarizes what \Ve have d iscussed .
EXHIBIT 13-8 Organizational Structure: Its Determinants and Outcomes
Causes • Strategy • Size • Technology
Structural designs • Mechanistoc • Organic
determines
• Environment
associated with
l M oderated by
individual differences and cultural norms
Performance and
satisfaction
-
LESSONS LEARNED
• Organizational structure de1ermines the level of autonomy an individual has.
• Organizational stra1egy, orga- n izational size, technology, and environmen1 de1ermine an organ i2ation's structure.
• There is no one best struc- ture. and individuals d iffer in their preference of organiza- tional structure.
4 82 Part 5 Reorganizing t he Workplace
Mylab Management
SNAPSHOT SUMMARY
What Is Organizational Common Organizational • The Leaner Organization: Structure? Designs Downsizing
• Work Specialization • The Simple Structure Why Oo Structures Differ? • Departmentalization • The Bureaucracy
• Organizational Strategies • Chain of Command • The Matrix Structure
• Organizational Size • Span of Control
• Technology • Centralization and Alternate Design Options
Decentralization • The Virtual Structure • Environment
• Formalization • The Team Structure • Institutions
• Boundary Spanning • The Circular Structure Organizational Designs and Employee Behaviour
Study, practise, and explore real business situations with these helpful resources:
• Study Plan: Check your understanding of chapter concepts with self-study quizzes.
• Online Lesson Presentations: Study key chapter topics and work through interactive assessments to test your knowledge and master management concepts.
• Videos: Learn more about the management practices and strategies of real companies.
• Simulations: Practise management decision-making in simulated business environments.
.,. for Review
1 . What seven key elements define an organization's structure?
2. What are the characteristics of a bureaucracy, and how does it differ from a simple structure?
3. What are the characteristics of a matrix organization?
4. What are the characteristics of virtual, team, and circular structures?
5. What are the effects of downsiz- ing on organizational structures and employees?
6. What is the difference between a mechanistic structure and an organic structure?
7. What are the behavioural impli· cations of different organiza- tional designs?
for Managers
• Know that specialization can m ake operations more efficient, but excessive specialization can create employee dissatisfaction and reduce motivation .
• Avoid designing rigid hierarchies that overly limit employees' em powerment and autonomy.
• Balance the advantages o f remote work against the poten- tial pitfalls before adding flexible workplace options into the orga - nization's structure.
• Dow nsize your organization to realize major cost savings, and focus the company around core competencies - if necessary. Dow nsizing can have a significant negative impact on employee morale.
• Consider the scarcity, d ynamism, and complexity of the environ- m ent, and balance organic and m echanistic elements w hen designing an organizational structure.
for You
• Think about the type of organiza- tional structure that suits you best when you look for a job. You may prefer a structured workplace, like that of a mechanistic organiza- tion. Or you may prefer a m uch less structured workplace, like that of an organic organization.
• If you decide to start your own com pany, know the different structural considerations so that you can create an organization that meets your needs as both a business person and a person w ith additional interests.
• As a manager or as an entre - preneur, consider how much responsibility (centralization/ decentralization) you want to take for yourself com pared with how much you are willing to share with others in the organization.
0 ICll:I
"' -
484 Part 5 Reorganizing the Workplace
THE END OF MANAGEMENT -"' CCI 0 POI NT
Management - at least as we know it - is dying.64 For- mal organizational structures are giving way to flatter, less bureaucratic, less formal structures. And that's a good thing.
Innovative companies such as Apple, Google, Face- book, Twitter, and Groupon were born and now thrive thanks not to a multilayered bureaucracy, but to an innovative idea that was creatively executed by a flex- ible group of people freely collaborating. Management in those companies exists to facilitate, rather than control.
The scope of what managers do has broadened to include typing, taking notes, and managing their own files/schedules, while the scope of what administrative assistants do has broadened to include making social media posts and assuming technical duties. The most innovative firms have questioned whether they need job titles at all, instead emphasizing collaboration throughout the organization.
The best companies have eliminated offices alto- gether and encourage employees to mingle and form teams according to their project interests. This suits younger workers who aspire to work with the top play- ers rather than report to them, and who value flexible hours and work-from-home options. Job titles are gone, roles are ambiguous, and reporting relationships morph by project.
The talent is ready for the elimination of management as we know it. The successful corporation of the future will have a flatter organizational structure and account - ability based on performance.
COUNTERPOINT There is no •one size fits all" approach to organizational structure. How flat, informal, and collaborative an orga- nization should be depends on many factors, but no matter what, management structure is needed. Let's consider two cases.
People lauded how loosely and informally Warren Buffett structured his investment firm, Berkshire Hath- away, until it was discovered his CFO and heir appar- ent David Sokol was on the take. Wouldn't Buffett have known Sokol was compromised if he had supervised more closely or had structures in place to check such "freedom"? It's hard to argue with Berkshire Hathaway's past successes, but they don't prove the company is ideally structured.
At Honeywell International, CEO David Cote seems relaxed and fun-loving (he rides a Harley-Davidson and wears a leather bomber jacket to work), but his hard-hitting work ethic and firm hand on the reins are legendary. As the leader of a global technology and manufacturing conglomerate, Cote keeps a tight rein on the four industry divisions and 132 000 employees.
Cote's control focus does not end at the executive suite. At the factories, job titles are painted literally on the floor to indicate who needs to be present - and standing - at organizational meetings limited to 15 min- utes. Is Cote a control freak? Maybe, but he success- fully merged three disparate company cultures and more than 250 factories. The new Honeywell has climbed the Fortune 500 ranks and pulls in over $40 billion in annual sales. Profits have increased faster than sales, in part due to Cote's insistence on freezing raises and hiring only two to three employees for every four to five who exit.
Berkshire Hathaway and HoneyweD illustrate the strong need for management structure in an ever-changing, diverse, worldwide marketplace.
Chapter 13 Organizat ional Structure 485
BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES
Fonn sm all groups to discuss the following topics, as assigned by your instructor:
1. Describe the structure of an organization in w hich you worked. Was the structure appropriate for the tasks being done?
2. Have you ever worked in an organization with a structure that seem ed inappropriate to the task? What would have improved the structure?
3. You are considering opening up a coffee bar w ith several of your friends. What kind of structure m ight you use? After the coffee bar becom es successful, you decide that expanding the number of branches m ight be a good idea. What changes to the structure m ight you make?
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
The Sandwich Shop Divide the class into groups of at least 4 individuals.
Background: The m anagers of a new chain of sandwich shop s will need to determine what types of sandwiches
consumers want and find recipes and ingredients. Ingredient sources, prices, and other logistical requirements (like
refrigeration) will need to be detennined, purchasing decisions w ill be ongoing, and supplier relationship s will need to
be managed. Financing must also be arranged at this early phase. With this groundwork, the company will move to the
next stage of m arketing, including pricing and the development of advertising materials. Finally, selecting and training
workers will occur.
Each group creates the following:
A simple structure: Detennine w hat a simple structure would look like for this organization. Recall that a simple
structure is one in which there is little hierarchy, wide spans of control, and centralized decision making. To w hom
would the various tasks described above be assigned? What sort of delegation might take place? Who would
coordinate the multiple operations? About how many people would be acting in an administrative role, and What sort
of spans of control would they have? What challenges will the organization face as it grows?
A bureaucracy: Determine w hat a bureaucratic structure would look like for this organization. Bureaucracies are marked by m ore hierarchy, sm all spans of control, and specialized decision making. Again, you will want to establish
task assignments, delegation, coordination, and the number of individuals required. Also consider possibilities for
future growth with a bureaucratic system.
A virtual structure: Detennine w hat a virtual structure w ould look like for this organization if many of the aspects of the business are outsourced. Consider which tasks can be adequately perfonned by individuals Who do not work
within the restaurant chain, and Which should be kept in house.
Debriefing After all groups have developed different structural options, convene for class discussion for groups to describe how
they created responsibilities for different individuals. Then the class should talk about w hich system of organization
seems most beneficial for this business.
4 86 Part 5 Reorganizing the Workplace
-"' CCI 0
ETHICAL DILEMMA
Post-Millennium Tensions in the Flexible Organization
The message from the business press has been con- sistent: Don't count on long -term employment.BS For
years, job seekers have been told they should expect
to be responsible for their own careers and prepare for the possibility that they will be changing jobs frequently.
A simple look at employment trends also confirms that
highly routine and well-defined jobs have been decreas- ing in number.
The shift has often been described in fairly positive terms. Managers work to create organizations that have
laudable characteristics like adaptability, flexibility, and
creativity. Author Micha Kaufman notes that doing well in contemporary business environments means "having
the flexibility to let go of the ideas of the past, the cour-
age to constantly re-evaluate plans for the future, and the presence of mind to adapt to life, as it is, in the moment.•
There is a lot of appeal in creating your own future at
work. At the same time, many workers land in precarious
posit ions. Researchers find that individuals who feel
insecure or uncertain about future employment experi- ence higher levels of psychological strain and worry.
Insecure workers also get sick more frequently. Con- trary to the positive image of the freelance worker with
boundless energy and creativity, evidence shows that
for many ind ividuals, a lack of job security can result
in exhaustion and an apprehensive approach to work
problems.
Corporate leaders ask themselves what their role in creating job security should be. Some note that compa-
nies built around stability and security are less likely to
compete successfully and may go out of business. Many organizations try to maintain flexibility and a certain level
of security. For example, Scripps Health has maintained
a pool of internal transfer opportun ities and training assignments for individuals whose job functions are no
longer needed. As a result, even within the highly volatile
health care industry, it has been able to avoid layoffs. However, systems that provide job security do not come
cheaply, nor are they feasible for all companies.
Questions
1. Do you think that stability is good or bad for employees?
2. Do employers have an ethical responsibility to pro- vide security for employees or just a warning about a lack of security?
3. If long-term employment security is not feasible, what alternatives might employers provide to help employees make smoother transitions?
CASE INCID E NT S
Creative Deviance: Bucking the Hierarchy?
One of the major functions of an organizational hierar- chy is to increase standardization and control for top
managers.66 Using the chain of command, managers
can direct the activities of subordinates toward a com- mon purpose. If the right person w ith a creative vision
is in charge of a hierarchy, the results can be phe- nomenal. Until Steve Jobs's passing in October 2011 ,
Apple had used a strongly top-down creative process
in which most major decisions and innovations flowed directly through Jobs and were subsequently delegated
to subteams as specific assignments to complete. Then there is creative deviance, in which individu-
als create extremely successful products despite being
told by senior management to stop working on them. The electrostatic displays used in more than half of
Hewlett-Packard's instruments, the tape slitter that
was one of the most important process innovations in
3M's history, and Nichia's development of multi-billion-
dollar LED bright lighting technology were all officially
rejected by the management hierarchy. In these cases,
an approach like Apple's w ould have shut down some
of the most successful products the companies ever
produced. Doing "business as usual" can become such
an imperative in a hierarchical organization that new
ideas are seen as threats rather than opportunities for
development.
It's not immediately apparent w hy top-down decision
making works so well for one highly creative company
like Apple, while hierarchy nearly ruined innovations at
several other organizations. It may be that Apple's struc-
ture is actually quite simple, w ith relatively few layers and
a great deal of responsibility placed on each individual for
his or her own outcomes. Or it may be that Apple simply
had a very unique leader w ho was able to rise above the
conventional strictures of a CEO to c reate a culture of
constant innovation.
Chapter 13 Organizat ional Structure 487
Quest.ions
1. Do you think it's possible for an organization to deliberately create an "anti-hierarchy" to encourage employees to engage in more acts of creative devi- ance? What steps might a company take to encour- age creative deviance?
2. What are the dangers of an approach that encour- ages creative deviance?
3. Why do you think a company such as Apple is able to be creative w ith a strongly hierarchical structure, whereas other companies find hierarchy limiting?
4. Do you think Apple's success was entirely depen- dent upon Steve Jobs's role as head of the hierar- chy? What are the potential liabilities of a company being so strongly connected to the decision making of a single individual?
"I Detest Bureaucracy" Greg Strakosch, founder and executive chairman of inter-
active media company Tech Target, hates bureaucracy.67
So he has created a workplace where his 600 employees are free to come and go as they please. There are no
set policies mandating working hours or detailing sick ,
personal, or vacation days. Employees are free to take as
much vacation as they want and to work the hours when
they are most productive- even if it's between midnight
and 4 a.m. What if you need a day off to take your kid to
camp? No problem. Strakosch says ideas like setting a
specific number of sick days "strike me as arbitrary and
dumb." He trusts his employees to act responsibly.
Strakosch is quick to state that "this isn' t a country
club." A painstaking hiring process is designed to weed
out all but the most autonomous. Managers set ambi·
tious quarterly goals, and employees are given plenty of
independence to achieve them . However, there is little
tolerance for failure. As Tech Target's website states, there
is a 100 percent focus on results. Employees are fired for
underachieving .
Moreover, while hours are flexible, employees fre-
quently put in at least 50 hours a week. In addition,
regardless of hours worked, employees are required to
remain accessible via email, cellphone, instant messag -
ing, or laptop.
Strakosch's approach seems to be working. Tech-
Target became a public company in May 2007 w ith a $ 100 million IPO (initial public offering) and has grown to become the leading online media company for the tech-
nology sector. In May 2014, the company was recognized as one of the "Best Places to Work, " the seventh time it
has been so recognized.
Questions
1. What type of organizational structure does TechTarget have?
2. Why does this type of structure work at Tech Target?
3. How transferable is this structure to other organizations?
4. Would you want to work at Tech Target? Why or why not?
488 Part 5 Reorganizing the Workplace
FROM CONCEPTS TO SKILLS
-"' CCI 0
Delegating Authority Managers get things done
through other people. Because
there are limits to any manager's
time and knowledge, effective
managers need to understand
how to delegate. Delegation is
the assignment of authority to
another person to carry out spe-
cific duties. It allows an employee
to make some of the decisions.
Delegation should not be con-
fused w ith participation. In partici -
pative decision m aking, there is a sharing of authority. In delegation,
employees make decisions on
their own.
A number of actions differenti -
ate the effective delegator from
the ineffective delegator. You can
become a more effective delega- tor if you use the following five
suggestions:68
• ............ Practising Skills
1. Clarify the assignment. The place to begin is to determine what is to be delegated and to w hom . You need to identify the person most capable of doing the task, then determine if he or she has the time
and motivation to do the job. Assuming that you have a willing and able employee, it is your
responsibility to provide clear information on what is being delegated, the results you expect, and any tim e or performance expectations you hold.
Unless there is an overriding need to adhere to specific meth- ods, you should delegate only the end results. That is, get agree- m ent on what is to be done and the end results expected, but let the employee decide on the m eans.
2. Specify the employee 's range of discretion. Every act of delegation comes w ith constraints. You are delegating authority to act, but not unlimited authority. What you are delegating is authority to act on certain issues and, on those issues, within certain parameters. You need to specify w hat those parameters are so employees know, in no uncertain terms, the range of their discretion.
3. Allow the employee to participate. One of the best sources for deter- mining how much authority w ill be necessary to accomplish a task is the employee who will be held accountable for that task. If you allow employees to participate in determining w hat is delegated, how much authority is needed to get the job done, and the standards by which they will be judged, you increase employee motivation, satisfaction, and accountability for performance.
4. Inform others that delegation has occurred. Delegation should not occur in a vacuum. Not only do you and the employee need to know specifically what has been delegated and how much authority has been granted, but anyone else who may be affected by the delegation act also needs to be informed.
5. Establish feedback controls. The establishment of controls to monitor the employee's progress increases the likelihood that important problems will be identified early and that the task will be completed on time and to the desired specifications. For instance, agree on a specific time for completion of the task, and then set progress dates when the employee will report back on how well he or she is doing and any major problems that have surfaced. This can be supplemented with periodic spot checks to ensure that authority guidelines are not being abused, organization policies are being followed, and proper procedures are being met.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
You are the director of research and development for a large pharmaceuti-
cal manufacturer. Six people report directly to you: Sue (your secretary),
Dale (laboratory manager), Todd (quality standards manager), Linda (pat-
ent coordination manager), Ruben (market coordination m anager), and
Marjorie (senior projects manager). Dale is the most senior of the five man-
agers and is generally acknowledged as the chief candidate to replace
you if you are promoted or leave.
You have received your annual instructions from the CEO to develop
next year's budget for your area. The task is relatively routine, but takes
quite a bit of time. In the past, you have always done the annual budget
yourself. But this year, because your workload is exceptionally heavy, you
have decided to try something different. You are going to assign budget
preparation to one of your subordinate managers. The obvious choice is
Dale. Dale has been w ith the company longest, is highly dependable, and,
as your probable successor, is most likely to gain from the experience.
The budget is due on your boss's desk in eight weeks. Last year it took
you about 30 to 35 hours to complete. However, you have done a budget
many times before. For a novice, it might take double that amount of time.
The budget process is generally straightforward. You start w ith last
year's budget and modify it to reflect inflation and changes in departmental
objectives. All the data that Dale will need are in your files, online, or can
be obtained from your other managers.
You have just walked over to Dale's office and informed him of your
decision. He seemed enthusiastic about doing the budget, but he also has
a heavy workload . He told you, "I'm regularly coming in around 7 a.m. and
it's unusual for me to leave before 7 p.m. For the past five weekends, I've
even come in on Saturday mornings to get my work done. I can do my
best to try to find time to do the budget." Specify exactly what you would
say to Dale and the actions you would take if Dale agrees to do the budget.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1. Watch a classic movie that has examples of •managers" delegating assignments. Pay explicit attention to the incidence of delegation. Was delegating done effectively? What was good about the prac- tice? How might it have been improved? Movies w ith delegation examples include The Godfather, The Firm, Star Trek, Office Space, Nine-to-Five, and Working Girl.
2. The next time you have to do a group project for a class, pay explicit attention to how tasks are delegated . Does someone assume a leadership role? If so, note how c losely the delegation process is followed. Is delegation different in project or study groups than in typical work groups?
Chapter 13 Organizational Structure 489
Reinforcing Skills
•••••••
490
Organizational Change
O Identify the forces for change.
Can Cirque du Soleil continue
to adapt in order to deal with the challenges
in the circus world that brought down the
Ringling Bros. Circus?
f) Compare the four main approaches to managing organizational change. f) Describe the sources of resistance to change. C, Describe three ways to create a culture for change.
ontreal-based Cirque du Soleil has contin- ued to reinvent itself, even while it faced Sarah EdwardsllP= li',l.com/Mamy financial difficulties during 2011 -2013
that resulted in 600 layoffs.1 Other circuses have been shuttered in recent years. Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus, the oldest circus in North America, closed down in May 2017 after 146 years. The circus experienced
declining attendance, high costs, and battles with animal rights groups. It did not seem to have an idea for moving the circus in a different direction . Kenneth Feld, chairman and CEO of Feld Entertainment, which
owns Ringling Bros., said times had changed too much to save the circus. "It's a different model that we can't see how it works in today's world to justify and maintain an affordable ticket price . So you've got
all these things working against it.• By contrast, Cirque du Soleil seems to relish change. The circus had been privately owned since its start in 1984, bu1 in 2015, 90 percent of the company was sold to investors, includ-
ing a 20 percent stake to Chinese investment firm Fosun. Cirque du Soleil is just one of many organizations that needs to reinvent itself to
survive in a challenging business environment, something that Ringling Bros. was not able to do. Engaging in any kind of change in an organization is not easy. In this chapter,
we examine the forces for change, managing change, and contemporary change issues.
• Are there positive approaches to change?
\ I I ' , :o:
~ ' , '
'l'II E BIG IDEA • How do you respond to change?
• What makes organizations resist change? Change is
ineviLable, and being able Lo adapl Lo change \.vill help
tl1e process go more smootl1ly.
491
492 Part 5 Reorganizing t he Workplace
O Identify the forces for change.
Forces for Change No company today is in a particularly s table environment. Even those with dom inant market share must change, sometimes radically. For examp le, the market for smarl- phones has been especiallyvolalile.2 During the fourth quarter of 2016, 78.29 million iPhones were sold, compared with 76 .78 m illion Samsung phones. Contrast th is with the fourth quarter of 2015, in wh ich somewhat fewer {74.78 million) iPhones were sold, vs. somewhat more {81.3 million) Samsung phones. At the same time, the Ch inese mobile phone company Xiaomi has been rapidly rising. A look just a few years further back shows former ly dominant players like Nokia or Research in Motion {RIM, makers of the BlackBerry) shrinking dramatically in s ize. RIM held zero percent market share at the end of2016 for its smartphone, having reached its peak sales in 2011, with almost 52 mill ion devices sold. In th is and many markets, competitors are constantly entering and exiling the field, ga ining and losing ground quickly.
"Change or die!• is the rallying cry among today's managers worldwide. Exhibi t 14 -1
summarizes six distinct forces that act as stimulants for change. In a number of p laces in th is book, we have discussed the changing nature of the
workforce. Almost every organization must ad just lo a multicultural environment, demo- graphic changes, imm igration, and outsourcing.
Technology is changing jobs and organ izations. It is not hard to imagine the very idea of an office becoming an antiquated concept in the near future.
The Canadian housing and financial sectors have experienced extraordinary economic shochs in recent years, although not lo the extent that they have in the United Sta tes. The financial turbulence that began in 2008 has eroded the average employee's re tirement accow1l considerably, forcing many employees to postpone their anticipated retirement date and, in some cases, making i l harder for younger people to find jobs. Mean\vhile, spending has dropped, and many Canadian reta ilers are still suffering the consequences today.
Competition has changed. Competitors are as likely to be across the ocean as across town. Successfu l organizations are fas t on their feel, capable of develop ing new products
EXHIBIT 14-1 Forces for Change
Force
Nature of the workforce
Technology
Economic shocks
Competition
Social trends
World politics
Examples
More cultural diversity
Aging population
Many new entrants with inadequate skills
Faster, cheaper, and more mobile computers
Online music sharing
Deciphering of the human genetic code
Rise and fall of dot-com stocks
Record low interest rates
Turbulent financial markets
Global competitors
Mergers and consolidations
Growth of e -commerce
Internet chat rooms
Retirement of Baby Boomers
Rise of discount and "big box" retailers
Global financial crises
Opening of markets in China
Government shakeups around the world
Extreme weather
Chap ter 14 Organizational Change 493
The transformational leadership of Netflix CEO Reed Hastings has helped the company grow from a small DVD rental service to an Internet streaming service with 53 million customers in 50 countries.
rapidly and getti ng them to market quickly. In other words, they are flexible and will require an equally flexible and responsive workforce.
Social trends don't remain s tatic either. Consumers who are otherwise strangers now meet and share product information in chat rooms and biogs. Organ izations must therefore continually adjust product and marketing strategies to be sensitive to chang- ing social trends. For example, consumers, employees, and organ izational leaders are increasingly sensitive lo environmental concerns. A~ a result, •green" practices have quickly become expected rather than optiona l.
Not even globalization's strongest proponents cou ld have imagined the changing world politics in recent years. We have seen a set of financial crises that rocked global markets; Japan's fall into recession in 2014; a dramatic rise in the power and influence of Ch ina; attempts by Russia to reinstate itself as a global power; intense shakeups in governments around the world, including the r ise of Donald Trump; and the societal effects of extreme weather. Throughout the industria lized world, businesses- particularly in the banking and financial sectors- have come under new scrutiny.
Opportunities fo r Change Organizations have many opportunities to engage in change. They can change their motivation structures or redesign jobs. They may engage in corporate social responsi- b ility. They may organize more around teams or share more leadersh ip by empower- ing employees. They may create flauer structures or move lo more modular structures. Sometimes the entire cu lture of the organ ization needs to change for organizational change lo be successful, as Case lncident- Spn,cing Up Walmart on page 517 shows.
Exh ib it 14-2 summarizes the range of change targets avai lab le to organizations. As we discussed the workplace in th is book, and ta lked about possible change, we
m ight have implied that change happens easily, perhaps overnight, and does not requ ire careful thought or plann ing. Th is imp lication exists because we d id nol d iscuss how these changes actually happen in the workplace, what has to be done lo achieve change, and how difficult change actually is. We wanted you to understand wha t changes were possible before we discussed how to carry them oul.
494 Part 5 Reorganizing the Workplace
f) Compare the four main approaches to man- ag ing organizational change.
change agents People who act as catalysts and assume the responsibil· ity for managing change activities.
EXHIBIT 14-2 Organizational Targets for Change
Objectil,e
Set or modify specific performance
targets
Clarify or create strategic and
operational plans
Culture
Clarify or create core beliefs and values
Purpose
Clarify or create mission and objectives
People
Update recruiting and selection practices,
improve training and development
Technology
Improve equipment, facilit ies, and workflows
Update organizational design and coordination
and mechanisms
Update job designs for individuals
and groups
Source: Organizational Behavior by Scherrnertiom, John R.; Hunt, James G.; Osborn, Richard. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley in the format Republish in a book via Copyright Clearance Center.
Change Agents Change agents man age change activities in an organization. 3 They see a future for the organ ization that o thers have not identi fied, and they are able to motivate, invent, an d implement this vision. Change agents can be managers, no nma nagers, employees of the organization, or o utside co nsu ltants.4
In some instances, internal management wi ll h ire o utside consultants lo provide advice and assistan ce wi th major change efforts. Because they are from the outside, these individuals ca n offer an objective perspective often u nava ilable to insiders. O utside consultan ts, however, are disadvantaged because they usually have an inadequate under- sta nd ing of the orga nization's h istory, culture, operating procedures, and perso nnel. Outside consultants also may be prone lo initiating more drastic changes- wh ich can be a benefit or a disadvantage- because they don' t have to live with the repercussions after the change is implemented. In contrast, internal staff special ists or man agers, when acting as change agents, may be more thoughtful ( an d possib ly more cautious) because they have to live with the co nsequences of their actio ns.
Approaches to Managing Change The creative teams at Cirque du Sole ii are continually trying to improve their work. 5 In 2014,
Dominic Champagne, the director, and Giles Martin, the creative director of Cirque du Soleil's
"The Beatles LOVE," decided to refresh the show. It took them two years to remake the show.
When asked why they did it, Cirque's director of creation, Chantal Tremblay, responded, "I think
because we like the show so much and it's going really well, it's kind of giving back to the people
after 10 years. We're adding more oomph to the wow that already existed." For organizations
I afraid of change, this would be a surprising answer. Instead, this creative team saw a positive challenge in reimagining "LOVE." What has made Cirque's approach to change successful'
Chapter 14 Organizational Change 495
A&W is growing its Millennial customers by opening more downtown locations and targeting Milennials' desire for quality ingredients (e.g ., burgers are oow made w~h hormone- and steroid-free bee~. Attracting Millennial customers is half the battle. Convincing hundreds of franchisees to buy into the new focus is the other.
To this point, we have discussed the kinds of changes organizations can make. Assuming that an organization has uncovered a need for change, how does it engage in the change process? We turn to fo u r approaches to managing change: Lewin's classic three-step model of the change process, Kotler's eight-step p lan for implementing change, action research, and appreciative inquiry.
Lewin's Three -Step Model Kurt Lewin argued that successful change in organizations should fo llow three steps, wh ich are ill ustrated in Exhibit 14-3 : unfreezing the status q uo, moving to a new stale, and r efreezing the new change to make it permanent.6
By definition, the status quo is an equilibrium stale. To move from this equ ilibrium- to overcome the pressures of both ind iv idual resistance and group conformity - unfreez- ing must happen in one of three ways (see Exh ibit 14-4) . The driving for ces, which direct behaviour away from the status q uo, can be increased. The restrain ing fo rces, wh ich h inder movement from the existing equi librium, can be decrea~ed. A third al ternative is to combine the first two approaches. Companies that have been successful in the past are likely to encounter restra in ing forces because people q uestion the need for change.7
The val ue of th is model can be seen through the example of a large oil company that decided lo conso lidate its three regional marketing offices in Winnipeg, Calgary, and Vancouver into a single regional office in Calgary. The decision was made in Toronto, and the people affected had no say wha tsoever in the decis ion. The reorgan ization mean t transferring more than 150 employees, e lim inating some duplicate managerial positions, and instituti ng a new hierarchy of command.
EXHIBIT 14-3 Lewin's Three-Step Change Model
Unfreezing Moving Refreezing
unfreezing Change efforts to 0\/l!r- oome the pressures of both indillidual resistance and group conformity.
moving Efforts to get employees involved in the change process.
refreezing Stabilizing a change interventioo by balancing driving and restraining forces.
driving forces Forces that direct behaviour away from the status quo.
restraining forces Forces that hinder movement away from the status quo.
4 96 Part 5 Reorganizing t he Workplace
EXHIBIT 14-4 Unfreezing the Status Quo
Desired state
Status quo
Restraining forces
i i i i i ,,"" ______ ,; t t t t t
Driving forces
,I ,I
,I ,I
Time ---_.
The oil company's management expected employee resistance to the conso lida- tion and outlined its alternatives. Those in Winnipeg or Vancouver might not wan t to transfer to another city, pull children out of school, make new friends, adapt to new co-workers, or undergo the reassignment of responsibil it ies. Posi tive incentives such as pay increases, liberal moving expenses, and low-cost mortgage funds for new homes in Calgary m ight encourage employees to accept the change. Management migh t also unfreeze acceptance of the status quo by remov ing restrain ing forces. It could counsel employees individually, hearing and clarifying each employee's specific concerns and apprehensions. Assum ing that most of the fears were unjustified, the counsellor could
assure the employees that there was noth ing to fear and then demonstrate, through tangible evidence, that restraining forces were un\varranted. If resistance were extremely
high, management might have to resort to both reducing resistance and increasing the attractiveness of the alternative if the unfreezing were to be successful.
Once the movement stage begins, it's important to keep the momentum going.
Organizations that build up to change do less well than those that get to and through the moving s tage qu ickly.
When change has been implemented, the new si tuation must be refrozen so that it can be sustained over time. Without this last step, change likely will be short-lived and employees w ill try to go baclc to the previous equilibrium state. The objective of refreez- ing. then, is to stabil ize the new situation by balancing the driving and restraining forces.
How can the oil company's management refreeze its consolidation change? By systematically replacing temporary forces with permanent ones. Management m ight impose a new bonus system t ied to the specific changes desired. The formal rules and regulations governing behaviour of those affected by the change shou ld also be revised to reinforce the new situation. Over time, of course, the work group's own norms will evo lve to susta in the new equ ilibrium. But until that point is reached, management shou ld rely on more formal mechanisms.
A key feature of Lewi n's three-step model is its concep tion of change as an episodic
activity. For a debate about whether organizational change today is an ep isodic activity or an ongoing and at ti mes chaotic process, see Point/ Counterpoint on page 514.
Kotter's Eight-Step Plan for Implementing Change John Kotter of Harvard Business Schoo l bui lt on Lewin's three-step model to create a more detailed approach for imp lementing change.8
Koller began by listing common failures that occur when managers try to initiate change. They may fa il to create a sense of urgency about the need for change, a coal ition for managing the change process, or a vision for change. They may not effectively com- municate the vision or may not anchor the changes into the organiza tion's culture. They
Chapter 14 Organizational Change 497
EXHIBIT 14-5 Kotter's Eight- Step Plan for Implementing Change
1 . Establish a sense of urgency by creating a compelling reason for why change is needed.
2. Form a coalition with enough power to lead the change.
3. Create a new vision to direct the change and strategies for achieving the vision.
4. Communicate the vision throughout the organization.
5. Empower others to act on the vision by removing barriers to change and encouraging risk-taking and creative problem-solving.
6. Plan for, create, and reward short-term "wins" that move the organization toward the new vision.
7. Consolidate improvements, reassess changes, and make necessary adjustments in the new programs.
8. Reinforce the changes by demonstrating the relationship between new behaviours and organizational success.
Source: Based on J. P. Kotter, Leading Change (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1996).
also may fai l to remove obstacles that cou ld impede the vision's ach ievement or may not provide short-term and achievable goals. Finally, they may declare victory too soon.
Kotter then established eight sequential steps to overcome these problems. These steps are listed in Exhibit 14-5.
Notice how Exh ibit 14-5 builds on Lewin's model. Kotter's first four steps essentially represent the "un freezing• stage. Steps 5 through 7 represent "moving." The final step works on •refreezing." Kotter's contribution lies in providing managers and change agents with a more detailed guide for successfully implementing change.
Action Research Action r esearch refers to a change process based on the systematic collection of data and then selection of a change action based on what the analyzed data ind icate.9 Its value is in providing a scientific method for managing planned change. Action research consists of fi ve steps: d iagnosis, analysis, feedback, action, and evaluation.
The change agent, often an outside consu ltant in action research, begins by gather- ing information about problems, concerns, and needed changes from members of the organ ization. This diagnosis is analogous to the physician's search to find specificall y what ails a patient. In action research, the change agent asks questions, reviews records, interviews employees, and actively listens to their concerns.
Diagnosis is followed by analysis. What prob lems do people key in on? Wha t pat- terns do these problems seem to take? The change agent organizes this information into primary concerns, problem areas, and possible actions.
Action research requires the people who will participate in any change program to help identify the problem and determine the solution. So the th ird step- feedback - requires sharing with employees what has been found from the first and second steps. The emp loyees, with the help of the change agent, develop action plans for bringing about any needed change.
Now the action part of action research is set in motion. The employees and the change agent carry out the specific actions they have identified to correct the problems.
The final step, consistent with the scientific underpinnings of action research, is eval- uation of the action p lan's effectiveness, using the initial data gathered as a benchmark.
Action research provides at least two specific benefits for an organization. First, it is problem focused . The change agent objectively looks for problems, and the type
action research A change process based on the systematic collection of data and then selection of a change action based on what the analyzed data indicate.
4 98 Part 5 Reorganizing the Workplace
appreciative inquiry (All An l approach lo change Iha! seeks to identify !he unique qualities and special strengths of an 0<ganization, which can !hen be built on to improve performance.
of problem determines the type of change action. Th is is a process that makes intui- tive sense. Unfortu nately, th is too often does nol happen in reality. Change activities can be solu tion-centred and therefore erroneous ly predetermined . The change agent has a favourite so lution- for example, imp lementing flext ime, teams, or a process re-engineering program- and then seeks out problems that h is or her solution fits. A second benefit of action research is the loweri ng of resistance. Because action research involves employees so thorough ly in the process, it reduces resistance to change. O nce employees have actively participated in the feedback stage, the ch ange process typically takes o n a moment um of its own.
Appreciative Inquiry Most orga nizatio nal change approaches are prob lem cen- tred. They identify a problem or set of problems, then look for a solution. Appre ciative inquiry (AI ) accentuates the pos itive. 10 Rather than looking for problems to fix, this approach seeks lo identify the un ique qualities and special strengths of an organ izatio n, which can then be built on to improve performan ce. That is, it focuses on an organiza- tion's successes rather than on its problems.
Are there posi- tive approaches
to change'?
The AI process (see Exhibit 14-6) consists of four steps, or "Four D's," often played out in a large group meeti ng over two or three days, and overseen by a tra ined change agent:
• Discovery. Identify wh at peop le think are the strengths of the orga nizatio n. Employees recount times they felt the organization worked best or when they specifically felt most satisfied with their jobs.
• Dreaming. Employees use in formation from the d iscovery phase to speculate on possible futures for the organization, such as what the organ izatio n will be like in five years.
• Design. Based on the dream articulation, participants focus on fi nding a com- mo n vis ion of how the organization will look, and agree o n its un ique q ualities.
• Destiny. In this fina l step, participan ts define the organization's destiny or how Lo fulfill their dream, an d they typically write actio n p lans and develop imple- men tation strategies.
Al has proven lo be a n effective ch ange strategy in orga nizations such as Toronlo- based Orchestras Canada; Ajax, O ntario -based Nokia Canada; Burnaby, BC-based TELUS; Calgary-based Encana; Toro nto-based Parkinson Society Can ada; and Toronto - based Toro nto Western Hospital.
Professor Gervase Bush e of the Sega l Graduate Sch ool of Bus iness, Simo n Fraser University, conducted a study al eight differen t sites of a Ca nad ian school district to develop some u nderstandi ng of factors that make AI successfu l in creating large-scale change. Of the eight sites, four showed transformational change, two showed incremen- tal change, and two showed linle or no change. The findi ngs ind icate that being able lo
EXHIBIT 14-6 The "Four D's" of Appreciative Inquiry
Discovery
Finding out the "best of w hat is"
Dreaming
Visualizing "what might be"
Design
Designing "what should be"
Dest i ny
Implementing " w hat w ill be"
Source: Based on D. L. Cooperrider and D. Whitney, Collaborating for Change: Appredative Inquiry (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2000).
.
Chapter 14 Organizational Change 499
generate "new, compelling ideas" was critical lo the success of the cha nge project. The s ites that were already reasonably happy with their schools and leadership showed less transformational change. It was in the schoo ls wi th widely ackn owledged problems, that participan ts tended to engage more, and generated many ideas that led lo change.11
The use of Al in organizations is relatively recent, and il h as not yet been determined when it is most appropriately used for organizatio nal change. 12 More recently, scho lars are find ing that while il does give us the opportu nity of viewing cha nge from a much more positive perspective, in general Al has not lived up lo its promises. 13 Bu t research- ers continue to study it.
" 0 )'1 ~ CAREER OBJECTIVES
I ~ How Do I Fire Someone? One of t he people who reports to me really isn' t livi ng u p to h is job responsibilities, and I'm af raid t hat I have to let him go. I have no id ea how to a pproach h im so the meet - ing w ill tu rn o ut o kay. What 's t he best w ay t o te rm inate h im?
-Ariana
Dear Ariana: Most supervisors agree that termi- nating a p roblem employee can be one of the hardest parts of manage- ment. In general, the number-one way to reduce the stress of firing is to avoid giving surprises. A problem employee needs to be told as soon as possible that there are issues w ith performance. Be sure to document performance problems early, and let your employee know the conse- quences of failing to improve. It may even be the case that identifying problems can eliminate the need for firing through initiating development strategies and providing training that may improve his performance.
If you've decided the termina- tion needs to proceed, then begin to plan the termination meeting. Good HR guidance can be one of your best resources in this process. It's natural to be worried about how your employee is going to react, but here are some strategies that may help you end the employment relationship in a way that minimizes conflicts:
• Ask your HR representatives what alternatives and techniques they would recommend. Many compa- nies have established policies and procedures that will help you conduct this meeting in a professional manner.
• Practise. A chance to p ractise the meeting with a neutral party (not someone with connections to the person or your organization) will help you reduce stress and antici- pate how the meeting will go.
• Be sure to respect your employee during the process. When possible, conduct the termination behind closed doors. Send a clear mes- sage that his employment is at an end. The last thing you want is a situation where he doesn't get the message or feels you are so indeci- sive that he can argue his way out of the termination. Attempts to "soften the blow" by providing positive feed-
back or working your way up to the bad news are often confusing and can create an opening for an extended, unpleasant, and unpro - ductive argument.
• Avoid going over past mistakes in detail. At the point of termination, there is no reason to rehash old problems you've previously dis- cussed - it's better to just make a clean statement that things aren't working out, and your documenta- tion should have the details for later reference if needed. Going over the
reasons the relationship is over will make your employee feel insulted or offended.
• Have an after-meeting plan. What are your organization's policies? For instance, does your employee need to be escorted immediately out of the building? What are the policies for returning business property? Demon- strate adherence to the plan to keep the termination process objective.
Of course, none of this advice can remove all the stress of terminations, but a combination of preparation, respect, and clarity can help make the situation better than it would be otherwise.
Sources: S. R. McDonnell, "1 O Steps Needed to Properly Fire Someone; Entrepreneur, May 26, 2015, http://www.entrepreneur.com/article/ 246573; E. Frauenheim, •Em ployee Crisis CommL11ications 101 ," WOtWorce, November 13, 2013, http://www. wo,1<1orce.oom/articles/20036- employee-crisis-oommunications-101; and R. A Mueller-Hanson and E. D. Pulakos, "Putting the 'Performance' Back in Performance Manage- ment," SHRM-SIOP Selence of HR White Paper Series, 2015, http://www.shnn.org/Research/ Documents/SHRM-SIOP%20Perfonnance%20 Management.pd!.
The opinions provided here are of the man8(J- ers and authors only and do nor necessariy reflect those of their organizations. The authors or managers are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for the results obtained from the use of this information. In no event will the authors or managers, or their related partner- ships or corporations thereof, be liable to you or anyone else for any decision made or action taken In reliance on the opinions provided here.
500 Part 5 Reorganizing the Workplace
9 Describe the sources of resistance to change.
Resistance to Change
I During the remaking of Cirque du Soleil's "The Beatles LOVE," many of the performers were acting each night in the older version of the show and then learning the new version (which entailed lengthy rehearsals) by day. For many employees, this could be a challenging task.14
Change is hard enough without having to do your old job and your new job simultaneously. When
creative director Giles Martin was asked whether this change was difficult on the performers,
he replied that it was just the opposite:
It's totally the reverse in the sense that they are so happy to be able to live through a little
creation ... . Now we're doing staging officially, so we're really in the mode of creation,
and the artists love it because they have that chance to be there and listen to the direc-
tion of what he [Dominic Champagne, the director] wants in those numbers . . . . The
performers and technical crew want to work and help to make changes for the show,
which is going well.
As we explore this section on resistance to change, you will see that Cirque du Soleil knows
how to manage change effectively with its employees. The performers were encouraged to
I participate and be involved and they were kept in the communication loop. What other tactics might the directors have used to help prevent resistance to change' Our egos are frag ile, and we often see change as threaten ing. Even when employees are shown da ta that suggest they need to change, they latch on to whatever data they can find that suggest they are okay and don' t need to change. 15 Employees who have negative feelings abou t a change cope by not thinking about it, increasing their use of sick time, or quitting. All these reactions can sap the organiza tion of vi tal energy \vhen it's most needed. 16 Resistance to change doesn' t just come from lower levels of the organ ization. In many cases, higher-level managers will resist changes proposed by subordinates, especially if these leaders are focused on immed iate performance. 17
Conversely, when leaders are more focused on mastery and exploration, they are more will ing to hear and adopt subordinates' suggestions for change.
Resistance to change can be pos itive if it leads to open d iscussion and debate. 18
These responses are usually preferable to apathy or silence and can indicate that mem- bers of the organization are engaged in the process, provid ing change agents an oppor- tunity to explain the change effort. Change agents can also mon itor the resistance to modify the change to fi t the preferences of members of the organization.
Resistance to change does not necessarily surface in standardized ways. It can be overt, implicit, immed iate, or deferred. It is easiest for management to deal with resis- tance when it is overt and immed iate, such as complain ts, a work slowdown, or a strike threat. The greater challenge is managing resistance that is implicit or deferred because these responses- loss of loyalty or motivation, increased errors, or absenteeism- are more d ifficu lt to recognize. Deferred actions, sometimes surfacing weeks, months, or even years later, cloud the link between the change and the reaction to it. Or a single change that in and of itself might have little impact becomes the straw tha t breaks the camel's back because resistance to earlier changes has been deferred and stockpiled.
Let's look at the sources of resistance. For analytical purposes, we have categorized them by individual and organizational sources. In the real world, the sources often overlap.
Individual Resistance Ind ividual sources of resistance to change reside in basic human characteristics such as perceptions, personalities, and needs. Exhib it 14-7 summarizes four reasons why individuals may resist change: 19
• Self-interest. People worry that they will lose something of value if change hap- pens. Thus, they look after their own self-interest rather than that of the total organization.
Chapter 14 Organizational Change 501
• Misunderstanding and Jack of tn,st. People resist change when they don' t under- s tand the nature of the change and fear that the cost of change will outweigh any potential ga ins for them. This often occurs when they don't trust those in itiating the change.
• Different assessnienls. People resist change when they see il differently than their managers do and th ink the costs outweigh the benefits, even for the organ ization. Managers may assume that employees have the same informa- tio n that they do, bul this is no t always the case.
• Low tolerance for change. People resist cha nge because they worry that they do nol h ave the skills a nd behaviour requi red of the new situatio n. They may fee l that they are being asked to do too m uch, too q u ickly.
In addition lo the reaso ns jusl o u tlined, individuals sometimes worry that being asked lo change may indicate that what they have been do ing in the past was somehow wro ng. Managers should not overlook the effects of peer pressure o n an individual's respo nse lo change. As well, the manager's altitude (positive or negative) toward the change and his or h er relationsh ip wi th employees wi ll affect a n individ ual's respo nse lo change.
Ho,,v do you respond to
change'!
The Ethical Dilemma on page 516 looks a t one employee's resistance lo a change in the workplace and asks you to co nsider wh ether the plan for implementi ng that change m ight have been part of the problem.
Organizational Resistance Organ izations, by their very nature, are conservative. They actively resist change. You don't have lo look far lo see evidence of this phenomenon. Government agencies want lo con ti nue do ing what they h ave been doing for years, wh ether the need for their ser- vice changes or remains the same. Organ ized rel igions are deeply entrench ed in their history. Attempts lo change ch urch doctrine requ ire great persistence and patience. Ed ucatio nal institutions, wh ich exist lo open m inds and challenge established ways
EXHIBIT 14-7 Sources of Individual Resistance to Change
Low tolerance for change
Self-interest
Individual Resistance
Different assessments
.,......... M isunderstanding and lack of trust
Source: Based on J. P. Kotter and L. A . Schlesinger, "Choosing Strategies for Change,' Harvard Business Review, July-August 2008, pp. 107-109.
502 Part 5 Reorganizing the Workplace
of thinking, are themselves extremely resistant to change. Most school systems are us ing essentially the same teach- ing technologies today as they were 50 years ago. Sim ilarly, most business firms appear highly resistant to change. Case Incident- When Companies Fail to Change on page 517 con- sid ers how the fail ure to innovate has left a number of once lead ing-edge companies at the back of the pack.
Six ma jor sources of organizational resistance ( sh own in Exhibit 14-8) are as fo llows:
\.Vhat makes organizations resist change'?
• Stn1ctural inertia. Organizations have b uilt-in mechanisms- such as their selec- tion processes and formalized regulations- to produce stability. When an organ i- zation is confronted with change, th is structural inertia acts as a counterbalance.
• Lim.ited focus of change. Organizations are made up of a number of interdepen- dent subsystems. One can not be changed without affecti ng the others. Limi ted changes in subsystems lend lo be nu ll ified by the larger system.
• Group inertia. Even if individ uals want to change their behavio ur, group norms may act as a constra int.
• Threat to expertise. Changes in organ izational pallerns may threaten the exper- tise of specialized groups.
• Threat to established power relationships. Any red istribution of decis ion-making a uthority can threaten Jong-established power relationsh ips with in the organizatio n.
• Threat to established resource allocations. Groups in the organization that control sizable resources often see change as a threat. They tend to be content with the way th ings are.20
The Experiential Exercise on pages 515 - 516 asks you to identify and overcome resis- tance to organizational change.
Overcoming Resistance to Change It's worth noting that not all change is good. Rapid, transformational change is risky, so change agents need to carefully think through the full implications. Speed can lead lo bad decisions, and sometimes those ini tiating change fa il to rea lize the fu ll magnitude of the effects or their true costs.
EXHIBIT 14-8 Sources of Organizational Resistance to Change
Threat to established resource allocations
Threat to established power relationships
Threat to expertise
Organizational Resistance
Structural Inertia
Group inertia
Limited f ocus of change
Chapter 14 Organizational Change 503
Eigh t tactics can be used by change agents to deal with resistance lo change.21 Let's review them briefly.
• Communication. Communication is more important than ever in ti mes of change. A study of German compan ies revealed that changes are most effective when a company commun icates its rationale, balancing various stakeho lder ( shareholders, employees, community, customers) interests, compared lo a rationa le based on shareholder interests on ly.22 Other research on a chang- ing organization in the Philippines found that forma l information sessions decreased employees' anxiety about the change, while provid ing h igh-quality information about the change increased their comm itment to it. 23
• Participation. It's difficult for individuals to resist a change decision in which they have participated. Assum ing that the participants have the expertise to make a meaningfu l contribution, their involvement ca n reduce resistance, obtain comm itment, and increase the qua lity of the change decision. How- ever, against these advantages are the negatives: potential for a poor solution and great consumption of lime.
• Building support and commitment. When managers or employees have low emotional commitment to change, they resist it and favour the status quo. 24
Employees are also more accepting of changes when they are commiued to the organization as a whole.25 So fir ing up employees and emphasizing their commitment to the organ ization overall can help them emotionally comm it to the change rather than embrace the status quo. When employees' fear and anxiety are h igh, counsell ing and therapy, new-skills train ing. or a short paid leave of absence may fac ilitate adjustment to change.
• Positive relationships. People are more willing to accept changes if they trust the managers implemen ti ng them.26 One study surveyed 235 employees from a large housing corporation in the Netherlands that was experiencing a merger. Those who had a more positive relationship with their supervisors, and who felt that the work environment supported development, were much more pos- itive about the change process.27 Underscoring the importance of social con- text, other research shows that even individuals who are generally resistant lo change wi ll be more willing to accep t new and differen t ideas when they feel supported by their co-workers and believe the e nvironment is safe for taking risks.28 Another set of stud ies found that ind ividuals whose dispositions made them more resistant to change felt more positive if they trusted the change agent.29 This research suggests that if managers are ab le lo facilitate positive relationsh ips, they may be able to overcome resistance lo change even among those who ord inarily don't like changes.
• Implementing changes fairly. One way organ izations can min imize the nega- tive impact of change is to make sure the change is implemented fairly. As \Ve learned in Chap ter 4, procedural fa irness becomes especially important when employees perceive an outcome as negative, so it's crucia l that employ- ees see the reason for the change and perceive its implementation as consis- tent and fa ir.30
• Manipulation and co-optation. Manipulation refers to covert influence auempL~. Twisting and d istorting facts to make them more attractive, withholding unde- s irable information, and creating false rumours to get employees to accept a change are all examples of manipulation. If management threatens to close a manufacturing plant whose emp loyees are resisting an across-the-board pay cut, and if the threat is unfounded, management is using manipulation. Co- optat.ion, on the other hand, is a form of both manipulation and participation.
504 Part 5 Reorganizing t he Workplace
It seeks to buy off the leaders of a resis tance group by giving them a key role, seeking their advice not to find a beuer solution but to get their endorsement. Both manipulation and co-optation are relatively inexpensive ways to gain the support of adversaries, but they can backfire if the targets become aware they are being tricked or used. Once that is discovered, the change agen t's credibil- ity may drop to zero.
• Selecting people who accept change. Research suggests that the abil ity to easily accept and adapt to change is related to personal ity- some people s imply have more positive attitudes.31 Individuals who are open to experience, take a posi tive attitude toward change, are willing to take risks, and are flexible in their behaviour are prime candidates. One s tudy of managers in the United States, Europe, and Asia found that those with a positive self-concept and h igh risk tolerance coped better with organiza tional change. A study of 258 po lice officers found that those who were higher in the need for growth and who had an internal locus of contro l held more positive at titudes about orga- n izationa l change efforts.32 Individuals higher in general mental abil ity are also belier able to learn and adapt to changes in the workplace.33 In sum, an impressive body of evidence shows organ izations can facili tate change by selecting people pred isposed to accept it.
Besides selecting ind ividuals who are will ing lo accept changes, it is also possible to select teams that are more adaptable. In general, teams that are strongly motiva ted by learn ing abou t and mastering tasks are better able to adapt to changing environments.34 It may be necessary to consider not only indiv idual motivation but a lso group motivation when planning to imple- ment changes.
• Coercion. Coercion is the app lication of direct threats or force upon the resist- ers. If management is determined to close a manufacturing plant whose employees do not accept a pay cut, the company is using coercion. Other examp les include threatening employees with transfers, blocked promotions, negative performance evaluations, and poor lel!ers of recommendation. Coer- cion is most effective when some force or pressure is enacted on at least some resisters- for instance, if an employee is pub licly refused a transfer request, the threat of blocked promotions will become a real possibil ity in the minds of other employees. The advantages and drawbacks of coercion are approxi- mately the same as those for man ipula tion and co-opta tion.
As you read OB in the Workplace, consider which of the above steps staff at Rockwood Institution used to help inmates introduce changes into their lives.
Habitat for Humanity and Rockwood Institution Partner to Change Lives
How ca n prison inmate s be e ncouraged to learn new skill s and influence t he ir com- mun ity in positive ways? Recid ivism rates among released offenders are higher when those offenders don't perceive any other lifestyle options that would enab le them lo effectively support themselves and their loved ones. 35 At Rockwood Instit ution in Manitoba, Assistant Warden Shannon Plowman has found an effective formu la lo change recidivism rates by partnering with Linda Peters, the vice-president of Program Delivery for Habi tat for Humanity. Their program, which is financ ially supported by Pub lic Safety Canada and Human Resources and Skills Development Canada, gives
Chapter 14 Organizational Change 505
m in imum-security inmates with poor job prospects the opportun ity to learn marketable construction skills in a safe and supportive enviro nment.
Al Rockwood, inmates who participate in the Hab itat for Humanity specialized work program are provided with formal instruction on too l use and construction basics. Then, under professional supervision, they apply those skills to bu ild ing a ready-to- transport house on the grounds of the correctional facil ity. The homes are then relocated to appropriate sites and are provided lo needy fam ilies on the Habitat for Humanity wai ti ng list. El igible program "graduates" can also do supervised work in the broader community, receiving day passes lo help on Habitat for Humanity builds in nearby Winnipeg and surround ing communities. These day passes are h igh ly desirable, viewed as a privilege and reward. Upon release, some people even find transitional employment with Habitat for Humanity, working there for several months to develop an emp loy- ment history and contacts in the construction industry.
Th is program manages change well. ll focuses on providing education and foster ing participation and direct involvement. Parole officers try to recommend new partici- pants who are already open lo changing their lives and most •graduates" advocate the program lo other inmates. Support and commitment to the program are increased by allowing some participants to meet the fam ilies receiving the new homes, someth ing that inmates report as being a transformative experience in their lives. One participant stated, •1 never realized I could be proud for good things I was doing. Before I was always admired for being scary and fighting, it surprises me how proud I am of work- ing on th is house."
Rockwood officials and Habitat for Human ity staff work together to create an envi- ronment that enables, supports, and then reinforces and rewards positive change. ll is a model many for-profi t companies could learn from. _ . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .
From Concepts to Skills on pages 518-519 provides additional tips for carrying ou t organ izational change.
The Politics of Change No discussion of resistance lo change would be complete without a brief mention of the po litics of change. Because change invariably threatens the status quo, it inherently impl ies pol itical activity.
Politics suggests that the demand for change is more l ikely to come from outs ide change agents, emp loyees who are new to the organization (who have less invested in the status quo), or managers who are slightly removed from the main power structure. Managers who have spent a long time with an organ iza tion and achieved a senior position in the h ierarchy are often major imped iments lo change. For them, change can be a very real threat to their status and position, yet they may be expected to implement change to demonstrate that they are not merely caretakers. By acting as change agents, they can convey lo stockholders, suppliers, employees, and customers that they are addressing prob lems and adapting to a dynamic environment. Of course, as you might guess, when forced lo introduce change, these long-time power holders tend to implement incremental change. Radica l change is often considered too threatening. This expla ins why boards of d irectors that recognize the need for rapid and radical change frequen tly turn to outside candidates for new leadersh ip.36 OB in Acti.on- How to Speed Up the Pace of Change provides some tips for keeping up the pace of change.
~ OB~cr10N How to Speed Up the Pace of Change
-+ Compel executives lo confront reality and agree on ground rules for working together.
-+ Limit change initiatives to two or three.
-+ Move ahead quickly and dialogue with those not on board.
-+ Get all employees engaged. Expla in how changes are relevant to them personally.
-+ Offer appropriate rewards and incentives.
-+ Celebrate milestones.
-+ Anticipate and defuse post-launch bl ues and m idcourse overconfidence.37
506 Part 5 Reorganizing the Workplace
C, Describe three ways to create a culture for change.
paradox theory The lheo,y that the key paradox in management is lhat there is no final optimal status for an organization.
Creating a Culture for Change Cirque du Soleil is an innovative organization.38 Its employees are engaged and the company
works on reinventing itself continuously. The investment of a Chinese company means that
Cirque will be able to expand to China, giving it a large new audience--0ne that is already
aware of Cirque.
Alma Derricks was hired to be one of Cirque's vice-presidents of sales and marketing shortly
after the organization sold 90 percent of itself to outside investors. She noted the challenges
of keeping ticket sales in Las Vegas while competing with shows by Celine Dion and Britney
Spears. Still, Cirque performances can sell as many as 20 000 tickets in a night. "We have to always make the loudest noise in that environment and make sure that visitors are still aware
that we're around, that we're exciting and that we're vital," Derricks says.
Cirque is investing in new product lines, including getting into the executive education
business. SPARK, one of Cirque's new businesses, can be used as a learning laboratory for
corporate teams (like Adobe and Google) to bring employees on retreat to learn about "trust,
team building, operational excellence and customer service in a very tangible way."
The company introduced a new show, " Volta," in August 2017 that, besides the costumes,
makeup, and characters that Cirque is known for, also includes extreme sports. "I think when
people sat down to think not about how to reinvent Cirque du Soleil but to push the boundaries
and try to do something different, extreme sports just came to the surface," said Johnny Kim,
the show's assistant artistic director.
In summer 2017, Cirque also bought live entertainment company Blue Man Productions.
Daniel Lamarre, president and CEO of Cirq ue du Soleil, explained the purchase: " We want to
broaden our horizons, develop new forms of entertainment, reach out to new audiences and
expand our own creative capabilities. Today, we are taking a decisive step towards materializing
these ambitions."
Not many companies are this committed to reinventing themselves and expanding their
horizons. What can be done to encourage more innovation in organizations'
We have considered how organ izations can adapt to change. But recen tly, some OB scho lars have focused on a more proactive approach- how organ izations ca n embrace change by tra nsforming thei r cultures. In this section we review th ree approaches:
managi n g paradox, st i mulati n g a n i n n ovative cu l t u re, and creati ng a learni n g
orga nizatio n.
Managing Paradox In a paradox situation, we are required to balance tensio ns across various courses of acti o n. There is a co nstan t process of find ing a balanci ng point, a dynamic equilibrium,
amo ng sh i fting priorities over ti me. Th ink of r idi ng a bicycle: You must maintain for-
ward momen tum or you will fall over. From this perspective, there is n o such thing as a separate d isci pline of •change man agement • because all management is dealing wi th
constan t change and adap tati on.
The idea of paradox so unds abstract, but more specific co n cepts have begun to
emerge from a growing b ody of research.39 Several key paradoxes have been identified.
Learning is a paradox b ecause it requ ires buil d i ng on the past wh ile rej ecti ng i t at th e same time. Organizing is a paradox because it calls for setting direction and leading whi le requiring empowerment and flexibility. Performing is a paradox between crea t- ing organ izatio n-wide goa ls to concen trate effort and recogn izi ng the diverse goa ls of
stakeh olders inside and outside the organ izati o n. Finally; belonging is a paradox between establ ishi ng a sense of co llective identity and acknowledgi ng our desire to be recognized
and accep ted as un iq u e ind ividuals.
Ma n agers can learn a few lesso ns from p ar adox theo ry,40 which states the key
paradox i n managemen t is that th ere is no final op ti mal status for an orga nizatio n.41
Chapter 14 Organizational Change 507
The first lesson is that as the environment and members of the organization change, d ifferent elements take on more or less importance. For examp le, someti mes a com- pany needs to acknowledge past success and learn how it worked, while at other limes looking backward will only hinder progress. There is some evidence that managers who think holistically and recognize the importance of balancing paradoxica l fac tors are more effective, especially in generating adaptive and creative behaviour in those they are managing.42
Stimulating a Culture of Innovation How can an organization become more innovative? Although there is no guaranteed formula, s tructu ral, cultural, and human resource characteristics surface again and aga in when researchers study innovative organ izalions.43 Change agents shou ld con- s ider introducing these characteristics into their organ izations if they want to create an innovative cl imate. Let's s tart by clarifying what we mean by innovation.
Definition of Innovation Change refers to making things different. Innovation, a specialized ki nd of change, is app lied to initiating or improving a product, process, or service- a better solu- tion.44 All innovation involves change, but no t all cha nges invo lve new ideas or lead to sign ifican t improvements. Innovations can range from incremental improve- ments, such as tablet computers, to radica l breakthroughs, such as N issan's electric Leaf car.
Sources of Innovation Structural variables are one potential source of innovation.45 A comprehensive review of the structure-innovation relationsh ip leads to the following condusions:46
• Organic stn,ctures positively influence innovation. Because they are lower in verti- cal differentiation, formalization, and centralization, organ ic organ izations facil itate the flexibi lity, adaptation, and cross-fertilization that make the adop- tion of innovations easier.
• Long tenure in management is associated with innovation. Managerial tenure can provide the legitimacy and knowledge of how to accomp lish tasks and obta in desired outcomes through creative methods.
• Innovation is nurtured when there are slac/1 resources. Having an abundance of resources allows an organization to afford to purchase or develop innovations, bear the cost of instituting innovations, and absorb fai lures.
• Interunit communication is high in innoval'ive organizations. 47 Innovative organ izations are high users of comm ittees, task forces, cross-functiona l teams, and o ther mechanisms that facilita te interaction across departmental lines.
Innovative organizations Lend to have similar cultures. They encourage experimenta- tion. They reward both successes and fai lures. They celebrate m istakes. Unfortunately, in too many organizations, people are rewarded for the absence of failures rather than for the presence of successes. Such cu ltures exti nguish risk-taking and innovation. People will suggest and try new ideas only when they feel such behaviours exact no penalties. Managers in innovative organ izations recognize that failures are a natural by-product of venturing into the unknown. W. L. Gore is known for its cu lture of innovation, as OB in tile Workplace describes.
With in the human resources category, innovative organizations active ly promote the training and development of their members so that they keep current, offer high
innovation A new idea applied lo initiating or improving a product. pro- cess, or service.
508 Part 5 Reorganizing t he Workplace
I tttt .
' ~
Change is not always easy for an organization, but for CEO M ike McDerment of Toronto-based Fresh- Books, changes for his very successful business w ere spurred on by its success. He believes compa-
nies succeed when they make innovation a perpetual process, and not something that is engaged in
out of necessity.
job security so employees don't fear getting fired for making mistakes, a nd encourage individ uals lo become champio ns of cha nge. These practices should be m irrored for work groups as well. One study of 1059 ind ivid uals o n over 200 d ifferent teams in a Chinese h igh-tech compa ny fo und that work systems emphasizing commitment to
W. L. Gore Is a Leader in Innovation
What does it take to be a leade r in in novation? An excellent model is W. L. Gore, the $2.6-bill ion-per-year global company best known as the maker of Gore-Tex fabr ic.48
Gore has developed a reputation as one of the most innovative companies by devel- oping a stream of d iverse products- including guitar strings, vacuum cleaner filters, industrial sealants, and fuel cell components.
What is th e secret of Gore's s uccess? Gore co ntin ually th inks abo ut innovatio n. It recently opened Th e Gore Innovatio n Center in San ta Clara, Cal iforn ia, and has invi ted o ther organ izatio ns lo come and explore Gore's inventions an d d iscuss potential new products to develop. Gore's employees are given access to the innovation centre, filled with materia ls, so that they can develop their own ideas. There is a strong emphasis o n teamwork, and ind ividuals are encouraged to thi nk about ways to make contribu tions to the company. Gore also believes in focus ing on the long term: •Finally, we believe in the long-Lenn view. Our decisions are based o n long-term payoff, and we don' t sacrifice our fundamental beliefs at Gore for short-term gain.•
Gore p ioneered a fla t, u nique lattice-type organ izational structure (now termed an open allocation s tr ucture) run by emp loyees (associates) working in self-organized project groups. What ca n o ther organ iza tions do to dup licate Gore's track record for . . 1 1nnovat1on . .................................................................. .
Chap ter 14 Organizational Change 509
employees increased creativity in leams.49 These effects were even greater i n teams where there was cohesion among co-workers.
Idea Cha mpions and Innovation Once a new idea is developed, idea champions actively and enthusiasti cally promote the idea, build support for il, overcome res istance to it, and ensure that it's impl e-
mented.so Champions often have simi lar personal ity characteristics: extremely high
self-confidence, persistence, energy, and a tendency to take r isks. They usually d isplay
traits associated with transformational leadership. They i nspire and energize others with their visio n of the po tential of an innovation and through their strong personal conviction in their miss ion. Situations can also influence the extent lo which idea
champions are forces for change. For example, passion for change among entrepreneurs is greatest when work roles and the socia l environment encourage them to put their creative identi t ies forward_s, On the fl ip side, work rol es that push creative individual s
to do routine management and adm inistration tasks w ill d i minish both the passion for and implementation of change. Idea champ ions are good at gain i ng the comm itment
of others, and their jobs shou ld provide considerable decision-making discreti on. Th is
autonomy helps them i ntroduce and imp lement innovations in organizati ons when the context is supportive_s2
Creating a Learning Organization Another way an organization can proactively manage change is to make continuous growth part of its cul lure- lo become a learning organization_s3
What Is a Learning Organization? Just as individuals l earn, so too do organizations. A learning organization has devel - oped the continuous capaci ty to adapt and change. The D imensions of the Learn i ng Organ ization Questionnai re (DLOQ) has been adopted and adapted internationally to assess the degree of commitment lo learning organ ization princi pl es_s4 Exh ib it 14-9
describes what the DLOQ measures.
i dea champions Individuals who actively and enthusiastically promote an idea, build support for it, overcome resis1ance to it, and ensure that the idea is implemented.
learning organization An organi- zation 1hat has developed the continu- ous capacily to adapt and change.
EXHIBIT 14-9 The Components of a Learning Organization Measured by the DLOQ Dimension
Continuous learning
Inquiry and dialogue
Team learning
Embedded system
Empowerment
System connection
Strategic leadership
Description
Opportunities for ongoing education and growth are provided; learning is designed into work so that people can learn on the job.
The organizational culture supports questioning, feedback, and experimentation; people gain productive reasoning skills to express their views and the capacity to listen to and inquire into the views of others.
Work is designed to use teams to access different modes of thinking; collaboration is valued by the culture and rewarded; teams are expected to learn by working together.
Necessary systems to share learning are created, maintained, and integrated with work; employ- ees have access to these high- and low-technology systems.
People are involved in setting and implementing a shared vision; responsibility is distributed so that people are motivated to learn what they are held accountable to do.
The organization is linked to its communities; people understand the overall environment and use information to adjust work practices; people are helped to see the effect of their work on the entire organization.
Leadership uses learning strategically for business results; leaders model, champion, and sup- port learning.
Source: Based on V. J. Marsick and K. E. Watkins, "Demonstrating the Value of an Organization's Learning Culture,' Advances in Develop- ing Human Resources 5, no. 2 (2003), pp. 132-151 . doi:10.1177/1523422303005002002.
51 O Part 5 Reorganizing the Workplace
single-loop learning A process of correcting errors using past routines and present policies.
double-loop learning A process of COfrecting errors by modifying lhe organization's objectives, policies, and standard routines.
Most organ izations engage in what has been called s ingle-loop learning. When errors are detected, the correction process relies on past routines and present poli- cies. Th is type of learning has been likened to a thermostat, which, once set at l 7°C, s imply turns on and off to keep the room at the set temperature. It does not question \vhether the temperature shou ld be set at l 7 ° C. In contrast, learn ing organizations use double-loop learning . They correct errors by mod ifying the organization's objec- tives, po licies, and standard routines. Double-loop learn ing challenges deeply rooted assumptions and norms with in an organization. It provides opportun ities for radically d ifferent solutions to prob lems and dramatic jumps in improvement. To draw on the thermostat analogy, a thermostat using double-loop learn ing would try to determ ine whether the correct policy is l 7°C, and whether changes might be necessitated by a change in season.
Exhibit 14-10 summarizes the five basic characteristics of a learning organ ization. It's one in which people put aside their old ways of th inking, learn to be open with each other, understand how their organization really works, form a plan or vision on which everyone can agree, and then work together to achieve that vision.SS
Proponents of the learn ing organ ization envision it as a remedy for three funda- mental problems of trad itional organ izations: fragmentation, competition, and reac- tiveness.s6 First, frag1nentation based on special ization crea tes "walls" and "ch imneys• that separate different functions into independent and often warring fiefdoms. Second, an overemphasis on competition undermines collaboration. Managers compete to show who is right, who knows more,, or who is more persuasive. Divisions compete \vhen they ought to cooperate and share knowledge. Team leaders compete to show who the best manager is. Th ird, reactiveness misdirects management's atten tion to solving problems rather than being creative. The problem solver tries to make someth ing go away, while a creator tries to bring something new into being. An emphasis on reactiveness to prob- lems pushes ou t innovation and continuous improvement and, in its place,, encourages people to constantly run around "putting out fires."
Managing Learning What can managers do to make their firms learn ing organizations? Here are some suggestions:
• Establish a strategy. Managers need to make their commitment to change, inno- vation, and conti nuous improvement explicit.
• Redesign the organization's stn1ct11re. The formal structure can be a serious imped iment to learning. Flanening the structure,, eliminati ng or combining
EXHIBIT 14-10 Characteristics of a Learning Organization 1 . The organization has a shared vision that everyone agrees on.
2. People discard their old ways of thinking and the standard routines they use for solv· ing problems or doing their jobs.
3. Members think of all organizational processes, activities, functions. and interactions with the environment as part of a system of interrelationships.
4. People openly communicate with each other (across vertical and horizontal boundar- ies) withou1 fear of criticism or punishment.
5. People suppress their personal self-interest and fragmented departmental interests to work together to achieve the organization's shared vision.
Source: Based on P M. Senge, The Afth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organiza- tion (New York: Doubleday, 2006).
Chapter 14 Organizational Change 5 1 1
departmen ts, and increasing the use of cross-func tional teams reinforce inter- dependence and reduce boundaries.
• Reshape the organization's culture. To become a learning organization, manag- ers must demonstrate by their actions that taking risks and adm illi ng failures are desirable traits. This means rewarding people who take chances and make m istakes. Managers a lso need to encourage functional conflict.
• Do people believe change is possible? Remember that cultures vary in terms of beliefs abou t their abil ity to control their environment. In cultures in which people believe that they can dom inate their environment, ind ividuals wi ll take a proactive view of change. This, for example, would describe Canada and the Un ited States. In many other countries, such as Iran and Saudi Arabia, people see themselves as subjugated to their environment and thus wi ll tend to take a passive approach toward change.
• If change is possible, how long will it take to bring it about? A cu lture's time orien- tation can help us answer this question. Societies that focus on the long term, such as Japan, will demonstrate considerable patience wh ile waiting for posi- tive outcomes from change efforts. In societies with a short-term focus, such as Canada and the United States, people expect quick improvements and will seek change programs that prom ise fast results.
• ls resistance to change grearer in some cultures than in orhers? Resistance to change will be influenced by a society's reliance on tradition. Ital ians, as an example, focus on the past, whereas Canadians emphasize the present. Italians, there- fore, should generally be more resistant to change efforts than their Canadian counterparts.
• Does culture influence how change efforts will be implemenred? Power d istance can help with this issue. In high power-distance cultures, such as Malaysia and Panama, change efforts will tend to be autocratically implemented by top management. In contrast, low power-d is tance cultures value democratic meth- ods. We wou ld pred ict, therefore, a greater use of participation in countries such as Austria and Denmark.
• Do successful idea champions do Lhings differen!ly in different cu/Lures? The evidence indicates that the answer is yes.57 People in collectivistic cultures, in contrast to individualistic cultures, prefer appeals for cross-functional support for innova- tion efforts; people in high power-d istance cultures prefer champ ions to work closely with those in authority to approve innovative activi ties before work is conducted on them; and the higher the uncerta inty avoidance of a society, the more champions shou ld work within the organization's rules and procedures to develop the innovation. These find ings suggest that effective managers will alter their organization's innovation strategies to reflect cultural values. So, for instance, while idea champions in Russia might succeed by ignoring budget- ary limitations and working around confining procedures, idea champions in Greece, Portugal, Guatemala, and other cultures h igh in uncerta inty avoidance will be more effective by closely follow ing budgets and procedures.
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5 12 Part 5 Reorganizing t he Workplace
LESSONS LEARNED
• Ind ividuals resist change; breaking down that resis- tance is important.
• Change requ ires unfreezing the status quo, moving to a new state, and making the new change permanent.
• Innovative cultures reward both successes and fa ilures so that people are not afraid to make m istakes.
Mylab Management
Summary The need for change has been implied throughout th is text. For instance, think about attitudes, mo tivatio n, work teams, commun icatio n, leadership, organizational struc- tures, and organizational cultures. Change was an integral part in our d iscussion of each. If environmen ts were perfectly s tatic, if emp loyees' skills a nd abilities were always up to date, and if tomorrow were always exactly the same as today, organ izational change would have little or no relevance to man agers. But the real world is turbulent, requiring organ izations and their members to u ndergo dyn am ic ch ange if th ey are to perform at competitive levels. Coping with all these changes can be a source of stress, bu t with effective management, challenge ca n enhance engagement an d fulfillme nt, lead ing to the high performance that, as you have discovered in th is text, is one major goal of the study of orga nizatio nal behaviour {OB).
SNAPSHOT SUMMARY
Forces for Change • Action Research Creating a Culture for • Opportunities for Change • Appreciative Inquiry Change
• Change Agents • Managing Paradox Resistance to Change • Stimulating a Culture of
Approaches to Managing • Individual Resistance Innovation Change • Organizational Resistance • Creating a Leaming • Lewin's Three-Step Model • Overcoming Resistance to Organization
• Kotter's Eight-Step Plan for Change Implementing Change • The Politics of Change
Study, practise, and explore real business situations with these helpful resources:
• Study Plan: Check your understanding of chapter concepts with self-study quizzes.
• Online Lesson Presentations: Study key chapter topics and work through interactive assessments to test your knowledge and master management concepts.
• Videos: Learn more about the management practices and strategies of real companies.
• Simulations: Practise management decision-making in simulated business environments.
.,. for Review
1. What are the forces for change?
2. What are the similarities and differences among the four main approaches to managing organizational change?
3. What forces act as sources of resistance to change?
4. How can managers create a culture for change?
for Managers
• Consider that, as a manager, you are a change agent in your orga- nization. The decisions you make and your role-modelling behaviour will help shape the organization's
change culture.
• Your management policies and practices will determine the degree to which the organization learns and adapts to changing environmental factors.
• People resist change because change can be stressful. Low to moderate amounts of stress enable many people to perform their jobs better by increasing their work intensity, alertness, and ability to react. Therefore, don't hesitate to introduce change just because stress might be induced.
for You
• Not everyone is comfortable with change, but you should realize that change is a fact of life. It is difficult to avoid and can result in negative consequences when it is
avoided.
• If you need to change something in yourself, be aware of the impor- tance of creating new systems to replace the old. Saying you want to be healthier without specifying that you intend to go to the gym three times a week or eat five servings of fruits and vegetables a day means that change likely will not occur. It's important to specify goals and behaviours as part of
change.
• Consider focusing on positive aspects of change, rather than negative ones. For instance, instead of noting that you did not study hard enough, acknowledge the effort you put into studying and how that helped your per- formance, and then set positive
goals as a result.
0 ICll:I
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514 Part 5 Reorganizing the Workplace
-"' CCI 0
ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE IS LIKE SAILING CALM WATERS
POI NT Organizational change is an episodic activity. 58 That is, it
starts at some point, proceeds through a series of steps, and culminates in some outcome that those involved
hope is an improvement over the starting point. It has a
beginning, a middle, and an end.
Lewin's three-step model represents a classic illus-
tration of this perspective. Change is seen as a break
in the organization's equilibrium. The status quo has been disturbed, and change is necessary to establish
a new equilibrium state. The objective of refreezing is to
stabilize the new situation by balancing the driving and
restraining forces.
Some experts have argued that organizational change should be thought of as balancing a system made up
of five interacting variables within the organization-
people, tasks, technology, structure, and strategy. A
change in any one variable has repercussions on one or
more of the others. This perspective is episodic in that
it treats organizational change as essentially an effort to sustain an equilibrium. A change in one variable begins
a chain of events that, if properly managed, requires
adjustments in the other variables to achieve a new state
of equilibrium.
Another way to conceptualize the episodic view of change is to think of managing change as analogous to
captaining a ship. The organization is like a large ship
travelling across the calm Mediterranean Sea to a local
port. The ship's captain has made this exact trip hun-
dreds of times before with the same crew. Every once
in a while, however, a storm will appear, and the crew has to respond. The captain will make the appropriate
adjustments-that is, implement changes -and, hav-
ing manoeuvred through the storm, will return to calm
waters. Like this ship's voyage, managing an organiza-
tion should be seen as a journey with a beginning and an
end, and implementing change as a response to a break in the status quo that is needed only occasionally.
COUNTERPOINT The episodic approach for handling organizational
change has become obsolete. Developed in the 1950s and 1960s, it reflects the environment of those times
treating change as the occasional disturbance in an
otherwise peaceful world. However, it bears little resem-
blance to today's environment of constant and chaotic
change. If you want to understand what it's like to manage
change in today's organizations, think of it as equivalent
to permanent whitewater rafting. The organization is not
a large ship, but more akin to a 40-foot raft. Rather than
sailing a calm sea, this raft must traverse a raging river
made up of an uninterrupted flow of whitewater rapids.
To make things worse, the raft is manned by 10 people who have never worked together or travelled the river
before, much of the trip is in the dark, the river is dotted
with unexpected turns and obstacles, the exact destina-
tion of the raft is not clear, and at irregular intervals the
raft needs to pull to shore, where some new crew mem- bers are added and others leave. Change is a natural
state, and managing it is a continual process. That is,
managers never get the luxury of escaping the white-
water rapids.
The stability and predictability characterized by the
episodic perspective no longer captures the world we live in. Disruptions in the status quo are not occasional,
temporary, and followed by a return to an equilibrium
state. There is, in fact, no equilibrium state. Managers
today face constant change, bordering on chaos. They
are being forced to play a game they have never played before, governed by rules that are created as the game
progresses.
Chapter 14 Org anizat ional Change 5 15
BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES
Fenn small groups to discuss the following topics, as assigned by your instructor:
1. Identify a local company that you think needs to undergo change. What factors suggest that change is necessary?
2. Have you ever tried to change the behaviour of someone you worked w ith (for instance, someone in one of your project groups)? How effective were you in getting change to occur? How would you explain this?
3. Identify a recent change that your college or university introduced, and its effects on the students. Did the students accept the change or fight it? How would you explain this?
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
Strategizing Change
The S ituation TutorMe is a midsize company that employs 45 former teachers as tutors in public and private schools. The tutors work
in the company's branches and corporate headquarters, and at home via phone and Internet. 59 The firm employs a
support staff of 15. TutorMe used to be the only such company in the area, but two new tutoring chains recently opened
branches nearby. Online tutoring finns have added competition as well.
TutorMe is beginning to struggle because of this increased competition. Its organizational culture could best be
described as "lackadaisical" and its business practices as "loose." Although it provides a meaningful service to students,
many of its tutors use their own m ethods instead of following the TutorMe manuals. Tutor pay is low and benefits are
near zero. However, the tutors are skilled teachers w ho appreciate the opportunity to use their expertise in a flexible
work situation, and turnover is low.
TutorMe's facilities look "tired" and are usually located in mostly abandoned strip malls far from well-travelled roads.
The corporate headquarters is a bit nicer and in a more visible location. However, the managers often don't know w hat
the tutors are doing, and billing practices are chaotic. There is no HR department, so the business staff handles both
paym ents and employee issues, mostly by c reating further problems that upper management must settle. The pay
for the business staff is mid -range for the area w ith standard benefits, but high staff turnover has been an accepted
part of TutorMe's business.
Upper management understands the company needs to change to survive, so its executives hired consultants
to diagnose what TutorMe needs. The consultants believe t he company should (1) eliminate som e of its less-used
branches, (2) relocate other branches to m ore visible locations, (3) train tutors with the TutorMe manuals and insist
on standardization of teaching practices, (4) overhaul the organizat ional culture to reflect a commitment to tutor-
ing excellence, and (5) train and set expectations for the business staff to raise perform ance levels and tighten
accountability.
The consultants have warned T utorMe m anagement that recent studies indicate only 30 to 43 percent of organiza-
tions achieve their goals for change initiatives. They have outlined the following specific ob stacles and offered to help
TutorMe be successful in its transfonnation:
1. Lack of adoption and commitment from top management
2. Employee resistance
3. Manager resistance
4. Insufficient communication
5. Budget overages and project delays
6. Employees and managers who ignore the new policies and procedures
5 16 Part 5 Reorganizing t he Workplace
-"' CCI 0
The Procedure Break into groups of three to four members. Each group will act as the consultants to guide T utorMe through the change
process. Your group will need to come to a consensus, in writing, for each of the following assignments.
1. Gather all you know about TutorMe's current business practices. Write down the reasons tutors stay while staff turnover is high. Decide what is currently working for TutorMe. What is not working and needed to change even before competition came in?
2. Based on what you determine about TutorMe's business practices, do you agree or disagree with each of the consultants' five recommendations? Why or why not?
3. Consider the six obstacles the consultants identified, the five recommendations, and your answer to question 1 . Which of the obstacles do you think will present problems for achieving the five recommendations? How? Make a list.
4. From your list in question 3, write down your targeted, informed recommendations for overcoming the obstacles. Also consider what further information you would like from the company.
5. Bring the class together and discuss your recommendations from question 4.
ETHICAL DILEMMA
Changes at the Television Station
A local television station had been experiencing a ratings
decline for several years.60 In 2014, the station switched
some of its programming. That has explained some of the
ratings decline. However, in recent months, the ratings
have continued to slide. Eventually, the station manager,
Lucien Stone, decided he had to make a change to the
local newscast.
After meeting with the programming manager, Stone
called a meeting of the employees and announced his
intention to "spice things up" during the 5 p.m. and
10 p.m. local news. The 30-minute broadcasts would
still include the traditional "top stories," "sports," and
"weather" segments. However, on slow news days, more
attention-getting material would be used. Stone also
indicated some programming decisions would probably
be revisited. "The days of Uttle House on the Prairie are
over," he said.
Madison Devereaux, 29, had been the chief meteorolo-
gist since 2012. After receiving a degree in meteorology,
she joined the station and quickly worked her way up the
ranks, impressing viewers and management alike with her
extensive knowledge and articulate, professional, mistake-
free delivery.
Although she was religious, Devereaux was not one
to express her religious beliefs in the newsroom. Most of
those at the station were not even aware that she closely
practised a religion.
Devereaux was troubled by the announced changes to
the programming but did not speak up at the time. One
Monday during a pre-production meeting, she learned
that on Thursday of that week, one of the reporters, Sam
Berkshow, would present a segment called "Dancing
around the Economy,• which would focus on how local
strip clubs were doing well despite the sluggish economy.
Devereaux did not think it was appropriate to air the
segment during the 5 p .m. newscast and asked both
her producer and Stone to reconsider the piece, or at
least air it in the 10 p.m. time slot. When they refused,
she asked whether she could take the day off when the
segment aired. Stone again refused. This was "sweep s
week" (when ratings are calculated); Stone wanted to air
the story, and Devereaux's contract prohibited her from
taking time off during sweeps week.
When Devereaux did not show up for work that Thurs-
day, the station fired her, arguing that she had breached
her contract.
For her part, Devereaux said, "I'm not angry w ith the
station, but I am sorry about the changes that have taken
place."
Quest.ions
1. Do you think either party behaved unethically in this case? If so, why?
2. How could Devereaux have handled the situa- tion differently while still maintaining her personal integrity?
3. Drawing on Kotter's eight-step plan for implement- ing change, how might the station have handled its planned change differently?
Chapter 14 Organizational Change 5 17
CASE INCID E NT S
Sprucing Up Walmart For more than half a century, Walmart has prided itself on providing value to customers by being a low-price
leader.6 1 But the consumer mindset is changing. Now
"value" also means convenience, ease of finding w hat
you want, and the ability to get exactly what you want
When you want it. Nationwide dollar-store chains often have lower prices than Walmart, so that point of com-
petitive advantage is fading. Thanks to Amazon.com and
other online retailers, consumers can shop from home
Whenever they like, compare prices, and know immedi·
ately What is available.
Contrast this with the experience many Walmart shoppers previously had w hen they entered a store -
low inventory, disorganized aisles, unhelpful staff, and
an overall depressing atmosphere. The company 's online
presence was about the same. The site was difficult to
navigate and attempts to search for products were frus- trating at best and more often fruitless.
Named Walmart's C EO in 20 14, Doug McMillan set
out to change this. "What people think about the com-
pany is important," he noted. At the moment , people
were not thinking about value and low prices when they
thought about Walmart. McMillan enacted a number of
changes. First, since the company had earned a reputa-
tion of treating its store employees poorly-low wages,
few benefits- w hile profits were in the billions of dollars,
Walmart announced it would increase its minimum wage.
Second, the company asked for and paid more atten-
tion to employee feedback. Recurring issues included the
dress code, store music, and even store temperatures.
So clothing rules were relaxed, more variety in music was
introduced, and thermostats were adjusted. The company
hopes improving employee morale will translate into a bet-
ter experience for customers, thereby changing some of
the negative images.
Walmart 's web presence was another target for big
changes. With Amazon as the store's biggest competitor,
McMillan wanted to offer customers more items, pickup
options, and ways to meet their needs and demands-like
an online grocery-ordering service. This means a new
way of thinking about marketing and inventory across
the board. McMillan was able to see how consumers have
changed not only What they want, but also the way they
want it - whether from the hands of happy employees or
with the simple click of a button. The question remains:
Will his actions be enough to change the way consumers
see Walmart?
Quest.ions
1. What key factors do you think prompted Walmart to change? Do they exemplify the change pressures discussed in the chapter? Why or w hy not?
2. What effects from Walmart's changes do you predict?
3. Describe how McMillan acted as a change agent in this situation.
When Companies Fail to Change The Trinitron TY, transistor radio, Walkman, and VCR are the stuff of time capsules nowadays, but not long ago
they were cutting -edge technology.62 Japan was at the
pinnacle of the home consumer electronics industry from
the 1970s to the 1990s, introducing new innovations to
the world each year. Now those same Japanese firms are
at the back of the pack and struggling to stay in the game.
Japanese electronics production has fallen by more than
4 1 percent, and Japan's global market share of electron-
ics goods and services has decreased by more than half
since 2000. Sony, for example, did not earn any profits
between 2008 and 2012, and then was falling behind
again in 2014. What happened?
The simple answer is failure to innovate. While firms
outside Japan pioneered digital technology and conquered
the Internet, Japanese firms stuck to semiconductors and
hardware. But the deeper issue is the refusal of Japa-
nese managers to adapt to the global environment and
to change their organizations accordingly. For instance,
Sony mastered the technology needed for a digital music
player years before Apple introduced the iPod in 2001 , but
its engineers resisted the change. Sony's divisions would
518 Part 5 Reorganizing the Workplace
-"' CCI 0
not cooperate with one another fast enough to compete in
this market or in the new m arket for flat -screen 1Vs. Even
now, Sony has not managed to change its organization to
reflect current global thinking in the industry. For instance,
they and other Japanese firms make a larger number of
products than most of their global competitors. Former
Sony executive Yoshiaki Sakito said, "Sony makes too
many models, and for none of them can they say, 'This
contains our best, most cutting-edge technology .' Apple,
on the other hand, makes one amazing phone in just two
colors and says, 'This is the one.'" Sony was attempting
to adjust its behaviour by fall 2014, realizing that it had
too m any models of smartphones. The plan is to focus
on premium phones.
keep costs down and prices competitive, but that is no
longer the case. One complicating factor is that Japan
is an ancient country of m any traditions, with a low birth
rate and an aging population, so there will be an increas-
ing shortage of workers. The country's culture will make it
even more difficult to realign to globalization. It now must
change to foster innovation, which may involve a cultural
as much as an organizational transformation.
Questions
1. What made the Japanese electronics industry initially successful?
2. Why is the Japanese electronics industry no longer a success story? For Japanese electronics companies to survive, they
must change. They were once able to structure t heir
organizat ions around abundant , inexpensive labour to 3. What types of organizational changes would you
advise Japanese electronics managers to consider?
Carrying Out Organizational Change An After Action Review is a non-
hierarchical team debriefing pro-
cess that helps participants in and
those responsible for a project
understand what went well, what
went wrong, and how perfor-
mance can be improved.63 Seven
disciplines embedded in the After
Action Review can help create
effective change:
1. Build an intricate understanding of the business. Organizational m embers need to have t he big picture revealed to them so t hey know why change is needed and w hat is happening in the industry. Let organizational m embers know w hat is expected of them as the change proceeds.
2. Encourage uncompromising straight talk. Communication cannot be based on hierarchy, but must allow everyone to contribute freely to
the discussion.
3 . Manage from the future. Rather than setting goals that are directed toward a specific future point in time (and thus encouraging everyone to stop when the goal is achieved), manage from the perspective of always looking toward the future and future needs.
4. Harness setbacks. When things do not go as planned, and there are setbacks, it's natural to blame yourself, others, or bad luck. Instead, teach everyone to view setbacks as learning opportunities and oppor- tunities for improvement.
5. Promote inventive accountability. While employees know w hat the spe- cific targets and goals are, they should also be encouraged in the change process to be inventive and take initiative w hen new opportunities arise.
6. Understand the quid pro quo. When organizations undergo change processes, employees are put under a lot of stress and strain. Orga- nizations must ensure that employees are rewarded for their efforts. To build appropriate commitment , organizations must develop four levels of incentives:
a. Reward and recognition for effort
b. Training and skill development that will make the employee m arketable
c. Meaningful work that provides intrinsic satisfaction
d. Communication about where the organization is going and some say in the process for employees
7 . Create relentless discomfort with the status quo. People are more willing to change when the current situation looks less attractive than the new situation.
These points indicate that effective change is a comprehensive process,
requiring a lot of commitment from both the organization's leaders and its
members.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
You are the nursing supervisor at a local hospital that employs both emer-
gency room and floor nurses. Each of these teams of nurses tends to
work almost exclusively with others doing the same job. In your profes-
sional reading, you have come across the concept of cross-training nurs-
ing teams and giving them more varied responsibilities, which in turn has
been shown to improve patient care while lowering costs. You call the two
team leaders, Sue and Scott, into your office to explain that you want the
nursing teams to move to this approach. To your surprise, they are both
opposed to the idea. Sue says she and the other emergency room (ER)
nurses feel they are needed in the ER, where they fill the most vital role in
the hospital. They work special hours when needed, do whatever tasks
are required, and often work in difficult and stressful circumstances. They
think the floor nurses have relatively easy jobs for the pay they receive.
Scott, the leader of the floor nurse team, tells you that his group believes
the ER nurses lack the special training and extra experience that the floor
nurses bring to the hospital. The floor nurses claim they have the heavi-
est responsibilities and do the most exacting work. Because they have
ongoing contact with patients and families, they believe they should not
be called away from vital floor duties to help the ER nurses complete
their tasks. What should you do about your idea to introduce more cross-
training for the nursing teams?
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1. Think about a change (major and m inor) that you have dealt with over the last year. Perhaps the change involved other people, and per- haps it was personal. Did you resist the change? Did others resist the change? How did you overcome your resistance or the resistance of others to the change?
2. Interview a manager at three different organizations about a change he or she implemented. What was the manager's experience in imple- menting the change? How did the manager manage resistance to the
change?
Chapter 14 Organizational Change 519
• ••••••••••••••••••••
Practising Skills
Reinforcing Skills
• ••••••
ADDITIONAL CASES
The Additional Cases present key concepts examined in the text. The following table indicates the chapters that apply to the major
topic areas addressed in each case.
Cases Chapters
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Case 1 : The Personality Problem ./ ./ ./
Case 2: The Path to Fraud ./ ./
Case 3: Auditing, Attitudes, and Absenteeism ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
Case 4: Bad Faith Bargaining? Government Power and ./ ./ ./ Negotiations with the Public Service
Case 5: Gender-Based Harassment among the Royal ./ ./ ./ ./ Canadian Mounted Police
Case 6: Disability Accommodations and Promotions at Bunco ./ ./
Case 7: Promotion from Within ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
Case 8: Repairing Jobs That Fail to Satisfy ./ ./ ./
Case 9 : Virtual Organizations ./ ./ ./ ./
Case 10: Trouble at City Zoo ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
Case 1: The Personality Problem Learning Goals In this case, you will have an opportunity to assess the positive
and negative traits associated w ith a personality type that is
often encountered in highly com petitive, performance-oriented
settings. You should consider the role of organizational culture
in sup porting and reinforcing behaviours associated w ith this
personality typ e. Use that insight to suggest strategies that
could help maximize the benefits of this personality type w hile
minimizing its liabilities.
Major Topic Areas • Personality (Chapter 2)
• Org anizational culture (Chapter 10)
• Work attitudes (Chapter 3)
The Scenario Jasmine Patel, director of Human Resources at Vertical Horizon,
sits at her desk thinking about w hat to do next. 1 She is wonder-
ing how to handle the disruptive behaviour of a high-performing
sales representative, Rhett Stark.
Vertical Horizon is a software company in the Kitchener-
Wat erloo h igh-tech co rrido r. It started out developing
p rogramming tools that help large teams o f software d evel-
opers work together effectively. Now it was moving into other
areas such as web content manag ement. Since the company
was in the midst of adding to its product line, it was very
important t hat the sales representatives support the transi-
tion. If sales of the new p roduct line were too low, the entire
company could fold.
The sales team consists of 12 outside (field) sales repre-
sentatives and 6 inside representatives who provid e support
to the outside representatives. Each inside representative is
responsible for g enerating leads and otherwise supporting the
two outside sales representatives assigned to them . In addition,
the sales team includes a sales manager who can be consulted
on a daily basis for advice and a vice-p resident (VP) of Sales
who is responsible for strategic initiatives.
Most of the sales representatives, as well as the sales man-
ager and the VP of Sales, are relatively new to the organiza-
tion. As a result, they often consult with Rhett for advice abou1
the company's products, its customers, and sales strategies.
Rhett is an outside sales representative w ho has been w ith
the company for over eight years, a long tim e in the software
world. His natural charisma combined with his strong product
knowledg e and excellent customer service has helped him
exceed his sales quota quarter after quarter. Rhett is charm-
ing, bold, and highly self-confident. He is a gifted leader who
has a natural ability to draw people to him. People feel special
around Rhett. One co-w orker says, "When he talks to you, he
makes you feel like you are the m ost important and interest -
ing person in the world ." Although Rhett's personality has
helped him become a successful sales representative, it has
its downside.
Rhett is the ringleader of a group of sales representatives
w ho often work late and then go out partying together. This
behaviour has been supported by the VP of Sales, who feels
that the time spent bonding after work makes for a strong team.
The nights the sales representatives have spent together club -
bing and bar hopping has created cohesion w ithin the work
group , but it has also had some negat ive effects. Jasmine
overheard two male members of the sales team discussing
marital problems that had arisen as a result of their late nights
out. "What bothered m e," one said to the other, "is that w hen I
told Rhett that my wife was upset about it, he just laughed and
walked away. I know it's my own responsibility, but you would
think he would be more sympathetic.•
A high -performing sales representative named Malcolm
spoke to Jasmine privately about Rhett and made a similar
point: "It's pretty clear that Rhett has a lot of informal power
around here," he said. "Everyone, even m anagement, listens to
him and does w hat he says. I'm worried because I'm not part
of his 'pack.' I don' t drink or go out w ith Rhett's group. Rhett
makes fun of me behind my back. He insults me in front of oth-
ers, and no one dares say anything about it. Given his informal
power in this departm ent , how can I ever expect a fair chance
at a prom otion?"
Worrisom e, too, is Rhett's behaviour w ith his inside sales
representat ive, Aisha. Aisha recently asked to meet w it h
Jasmine to discuss a few "issues.• She told Jasmine: "Rhett
Case 2: The Path to Fraud Learning Goals In this case, you will have an opportunity to evaluate a decision-
making process that ultimately led to an employee engaging in
unethical and illegal behaviour. Consider which factors contrib -
uted to Julie's decision to engage in fraud. How did organiza-
tional variables combine w ith external pressures to influence
her decision? Use that insight to make recommendations about
what the insurance company could, and should, do to prevent similar situations from unfolding in the future.
Major Topic Areas • Decision making and ethics (Chapter 12)
• Work values and attitudes (Chapter 3)
• Corporate social responsibility (Chapter 12)
Additional Cases 521
delegates work to me and then interferes by micro-managing
it. When a project goes well, he takes the credit for it; when a
project goes badly, he blam es m e publicly. I'm often asked to
go beyond my duties to help Rhett; he even thinks it 's okay
to call me late at night and on weekends. If I don't do w hat
Rhett asks, he says I'm being d ifficult and questioning his
authority. Most of the tim e, I feel like I'm here only to meet
his needs and not those of the other sales representat ive
I'm assigned to. The thing is, Rhett's in charge of my perfor-
m ance review."
Jasmine has no authority to tell Rhett how to live his life
outside the workplace, but it's clear that he is negatively affect -
ing other employees in the department. He also appears to be
completely unconcerned about his impact on other employ-
ees. Jasmine suspects that Rhett is a narcissist, and perhap s
Machiavellian too. But he is the company's best sales represen-
tative by far. How can she m anage this difficult personality and
help create a healthier work environment?
Discussion Questions 1. Do you think that Rhett is Machiavellian and a narc issist?
Why or why not?
2. Assuming that Rhett is Machiavellian and a narcissist, what is the m ost effective way to minimize the negative effect he can have on other employees?
3. How has the organization's culture contributed to the toxic subculture that seems to be developing in the sales department? What can management do to foster an organizational culture that is supportive of all employees, positive, and high performing?
The Scenario Julie Smith trembled uncontrollably as the judge ordered her to
stand up for sentencing .2 It was really happening. She would
be sent to prison. All this time, no matter how many warnings
she got from her lawyer, a part of her had never really believed that it would come to this. • A four-month sentence to be served
in a minimum security facility followed by two years of proba-
tion," thundered the judge, "and you will pay fu ll restitution."
Julie fell back into her chair and began to cry. How would her
six-year-old son cope while she was imprisoned? She had not
even told anyone in her family what was happening because she was so embarrassed and humiliated . How had she ended
up here?
In mid-2007, Julie started working as an accounts pay-
able clerk for a large insurance company. Her job consisted
primarily of processing invoices but as a member of the w ider
522 Additional Cases
finance department she had many opportunities to observe
and learn the company's audit procedures. Julie viewed the
work in accounts payable as repetitive and tedious, and she
was aware that she did not have the discret ion or author-
ity to make her own decisions. Everything at this company
was done VERY strictly by the book. Despite t hese limita-
tions, however, Julie enjoyed her job and the company of her
co-workers and colleagues, and she felt that her employer
treated her well.
In early 2008, Julie made a lateral move to the department
that administered corporate commercial accounts. large cor-
porations bought insurance policies as protection from lawsuits
and were required to pay a flat rate per term regardless of the
number of c laims made against them. Julie oversaw more
than 500 corporate policies. When one of the corporate clients
experienced a loss, Julie w ould process the claims for legal
fees, compensation, and related incidentals. Examples of com-
mon losses included compensation paid out due to slips and
falls, safety violations, and other lawsuits. Julie processed an
average of 13 to 15 claims per week. When the compensation
was less than $10 000, Julie simply created, signed, and issued
the cheque herself. Claims over $10 000 required a second
signature, but she could ask anybody in the office to sign, so
this was rarely a problem.
After several months on the job, Julie noticed that the corpo-
rate clients did not receive reports about claims made against
their accounts. Since corporate clients paid a flat fee regardless
of how many cases were processed, the corporate clients had
little incentive to actively monitor claims activities.
Although she enjoyed her job and her co-workers, Julie, a
single mother w ith a toddler, struggled to make ends meet.
She earned $24 000 per year. Her expenses had exceeded
her income ever since her son was born. Daycare was so
expensive, but she had no choice but to use it if she was plan-
ning to w ork full time. Worse, the small savings account that
she inherited upon her mother's death a few years ago was
nearly empty. She had only a high school education, and she
had been very lucky to land the job at the insurance company
in the first place. Her options for increasing her income were
limited, and her son's father had never been involved in par-
enting or provided any type of financial support. In fact, Julie
doub ted she w ould be able to locate him, even if she tried .
As she worried and considered her limited alternatives, Julie
t hought about her w ork tasks again, remembered that her
company's internal audit process examined corporate com-
mercial accounts only every six years, and came up with an
idea for some relief.
Julie's son was enrolled in a private, at-home, daycare ser-
vice. She was friends w ith Marie, the person who operated the
home daycare, and they had shared a lot of laughs together.
J ulie usually paid for daycare on a bi-weekly basis using a
personal cheque. Until the day she didn 't. Three weeks after
her initial flash of "inspiration," a different kind of cheque was
handed over to Marie, one with the insurance company's name
featured as payer instead of Julie's name. "That's weird," com-
mented Marie, "what is up with this?" "Oh, I was embarrassed
to tell you," said Julie, looking dow n at her feet. "I'm having
some financial difficulties and my employer has decided to
help me out, so the cheques for daycare will come from the
company from now on." Although this sounded a little strange
to Marie, she figured that the issue was personal, shrugged,
and accepted Julie's cheque.
Julie left the daycare feeling euphoric. Her idea had actu -
ally w orked! Three weeks previously, she had created a "loss"
in the system with Marie's name ascribed to it. Julie selected
one of the very large corporate commercial accounts against
which to submit the claim, a company that was seldom, if
ever, reviewed. S he was well aware of the most common
types of losses experienced, and so it was not difficult to
come up with a scenario and dollar value that w ou ld not
attract attention. She simply entered Marie's name as the
claimant, approved the claim, and in due course a cheque
was issued.
The plan had w orked so well the first time that Julie exe-
cuted it again. And again. And again. A little over eight months
passed and, in that time, she created eight different claims
under Marie's name. She added it up one day and realized
that she had netted $ 12 000 from her "side activities." Julie
reflected on how easy it had all been. She worried that she
would be tempted to do it over and over again, and not just for
daycare expenses. This was not the person she wanted to be.
She decided that the only solution was to remove herself from
temptation. She asked for, and received, a transfer to another
department.
While Julie was celebrating her transfer and the fact that
she would no longer be tempted, a problem emerged. The
cheque for the last claim she had invented came back to her,
because she had not filled in a field that coded the claim for the
accounting system. Normally she could have fixed the over-
sight in a few seconds, but because she had been transferred,
she no long er had access to the system. The person who
replaced Julie asked her for a copy of the paperwork to back
up the claim before filling in the missing information. Julie was
unable to provide any. Not long after this incident, Julie arrived
at w ork one morning to find herself called into a private room .
Management informed her that they knew about the fraudulent
claims, fired her, and advised her to get a lawyer. One month
later, a police officer came to her home, and she was formally
charged with fraud over $5000.
Now here she was, in court, being sentenced. She feared
that her little boy would not understand why she would not
return home that night. She had not told anybody about what
was happening, in denial that she might actually go to jail. She
felt numb all over and just prayed that her new boyfriend would
be willing to take care of her son until she was released. If not,
her son would become a ward of the state and be sent to a
foster home; a thought that once again reduced Julie to despair.
All she had ever wanted was to be able to look after her son
properly. How had it com e to this?
Discussion Questions 1. What does this case teach us about ethical decision-
making behaviours?
Additional Cases 523
2 . Did the workplace environm ent or corporate culture contribute to Julie's ability to rationalize her fraudulent activities? Did these factors contribute to her decision to stop committing fraud? Based on your understanding of how work attitudes develop, explain how organizational factors may have contributed to her activities and subse- quent decisions.
3. What can employers do to create an environm ent that encourages ethical behaviour?
Case 3: Auditing, Attitudes, and Absenteeism Learning Goals In this case, you w ill have an opportunity to evaluate whether
an ethical lapse in an employee's behaviour should be con-
sidered as an isolated incident or a symptom of broader prob -
lems within the corporate culture. You w ill also be asked to
consider which factors contributed to the decision by Peter's
direct reports to simply go along w ith his directions. Other
issues to consider include the following: How might factors
such as poor socialization or communication have contributed
to the behaviour of Peter's direct reports? What would theories
of m otivation suggest? Should the organization have used a
more formalized structure? Use your own insight to make rec-
omm endations about what the organization could, and should,
do to prevent similar situations from developing in the future.
Major Topic Areas • Work attitudes (Chapter 3)
• Organizational culture and socialization (Chapter 1 0)
• Power (Chapter 8)
• Group dynamics (Chapter 6)
• Motivation (Chapters 4 and 5)
• Ethical decision-making (Chapter 12)
• Organizational structure (Chapter 13)
The Scenario "You've got to be kidding," said Sanjay, shaking his head, "is he
there right now?" "Yes," said Bianca, "if we drive over there you
can see for yourself." 'W hat the heck," exclaimed Sanjay, "let's
go."3 The pair left their office tower and drove the 10-minute
distance to Peter 's house. Bianca was right. Peter was sup-
posed to be out at a client site overseeing an audit, but his
car was parked in his driveway, and he could be seen clearly
through his large, living room window. "Well, this is awkward,"
sighed Sanjay. "What do we do now?"
Sanjay and Bianca were senior managers at one of Canada's
top four professional audit firms. Their team was responsible for
performing audits for a broad range of corporate clients. The
firm had a very traditional and formalized structure, like the other
large players in their industry. Recent graduates were hired as
•students in accounts," during which time they were expected
to complete their professional exam s and work toward their
chartered accountant (CA) designation. Upon passing their CA
exams, they could compete to become junior auditors in the
firm. If they chose to stay w ith the firm, they could then expect
to progress to a supervisory role and finally, in six to seven
years, becom e a senior m anager. The best and brightest audi·
tors stood to become M ure partners in the firm. Many gradu-
ates, however, simply worked at the company long enough to
achieve their CA designation, which requires a minimum of two
years' experience working in an auditing firm. The culture this
process created was coined •up or out,• since that is exactly
what happened. Employees moved up (i.e., they were pro-
moted) or out o.e., left the company). There was no shame in
leaving, though; in fact, it was anticipated that most employees
would remain only long enough to get their designations and
then move on.
Peter had joined the firm a few years ago and had pro-
gressed to a supervisory role. Recently, Peter had come to the
conclusion that the path to partner was not right for him, and
he began applying for jobs with other companies. But his deci-
sion to apply for jobs elsewhere created a dilemma. He was
not comfortable telling his employer he was looking for w ork
elsewhere, and he was also concerned that if his employer
knew that he was contemplating leaving the firm, his current
524 Additional Cases
assignments and standing would be negatively affected. To
make matters worse, Peter had no idea how long it would take
to find a new job, and he also had no idea how to manage
organizing time off to participate in interviews.
Peter reviewed his work tasks and responsibilities and
came up w ith what he perceived to be a viable solution to
his dilemma. He began telling the people under his supervi-
sion that their current client did not require their presence on
Fridays, and they should work at home instead. Peter encour-
aged them to use the time to work on things like file reviews or
even just to relax. The members of Peter 's team did not ques-
tion his instructions, even though it was highly unusual to be
allowed, and even encouraged, to work from home. Even full
partners seldom worked from home. The clients themselves
d id not question the team's absence on Fridays either (one
suspects that the average worker is not terribly disappointed
when he or she discovers that the audit team is absent for a
day). This arrangement allowed Peter to tell his manager that
he was conducting on -site audits on Fridays, when he was
actually scheduling and attending a series of job interviews
on those days.
The situation continued for a couple of months before a
few of Peter's direct reports became uncomfortable enough
to say something. They approached Bianca, who drove past
Peter's house the following Friday to see for herself whether or
not he was there. When she confirmed that he was at home,
instead of •on- site," she returned to the office to d iscuss
the situation w ith Sanjay. Now here the two of them were,
standing on Peter's front step, wondering how to handle the
situation. Sanjay knocked on the door. Peter answered, but
as soon as he saw Sanjay and Bianca, his face turned red.
They asked him what was going on and were stunned when
Peter began to cry.
After Peter regained his composure, the three of them
returned to the office to d iscuss the situation . Sanjay and
B ianca learned that the reason for the absences on Fridays
was so that Peter could attend job interviews. Once Sanjay
and Bianca heard all of the details, they asked Peter to step out
of the office while they discussed the situation in more detail.
"The irony," remarked Sanjay, once they were alone, "is that
if Peter had just told us what was happening, we would have
been happy to give him time off to go to interviews. We recently
completed his performance evaluation, and although he is a
solid accountant, he just isn't partner material. He doesn't have
a future here anyway. It's not that he is a bad auditor, but others
are better. I would have been happy to help him find a good
placement." "That's all well and good," said Bianca, "but it isn' t
even Peter I'm worried about. He supervised several different
teams over the couple of months he was doing this. Why did it
take so long for any of them to let us know what he was doing?
I know the work still got done and the c lients were satisfied,
and I know that everyone likes to be friendly around here and
hang out together, but these people are auditors for goodness
sake! I would have expected better. Do you think this might be
a symptom of a bigger problem with our corporate culture? And
if so, what should we do about it?"
Discussion Questions 1. Why do you think Peter's direct reports kept quiet about
the "work from home" directive for as long as they did? Why did some of them eventually decide to inform
management?
2 . Do you think this situation would have happened if the organization had a more formal structure in place? Why or why not?
3 . Do you think the lapse in Peter's ethical behaviour indi- cates a broader problem w ith the firm's corporate cul- ture? Why or why not? If yes, what should management do now to try to change its corporate culture?
Case 4: Bad Faith Bargaining? Government Power and Negotiations with the Public Service Learning Goals In this case, you will have an opportunity to assess the impact
of federal government policy on labour relations in the pub·
lie sector. You w ill be asked to consider what strategies and
tactics may contribute to the escalation of conflict and how
the situation could be handled moving forward to lessen the
intensity and emotional nature of the conflict. You will also be
asked to consider issues of power and ethics. Do you believe
the federal government is acting ethically in the case? What
about the unions?
Major Topic Areas • Power and politics (Chapter 8)
• Conflict and negotiation (Chapter 9)
• Ethics (Chapter 12)
The Scenario Bargaining between union s and m anagement in the pu b -
lic sect or can be not o nly newsworthy b u t also hig hly
controversial. 4
In 1967, the Canadian governm ent gave federal public
servants collective bargaining rights. Those rights gave public-
service unions the right to choose Whether to settle contract
disputes by arbitration or by strike.
Treasury Board President Tony Clement, w ho was respon-
sible for federal labour issues, changed those rights in 20 13
w hen he introduced sweeping reforms to the Public Service
Labour Relations Act. The new rules for collective bargaining
seem to favour the government.
In the federal pu blic service, unions were once able to
decide whether they wanted to settle their d isputes by arbi-
tration (a process in which an arbit rator imposes a decision
on the parties in a dispute) or conciliation (a process in
whic h a settlement is recommended and is backed by the
right to strike). The new rules give the federal governm ent ,
rat her than the federal unions, the power to decide w hether
individual disputes are solved by arbitration or conc iliation.
Federal public service unions are concerned that the govern-
ment can force them into conciliation (and a possible strike),
even if t heir m embers believe arb itrat ion would reso lve a
d ispute. Ultimately, the new rules for collective bargaining
have decreased the power of unions that represent federal
public servants and make it m ore likely that affected union
members w ill agree to concessions if they con sider strike
action undesirable.
The federal government has also placed limits on the fac-
to rs that arbitrato rs and conc iliation board s can consider
w hen they provide decisions on disputes for federal unions.
They are required to focus on two factors: the federal govern-
ment's "fiscal c ircumstances relative to its budgetary polic ies"
and t he ability to recruit and retain employees. The labour
board had previously concluded that those two preconditions
favoured the federal government to an excessive deg ree;
despite this conclusion, Clement made the preconditions law
a few m onths later.
In 20 14, Clement announced that the federal government
would revamp the public service's sick leave policy.5 Under
t he new collective bargaining rules, fed eral public service
unions are seriously limited in resolving any disputes over
sick leave.
Under the federal government 's existing sick leave policy,
federal public servants receive 15 days of paid sick leave per
year. Unused days can be carried over to sub sequent years
(a process known as "banking") and then be used as needed.
In some cases, emp loyees may end up w ith m any weeks
Additional Cases 525
"banked. " This can help them get through a prolonged illness
or major injuries, since it takes 65 days to become eligible for
long -term disability payments. Clement points out that the
existing sick leave policy c reates significant liabilities on the
government balance sheet, since the government needs to
account for the potential use of banked sick days. In ear ly
2014, banked sick leave was valued at $5.2 billion.s At the
same time, a report by the Parliamentary Budget Office indi·
cates that it costs the government very little to pay sick leave
to federal servants. For example, "the report found that sick
leave can range from a low of 0 .1 6 percent of total [federal]
departmental spending to 2.7 4 percent on the high end of
the scale."7
Clement also cited ab senteeism as an issue related to the
existing sick leave policy, since workers w ith large am ounts
of banked sick leave time might use sick days for purposes
other than those originally intended. Sick leave policy is also
associated w ith an equity issue. S ince employees need to
wait 65 days to g et long- term disabi lity paym ents, the net
effect is that long -term employees (ones who have had tim e
to bank many days) have a much better safety net than junior
employees. C lement believed that replacing the sick leave
policy w ith a short- term disability plan would ensure that
everyone's health needs are met in a consistent and fair man-
ner, w hile mitigating the problems associated with the existing
policy. He felt so strongly about it that he began negotiations
w ith insurance providers before finalizing the new policy with
the federal public service unions, a step that was very poorly
received.
As a result, 17 federal public service unions signed a "soli-
darity pledge,• agreeing that they would not surrender their
current sick leave benefits. Many of those unions had three-year
contracts that expired in December 20 14, setting the stage
for conflict and unrest over this (and likely other) issues. Will a
bruising battle lie ahead?
Discussion Questions 1. Do the new collective bargaining rules for federal public
service unions introduced by the federal government represent an abuse of government power? Why or why not?
2. Have any negotiation or communication errors been m ade by the government or by the unions in relation to federal sick leave reform? If yes, what are they?
3. How could the government, as an employer, proceed to develop a more trusting relationship with employees under the new rules for collective bargaining? What could they do to better manage labour relations moving forward?
526 Additional Cases
Case 5: Gender-Based Harassment among the Royal Canadian Mounted Police Learning Goals In th is case, you w ill have an o ppo rtunity to evaluate how
o rganizatio nal culture influences the way power is used and
ethical decisions are m ade w ithin the Royal Canad ian Mounted
Police (RCMP). Consider why the RC MP d evelo p ed such a
widespread problem with gender-based harassment allegations.
Did the RCMP lead ership contribute to the p ro blem and, if so,
how can they help to resolve it?
Major Topic Areas • Workplace harassment and bullying (Chapter 8)
• O rg anizational culture (Chapter 10)
• O rg anizational change (Chapter 14)
• Lead ership (Chapter 11)
The Scenario In December 2006, the BC Court of Appeal upheld the decision
by the BC Suprem e Court to award Nancy Sulz $950 000 in
damages for severe, lo ng -term harassment experienced while
she worked for Canada's RCMP.8 The sexual harassment she
endured starting in 1995 led to her request fo r a m edical dis-
charge from the RCMP in 2000, d ue to major depressive disorder.
Her harasser, Staff Sergeant Donald Smith, has c ontinued to enjoy
a successful career w ith the force. Sulz was not the first person to
com plain about him; another female officer made similar allega-
tions in the late 1980s but ultimately d id not pursue them.
Four fe male RCMP officers alleged that they were sexu-
ally assaulted by Sergeant Robert Blundell during undercover
o perations that took p lace in Calgary between 1994 and 1997 .
Their internal complaints were d ismissed and ignored , a prob-
le m that went all the way up to then-Com m issioner G iuliano
Zaccardelli . The officers reported that after filing complaints,
they were "consid ered rats and w histle -blowers and subject
to harassing ridicule ."9 The four officers felt that "the lack of
response signalled to the rank and file of the RCMP that silence,
cover-up, and m inim ization are the preferred method of d ealing
w ith harassment w ithin the RCMP." 10
The o fficers chose to file a lawsuit against the RCMP in
Calgary's Court of Queen's Bench in September 2003 because
o f the RCMP's lack o f response. •we have do ne everything we
can d o with in the fo rce to address the prob lem s and issues,"
the four repo rted in a formal statem ent. "They have not been
satisfactorily resolved, and we' ve had to take this step as a
last resort. "11 At the time o f filing their case, two of the alleged
victims were on stress leave and the other two reported los-
ing career o pportunities within the fo rce. One lo st her role as
a hostag e negotiato r, and the other has not been assigned to
undercover o perations since making the allegations. The alleged perpetrator of the sexual assaults, meanwhile , lost o ne day o f
pay and was later promoted. The case was settled out o f court
in 2007, w ith the terms kept secret. 12 However, in December
2011 , The Rfth Estate reported that two of the complainants
continue to feel they were let down by the RCMP in the matter.
"That seems to be the way of the RCMP. that's kind of like the
toothless tiger. There's never any accountability," said Victoria
Cliffe, one of the four complainants. l3
Janet Merlo, o f Nanaimo, BC, would no doubt understand
the frustration the four Calgary RCMP officers experienced.
She received a medical discharge fro m the RCMP due to post-
traumatic stress disorder that was a d irect result of o ngoing
workplace harassment and bullying . She was allegedly subjected
to freq uent sexual remarks and unwanted invitations from her
immediate supervisor. Co-workers also left sex toys and pornog-
raphy on her desk. It took two years after Merlo 's initial complaint
for the organization to respond . The response thanked Merlo for
her letter and noted: • As you are aware the RCMP does not take
these allegations lightly and , in fact, has an obligation to provide
a harassment free environment for al of our em ployees." 14 Merlo was advised that the matter had been investigated b ut no action
would be taken. Subsequently, Merlo initiated legal proceedings,
but she was unable to continue d ue to the high c osts involved. 15
Heli Kijanen, of Thunder Bay, Ontario , w ho quit her job with the
RCMP in 2011 due to incessant harassment, has experienced
the same challenges trying to g et justice.
Other c ourt cases are proceed ing. Officer B isabeth C outure,
of Surrey, BC, made a claim through civilian c o urts against three
m ale RCM P colleagues fo r systematically targ eting her and
creating a climate of fear in the workp lace. Staff Sergeant Travis
Pearso n found himself in criminal court due to allegations that
he raped Officer Susan Gastald o, o f Burnaby, BC, in his ho me
and then actively stalked her children in order to intim idate her
into silence. An unidentified former RCMP officer testified at his
trial that Pearson had also attempted to rape her und er very
sim ilar circum stances, but she was too intimidated to repo rt it
at the time . 16
In November 201 1, Corporal Catherine Gallifo rd, of Langley,
BC, another RCMP o fficer and vic tim of ongoing w orkplace
sexual harassment, decided she had had enough. She used
the media to g ive her voice weight and expose the extent and
severity of the harassment experienced by many of the 26 13
female RCMP officers, a small minority in a force of 22 000. It
was not long before other women, inspired by Galliford , also
came forward to tell their stories, resulting in the beginnings of
a class action lawsuit against the RCMP for its failure to address
w idespread gender- based harassment and bullying. RCMP
leadership has little reason to be surprised. An internal study
conducted in 1996 found that 6 out of 1 0 female Mounties had
been sexually harassed at work and that more than 1 0 percent reported unwanted touching by male colleagues.
Unfortunately, that same leadership has done a very poor job
of responding to complaints or addressing the cultural issues
that underlie them . Questioned after Galliford had gone public ,
Krista Carle, one of the four Calgary RCMP officers who filed a
complaint against Blundell, said the following about her formal
complaint: "there was an internal review and nothing came of it.
There was a memo that went out to colleagues and staff about
how there was an incident with someone placing inappropriate
material on someone's desk. Everyone knew it was me, so it
was almost like I got blamed for getting the guys in trouble. And
they never found out w ho put the porn on my desk." 17 Carte
was discharged from the RCMP w ith post -traumatic stress
disorder that she attributes to 19 years of unremitting sexual
harassment and general bullying.
Paul Champ, a lawyer who has been involved in RCMP
cases, says that "the process often takes years because the
RCMP often does not treat complaints as a priority .... Most
complaints are dismissed out of hand or dismissed with no
remedy offered to the complainant other than 'we talked to him
about it. "' 1 a
Recognition of the scope of the problem led Bob Paulson,
the new RCMP Commissioner, to make an unprecedented
formal statement acknowledging that the continued existence
of the force itself was at risk . He needed to "clear-cut problems
that have taken root deeply. Too many Mounties believe their
authority entitles them to misuse power . ... The Mounties are
one or two more earth -shattering heartbreaks away from losing
all c redibility. I tell you, one day there is going to be the removal
of the Stetson (the RCMP's emblematic hat and symbol of the
force) if we don't get this right. •l9
Additional Cases 527
Steps have been taken. An external labour relations expert
was retained to review the RCM P's existing harassment policy,
and a new code of conduct w as introduced in April 20 14. 20
Some are skep tical that these efforts w ill help to change a
long-entrenched culture. Officer Elisabeth Couture believes
that "manag ement at the local level rout inely turns a blind
eye to harassment as it's occurring. You can have all the staff
workshops on the issue that you want, but unless detachment
supervisors deal with incidents in a forceful and unequivocal
manner it won' t matter:21
The RC M P 's female off icers who have expe rienced
harassment, both past and present, are not w aiting around
to see if these efforts to effect change w ithin the RCMP w ill
be successful. By Ju ly 201 4 , a c lass ac tion lawsuit w as
launched b y over 330 women .22 The lawyer representing
Janet Merlo reports that "the sto ries are c onsistent. The
stories are common in terms of harassment, bullying, and
oftentimes, sexual issues. The c alls are sad, hugely sad.
The stories are terrible. Many serving members are unable
to w ork because they are petrified in light of t heir experi -
ences."23 Lawyers are also quick to point out the impact
that these gender- biased attit udes may have on perceived
injustice in the broader community. For instance, a lack of
perceived sensitivity may inhibit female members of the pub -
lic from reporting sexual assaults or stalking incidents. With
the class action lawsuit proceeding, the RCMP leadership
w ill need to carefully c onsider how to restore its reputation
and c red ib ility among bot h female staff and t he broader
community .
Discussion Questions 1. What aspects of the organizational culture in the RCMP
may have contributed to its problems w ith w idespread sexual harassment allegations?
2 . Do the alleged claims of sexual harassment point to a leadership problem? Why or why not?
3. Devise a plan to manage a culture change at the RCMP. What resistance might you encounter and how could you overcome it?
Case 6: Disability Accommodations and Promotions at Bunco Learning Goals In this case, you w ill have to decide whether to promote an
employee w ho has a d isability. You w ill need to consider
whether the particular disability presents a legally and morally
defensible reason against promotion to a management role. If
you choose to promote the employee, what can you do to help
ensure his success? If you do not promote him, how can you explain and justify your decision, while helping the person to
maintain positive work attitudes?
528 Additional Cases
Major Topic Areas • Diversity (disability) (Chapter 3)
• Work attitudes (Chapter 3)
• Recruitment and selection (Chapter 10)
The Scenario Nicholas, the director of finance at Bunco Canada, sat wearily at
his desk, sighed deeply, and rubbed his eyes. 24 He wondered
w hether an external search for the company's newly created
accounting m anager role was the right choice. Had Nicholas's
decision been reasonable and fair?
Paul had worked for Nicholas as a staff accountant for 14
years. Paul was a Certified Managem ent Accountant (CMA)
and was the senior accountant responsible for external financial
reporting.
Paul was a consistent and reliable employee who, due to
his long tenure, knew a lot about the organization. He had, at
some point in his career, performed most accounting functions
at Bunco, including plant costing , budgeting, analysis, and
financial planning, and so he understood the details of each
role extremely well. Paul got along well with the junior staff (most
of whom had been with the company for m ore than 1 0 years)
and was considered a key member of the accounting team. He
frequently acted as an informal adviser to other members of his
team, put in overtime, and engaged in special projects, includ-
ing process improvements and database optimization. In fact,
he had become the sole subject matter expert on some critical
financial applications needed for m onthly reporting . In the past
four years, however, Paul had required special accommodations
from Bunco for Crohn's disease.
Crohn's disease is an incurable inflammatory bowel disease
that results in sporadic and unpredictable bouts of moderate
to severe pain, fever, diarrhea, gas, vomiting, and rectal bleed-
ing. 25 Sufferers of Crohn's may experience brief or extended
remissions that last m onths or even years, and then relapse
w ithout obvious triggers, although many patients with Crohn's
disease report that stress significantly worsens symptom s and
can trigger flare-ups. 26 There is no cure for the disease, but
anti-inflammatory and immune-modulator medication, surgery,
and careful attention to diet can control symptoms and minimize
relapses for some people.27
Canadian courts recognize Croh n's disease as a leg iti-
mate disability for employment -related purposes. Employers
are required to accommodate Crohn's disease as long as
that accommodation does not result in excessive hardship
to them. "Duty to reasonably accomm odate" means that an
employer must take all reasonable measures to enable a dis-
abled employee to keep working. In addition to making physical
accommodations such as providing laptops, w heelchair ramps,
etc., employers can also be required to revise job responsibili-
ties and performance appraisal criteria.
When he was first diagnosed w ith Crohn's four years ago,
Paul had discussed several concerns w ith Nicholas. "Nicholas,
I don't know how long it will take m e to get this under control.
It's not like I can't work at all. I 'II go for a couple hours and be
fine, but then ... I don't think anyone wants me running to the
washrooms here. Besides it's humiliating. I need some privacy.
When the pain flares up it's all I can focus on. Maybe I could
just work from home on a laptop on my bad days, play it by
ear a little bit?"
Nicholas replied : "Well I don't see a problem with you work-
ing from home som etimes, but are you sure that's what you
want? I spoke to an HR representative about this yesterday,
and she pointed out that we have a corporate policy that pro-
hibits laptop use for everyone except senior managem ent and
sales, but under the circumstances, I'm pretty sure I can get
one approved for you. I was wondering if going on long-term
disability might be a better solution for you to get yourself well
though, assuming that we can get the insurance company to
support the claim. Your health has to be your first priority. That
said, I don't really know w hat we'll do if you leave!"
Paul was reluctant to seek long-term disability, because he
did not want to give up so much of his life to the disease. It was
also unclear whether the claim would be accepted by Bunco's
insurer. After another discussion w ith an HR representative,
Nicholas decided that a laptop should be issued to Paul and
that he should be permitted to work at home on his bad days.
Nicholas trusted him not to abuse the privilege so felt no need
to document t he decision further. An informal "handshake
agreem ent " was readily accepted by Paul.
Accommodation Implemented: The First Few Years Paul and Nicholas explained the situation to co-workers in a
regularly scheduled staff meeting, and, initially, everyone was
supportive of t he new arrangem ent. A s more tim e passed,
however, Nicholas became worried. He had anticipated the
occasional absence, but over the first few months of the new
arrangement, Paul consistently worked two days in the office
and then had to go home for tw o to three days, meaning he
was absent more than 50 percent of the time. Although Paul did respond to email, Nicholas felt that he had underestimated
the ongoing impact that Paul's absence might have on t he
team over the long term . Nicholas was being inundated with
daily q uestion s from staff t hat would normally have been
routed to Paul. Despite the difficulties adjusting, Nicholas
felt strongly that accommodat ing Paul was the right th ing
to do, so he said nothing. About five months after the initial
discussion and the purchase of a laptop for use by Paul, Paul's
symptoms decreased, and he was able to work in the office
about 85 percent of the time for the next 18 months.
About two years ago, Crohn 's-related relap ses and prob -
lems returned for Paul. At the sam e tim e, due to growth in
market share and a new acquisition, t he dem ands on the
accounting department had increased significantly. Budget
con straints did not allow for the hiring of addit ional staff.
Everyone had to work a little harder and be willing to work
significantly more overtime, often until 11 :00 p.m. or midnight
for several days in a row.
As previously mentioned, bouts of Crohn's disease are often
triggered by stress. Since month's- and year's ends were partic-
ularly stressful times, Paul would often experience attacks then,
just w hen he was needed most in the office. He was frequently
absent during these key tim es, missing more than half of the
month's ends over six months. Other accounting employees,
who previously had supported Paul's accommodations, began
to murmur their resentment among them selves.
One day Nicholas overheard several colleagues talk about
him, when they did not realize he was in the area. "It would
really m ake my life easier if I could work from home," one said .
Another asked, "Couldn' t he control his Crohn's with diet, if
he really tried to? I think he just doesn't want to be stuck here
all evening for a week like us suckers!" "I don't think he can
control it that much," another voice chimed . A fourth person
responded, •even so, it does m ake for a convenient excuse
doesn' t it; he could fake it on any given day, and nobody
would even know the d ifference. I bet he took off this after-
noon because he heard they're bringing in pizza for dinner
AGAIN." "It's not even fair," a fifth voice complained. "If he can
phone and em ail his work in w hy can't we? My ex is fu rious
that I missed my night w ith the kids; I'll be paying for that one
for a w hile."
Nicholas worried about the worsening morale among w hat
had previously been a very close team. Furthermore, Paul had
been significantly late submitting his external financial reports
on several occasions, and his lack of availability had ham-
pered other people's ability to complete interdependent tasks.
Since his relapse began 18 months ago, the department had
been late in submitting its monthly financial reports to head
office seven times! The department still complied w ith dead-
lines imposed by the Securities and Exchange Commission
(SEC), but it missed many internal deadlines. While not all of
the departm ent's late filings could be directly attributed to Paul's
condition (and absences), he had certainly contributed to the
problem.
That said, Nicholas knew that Paul had limited control over
the Crohn's disease, so Nicholas did not mention his concerns
to Paul or document performance problem s. If anyone else said
anything to Paul directly, Nicholas was unaware of it. Nicholas
Additional Cases 529
ended up doing little more than hope that Paul would experi-
ence a remission and that the situation would improve.
The Accounting Manager Role Meanwhile the changes continued apace at Bunco. Ongoing
growth and further acquisitions-in-process meant that Nicholas
acquired significant new responsibilities. Part of that transition
included Nicholas taking on a more st rategic role in finan -
cial management and physically relocating to the company's
executive headquarters in Toronto. This meant that he would no
longer be around day to day to manage the accounting depart-
m ent at the northern packaging facility. It was also no longer
adequate for the department to adopt a flat organizational
structure, w ith staff accountants formally reporting to the direc-
tor. An accounting manager position would need to be created .
As director, Nicholas was responsible for financial strategy,
identifying opportunities for cost reduction and revenue growth,
foreign exchange strategy, ameliorating controls, and managing
transition teams for new acquisitions. In turn, the new account-
ing manager would be responsible for much of what Nicholas
had previously done. This included advising senior executives,
including the CEO, about monthly financial results and projected
year-end performance, as well as overall responsibility for cost-
ing and management accounting . This position required ongo-
ing communication with various parts of the company, including
occasional travel to the head office. The most important part
of the accounting manager role, however, involved managing
the team at the northern facility. This included assigning tasks
and providing daily guidance, advice, and social support to
junior staff.
Under normal circumstances, Paul would have been the nat-
ural choice for promotion to this new accounting manager posi-
tion. He wanted it; indeed, he felt it was owed to him in return
for his long years of service. He was the most senior person in
the departm ent and, other than Nicholas, Paul had the highest
level of formal accounting education. The other members of the
department did not qualify for the role, as they were not CMAs.
Paul had also created many of the spreadsheets and system s
that were an integral component of the company's financial
reporting system. The new role, however, would com e w ith a
significantly increased stress load, since it involved management
responsibilities and a much higher political profile in the organi-
zation. Could Paul really handle the stress, given his disability?
Also, if he did experience a flare-up, how could he manage a
team of people from home, w hen multiple questions cam e up
each day? Reports to head office were already being sent late
with alarming frequency, damaging the northern branch's repu-
tation within the company. Would this situation becom e worse
under Paul's direction?
530 Additional Cases
Fourteen months earlier, Nicholas had carefully considered
his options vis-a-vis filling the future account manager position.
He tried to discuss his concerns with his HR department but
discovered that promotions were legal and ethical grey areas
w hen it cam e to d isability accommodation. Under a subset
of law regarding duty to accommodate, employers were not
able to deny prom otions based on inability to perform a job
w ithout first proving undue hardship, but w hat did that really
mean? The concept was largely untested in the courtroom . An HR staff member suggested that Paul be asked to participate
in a detailed medical assessment to prove that he could not
complete the essential operational requirements of the job. This
suggestion did not sit well w ith Nicholas. A medical assessment
could be regarded as invasive, and the procedure would lead
to Paul being expected to share a great deal of confidential
medical inform ation. Furtherm ore, as w ith any m anagement
job, it was hard to distinguish the essential aspects of the job
from the secondary ones. Presenting and defending monthly
financial reports, for example, was a key part of the job. It was
also very stressful, as the reports were examined and ques-
tioned in detail by powerful senior executives. Since stress was
a trigger for flare-up s of Crohn's d isease, could Paul handle
the pressure? What about travel to head office? This was also
stressful, and travel might well prove impossible for Paul. Was it
fair to expect Paul to try, given his medical condition? Nicholas's
biggest concern, however, was that Paul would not always be
physically available to the staff. Nicholas felt that the physical
presence of a manager in the office was central to the orderly
flow of information, completion of daily tasks, and maintenance
of a supportive and collegial environment. He did not know if he
could truly justify calling that physical presence "essential,• but
his gut told him it was.
Under pressure to decide whether to fill the new position
internally or externally, Nicholas was not sure that he was mak·
ing the right choice, but he decided to launch an external search
for an account manager, instead of promoting Paul.
Discussion Questions 1. Should Nicholas have promoted Paul? Why or why not?
2. a. What are Nicholas's legal responsibilities to Paul in this situation?
b. What are Nicholas's ethical responsibilities to Paul in this situation? How does that balance w ith Nicholas's responsibilities to Paul's co-workers?
3. If Paul were to be prom oted, what strategies could Nicholas use to help Paul achieve success in his
new role?
Case 7: Promotion from Within Learning Goals This case will allow you to evaluate the impact of (in)effective
employee relations on motivation and job performance. Pay
particular attention to issues of perceived equity and also to
expectation setting and how they each relate to motivation. Is
this company's approach to internal recruitment likely to cause
ongoing problems for them? If so, w hy?
Major Topic Areas • Motivation (Chapters 4 and 5)
• Work attitudes (Chapter 3)
• Communication (Chapter 7)
• Politics (Chapter 8)
The Scenario The tw o interviewers leaned forward across the table and
looked at Elisa intently. "We are very impressed w ith your
resume and your recently completed MBA," the HR manager
stated, "but the client training role that we have available is
entry level. With your 1 0 years of sales and training experience
and your education, you seem rather overqualified and we are
concerned."
Elisa shifted slightly in her seat then turned on her best smile
as she answered the interviewer. ·1 do understand that I am
overqualified for this job," she responded, "I have also heard
that Kium Solutions is a really great place to work and I know
your CEO has some really interesting ideas for moving the
company forward. I think I could do a lot of good here and I am
willing to start in an entry-level job to get in the door as long as
there are other opportunities down the road." The interviewers
glanced at each other and nodded. "Well that works for us,"
responded the HR manager. "You can start now and I am quite
confident that something more challenging that better matches
your qualifications w ill come up w ithin a year or so." "That
sounds great," said B isa. "I look forward to coming on board."
Fifteen m onths later, B isa was still in the entry-level training
role, w hich saw her travelling to different client sites each day
to train their new employees on how to use Kium's document
managem ent systems. Elisa was the first person with a degree
in education w ho had served in the client trainer role. Her for-
mal know ledge about teaching and learning had helped her
make sub stantial improvements to the existing client training
program. Elisa's manager had comm ented several times about
the significant increases in client satisfaction ratings that they
had ob served. Clients were especially impressed that Elisa was
so readily available to them - she even gave them her personal
cellphone number. If they had a software question or problem
at 9:00 p. m. or on a Saturday, Elisa would answer her phone
and cheerfully help, something that was neither expected nor
required. B isa was sure that she had done everything she could
to impress her new employers. As a result, she was particularly
excited when her co-worker pointed out the new job that had
been posted to the internal recruitment webpage (a special
website for jobs posted internally with the intent of promoting
from w ithin).
The post ing was for a newly created posit ion, d irecto r
of Training. Previously, the company only had client trainers
(an ent ry-level job) and HR generalists who took care of all
employee training. The new d irectorship would report to the
VP of Sales, making it a highly prestigious position within the
corporate hierarchy. The director would be responsible for
improving initial staff orientation and the training received by
new hires in the Sales departm ent. Kium relied on its salesforce
to grow its business. The director of Training would therefore
be fulfilling an important role in the organization. Elisa could not
be more delighted. After all, she had an MBA and a degree in
adult education, plus she had over a decade of experience
selling software solutions (although for companies other than
Kium). In fact, it was her desire to get away from never-ending
sales quotas and broaden her career choices that led her to
pursue an MBA. Given her many qualifications and her record
of strong performance, B isa was confident that she would be
a competitive candidate for the role.
Elisa sent in her resume and, at the end of the application
period, she was not the least bit surprised when she was called
for an interview with the VP of Sales.
Elisa knew that she would have to explain why she was well
qualified for the job. To prepare for the interview, she reread the
Additional Cases 531
strategic goals, vision, and mission of the company and thought
carefully about how she could contribute. She even had her
boyfriend ask her m ock interview questions so that she could
practise her answers. On the morning of her interview, although
she felt prepared, she was also nervous. Then disappointment
struck. The assistant to the VP of Sales called to say that the
VP of Sales was no longer interested in interviewing her. After
reviewing her resume, he realized that she did not have enough
direct experience in sales at Kium .
Elisa was stunned, wondering what on earth had happened .
She could not believe that she w ould not even be given an
opportunity to explain w hy she would be a good candidate for
the job. She sent an email to the VP's assistant explaining her
qualifications, but the assistant again confirmed that Bisa would
not be permitted to interview for the job. Ultimately, B isa went
home an hour early that day, still distressed and bewildered. At
5: 17 p.m. her cellphone rang . She saw that it was an important
client who had recently purchased an expensive and complex
solution from Kium . Just days ago, Elisa had promised the
CEO at the client company that she would be there to answer
questions and support their roll-out every step of the way. She
looked again at the call display and at the time. She quietly
looked away and let the call go to voicemail. The client could
wait until Monday.
Discussion Questions 1. How would you explain the abrupt change in Elisa's cus-
tomer service behaviour? Outline what has happened to her motivation using expectancy and equity theories.
2. Could Elisa's employer have anticipated the impact that cancelling the directorship interview might have on her future performance? What should her employer have done differently?
3. Elisa raised concern about being shut out of the direc- torship interview to the HR m anager. What could the HR m anager do now to help improve Elisa's m otivation? Explain w hy your idea would be effective.
Case 8: RepairingJobs That Fail to Satisfy Learning Goals Companies often divide up work as a way to improve efficiency,
but specialization can lead to negative consequences. FlowFix
is a company that for years has effectively used specialization
to reduce costs relative to that of its competitors, but rising
customer complaints suggest that the firm's strong position
m ay be slipping . After reading the case, suggest some ways
the company can create more interesting work for employees
while improving customer satisfaction rates. You w ill also need
to tackle the problem of how to find people qualified and ready
to perform the multiple responsibilities required in FlowFix's jobs.
532 Additional Cases
Major Topic Areas • Job design (Chapter 5)
• Job satisfaction (Chapter 3)
• Personality (Chapter 2)
• Emotional labour (Chapter 2)
The Scenario FlowFix is a mid -sized residential and commerc ial plumbing
maintenance firm that operates in the Greater Vancouver area.
It has been a major regional player in plumbing for decades. Tyron Johnson has been the senior execut ive at FlowFix for
about two years. He used to work for a newer competing chain,
Lightning Plumber, which has been d rawing away more and more customers from FlowFix . Although his job at RowRx pays
more, Tyron is not happy with the way things are going. He has
noticed the work environment is not as vital or energetic as the environment he saw at Lightning Plumber.
Tyron thinks the problem is that employees are not motivated to provide the type of c ustomer service Lightning Plumber
employees offer. He recently sent surveys to customers to col-
lect information about customer service performance, and the data confirmed his fears. Although 60 percent of respondents
said they were satisfied with their experience and would use
RowFix again, 40 percent felt their experience was not good , and 30 percent said they would use a competitor the next time
they had a plumbing problem.
Tyron is w ondering whether FlowFix's job design might be contributing to its problems in retaining customers. FlowFix
has about 11 0 employees who are d ivided into one of four
basic job categories: plumbers, plumber's assistants, order processors, and billi ng representatives. This structu re is
designed to keep costs as low as possible. Plumbers, who are licensed, make very high wages, whereas plumber's assistants
make about one-quarter of what a licensed plumber makes.
Using plumber's assistants is therefore a very cost-effective strategy that enables FlowRx to easily undercut the competi-
t ion when it comes to price. Order processors make even
less than plumber 's assistants but about the same as billing processors. All work is specialized , but employees are often
dependent on those in other job categories to perform at their
most effic ient level. Li ke most p lumbing compan ies , FlowFix gets a lot of
residential business from people who consult the Internet.
Corporate clients also use the company's online interface to make nonroutine maintenance requests. Customers either
call in to desc ribe a plumbing problem or submit an online
request for plumbing services, receiving a return call within 24 hours with the information required to solve the problem.
In both scenarios, FlowFix's order processors determine from the customer 's description of the problem whether a plumber
or a plu mber's assistant should make the service call. The
job is then assigned accordingly, and a service representa- tive goes to the location. When the job has been completed,
the info rmat ion is relayed to a billi ng representat ive. The
billing representative forwards the invoice to the service rep via cellphone, and the service rep then presents a bill to the
customer for payment by cred it card , debit card, or cash
(corporate clients remit payment via monthly invoices rather than on -the-spot).
The Problem Although specialization cuts costs significantly, Tyron is wor-
ried about customer dissatisfaction. According to his survey,
about 25 percent of customer contacts ended in no service call because customers were confused by t he diag nostic
questions the order processors asked or because the order
processors did not have sufficient knowledge or skill to explain the situation. That means fully one in fou r people who call
FlowFix to hire a plumber were worse than dissatisfied: They
did not become customers at all! The remaining 75 percent of calls that d id end in a customer service encounter resulted
in other problems.
The most frequent complaints, Tyron discovered via the customer surveys, were about response time and cost , espe-
cially when the wrong person was sent to a job. A plumber's
assistant cannot complete a more technically complicated job. If a plumber's assistant arrives on site and cannot do the work,
the appointment must be rescheduled (with a licensed plumber) and the customer's time and the staff's time have been wasted.
The resulting delay often caused customers to decline further
contact with FlowRx - many of them decided to move forward with Lightning Plumber instead.
"When I arrive at a job I can't take care of," says plumber's
assistant Kiera Fritz, "the customer gets ticked off. They thought they were getting a licensed plumber, since they were calling for
a plumber. Telling them they have to have someone else come
out doesn't go over well." On the other hand , when a plumber responds to a job
easily handled by a plumber 's assistant, the customer is still
charged at the plumber's higher rate. Licensed plumber Philip Wong also does not like being in the position of giving custom-
ers bad news. "If I get called out to do something like snake a drain , the customer isn' t expecting a hefty bill. I'm caught
between a rock and a hard place - I don' t set the rates or
make the appointments, but I'm the one who gets it fro m
the customer.• Plumbers also resent being sent to do such
simple work.
Louisa Gomez is one of FlowFix's order processors. She is
also frustrated when the w rong person is sent to a job but feels
she and the other order processors are doing the best they
can. •we have a questionnaire we're supposed to follow w ith
the calls to find out What the problem is and w ho needs to take
the job," she explains. "The customers don't know that we have
a standard form, so they think we can answer all their ques-
tions. Most of us don't know any more about plumbing than
the caller. If they don't use the terms on the questionnaire, we
don't understand What they're talking about. A plumber would,
but we're not plumbers; we just take the calls."
Customer service issues also involve the billing representa-
tives. They are the ones w ho are responsible for continuing to
contact customers about payment. "It's not my fault the w rong
guy was sent," says Susan MacArthur. "If two guys went out,
that's tw o trips. If a plumber did the work, you pay plumber
rates. Some of these customers don't get that I didn't take
their first call, and so I get yelled at." The billing representatives
also complain that they see only the tail end of the process, so
they don't know What the original call entailed. The job is fairly
impersonal, and much of the work involves recording customer
complaints. Remember-40 percent of custom ers are not sat -
isfied, and it's the billing representatives Who take the brunt of
customers' negative reactions on the phone.
All employees have to engage in em otional labour and it
is not clear that t hey have the skills or personality traits to
complete the custom er interaction component of their jobs.
RowFix's employees are not trained to provide customer ser-
vice, and they see their work mostly in technical, or mechanical,
terms. Quite a few are actually anxious about speaking directly
w ith customers. The order processors and billing representa-
tives realize customer service is part of their job, but they also
find dealing w ith negative feedback from custom ers and co-
workers taxing.
FlowFix
Additional Cases 533
A couple of m onths ago, a human resource management
consultant was hired to survey FlowFix employees about their
job attitudes. The results, shown below on a scale of 1 to
5, indicated that FlowRx employees were less satisfied than
employees in comparable jobs. The table below provides a
breakdown of respondents' satisfaction levels across a number
of categories.
The Proposed Solution The company is in trouble, and as revenues shrink and the cost
savings that were supposed to be achieved by dividing up work fail to materialize, a change seems to be in order.
Tyron proposes using cash rewards to improve performance
among employees. He thinks if employees were paid based on
work outcomes, they would w ork harder to satisfy customers.
Because it's not easy to measure how satisfied people are w ith
the initial call-in, Tyron w ould like to give the order processors
a small reward for every 20 calls successfully completed. For
the hands-on work, he would like to have each billing repre-
sentative collect inform ation about customer satisfaction for
each completed call. If no complaints are made and the job is
handled promptly, a moderate cash reward would be given to
the plumber or plumber's assistant. If the customer indicates
real satisfaction with the service, a larger cash reward would
be provided . Tyron also wants to find a way to hire people who are a
better fit with the company's new goals. The current hiring
procedure relies on unstructu red interviews, and Tyron has
realized that he, his senior office m anager, and his m ost experi-
enced lead plumber are not very consistent when interviewing.
Furthermore, they often rely on their gut instinct when making
hiring decisions. Tyron thinks it would be better if hiring methods
were standardized and custom er service skills were evaluated
during that process to help them identify recruits who can actu -
ally succeed in the job.
FlowFix FlowFix Average Plumber's As- Office Average Office
Plumbers sistants Employees Plumber Employees
I am satisfied with the wO<I< I am asked to do. 3.7 2.5 2.5 4.3 3.5
I am satisfied with my working conditions. 3.8 2.4 3.7 4.1 4.2
I am satisfied with my interactions with co-workers. 3.5 3.2 2.7 3.8 3.9
I am satisfied with my interactions with my supervisor. 2.5 2.3 2.2 3.5 3.4
The information that appears above about "average plumbers" and "average office employees· is taken from the consultant's records of similar companies and published industry data about skilled tradespeople. The oomparatively IOVv averages for Flowfix employees are not exactly surprising given some of the complaints FlowFix empJoyees have made. Tyron is worried about these resuts, but has not been able to fonnulate a solution. The traditional Flov,Fix culture has been focused on minimizing costs. and the "soft stutr like employee satisfacUon has not been a major issue.
534 Additional Cases
Discussion Questions 1. Although it's clear employees are not especially satisfied
with their work, do you think this is a reason for concern? Does research suggest satisfied workers are actually better at their jobs? Are any other behavioural outcomes associated with job satisfaction?
2. Using the job characteristics model, explain why the present system of job design may be contributing to employee dissatisfaction. Describe some ways you could help employees feel more satisfied with their work by redesigning their jobs.
3. Tyron has a somewhat vague idea about how to imple- ment the cash rewards system. Describe some of the specific ways you would make the reward system work better, while keeping morale high , based on the case.
Case 9: Virtual Organizations Learning Goals The mu ltinational o rganizat ion is an inc reasingly common and important part of t he economy. This case takes you
into the world of a cutt ing-edge music software business seeking success across three very different national and
organizational cultures. Its managers need to make impor-
tant decisions about how to structure work processes so t hat employees can be satisfied and productive doing very
d ifferent tasks.
Major Topic Areas • Organizational structure and virtual organizations
(Chapter 13)
• Organizational culture (Chapter 10)
• Diversity and teams (Chapter 6)
• Organizational socialization (Chapter 1 0)
• Organizational change (Chapter 14)
The Scenario Newskool Grooves is a transnational company that develops music software used to compose music, play recordings in
c lubs, and produce albums. Founder and CEO Gerd Finger is, understandably, the company's biggest fan. "I started this
company from nothing , from just me, my ideas, and my com-
puter. I love music - love playing music, love writing programs
4. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using financial incentives in a program of this nature. What , if any, potential problems might arise if people are given money for achieving customer satisfaction goals? What other types of incentives might be considered?
5. Create a specific plan to assess whether the reward system is working. What are the dependent variables that should change if the system works? How will you go about measuring success?
6 . What types of hiring recommendations would you make to find people better suited for these jobs? Which Big Five Personality Model traits would be use- ful for the customer service responsibilities and emo- tional labour?
for making music , love listening to music - and the money is
nice, too." Finger says he never wanted to work for some- one else, to give away his ideas and let someone else profit
from them . He wanted to keep control over them, and their
image. "Newskool Grooves is always ahead of the pack. In this business, if you can' t keep up, you're out. And we are the
company everyone else must keep up with . Everyone knows when they get something from us, they're getting only the best
and the newest.•
The company headquarters are in Berlin, the nerve centre for the organization , where new products are developed and
the organizational strategy is established. Newskool out -
sources a great deal of its coding work to programmers in Bangalore, India. Its marketing efforts are increasingly based
in its Toronto offices. This division of labour is at least partially
based on technical expertise and cost issues. The German team excels at design and production tasks. Because most
of Newskool's customers are English speakers, the Toronto
office has been the best group to writ e ads and market products. The Bangalore offices are filled with outstanding
programmers who don't require the very high rates of com- pensation you would find in German or Canadian offices. The
combination of high-tech software, rapid reorganization, and
outsourcing makes Newskool the very definition of a virtual organization.
Finger also makes the final decision on all hiring for the com-
pany and plaoes a heavy emphasis on independent work styles. "Why would I want to put my company in the hands of people
I can't count on?" he asks with a laugh. "They have to believe
in what we're doing here, really understand our direction and
be able to go with it. I'm not the babysitter, I'm not the school
master handing out homework. School time is over. This is the
real world."
The Work Culture Employees want to work at Newskool Grooves because it's c utting edge. Newskool 's core market is dance musicians
and DJs-people who appreciate that while relatively expen-
sive, Newskool is a very high-quality and innovative brand. Newskool sees itself as a trendsetter, and this strategy has
tended to pay off. While competitors develop similar products
and therefore need to continually lower their prices to compete with one another, Newskool has kept revenues high by creat -
ing completely new products that don't face this type of price
competition. Unfortunately, computer piracy has eroded Newskool's
ability to make money with just software-based music tools,
and it has had to move into the production of hardware, such as drum machines and amplifiers that incorporate its com-
puter technology. Making this massive market change might be challenging for some companies, but for an organization
that reinvents itself every two to three years like Newskool
does, the bigger fight is a constant war against stagnation and rigidity.
The organization has a very decentralized structure. With
only 115 employees, the original management philosophy of allowing all employees to participate in decision making and
innovation is still the lifeblood of the company 's culture. One
developer notes, "At Newskool, they want you to be part of the process. If you are a person who wants to do what you're told
at work, you're in trouble. Most times, they can't tell you what
they want you to do next -they don't even know what comes next! That's why they hire employees who are creative, people
who can try to make the next thing happen. It's challenging, but
a lot of us think it's very much an exciting environment."
The Virtual Environment Because so much of the work can be performed on computers,
Finger decided early to allow employees to work outside the
office. The senior management in Berlin and Toronto are both quite happy with this arrangement. Because some marketing
work does require face-to-face contact, the Toronto office has
weekly in-person meetings. Employees who like Newskool are happiest when they can w ork through the night and sleep
most of the day, firing up their computers to get work done at the drop of a hat. Project discussions often happen via social
networking on the company's intranet.
The Bangalore offices have been less eager to w ork with the virtual model. Managers say their computer programmers
find working with so little structure rather uncomfortable. They
Additional Cases 535
are more used to the idea of a strong leadership structure and well-defined work processes. "When I started," says one
manager, "Gerd said getting in touch with him w ould be no problem, getting in touch with Toronto would be no problem.
We're small , we're family, he said. Well, it is a problem. When
I call Toronto, they say to wait until their meeting day. I can't always wait until they decide to get together. I call Gerd-he
says, 'Figure it out.' Then when I do, he says it isn't right and
we have to start again. If he just told me in the first place, we would have done it ."
Some recent events have also shaken up the company's
usual way of doing business. Developers in the Berlin office had a major communications breakdown about their hard -
ware OJ controller, which required many hours of discussion
to resolve. It seems that people who seldom met face to face had all made progress- but had moved in opposite direc-
tions. To test and design the company's hardware products,
employees apparently need to do more than send each other code; sometimes t hey need t o coll aborate face to
face. Some spirited disagreements have been voiced within the organization about how to move forward in this new
environment.
At the same time, the Toronto office was experiencing chal· lenges in its ability to execute its marketing plans. According to
Marketing Director Sandra Pelham, "Now that we were produc-
ing hardware-real instruments-we finally thought, 'All right, this is something we can work with!' We had a whole slate of
musicians and DJs and producers to contact for endorsements,
but Gerd said, 'No way.' He didn't want customers who only cared that a celebrity liked us. He scrapped the whole cam-
paign. He says we're all about creativity and doing our own
thing - until we don't want to do things his way." Although the organization is not without problems, there is
little question Newskool has been a standout success in the computer music software industry. While many companies are
failing, Newskool is using its market power to push forward the
next generation of electronic music-making tools. As Finger puts it, "Once the rest of the industry has gotten together and
figured out how they're all going to cope with change, they'll
look around and see that we're already three miles ahead of them down the road to the M ure."
Discussion Questions 1. Identify some of the problems likely to occur in a virtual
organization such as Newskool Grooves. What are the advantages of virtual organizations?
2. Consider some of the cultural issues that will affect a company operating in various parts of the world. What actions w ould you take to ensure that Newskool's different offices w ork effectively with one another?
536 Additional Cases
3 . Based on what you know about motivation, personal- ity, and organizational culture, what types of people are likely to be satisfied in each functional area of the com- pany? Use concepts from the job characteristics model to describe what might need to change to increase employee satisfaction in all areas.
Case 10: Trouble at City Zoo Learning Goals In this case, you will have an opportunity to assess how to
restore trust among employees who have low morale. You
should consider how organizational culture has led to the prob-
lems faced at the zoo. You will determine whether the organi-
zational structure should be changed and also whether new
reward systems should be put in place.
Major Topic Areas • Communication (Chapter 7)
• Organizational design (Chapter 13)
• Leadership (Chapter 11)
• Organizational culture (Chapter 1 OJ
• Job design (Chapter 5)
• Change management (Chapter 14)
• Resistance to change (Chapter 14)
The Scenario City Zoo has been an important visitor destination for genera-
tions of children.28 Locally, provincially, and nationally, City
Zoo has had a remarkable reputation for providing a high-
quality environment for its animals while enabling children
of all ages to lear n about animals and see them in natural
environments. The zoo operates with a dedicated staff, as
well as a large number of volunteers. Over half of its revenues
come from a special tax levy on city property owners who
vote on whether to renew the levy during city elections held
every three years.
Despite its sterling reputation, the zoo went through a year
of unpleasant publicity in 201 7, after the board of directors dis-
missed head veterinarian Tim Bernardino. Newspaper reports
of the dismissal suggested that Bernardino had been dismissed
for speaking up about harm to some of the zoo's animals. The
4. What types of human resources practices need to be implemented in this sort of organization? What principles of selection and hiring are likely to be effective? Which Big Five personality traits and abilities might Newskool supervisors want to use for selection?
public ity forced zoo management to respond to many tough
questions regarding its practices and operations regarding
both animals and staff. City Council acted swiftly in the face of
continued negative press coverage of the zoo, feeling a respon-
sibility to the taxpayers. In order to answer all of the questions
raised by the press, council c reated a special Citizens' Task
Force to review the zoo's finances and operations, including
animal care.
It is February 2018, and Emma Breslin has just been hired
by the board of directors to take over as executive director of
the zoo. She is reviewing the many concerns raised by the task
force and wondering how she might restore employees' and
the public's confidence in the zoo. She w ill be meeting with the
board in two weeks to present her recommendations for mov-
ing forward. The board has asked her to act quickly because
city residents will vote on the next tax levy in just three months.
A "no" vote would substantially reduce the zoo's revenues for
the next several years. (Exhibit 1 outlines the revenues and
expenses of the zoo for fiscal year 201 7 .)
Background The C ity Zoological Gardens got its start in 1905, when
Samantha Fraser donated a hedgehog to the city's Parks
Board. Building on that first donation, the zoo has grown to
be one of the most comprehensive zoological institutions in
the country. The zoo's African Savannah recreates the look of
Africa's plains and jungles. The Savannah houses the world-
famous Hippoquarium, the first natural hippo habitat to be
created in a zoo. The zoo includes exhibits for Siberian tigers,
Asian sloth bears, and the endangered African w ild dogs. The
zoo has also renovated the Aviary and the Primate Forest. More
recent improvements include a new parking lot and gift shop.
The zoo is a top tourist attraction for the city, and the num-
ber of annual visitors to the zoo has nearly tripled from 1982
(364 000 visitors) to 2016 (more than 1 million visitors). In the
past five years, the zoo has twice been ranked as one of the top
10 zoos in North America for children and families. It was also
voted one of the top five zoos in North America in the "North
EXHIBIT 1 City Zoo Revenues and Expenses, Fiscal Year 2017
Public Support
Development Revenue
Earned Revenue
Total Public Support and Revenue
Expenses
Total Operating Expenses
Excess (Deficit)
Property Tax Levy Receipts
Grants
Education Program Revenue
Total Public Support
Membership
Friends of the Zoo
Annual Fundraising
Corporate Support
Development Events
Total Development Revenue
Admissions
Advanced Sales
Gross Revenue From Concessions and Gift Shop Operations
Rides, Parking, and Tours
Facility Rentals
Total Earned Revenue
Other Revenue
Cost of Goods Sold
Wages and Benefits
Supplies, Maintenance, and Utilijies
Professional Services
Other Expenses
Conservation - Project Support
Animal Purchases
Special Exhib its
Additional Cases 537
$6466860
$174 780
$344 110
$6985 750
$3903420
$2 14 397
$130852
$302 952
$391 565
$4 943186
$3253355
$337 908
$7 153483
$1560727
$1 16 520
$12 421 993
$34956
$24385885
$2 448164
$ 13900524
$4 387 642
$2 246560
$7 14 487
$45093
$76542
$293630
$24112 642
$273243
America's Favorite Zoo" contest sponsored by Microsoft. The
zoo's vision and mission statements (see Exhibit 2) are widely credited with helping the zoo achieve these awards.
A recent study by a local university found that the zoo gener-
ates almost $8 in local economic activity for each tax dollar it receives.
Until 1982, the zoo was run by the city. That year, owner-
ship was transferred to the City Zoological Society, a private nonprofit organization. Because of its dedication, the Society
was able to introduce a number of improvements that the city had not been able to accomplish. The zoo has since doubled
in size and now contributes significantly to the local economy.
The zoo employs 157 full -time staff members and more than 550 part-time and seasonal employees. There are also
more than 300 volunteers who assist with programs, events,
and community outreach. Donors and members provide financial support for animal conservation and educational
programming.
538 Additional Cases
EXHIBIT 2 City Zoo Vision and Mission Statements
Vision Statement To be one of the world 's outstanding zoological institutions.
Mission Statement Our mission is to provide excellent animal management, educa-
tional programs, and scien tific activities and to provide visitors
with an enjoyable, educational, and family-oriented experience.
O bjectives to achieve mission statement:
• Animal exhibits that reflect natural habitats
• Educational programs to help vis~ors understand the
relationships of wildlife and the environment
• Refuges for rare and endangered species to protect and propagate them
• Scientific programs that contribute to greater understanding
of animals and their hab~ats
• A clean, safe, and pleasant facility for visitors and employees
• A broad base of community supp ort and involvement
• Op erating on a sound business b asis
The Ministry of Natural Resources Inquiries
The 2013 Inq ui ry In December 20 12 , Medusa, a female sloth bear mistakenly believed to be pregnant, was put into
isolation, where it died. Zoo officials later admitted that they
had misunderstood how to properly care for sloth bears. Tim
French, the curator of large mammals at the time, made the
decision to put the bear in isolation on his own, without report-
ing this to his supervisors. The bear 's zookeeper, Melissa Fox,
w ho reported to French, objected to his decision, but no one
would listen to her, including acting head veterinarian Wynona
Singh (who was in charge while Dr. Bernardino was away on
research). Fox's daily notes, which she was required to file w ith
her supervisor, described her worries about the bear. Fox finally
became so upset w ith the bear's condition that she asked to
be transferred to another part of the zoo. French resigned after
the bear's death.
As a result of the investigation, the zoo was fined $1500 by
the Ministry of Natural Resources for violating federal animal
welfare regulations. The zoo also agreed to create an animal
reporting system so that employees could raise any concerns
they had about animal welfare, although nothing ever resulted
from this agreement.
The 2016 Inqu iry In February 2016, the Ministry of Natural Resources began an investigation of animal deaths that had
occurred at the zoo over the past several years:
• Cupid, a hippopotamus, died in the summer of 2015
at the age of 49. While the veterinary staff raised
some questionable circumstances concerning the
death, zoo officials dismissed the animal's death as
"old age."
• George, a 14-year-old giraffe, died in 2013 from teta-
nus three weeks after he was gored by a kudu when
the two were put in an enclosure together.
• Medusa, the female sloth bear, died in December
2012 .
Zoo officials were puzzled about why the Ministry of Natural
Resources had decided to investigate these deaths. "Initially,
my gut reaction was that the Ministry of Natural Resources
was just stepping things up because of what had transpired at
that other zoo," a zoo spokesperson said. The spokesperson
was referring to several suspicious animal deaths, including an
orangutan euthanized by mistake, at a large zoo in another part
of the country.
As the Ministry of Natural Resources investigation pro -
gressed, however, many zoo staff became nervous about
the way it was being conducted. Inspectors d id not reveal
the exact reason for their inspection, but they asked spe-
c ific q uestions about the giraffe and the hippopotamus .
The inspecto rs req uested to speak to some employees,
while refusing to speak w it h others . Zoo officials later said
the surprise inspection was "unusual, unprecedented, and
aggressive."
• As you can imagine, it was a very upsetting and confusing
time. We've never had this kind of inspection, and the frustrating
thing was they would not tell us what they were inspecting for,"
said William Lau, the zoo's executive director.
Before the Min istry of Natural Resou rces cou ld issue a
report, zoo officials decided to conduct their own internal inves- tigation into the deaths of George, the giraffe, and Cupid, the
hippopotamus. Officials were concerned that someone at the
zoo had made a call to the Ministry of Natural Resources that
led to the surprise inspection. Lau claimed that the investigation
was not a "witch hunt ," and that officials were not trying to find
out if anyone had acted as a whistle-blower. "We simply want
to understand what the Ministry of Natural Resources is worried
about ," he said.
The Ministry of Natural Resources issued a report on its
investigation the following month . In it, the inspectors noted that
the zoo had ignored the warnings of Dr. Tim Bernardino, City
Zoo's head veterinarian, about animal care. "From the review
of numerous documents and interviews, it is clear that these
veterinary recommendations from the attending veterinarian
[Dr. Bernardino] have not been addressed in a reasonable time.
The licensee [the City Zoo) has failed to provide the attending
veterinarian with adequate authority to ensure the provision of
adequate veterinary care,• the report stated.
Zoo Management
Board of Di rectors The board of directors oversees City Zoo's business affairs and
strategic plan, but day-to-day operations are left in the hands
of the executive director. There are 18 people on the board .
Each board member serves a three-year term. The term can
be renewed up to two times, if the board member is nominated
by the Nominating Committee and approved by the board of
directors. The board in recent years has been mostly hands-
off, allowing the executive director a great deal of latitude in
running the zoo.
Executive Director The executive director is effectively the CEO of the zoo, car-
rying ou1 the strategic plan of the board. William (Bill) Lau was
appointed executive director in 1993. Under his leadership,
the zoo expanded considerably, won numerous awards, and
significantly increased its revenues.
Lau did a good job of raising the zoo's profile externally,
particularly in leading fundraising efforts that brought numer-
ous exotic animals to the zoo. He was not necessarily seen
as a good internal leader, however. The board 's Executive
Management Committee reported at a March 13, 20 14, board
meeting that the zoo's work environment was characterized
by numerous disagreements. The minutes of this meeting
showed that the board discussed ••open warfare' between
managers; backbiting and rude behaviour during meetings;
and problems in managers ' relationships w ith M r. Lau." The
minutes also reported that · w orking w ith Bill is experienced
by some as difficult, int imidating, or scary." Some staff had
complained t hat Lau frequently yelled at staff and failed to
acknowledge their value. "There is a fear of repercussion, and
some people are afraid they will be ... seen as stupid, belittled
in meetings, (and] blamed and shamed in front of others," the
minutes state.
Chief Operating Officer The chief operating officer (COO) is second in command at
the zoo, reporting to the executive director. The COO respon-
sibilities include most of the operational functions of the zoo:
finance, human resources, maintenance and horticulture, inter-
pretive services, and education. The Department of Veterinary
Care was the only nonoperational function that also reported
to the COO. All other animal-related departments, including the
curators, reported to the executive director.
In early 20 14, the zoo hired Robert (Bob) Stellenbosch to
be the new COO. Unlike the COO he replaced, Stellenbosch
had no animal-care experience in his p revious positions .
Before coming to the zoo, he had been execut ive d irector
of the National Funeral Directors' Association for 14 years .
Additional Cases 539
Prior to that , he had been executive director of the Provincial
Bankers' Association . Nevertheless, veterinary care still fell
und er Stellenbosch's mandate, and the head veterinarian
reported to him. Stellenbosch did not see this as a problem.
As Stellenbosch pointed out, he often had to oversee "depart-
ments in areas I know very little about. The secret (is] having
a strong line of communicat ion w ith the people who report
to you."
The zoo's executive director also did not see Stellenbosch's
lack of animal-care experience as a problem . · we were look-
ing for anybody w ith a background that could run a zoo on
a day- to-day basis. We didn't find anybody w ith an animal
background who could do that. We chose Bob Stellenbosch
because he was the best candidate,• Lau said.
Caring for the Animals Three sets of employees work closely w ith the animals: veteri-
narians, curators, and zookeepers.
The Veterinarians
Dr. Ti m Bernardino Dr. Tim Bernardino, director of Animal Health and Nutrition at City Zoo, was the zoo's head veterinar-
ian, and had been a zoo employee for over 20 years. Eight
full- and part-time employees in the Animal Health and Nu1rition
department reported to him . Veterinarians are responsible for
the health care program for the animals, and they also maintain
all health records. Bernardino was also the •attending veterinar-
ian" for the zoo, a position that carries with it the responsibility
to communicate on a regular basis with the Ministry of Natural
Resources. Part of this responsibility involved bringing question-
able animal deaths to the attention of the Ministry of Natural
Resources. Bernardino was well respected by the international veteri-
narian community, and well-liked by the zookeepers. He was
known to deeply care for all of the animals in the zoo, and kept
up with the latest literature on the best ways to manage and
display animals to maximize their com fort and well-being.
Bernardino's performance as head veterinarian was gen-
erally applauded by senior management. He had received
glowing ratings in his annual performance reviews through-
out his career. For instance, at the end of 20 15, Bernard ino
received one of his best performance reviews ever. Robert
Stellenbosch, his direct supervisor, wrote that Bernardino main-
tained "the highest quality of work!" He also w rote that "Tim
is well respected throughou1 the zoo.• Stellenbosch praised
the veterinarian's technical skills, his dependability, and his
tremendous work ethic.
There were occasional negative comments in his reviews,
although these did not seem to weigh heavily in his overall
540 Additional Cases
evaluations. For instance, in his 2012 review, a fonner supervi-
sor wrote, "Tim can be intense and inflexible, causing strained
relat ions w ith fellow employees." Still, the supervisor noted
that Bernardino "gets along reasonably well" w ith other zoo
employees. In his 2014 review, the veterinarian was specifically
asked to "focus more on people skills in the department and
w ith curators." The review also noted that "Tim is strong in his
beliefs, and sometimes needs to temper that once a final deci-
sion is made."
The negative performance appraisal comments were related
to Bernardino's relationships with the curators and zookeep-
ers. He was well respected by the zookeepers, and maintained
good relations w ith them because their observations of the
animals helped the animals stay healthy. However, some of
t he curators felt that Bernard ino empowered the zookeep-
ers too much, so that the zookeepers would sometimes go
around their curators to make complaints about animal care.
Bernardino worried that some of the zookeepers were disci-
plined by their curators when they spoke with him about their
concerns regarding the animals. "People don't feel free to be
open. Discussions don' t happen. [There is] control of informa-
tion, control of communications, control of decision making [by
the curators],• he said.
Beth Else, curator of Conservation and Research, saw it
differently. •1 think he empowered the keepers to go around
the supervisors and go to him w hen they didn't get the answer
t hat they liked," she said , echoing comments of the other
curators.
Despite his generally good reviews, Bernardino also felt
that he was "alienated from the decision-making process ...
with the curatorial staff and with other administrators." He
sometimes complained the curators were given more weight
t han the veterinary staff in decision making about the ani-
mals, even when the health of the animals was in question.
He also felt that his role as attend ing veter inarian, where
he was accountable to t he Ministry of Natural Resources,
was •not well defined or und erstood by those in the zoo
community.•
Bernardino's reviews took a turn for the worse after the
Ministry of Natural Resources released the report of its 2016
surprise investigat ion ju st three months later, in May 20 16.
Stellenbosch gave Bernardino, in writing, a reprimand about
his performance. "We need to have team players, and you
need to work through these issues in a more professional, less
'attacking' manner," the COO's warning stated. Bernardino
was also told that he lacked "team attitude, professionalism,
and judgment.•
This warning was closely followed by the announcement
that Bernardino would share the "attending veterinarian" posi-
t ion w ith two others: his subord inate, veterinarian Wynona
Singh, and Mammals curator Randi Walker. Although Walker
was also a veterinarian, she was not licensed to practise as
one in the province. In August 2016, Bernardino was told that
he would no longer serve as an "attending veterinarian," and
that Singh would be the sole •attending veterinarian." At about
the same time, Bernardino received a w ritten reprimand, in
which he was accused of "steadily undermining animal curator
Dr. Walker, poor communication skills, and intimidating other
employees.·
Dr. Wynona Singh Dr. Wynona Singh , who reported to Dr. Bernardino, had been a full-time veterinarian at the zoo since
2005. She first joined the zoo in 2003 as a part-time veterinar-
ian. Singh was the veterinarian on call w hen the giraffe died in
2013 and the sloth bear died in 2012 , although she was not
implicated in either death.
Bernardino and Singh often butted heads. In his 20 15 evalu-
ation of her, Bernardino recommended that she receive no sal-
ary increase. In January 2016, Bernardino told the zoo's human
resources director that "if she doesn't improve and we keep her,
I'm out of here."
Bernard ino was reflecting on a survey of her performance
he had conducted w ith the veterinary and animal food staff.
Only 29 percent of them gave her favourable ratings, while
61 percent noted that she had big communicat ion prob-
lems. The zookeepers specifically comp lained that S ing h
did not relate well to them and was not always open to their
concerns. Th is led Bernardino to tell her that she "had to
continue to improve some management skills, including com-
munication ." Despite negative reviews from her immediate
staff and subordinates, Singh received high marks from the
curators and associate curators, w ho indicated their full and
unambiguous support of her.
The Curators and Zookeepers Curators make recommendations such as what animals to
acquire, whether animals should be bred, and whether animals
should be lent to other zoos for either breeding or d isplay
purposes. Curators are also responsible for the designing and
planning of animal exhibits, including coming up w ith ideas for
new exhibits that might be of interest to the public. Although
curators are responsible for the overall well-being of the animals,
they are certainly aware of the marketing and public relations
functions of animal exhibits.
The general curator at a zoo oversees the entire animal col-
lection and animal management and is responsible for strategic
collection planning . Zoos also have animal curators who man-
age a specific section of the animal collection. City Zoo had four
area curators: curator of Fishes, curator of Reptiles, curator of
Birds, and curator of Mammals. Some areas also had associate
curators, such as the assistant curator of Large Mammals and
the assistant curator of Small Mammals.
Senior zookeepers and zookeepers (also called keepers)
report to the curators and work w ith individual animals, feeding
them, handling them, keeping their cages clean, and looking
after their welfare on a day-to-day basis. Keepers often work
with the same animals for a number of years, so they can grow
quite attached to their animals. Keepers can feel that they
understand more about the welfare of their animals than the
curators.
At City Zoo there was significant tension between the cura-
tors and the keepers. The keepers complained that curators
did not listen to their concerns, and curators complained that
the keepers often went around them to share concerns about
animals w ith Dr. Bernardino. The curators felt that the keep-
ers should raise all concerns w ith them, rather than w ith the
veterinarian.
Ra nd i Walker Randi Walker was curator of Mammals at the zoo. The Mammals department 's 22 full-time employees
(including 14 zookeepers) took care of the zoo's apes, great
cats, bears, elephants, and all hoofed animals. This was the
largest animal department at the zoo, and was tw ice the size
of the next largest department, the Birds department. All of the
deaths investigated by the Ministry of Natural Resources had
happened in Walker's unit.
The assistant curator of Large Mammals and the assistant
curator of Small Mammals worked under Walker. The assistant
curators were two of the most liked curators at the zoo. They
had excellent animal-care backgrounds, were very aware of
the zoo's communication problems, and knew how to w ork
effectively w ith the other employees. They were also respected
by the zookeepers and other curators.
Although curators do not usually have veterinary training ,
Walker had completed her veterinary studies. However, she
was not licensed to practise veterinary medicine in the province.
Her background may have led to her difficult relationship w ith
Bernardino. Sometimes she tried to second-guess him, and
other times she attempted to overrule his decisions.
Walker was particularly uncomfortable with the relationship
that Bernardino had w ith the Mammals zookeepers. She felt
t hat his close relationship to them undermined her. "There
are communication problems with mammal keepers and
[Mammals curator Randi Walker]," one keeper said. "Some
people can talk; other people, if they open their mouth, she
jumps on them . That 's the underlying thing w hy people talk
to Dr. Tim ."
Gorilla keeper Dale Petiniot noted that while she had no
problem discussing issues w ith Walker, sometimes keepers
needed to discuss issues with a neutral third party. "It's not
always that we're justified , but sometimes you need to talk
about things, and you don't have a next step, other than the
vet," Ms. Petiniot said.
Additional Cases 541
When zoo officials, responding to the Ministry of Nat ural
Resources' surprise investigation, tried to investigate the death
of George the giraffe, they quickly discovered that most employ-
ees in the Mammals department would simply not talk about
the event, saying that they feared retribution by Walker. Even
though zoo officials offered immunity from any disciplinary action
in exchange for clarification about w hat had happened, no one
came forth to take responsibility for putting the two animals
together. "Nobody claimed responsibility,• Andy Yang, curator
of Reptiles and head of the internal investigation, said .
The report of the internal investigation concluded, "The
apparent failure of the mammal keeper staff to inform, discuss,
and plan this introduction w ith the veterinary staff prior to any
action was unacceptable and compromised the welfare of
the giraffe." Yang's committee made a pointed observation
regarding the Mammals department: "There are significant com-
munication problems in the Mammals department that need
attention. These communications problems have negatively
affected animal welfare."
Xavier Tolson, a human resources consultant hired by the
zoo at the end of 20 16 to analyze workplace problems in the
Mammals department, reached many of the same conclusions.
"I do not believe I have ever seen a department as dysfunctional
as the Mammals department [at the City Zoo)." He noted that
there was a lot of conflict between the head curator and the
zookeepers.
Tolson suggested that the keepers had a tendency to try
to bully Walker into seeing their point of view about animal
concerns.
Although most of her subordinates were critical of Walker's
performance, managers at the most senior levels in the zoo
were strongly supportive of her. She was always deferential
to their views, and they felt she was right not to cave in to
employee concerns.
The Biological Program Committee In most zoos, the general curator oversees the work of the cura-
tors, zookeepers, and veterinarians and attempts to resolve any
issue that might come up among the three groups. However,
City Zoo had no general curator. When the zoo hired Robert
Stellenbosch as COO in 2014, he was unable to serve as gen-
eral curator, a role his predecessor had filled, because he had
no previous animal experience.
Shortly after Stellenbosch was hired, Lau announced that
the newly created Biological Program Committee (BPC) would
perform the duties normally handled by the general curator.
The committee consisted of the curators of Mammals, Birds,
Reptiles, and Fishes, an animal behaviour specialist, and mem-
bers of the zoo's veterinary staff. Only the four curators and the
animal behaviour specialist had voting rights on the committee,
542 Additional Cases
however. The curators took turns chairing the monthly commit -
tee, rotating the position every few months. No one else was
allowed to chair the committee.
Not everyone was happy w ith the new management com-
mittee meetings. Bernardino, who had had a very good rela-
tionship with the former general curator, felt that his authority
was diminished because of the BPC structure. Bernardino also
objected that he was not able to rotate into the role of commit -
tee chair. He complained that the curators did not pay enough
attention to animal-care issues. He also complained that the
curators treated members of the veterinary staff who were on
the committee like second-class citizens. After trying to get
along with the new management structure for about six months,
Bernardino took his concerns about the BPC to the executive
director. Lau dismissed the veterinarian's concerns, suggesting
that communication among committee members was good ,
except for some "troublemakers," w hich Bernardino took to be
a reference to himself.
Beth Else, curator of Conservation and Research at the
zoo, noticed a change in Bernardino's demeanour after the
creation of the BPC. "It seemed in the past that Tim relied on
gentle persuasion to bring people over to his way of thinking.
In recent years, particularly in the past year, Tim has been
more of a disruptive influence at the zoo," Else said . "I don't
want to give the impression t hat I think Tim is mal icious ,
because I don't," Else said . "Tim, in his own mind, thinks he
is doing what is right."
Other employees must have agreed with Else th at
Bernardino was trying to do the right things at the zoo . On
February 23, 2017, the zoo staff voted on nom inees for
"Outstanding Employee" of the year. Bernardino received the
most votes.
Shockwaves at the Zoo
Head Veterina rian Fired On February 28, 2017, City Zoo dismissed Bernardino from his
$ 1 02 000-a-year position as head veterinarian. The executive
director said that the dismissal had nothing to do with the 2016
Ministry of Natural Resources inspection, or with issues about
animal care. ''There is no question in my mind that he raised the
level of animal care here at the zoo," Lau explained. "And w hile
I do have a problem with the way Bernardino dealt with the
Ministry of Natural Resources in the past, the termination was a
result of our concerns over Dr. Bernardino's administrative and
management skills that we had worked w ith him to address
over the last several years."
Bernardino's dismissal created shockwaves both inside and
outside of the zoo. The local newspaper contacted several well·
known veterinarians throughout the country to find out w hat
they could do about Bernardino. All of the contacted veterinar-
ians spoke with great regard for the dismissed veterinarian.
Reporters also uncovered previous performance reviews of
Bernardino, w hich indicated that Bernardino had performed
exceptionally in his work w ith the animals. Reporters concluded
from their investigation that "The firing of Dr. Bernardino in late
February was the culmination of a year-long struggle between
him and zoo administrators begin ning, it appears, w ith the
veterinarian's frank comments last year during a routine animal-
care inspection by the Ministry of Natural Resources. Those
comments led to an admonition by t he Ministry of Natural
Resources that the zoo failed to heed warnings about its ani-
mal-care practices."
The intense press coverage promp ted the city to start its
own investigation of zoo administration. City Council felt an obli-
gation to protect taxpayers' money, and recognized that public
confidence in the zoo was at an all-time low because of all the
negative publicity. Council appointed a 14-rnember Citizens'
Task Force in mid-March. The mandate of the task force was
to review zoo finances and operations, including animal care,
and to issue a report within 100 days.
As the task force was getting underway, more scandal
struck the zoo. The local newspaper reported that Executive
Director William Lau had traded in the Jeep he had been given
at zoo expense for a luxury Volvo, also paid for by the zoo .
Similarly, COO Robert Stellenbosch had traded in his Dodge
for a luxury Volvo. The two Volvos were costing taxpayers
$ 1200 per month.
Mem bers of the public were out rag ed b y thi s news,
coming just two weeks after Bernardino's firing. One long -
stand ing zoo member emailed the local newspaper that
he was disg usted w ith zoo adm inistrators : "Th e firing of
the w histle-blowing vet is enough to make one wonder if the
chimpanzees could not do a better job of running the place.
If anything would make me stop supporting the zoo, it is the
attitude of the zoo director and [chief operating officer]. To
rent Volvos for themselves, to be so wasteful w ith the dollars
of the taxpayers is tantamount to being part of the low-down
rep tile exhibit. "
A Settlement and Resignations at the Top After his dismissal, Bernardino approached the board of direc-
tors, requesting that they meet w ith him and give him back
his job. The board was feeling under siege because of all the
negative publicity. Bernardino's dismissal seemed to mobilize
community sentiment toward the veterinarian, and against the
zoo's senior management.
In an effort to quiet speculation by community members
about zoo leadership, the board of directors made a settlement
with Dr. Bernardino on May 1, 2017. The agreement reinstated
him to his position of director of Animal Health and Nutrition
of the zoo effective immediately, although he would serve in
this role only as a "consultant," on an "as-needed basis." The
agreement stated that Bernardino was not allowed to be on
zoo grounds while performing his job, and could not enter the
zoo as a private citizen for six months. The agreement prohib-
ited him from discussing "his opinions as to the welfare of the
animals at the Zoo, the circumstances of his termination or
reinstatement of employment, his opinions regarding person-
nel at the Zoo, or any other matters pertaining to the Zoo" with
anyone unless subpoenaed.
Bernardino's consulting position was to last for 18 months.
He would be paid $105 000, plus health and retirement ben-
efits during that time. Under the settlement, he would also
receive $42 815 in back pay, benefits, and attorney's fees.
The board agreed to remove all negative evaluations that were
added to his file in 2016. Bernardino agreed that he would not
file claims of wrongful discharge or breach of contract against
the zoo.
Two weeks after the settlement with Bernardino, the zoo
board announced that Executive Director William Lau would
retire immediately, after 25 years at the zoo. The board also
announced that COO Robert Stellenbosch would resign once
a new management team was in place.
The Findings of the Citizens' Task Force The Citizens' Task Force presented its findings to City Council
at a public meeting held on July 8, 20 17. The task force divided its presentation into three parts: a discussion of the employee
survey they had commissioned; a presentation of what they had
learned about the politics of zookeeping; and a discussion of
other observations about how the zoo operated.
Employee Survey The Citizens' Task Force asked Maynard & Associates, a Toronto-based employee relations consulting firm, to determine employee morale. Exhibit 3 summarizes the
results of the survey, including separate results for the Mammals
department. Maynard & Associates have collected baseline data as a result of their many employee surveys, and those data are
also included.
On many dimensions, City Zoo employees were more critical than the average employee in Maynard's surveys. Zoo employ-
ees complained about the lack of effective leadership, poor
communication, and the scarcity of teamwork. Only half of the
employees said there was open and honest communication
at the zoo, and many employees noted that this lack of com-
munication led to rumours and myths that spread throughout
the zoo.
Employees said that they did not feel that they could talk
freely to their supervisors about job-related problems, and they
Additional Cases 543
gave low marks to supervisors for resolving employee prob-
lems. Employees also gave low marks to supervisors for letting
employees know what was expected of them. Supervisors
were also criticized for not considering differing opinions, and
a number of employees noted that they feared punishment if
they expressed contrary opinions. Employees also expressed
the expectation many employees placed on each other that "if
you are not with us; you are against us,• which created a lot of
divisiveness across the zoo.
Despite the low morale uncovered by the survey, results
indicated that employees loved working at the zoo, were fairly
paid, and felt that they had been trained appropriately to do
their jobs. However, they wanted to see an end to the politi-
cal, communication, and leadership problems that dominated
day-to-day work at the zoo.
Th e Po litics of Zookeepi ng Three members of the Citizens' Task Force were asked to d iscuss the events t hat had occurred at City Zoo with respected members of the zoo
community throughout North America. Dr. Christopher Bondar,
the associate veterinarian at the Central Canada Zoo, sug -
gested that it was not surprising that there were tensions
between zoo management and the veterinarians. "The zoo
business in general, because people's emotions tend to run
high about animals and their welfare and because it is a small
community, tends to have a lot of politics," said Dr. Bondar,
who added that he has not encountered such problems at
his own zoo. It can be hard to understand all of the politics at
zoos because "so many businesses are about paperwork or
industry or goods that don't spawn the type of passion people
have for living animals."
Members of the task force spoke w ith Dr. Philip Robinson, a
former director of veterinary services at the San Diego Zoo, and
author of the book Life at the Zoo: Behind the Scenes with the
Animal Doctors, and asked him about the relationship between
curators and veterinarians. "The perception that [veterinarians]
should stick to sick animals and leave the other issues to the
other people on staff-traditionally, this is sort of a turf battle
that has more to do with management style than anything that
benefits the animals," he told them.
Other experts supported Dr. Robinson's position. They told
the task force that it is crucial for veterinarians to interact with
keepers to understand the needs of individual animals. "If the
curator says to the keeper, 'You only tell me what's happen-
ing,' then the veterinarian is sort of between a rock and a hard
place to know when the animal is on the road to a problem, or
already is there and has the problem,• said Randolph Stuart,
the executive director of the Canadian Association of Zoo
Veterinarians. "That's why most vets w ill keep a good rapport
with keepers."
544 Additional Cases
EXHIBIT 3 Employee Attitude Survey of City Zoo, and Some Comparisons
Category Question
Pay My compensation is satisfactory and fair compared with that of other employees who work here.
My compensation is satisfactory and fair compared with what I would earn at similar companies.
Recognition My supervisor recognizes and provides positive feedback for work well done.
Supervision My supervisor treats me fairly.
My supervisor helps me perlorm my work effectively.
Communication I feel comfortable expressing my ideas to my supervisor and other leaders in the company.
Leaders communicate pertinent information to
employees.
Empowerment I am free to make decisions that affect my work without consulting with my supervisor.
My ideas are used when managers make decisions that affect the company.
Job Satisfaction Overall, the company is a good place to work.
Management The managers here are honest, fair, and ethical.
Participation Managers seek employee input into the way work is done here.
Teamwork Employees work together as a team here.
Teamwork is encouraged here.
Training I receive adequate job-related training to do my job.
There are plenty of opportunities here to learn additional skills.
Work Demands The workload is fair and reasonable.
Experts in the area of zoo administration suggested that
many zoo administrators don' t appreciat e the p as sion that
vet e rinarians b ring to t heir work. Veterina rian s are chiefly
concer ned w ith anim al welfare, w hile the zoo adm inistration
is also concerned w ith fundraising, p rovid ing an experience
for zoo v isitors, ru nning succ e s sfu l g ift shops and snack
bars, and making su re parking lots are adequat ely d esig ned
fo r visitor load .
Dr. Mark Co rnwall, the direc tor of anim al health and attend -
ing veterinarian at the Map le Leaf Zoo , stressed the need for
g ood communicatio n among all zoo employees. The Maple Leaf Zoo was sued by an em ployee under w histle-b lower protectio n
legislation. The employee was demo ted and harassed after
she c o mplained to government officials about unsafe condi-
tio ns at the zoo. "Everybody kind of learned something from
Percentage of Employees Who Agree or Strongly Agree with Statement
City Mammals Other Other
Zoo Department Zoos Organizations
80 81 82 75
8 1 8 1 82 74
63 57 68 72
43 43 63 63
41 39 70 70
41 35 71 73
51 48 55 74
55 45 67 69
49 41 65 70
68 60 70 77
45 39 76 79
53 45 68 77
59 53 79 79
55 50 75 75
85 83 81 76
85 78 8 1 74
75 74 73 79
that," said Dr. Cornwall. "Animal welfare comes first ," he said .
•zoo veterinarians are really the o nes who are in charge of that.
Veterinarians t end t o champ io n those causes because that is
what they are expected t o d o . You have d ifferent perspectives
and opinio ns on those things, b ut the key is t o sit d own with
all the fo lks.• He added, "Zoos are complicated o rganisms and
o rganizations. O pen communicatio n c an imp rove the situatio n,
however."
Other Issues Raised by the Task Force During its p resenta - tion, the Citizens' Task Force identified a num ber of other issues
of c o ncern, and they briefly reviewed these for council.
• Organizational culture. The t ask force found that
lack of trust was a big issue amo ng staff. They also
found a • culture of fear" and noted that even though
retaliation was often subtle, it was definitely there.
In particular, keepers were afraid to admit actions or
mistakes, even w hen immunity was offered. The task
force expressed concern that many of the zookeepers
were too focused on their ow n specific job duties and
did not "see or support the 'big picture' of the zoo as
both a wildlife conservation facility and a business."
• Relationship among curators, veterinarians, and
zookeepers. Some curators were found to be good
at managing anim als but weak at managing people.
The keepers complained that curators did not always
respond in a timely manner to their proposals and
suggestions for improving animal care. Veterinarians
had some of the same complaints as the keepers-
that curators did not always see the need to consult
with veterinarians on animal m anagement issues. The
task force also noted that some keepers and cura-
tors held grudges that they might not be able to put
behind them.
Curators complained that veterinarians undennined
them through direct contact with the keepers. How -
ever, the task force noted that there was no defined
communication path for keepers to raise concern w ith
the veterinary staff. Moreover, experts throughout the
zoo veterinary world stressed the importance of open
communication between keepers and veterinarians so
that vets can fulfill their obligations under the Fish and
W ildlife Conservation Act.
The task force concluded that there was a lack of
communication among keepers, veterinarians, and
curators that led to questionable care standards for
the animals. Because departments of the zoo did not
work closely together, there was not a good system of
checks and balances to maintain appropriate care.
• The Biological Program Committee. The Citizens'
Task Force was particularly critical of the BPC, sug-
gesting that many of the zoo's problems resulted from
the creation of the BPC. The BPC created a mutual
admiration society for the curators, and allowed the
curators to overtook the concerns of keepers and the
veterinarian staff. The board also found that there was
no real accountability for decisions because of the
committee structure.
• Organizational structure. The task force raised a num -
ber of questions about the current structure of the zoo,
noting that communication issues, lack of teamwork,
and lack of coordination were all factors that resulted
in animal deaths, and were likely related to the current
structure. During their investigation, they had asked
Lau whether all individuals directly involved with animal
Additional Cases 545
care had reported to him. He claimed they did, until
a member of the task force, pointing to the organiza-
tional chart (see Exhibit 4), noted that the veterinarians
and veterinarian technicians reported to the COO.
"It was largely the size of the group, and the
number of people reporting to different people. We
were trying to divide the zoo up so that neither Bob
nor I [had too m any]. " Lau explained. "Money being
what it is, we didn't want another high managem ent
position.•
• Employee conduct. The task force found that there
was a "lack of consistency, unifonnity, account-
ability, and decisiveness in the enforcement of stan-
dards of conduct across departm ents" and that the
Employee Relations department was not good at
enforcing standards of conduct. A number of employ-
ees complained that those who worked hard were
often expected to compensate for employees who
underperfonned.
Employees are disciplined through a "five-step"
process. An employee can be terminated if he or she receives five written infractions w ithin a 12-month
period . The task force found this process so burden-
some that employees were almost never tenninated.
In fact, Jennifer Rsher, employee relations director,
told the task force that •no animal keepers or other
non-managerial employees had been fired in the past
20 years."
A New Executive Director Takes Over Emma Breslin began her position as the new executive direc-
tor last week, nine months after the previous executive director
retired.
B reslin's p revious positio n was as executive d irector
for t he past 10 years at Maritimes Zoo, a smaller zoo w ith
5 1 employees, a general curator, and two cont ract veteri-
narians. Breslin had been hired by Maritim es Zoo to reunite
a divided staff. She is known as a consensus leader, and
at Maritimes Zoo she increased communication, improved
supervisory skills, and taught employees to value each oth -
er's contributions to the successful operation of the zoo.
B reslin was also successful in raising awareness am ong the
community about w hy financial support from the public was
so important to the zoo.
Breslin faces a large public relations problem as she begins
her new job. She knows that much of the zoo's revenue is
dependent upon public support. The next tax levy vote is three
months from now. The zoo also raises significant revenue
through the "Friends of the Zoo" program, an annual subscrip -
tion program where people donate m oney to the zoo . She
EXHIBIT 4 Organizational Chart of City Zoo, January 2014
Oire<tor of Animal Health and Nutrition!
Head Veterinarian
Finance and Accounting
VeterinariMs and Veterinary Tedlnlclans
Nutritionists
Assistant Oire<tor and COO
Empio)'ff Relations
Ma intenance and Horticulture
Security
Educational Services
President. Board of Directors
Board of Directors I
Executive Director
ioiogicai Program I Committee
Biological Programs
Curator of Mammals
Interpretive Services
Volunteers Zookeepers
I
I
Curator of Reptiles
ZookHpers
Curator of Birds
ZookHpers
Curator of Fishes
Zookeepers
Curator of Conservation and ResNrch
Researchers and Research
Assistants
Marketing and Development
Visitor Services
Adverti~ng
Pubik Relations
Fundralslng
Construction
Catering
Customer care
Gift Shop
Visitor Transport
u, .. CII
> Q. Q. ;:;; 0 :, ., 0 ., ::: "'
needs to restore community trust. At the same time, she needs
to grow zoo attendance levels, which have fallen in the past six
months, and develop a strategic plan for the zoo.
Breslin also faces a very divided and demoralized staff. She
has reviewed what was written in the press and familiarized
herself w ith the C itizens' Task Force review. She knows she
needs to bring some peace and stability to employee relations.
Her most difficult task will be to unite the staff. She needs to
build staff morale and gain their trust. She wonders how she will
accomplish these goals over the next year. The outline of what
she intends to do over the next six months to get things back
on track is to be presented to the board in two weeks.
Additional Cases 54 7
Discussion Questions 1. What can Emma Breslin do to restore trust and morale
among the employees?
2. Should Breslin promote Wynona Singh to head (and attending) veterinarian or hire someone from outside?
3. What changes to the organizational structure could Breslin make to help foster a more positive work environment?
4. How might trust be restored among community mem· bers so that a positive outcome for the tax levy m ight occur?
ENDNOTES
Chapter 1
1 Vignette based on J. Castaldo, "The Last Days of Target, • Canadian Busi11ess, January 2016, http:lfwww.canad ianbusiness.co m/ the-last-days-of-target-canada/ .
2 "S u rvey: Few CFOs Plan to Invest in I n terpersonal Skil ls Developmen t for The ir Teams," Accountemps news re lease, June 19 , 2013, http://accountemps. rhi . mediaroom.com/ 2013- 06- J 9 -Survey-Few-CFOs-Pl a n -to-1 nvest-in-1 nterpersonal -Ski I Js. Development-fo r-Their-Teams.
3 These co m panies were nam ed in the JOO Top Em p loyers fo r 201 7. See http://www.canadastop100.com/ nationalf; http://www. ca nadastop 100.co m/ atl a nt ic/; a nd h ttp://w,,~v.canadastop JOO. co m/ skf.
4 I. S. Fulmer, B. Gerhart, and K. S. Sco tt, "Are the 100 Best Better? An Em pirical Investigation of the Relationsh ip between Being a 'Great Place to Work' and Firm Performance,• Personnel Psychology (Winter 2003), pp. 965-993.
5 S. E. Humphrey, J. D. N ahrgang, and F. P. Margeson, "Integrating Motivatio nal, Social, and Contextual Work Design Features: A Meta-a nalytic Summary a nd Theoretical Exten., ion of the \<\fo rk De.sign Literature, • Journal of Applied Ps)'chology 92, no. 5 (2007) , pp. 1332- 1356.
6 E. R. Burris, "The Risks and Rewards of Speaking Up: Managerial Responses to Employee Voice,· Academ)' of Ma11ageme111 Jo11mal 55, no. 4 (2012), pp. 85 1- 875 .
7 T. L. Miller, C. L. Wesley II, and D. E. 'A'illiams, "Edu cati ng the Minds of Caring Heart.<: Comparing the Views of Practitio ne rs a nd Educators on the Importance of Social Entrepreneursh ip Competencies," Academy of Ma,iagement Learning & Education 2, no. 3 (2012), pp. 349- 370.
8 H. Aguin i.< and A. Glavas, "\.Vhat 'A1e Don't Know about Corporate Social Responsib ility: A Review and Research Agenda,• Jo11mal of Ma11ageme11t (July 2012), pp. 932- 968.
9 Vignette ba.<ed on J. Castaldo, "The Last Days of Target,• Canadian Busi11ess, Ja n uary 2016 , http:lfwww.ca n adianbusineS-<.com/ the-I a.,t -days.of -target -canada/ .
10 See, fo r example, C. Heath and S. B. Sitkin, "Big-8 versus Big-0: What Is Orga11izational about Organ izational Behavior?" Joun,al of Organizational Behavior 22 (2001 ), pp. 43-58. For a review of what one e minent researcher believes should be included in orga· n izationa l behaviour, based on survey data, see J. B. Miner, ""The Rated Importance, Scientific Valid ity, a nd Practical Useful ness of O rganizational Beh avior Theories: A Quantitative Review,* Academy of Ma11age111ent Leami11g & Ed11catio11 2, no. 3 (September 2003), pp. 250- 268.
11 Statistics Canada, "Key S ma ll Business Statistic:.<- Augu st 2013, • m odified September JO, 2013, h ttps://"~vw.ic.gc.ca/ e ic/ s ite/ 061. nsf/ eng/h_030J 8.h t ml.
12 C. R. Farquh a r a nd J. A. Longair, Creating Higlt·Performance Organizations with People, Report R 164 - 96 ( Ottawa: T h e Con ference Board of Canada, 1996).
13 D. M. Roussea u , The Oxford Handbook of Evidence-Based Ma11agement (Oxford Library of Psychology) (New York: Oxford University Pre.SS, 2014).
548
14 J. Surowiecki, "The Fata l-Flaw Myth; New Yorker, Ju ly 31. 2006, p . 2 5.
15 V. Monga, "What Is All That Data \<\forth ?" Wall Street Journal, October 13, 2014, pp. 83, 86.
16 E. Dwo.skin and Y. Koh, "Twitter Pushes Deeper into Data,· Wall Street Journal, Apri l 16, 2014, p. 82.
17 N . Bloom, R. Sadu n, and J. Van Reen an, "How Three Essenti al Practices Can Address Even the Most Comp lex Global Practices,•
Harvard Business Review, November 2012, pp. 77-82.
18 C. Cole, "Changing Neurobiology w ith Beh avior, • Association for Psychological Science Observer 27, no. 6 (2014), pp. 29- 32.
19 \.V. Isaacson, "Of Ma n a n d Mach i n e,· Wall Street Journal, September 2 7-28, 201 5, pp. C J- C2.
20 Based on W. Chua ng and B. Lee, "An Em pi rica l Eval u a t ion of t h e Overco nfiden ce Hypothesis, · Journal of Banki11g and Fi11ance, Septem ber 2006, pp. 2489 - 2 5 15; and A. R. Drake, J. \.Vong, and S. B. Salter, " Empowerm ent, Motivation, and Performance: Examining the Impact of Feedback and Incentives on Nonmanagernent Employee.\ " Behavioral Research in Accounting 19 (2007), pp. 71 - 89.
21 Vignette based on J. Castaldo, "The Last Days of Target,• Ca11adinn Business, January 2016, h ttp://www.canad ianbu s i n ess.com/ the· last -days-of. ta rget -can ad a/ .
22 Vignette based on J. Castaldo, "The Last Days of Target,• Ca11adinn
Busi11ess, Janu ary 2016, http:lf,vww.ca nadia nbusiness.com/ th e - I as t -days-of· target -ca nada/ .
23 M. Strauss, "Lowe's Ca nada Looks To Bu ild Brand Aware ness Amid Rona Takeover,• Globe a11d Mail, May 24, 2016, https://www. theglobea ndmail.com/ report-o n-b us ine.ss/ Jowes-canada-looks- to-bui Id-brand -awaren ess-amid-ro na -takeover/ a rtide30J 3 2169/; D. Flavelle, "Ro na See., Growt h He re: Home Reno Sa les Flat dur- ing Make-o r-Break Season b ut Ca nadian Reta ile r Keeps Faith in Divers ificat ion: Toronto Star, April 20, 2011, p. Bl; and N . Van Praet, "Rona Sh ares Rise To Price Offered By Lowe's Two Years Ago,· Financial Post, August 27, 2014.
24 See, fo r exam p le, R. R. Thom as Jr., "From Affirm ative Action to Affirming Divers ity,· Harvard Business Review, March- April 1990, pp. 107- 11 7; B. Mandrell and S. Kohler-C ray, "Managem e nt Development T h a t Values Diversity: Perso1111el, Ma rch 1990, pp. 41 - 4 7; J. Dreyfuss, "Get Ready for the New Work Force,• furttme, April 23, 1990, pp. 165- 181; and I. \.Vie lawski, "Divers ity Makes Both Dollars a nd Sense, • Los Angeles Times, May 16, 1994, p. 113.
25 Based on h ttp:lfW\,~v.e luta.ca/ jobs-a t-sasktel#divers ity:diversity- more; http://www.sasktel .co m/ wps/ wcm/ co n nect/ content/ h o me/ abou t-sasktel/ news/ 2012/ sasktel-co nnects-8-m o re -fi rst- n a t io n s -to-hs-i n te rnet; h ttp:// itac.ca/ i taco n Ii n e/ a u g09 _ o nli ne_full.htm l; and h ttp://www.am msa.com/ publ ica tions/ w i ndspeaker / aborigi na 1-people-w i I I-make-nearly-one-q u a rter- saskatchewan0fc,E2o/o800/o99s-population.
26 June 2011 figures, as reported a t http://W\,w.statcan.ge.cafsubjec:ts- sujets/ Jabour-travail/ Jfs-epa/ t J 10708a2-eng. ht m .
2 7 I. 0. Karpen, "Service. Dominant Orientatio n: Measurement and Impact on Performance Outcomes,· Journal of Retaili11g 91, no. I (201 5 ), pp. 89- 108.
28 E. Jaffe, "Using Tech no logy to Scale the Scienti fi c Mounta in: Association for Psychological Scie11ce Observer 2 7, no . 6 (2014), pp. 17- 19.
29 E. J. H irst, "Burnout on the Rise: Chicago Tribune, October 19, 2012, h ttp://a rticles.chicagotribune.com/ 2012· 10-29/ busine.ss/ ct-b iz. 1029-employee-b u rno ut -20121029 _ l _employee-burnout- h erbert-freudenberger-employee-stress.
3 0 S. Shellenbarger, "Single and Off th e Fast Track,• Wall Street Joumal, May 23, 2012, pp. DI, 03.
3 1 M. Mithel, "v\lhat \<\lo m en Want, • Business Toda)', March 8, 2013, h ttp://busi nesstoday.intoday. in/ s tory/ careers -work-Ii fe-bal ance- women/ I/ 193135. ht m l.
3 2 Based on C. Atc hison, "Secrets of Canada's Best Bosses, · PROFIT, February 16, 2011 , h ttp://\\~Vw.profitguide.com/ m a nage-grow/ leadership/ secreL<-of-canada•/oE20fc,80o/o99s-best-bosses-30084.
3 3 F. Luthans a nd C. M. Youssef, • Emerging Positive O rganizational Beh avior,• Jounial of Management, Ju ne 2007, pp. 321 - 349; C. M. Yous.<ef and F. l..uthans, "Posit ive Organizationa l Behavior in the Workplace: The Impact of Hope, Optimis m, and Resilience,· Joumal of Management 33, no. 5 (2007) , pp. 774 - 800; J. E. Dutto n a nd S. Sonenshein, .. Positive O rganizational Scholars hip," in Encyclopedia of Positive Psychology, ed. C. Cooper a nd J. Barling (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2007); A. M. Saks and J. A. Gru m an, "'O rgan izat iona l Socializatio n and r ositive O rgan izat iona l Behavio ur: I mplications for Theory, Research, and Practice, " Ca11adian Journal of Administrative Sciences 28, n o. I (2011 ) , pp. 4- 16; and E. K. Loway, "Positive O rganizational Scholarship; Ca11adian Journal of Administrative Sciences 28, n o. I (2011 ) , pp. 1- 3 .
34 L. M. Roberts, G. Spreitzer, J. Dutton, R. Quinn, E. Heaphy, and B. Barker, • How to Pl ay to Your Stre ngths, · Harvard Business Review, January 2005, pp. 1- 6; a nd L. M. Roberts, J. E. Du tton, G. M. Spre itzer, E. D. Heaph y, and R. E. Quin n, · composing the Refl ected Best-Self Portrait : Becoming Extraordinary in Work O rganizations,· Academy of Manageme11t Review 30, no. 4 (2005), pp. 712-736.
3 5 • Five Jobs That \<\lon't Exist i n JO Years .. . And One New litle You' ll Start to See: HR Magazi11e, February 2014, p. 16.
3 6 D. M. Mayer, M. Kue nz i, R. G reen baum, M . Ba rdes, and R. Sa lvador, • How Low Does Eth ica l Leadership Flow? Test of a T rickle. Down Model," Organizational Behavior a,id Human Decisio11 Processes 108, no. I (2009), pp. 1- 13; and A. Ardichvili, J. A. M itchell, and D. Jondle, · characteristics of Ethical Busines.< Cu ltures,• Joumal of Busi11ess Ethics 85, no. 4 (2009), pp. 445- 451.
3 7 D. Meinen, • Man agers' Influence, " HR Magazi11e, April 2014, p. 25.
3 8 See, fo r example, P. M. Podsakoff, S. B. MacKen zie, J. B. Paine, a nd D. G. Bach rach, "Organizatio n al Citizensh ip Behaviors: A Critical Review of the Theore tical a nd Em pirical Literature and Suggestions for Future Research,• Joumal of Ma11agement 26, no. 3 (2000), pp. 5 43-548; and S. W. Whiting. P. M. Podsakoff, and J. R. Pie rce, • Effects of Task Performance, Helping, Voice, and O rganizationa l Loyalty on Performan ce Appraisal Ratings,• Joumal of Applied Psycholog,, 93, no. 1 (2008), pp. 12 5- 139.
39 L. Nguyen, "Canadian Economy Loses $ J 6.68 Annually Due to Absenteeis m,• Toronto Star, September 23, 2013 .
40 W. Hoge, "Sweden's Cradle-to-Grave \<\lelfa re StarL< to Get JI),· /11temational Herald Tribune, September 25, 2002, p. 8 .
41 T.-Y. Park and J. D. Shaw, "'Turn over Rates and Organizationa l Performance: A Meta-ana lysis,• Joumal of Applied Psycholog,, 98 (2013), pp. 268- 309.
42 A. Adki ns, •M illennia ls: The Job-Hopping Gen eration: Busi11ess Jouma/, May 12, 2016, http://www.gallup.com/ b usinessjourna l/ 1914 59/ mi I lennia ls-job-hopping-generation.aspx.
43 · why This CEO Is Helpi ng 20•/o Of His Emp loyees Find New Jobs By Next Yea r: Fast Company, Februa ry 27, 2017, https://
End notes 549
W\,~v.fastco m pany.com/ 3068481/ w hy-this-ceo-is-helpi ng -20-of- his-e mployees-fi nd -new-jobs-by-next-year.
44 M. Casey-Campbell a nd M. L. Matten.<, "Sticking It All Together. A Critical Assessment of the C roup Coh esio n. Perfo rmance U terature., " Jnteniatio,ial Journal of Management Reviews 11, no. 2 (2008), pp. 223- 246.
45 X. Zhao and A. S. Mattila, "Exa mi n ing the Spillover Effect of Frontl ine Employees' \,\fork-Fam ily Conflict o n Their Affective Work Attitudes and Customer Satisfaction,• lntemational Joumal of Hospitality Manageme11t , June 2013, pp. 310- 315.
46 Based o n B. X. C h en, • 1Ph o n e Sales i n Ch ina Bolster Apple Ea rn ings; New York Times, Jan u ary 2 7, 2015, h ttp://www. nyt i mes.com/ 2015/01 / 28/ technology / apple -quanerl y-earnings. html ?_ r=O; C. D uhigg a n d K. Bradsh e r, • How U.S. Lost Ou t o n i Phone Work, · New York Times, Ja nua ry 22, 2013, pp. A I, A22- A23; H . Gao, "How t h e Apple Confro ntation Divides C h i n a, · Atla11tic, April 8, 2013, http://"~'~v.thea t la ntic.com/ ch ina/ a rch i ve/ 201 3 / 04 / how-t h e-apple -confrontation -divides- chi na/ 274764 / ; and A. Sataria no, •Apple Slowdown Th reatens $30 Bill ion G lobal Supp lier V-1eb, • Bloomberg, h ttp://w\\~v. b loom berg.com/ news/ 2013 -04- 18/ appl e-sl owdown-threatens- 30-b i I I ion-global-s upplie r-web-tech.h tm I.
47 M. Taes, • 1f I Could Have More Data . .. : \,Va/I StreetJouma/, March 24, 2014, p. RS; S. Thurm, • 1t's a Wh o le New Data Game,• ',,\fall Street Journal, February JO, 2015, p. R6; and J. Willhite, •Getting Staned in ' Big Data',• Wall Street Joumal, February 4, 2014, p. 8 7.
48 R. E. Quinn, Be,10nd Rational Management: Masteri,ig the Paradoxes a11d Competing Dema11ds of High Performance (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991); R. E. Quinn, S. R. Faerman, M. P. Thompson, and M. R. McGrath , Becoming a Master Manager: A Competet1cy Framework (New York: W iley, 1990); a nd K. Cameron and R. E. Quinn, Diagnosi11g and Changi11g Organizational Culwre: Based on the Competi11g Values Framework ( Reading. MA: Addison \,Vesley Longman, 1999).
4 9 R. E. Quinn, S. R. Faerma n, M. P. Thom p.,on, a nd M. R. McGrath, Becoming a Master Manager: A Competency Framework (New York: \<\liley, 1990) .
50 D. Maley, · canada's Top Wome n CEOs, • Maclean's, October 20, 1997, pp. 52 passim.
51 Written by Nancy Langton a nd Joy Begley, copyright 1999. (The events described are based on an actual situatio n, although the panicipants, a< well a< the centre, h ave been d isguised.)
Chapter 2
1 Vig n ette based on J. Vom iero, •on He r Second Dragon's Den Season, M ichele Rom anow \¥ill Continue Bri ng ing Tech T h e Forefront: Mobilesyrup, October 8 , 2016, h ttp://m obilesyrup. com/ 201 6/ 10/ 08/ o n-h e r-second -dragons-den -season-m ichele - romanow-w i 11-conti n ue-b ringing-tech-th e-fo re front/; J. Pach ner, •Michele Roman o,v's Entrepreneurial Secret? Launch Now, Fuc Later, " Canadian Busi11ess, June 2, 2016, http://"~'~v.canadia nbusiness. com/ leadersh ip/ michele-romanow/ .
2
3
4
5
E. Bern.s te in, • •Hon ey, You Never Said . .. ;· Wall Street Joumal, March 24, 2015, pp. DI. 04.
K. C. Yam, R. Fehr, and C. M. Barnes, "Morning Employee.< Are Perceived as Better Employees: Employees' Stan limes Influe nce Supervisor Performance Ratings.• Journal of Applied Ps)'clwlogy 99, no. 6 (2014), pp. 1288- 1299.
J. Dwyer, "\<\fitness Accounts in Midtown Ham mer Attack Show the Power of False Mem ory; New York Times, May 14, 2015, http:// W\Vw.nytimes.com/ 2015/ 05/ 15/ nyregion/ witness-accounts-in-m id- town· hammer· attack-show. the· power-0f. false· memory. hunl? _ r= 1. G. Fields a nd J. R. Emshwiller, • Long after Arre.,ts, Records Live On; ',,\la/I Street Jou ma I, December 26, 2014, pp. A I, A JO.
550 En dnotes
6 S. S. Wang, "The Scie nce of Standing Out,• Wall Street Journal, March 18, 2014, p p. DI , 04.
7 E. Zell and Z. Krizan, "Do Peop le Have Insight into Their Abilities? A Metasynthesis;" Perspectives on Ps)1cl1ological Sc ience 9, no . 2 (2014), pp. 111 - 125.
8 E. Demerouti, D. Xanthopoulou, I. Tsaousis, a n d A. B. Bakker, " Disen ta ngl ing Task and Contextual Performance," Journal of Perso1111el Psychology 13, no. 2 (2014), pp. 59- 69.
9 G. r. Goodwi n, J. Piazza, a nd P. Rozin, "Moral C haracter Predominates in Person Perceptio n and Evaluation," Journal of Perso11ality and Social Psychology 106, no. I (2014 ), pp. 148- 168 .
10 P. Harvey, K. Madison, M. Ma rti n ko, T. R. C rook, and T. A. Crook, "Attribution Theoiy in the Organizatio nal Scien ces: The Road Traveled a nd the Path Ahead,• The Academ)' of Management Perspectives 28, no. 2 (2014), pp. 128 - 14 6; a nd M. J. Martinko, P. Ha rvey, a n d M. T. Dasboro ugh, "Attrib u tio n Theory in t he O rganizational Sciences: A Case o f Unrealized Po te ntial,· Journal of Organizational Behavior 32, no. I (2011 ), pp. 144- 149.
11 C. M. de Melo, P. J. Carnevale, S. J. Read, a n d J. Cratch, "Reading People's Min ds from Emotio n Expressio ns in Interdepen dent Decision Making,• Journal of Perso11ality a11d Social Psrcholog)' 106, n o. 1 (2014), p p. 73- 88.
ll J.M. Moran, E. Jolly, a n d J. P. Mitchell, "Spontaneous Mentalizing Predicts the Fundamen tal Attribution Error,• Journal of Cognitive Neuroscie11ce 26, n o. 3 (2014 ), pp. 569- 576; a n d D. R. Stadler, "Com peti ng Roles fo r t h e Subfoctors of Need for Closure i n Committing the Funda me ntal Attribution Error," Personality and /11dividual Differe11ces 4 7, no . 7 (2009), p p. 701- 705.
13 See, fo r instance. N. Epley a nd D. Dunning, "Feeling 'Holie r Than Th ou' : Are Self-Serving Assessments Produced by Errors in Self- o r Social Prediction?" Journal of Perso11ality a11d Social Psychology 79, n o. 6 (2000), pp. 861- 875; M. Goerke. J. Moller, S. Schulz.Hardt, U. Nap iersky, a n d D. Frey, "'It's Not My Fault - Bu t Only I Ca n Ch ange It' : Counterfoctual a n d Prefoctual Thoughts of Managers,· Journal of Applied Psrchology 89, no. 2 (2004), pp. 2 79 - 292; and E. G. Hepper, R. H. Gra mz.ow, and C. Sedik ides, "Ind iv id u al Differences in Self-Enha n ceme nt a n d Self-Pro tectio n St rategies: An Integrative Analysis," Journal of Perso11ality 78, n o. 2 (2010), pp. 781 - 814.
14 N. Ep ley and D. Du nni ng, "Feeli ng ' Ho lier Tha n Thou': Are Self-Serving Asses.,m ents Produced by Erro rs in Self- or Social Prediction?" Journal of Per,;onalit)' and Social Psychology 79, no. 6 (2000), pp. 861 - 8 75.
15 Ba.<ed on N. Ha ll, "Lawyer Awa rded $100,000 by B.C. Hu m a n RighL<Tribun al for Discrimina tion," Va11couverS1m, July 18, 2011; a nd Gicl111ru v. Tlie Law Societ)• of British Columbia (No. 9), 201 I BC H RT 185, https://www.can li i.org/en/ bc/ bch rt/ doc/ 2011/ 2011 bchrti85/ 2011bchrti 85.htm l.
16 See P. Rosenzweig, 71,e Halo Effect (New York: Free Press, 2007 ); I. Dennis, "Halo EffeCL< in Grading Student Projects,• Journal of Applied Psrclrology 92, n o. 4 (2007 ), pp. 1169- 1176; C. E. Naquin a nd R. 0 . Tyn a n, "The Tea m Ha lo Effect: Wh y Teams Are Not Blam ed fo r Thei r Failures,• Journal of Applied Psychology, April 2003, pp. 332- 340; a nd T. M. Bechger, G. Maris, and Y. P. Hsiao, " Detect in g Ha lo Effects i n Performance-Based Evaluations,· Applied Psrchological Measureme11134, no. 8 (2010), pp. 607- 619.
17 J. L. Eberh a rd t, P. G. Davies, V. J. Pu rdie-Vaughns, a n d S. L. Joh nson, "Lookin g Death wort hy: Perceived Stereot ypica lit y o f Black Defen dan ts Predicts Capital-Sente n cing O utcomes," Psyclrological Scie11ce 17, no. 5 (2006), pp. 383- 386.
18 A. S. Rosette, G. J. Leon a rdelli, a nd K. v,.1. Phill ips, "The \.Vhite Standa rd: Racial Bias in Leader Categorizatio n,• Journal of Applied Psyclrolog)' 93, no. 4 (2008), pp. 758-777.
19 Based o n A. C. Kay, M. V. Day, M. P. Zanna, and A. D. N ussba um, "The Insid io us ( and Iro nic) Effects of Positive Stereotypes,• Journal
of E>petime11tal Social Psyclrolog)' 49 (2013), pp. 287- 291; J. 0. Sly a n d S. C h erya n, "V,.lh en Compliments Fail to Flatter: America n Individualism and Respo nses to Positive Stereotypes," Journal of Personality a11d Social Psychology 104 (2013), pp. 87- 102; M. J. Tagler, "Choking Under th e Pressure o f a Positive Ste reotype: Gen der Identi fi catio n a nd Self-Consciousn ess Moderate Men's Math Test Perform ance," Journal of Social Psrclrolog)' 152 (2012), pp. 401 - 416; M.A. Beasley a nd M. J. Fischer, "\.VhyThey Leave: The Impact of Stereotype Threat on the Attrition of Wome n a nd Minorities fro m Science, Math and Engineering Majo rs ," Social Psrcl1ology of Ed11catio11 15 (2012), pp. 42 7-448; and A. Krendl, I. Gainsb u rg, and N. Ambady, "The Effects o f Stereotypes a nd Observer Pres.sure o n Athletic Performa nce,• Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology 34 (2012), pp. 3 - 15.
20 K. A. Martin, A. R. Sinden, a nd J. C. Fleming, "Inactivity May Be Hazardous to Your Image: The EffeCL< of Exercise Participatio n o n Im p ression Formatio n," Joumal of Sport & Exercise Psyclrolog)' 22, no. 4 (December 2000), pp. 283- 291.
21 F. Yua n a n d R. \.V. \.Vood m a n, "In novative Beh avior in th e \.Vo rkplace: T h e Ro le o f Perfo rma nce and Image O u tco m e Expectations,· Academy of Manage111e11t Joun,al 53, no. 2 (2010), pp. 323 - 342.
22 J. K. Ha rter, F. L. Schm idt, J. W. Asp lund, E. A. Killham, a n d S. Agrawal, "Causal Impact of Employee \.Vo rk Perceptions o n the Bottom Line o f O rganizations," Perspectives on Psychological Science 5, n o. 4 (2010), p p. 378- 389.
23 Y. H. Ki m , C. Y. C hiu, a nd Z. Zou, "Know Thyself: Misperceptions of Actual Performa nce U nderm ine Achievem ent Motivation, Futu re Performa n ce, a nd Sub jective Well-Being,· Journal of Per,;onalit)• a,1d Social Psyclrolog)' 99, n o. 3 (2010), p p. 395- 409.
24 H. G. Henem an Ill and T. A. Judge, Staffi11g Organ izat ions (Midd leton, WI: Mendota Ho use, 2012).
25 J. Willis and A. Todorov, "First Imp ressions: Making Up Your Mind after a lOOms Exposure to a Face, • Psychological Scie11ce, July 2006, pp. 592 - 598.
26 N. Eisenk raft, "Accurate by \.Vay o f Aggregation: Sh o uld You Trust Your Intuition-Based First Impressions?" Journal of £>·perime11tal Social Psrclrology, March 2013, p p. 277-2 79.
2 7 See, fo r exa mple, K. F. E. Wong and J. Y. Y. Kwo ng, ' Effects of Rater Coa ls o n Rating Patterns: Evidence fro m a n Experimental Field Study,• Journal of Applied Psrclrology 92, n o . 2 (2007), pp. 5 77- 585; a nd S. E. DeVoe and S. S. Iyen gar, "Managers' T h eo ries of Subo rdina tes: A C ross-Cu ltu ral Exa mi na t ion of Ma n ager Pe rcept ions of Mo tiva tion a n d Appra isa l of Perform ance," Organizational Behavior a,id Human Decisio,i Processes, January 2004, p p. 47- 61.
28 D. B. McNatt a nd T. A. Judge, "Bo undary Co nd it io ns of t h e Gala tea Effect: A Field Experime nt a n d Constructive Replication,· Academy of Management Joumal, August 2004, p p. 5 50 - 565; and X. M. Bezui jen, P. T. van den Berg, K. van Dam, a n d H. Th ieriy, ' Pygmalion and Employee Learning: The Ro le of Leader Beh aviors,· Joumal of Ma11age111e11t 3 5 (2009), p p. 1248- 126 7.
29 See, fo r exa mple, K. F. E. Wong and J. Y. Y. Kwo ng, ' Effects of Rater Coa ls o n Rating Patterns: Evidence fro m a n Experimental Field Stu dy,• Jo urnal of Applied Psrclrology 92, n o . 2 (2007), pp. 5 77- 585; a nd S. E. DeVoe and S. S. Iyen gar, "Managers' T h eo ries of Subo rdina tes: A C ross-Cu ltu ral Exa mi na t ion of Ma n ager Pe rcept ions of Mo tiva tion a n d App ra isa l of Perform ance, " Organizational Behavior a,id Human Decisio,i Processes, January 2004, p p. 47- 61.
30 Vignette based on R. Faber, "Michele Ro ma n ow Y..•a n ts to Be a Helpfu l Dragon," Maclea11's, Januaiy 6, 2016, h ttp://www. macleans.ca/ educatio n/ m ichele-romanow-wanL<·tO·be·a·h elpful. dragon/ .
31 D. Leising, J. Sch arloth, 0. Lohse, and D. \.Vood, "V,.lh at Type.< of Te rms Do People Use \.V h e n Descri bing an Ind iv id u al's
Personality?' Ps)'chological Science 2 5, no . 9 (2014), pp. 17 8 7- 1794.
3 2 L Weber, 'To Get a Job, New Hires Are Put to the Test,• \,\fall Street Joumal, April 15, 201 5, pp. Al, AIO.
33 L. Weber and E. Dwoskin , "As Persona lity Tests Mu lt iply, Emp loyers Are Split, · Wall Street Journal, September 30, 2014, pp. Al , AJO.
34 D. Belkin, "Colleges Pu t the Emphasis o n Persona lity,· Wall Street Joumal, January 9, 2015, p. A3.
3 5 M. J. W. Mcl.amona, M. C. Roth,teinb, R. D. Coffi nc, M. J. Riederd, A. Poolec, H . T. Krajewskie, D. M. Powell, R. 8. Jelley, a nd T. Me.<tdagh, • How Important Is Personal ity i n the Selection of Medical School Students?" Personality and Individual Differences 104 (January 2017 ), pp. 442- 44 7 .
36 S. A. Birkeland, T. M. Manson, J. L Kisa more, M. T. Bra n n ick, and M.A. Smith, •A Meta-a na lytic Investigation of Job Applicant Faking on Personality Measures,· lntemational Joumal of Selection and Assessment 14, no. 14 (2006), pp. 31 7- 335 .
3 7 D. H. Kl uemper, 8. D. Mel.arty, a nd M. N. Bi ng, •Acquainta nce
Ratings of the Big Five Personality Traits: Inc re m ental Va lid ity Beyond a nd Interactive Effects with Sel f-Reports in the Predictio n of Workplace Devia nce, • Joumal of Applied Psychology JOO, no. I (201 5), pp. 237 - 248; I. Oh, C. Wang, a nd M. K. Moun t, "Validity of Observer Ra tings of the Five-Factor Model of Personality Trails: A Meta -a na lysis,• Joumal of Applied Ps)'clwlogy 96, no . 4 (2011 ) , pp. 762- 773.
38 S. E. Hampson and L. R. Coldbeig, •A First large Cohort Study of Personality Trait Stability Over the 40 Years between Elementary School a nd Midlife,· Joumal of Personality and Social Psychology 91, n o. 4 (2006), pp. 763- 779.
3 9 See A. H . Buss, "Personal ity as Tra its,· American Psychologist, Novem ber 1989, pp. 13 78- 1388; and D. C. Winter, 0. P. John, A. J. Stewart, E. C. Klohnen, a nd L. E. Duncan, 'Tra its and Motives: Toward an Integration of Two Tradition., in Personality Research,· Ps)'chological Review, April 1998, pp. 230- 2 50.
40 R. 8. Ken nedy and D. A. Kennedy, • u s ing the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator in Career Counseling, • Journal of Employment Cou11Seling, March 2004, pp. 38- 44.
41 See, fo r instance, D. J. Pitten ger, · cautionary Comments Regarding the Myers -Briggs Type Indicator," Consulting Psychology Joumal: Practice and Research, Su mme r 2005, pp. 210 - 221; L. Bess a n d R. J. Harvey, • Bimodal Score Distribut ions and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicato r: Fact o r Artifact? " Joumal of Personality Assessment, February 2002, pp. 176 - 186; R. M. Capraro and M. M. Capraro , • Myers-Briggs Type Ind icator Score Re liability across Studies: A Meta-a n a lytic Re liab ility Generalization Study," Educational and Ps)'chological Me.asurement, August 2002, pp. 5 90- 602; a nd R. C. Arnau, 8. A. G reen, D. H . Rosen, D. H. Cleaves, a n d J. C. Melancon, •Are Jungian Preferences Really Categorical? An Empirical Investigation Using Taxometric Analysis,• Personality and Individual Differences, January 2003, pp. 233- 2 51.
42 M. R. Barrick and M. K. Moun t, •yes, Personality Matters: Moving On to More I mportant Matte.rs, " Human Perfonnance 18 , no. 4 (2005) , pp. 3 59 - 3 72.
43 W. Fleeso n a nd P. Callagh e r, "The Implica tions of Big Five Standing for the Distribution of Trait Manifestation in Behavio r: Fifteen Experie nce-Sampling Studies a nd a Meta-analysis,· Journal of Personalit.y and Social Psyclwlog)• 97, no. 6 (2009), pp. 1097- 1114.
En d notes 551
44 T. A. Ju dge, L. S. Simon, C. Hurst, a nd K. Kelley, "What I Experien ced Yesterday Is \.Vh o I Am Today: Relationship of Work Motivations and Behaviors to Within· lndividual Variation in the Five-Factor Model of Personality,• Joumal of Applied Ps)'clwlogy 99, no. 2 (2014), pp. 199- 221.
4 5 R. D. Zimm erma n, W. R. Boswell, A. J. Sh ipp, 8. 8. Dunford , a nd J. \.V. Boudreau, • Expla ining the Pathways between Approach. Avoidance Personality Traits and Emp loyees' Job Search Beh avior,• Joumal of Management 38, no. 5 (2012), pp. 14 50- 14 75 .
46 J. 8. Hirsh and J. 8. Peterson, • predicting C reativity and Academic Success w ith a 'Fake-Proof' Measure of the Big Five," Journal of Research in Personality42 (2008), pp. 1323- 1333.
47 "New Fake-Proof Personalit y Test Created,• ScienceDail)', October 8 , 2008, h ttps ://w,,~v.scienceda ily.co m/ re leases/ 2008/ J0/ 081007102849 .htm.
48 See, fo r instan ce, I. Oh and C. M. Berry, "The Five-Factor Model of Person a li ty and Manageria l Perfo rmance: Validity Cai n s through the Use of 360 Degree Performance Ratings,· Journal of Applied Psychology 94, no. 6 (2009), pp. 1498- 15 13; J. Hoga n and 8. Ho lland, "Using Theory to Evaluate Persona lity and Job. Performan ce Re lations: A Socioanalytic Perspective," Journal of Applied Psyclwlogy 88, no. I (2003), pp. 100- 112; a nd M. R. Barrick and M. K. Mount, .. Select on Conscientiousness and Emotional Stability,• in Handbook of Principles of Organizntional Behavior, ed. E. A. Locke (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004), pp. 15 - 28.
4 9 P. R. Sackett and P. T. \.Valmsley, "Which Personality Attri butes Are Most Important in the Workplace? " Perspectives 011 Ps)•clwlogical Science 9, no. 5 (2014), pp. 5 38- 551.
50 S. J. Motowid lo , M. P. Martin, and A. E. Crook, • Relations between r e rsona lity. Knowledge, a nd Beh avior in Professional Service Encounters," Joumal of Applied Social Ps)'cl1olog)' 43, no. 9 (2013), pp. 1851- 1861.
51 A. E. Po ropat, •A Meta -analysis of th e Five-Facto r Model of Pe rsonal ity and Academic Performan ce,· Ps)'cl1ological Bulletin 135, no. 2 (2009), pp. 322- 338.
52 F. L. Schmid t and J. E. Hunter, "The Va lid ity and Utility of Selection Methods i n Person n e l Psychology: Pract ical and Theoretical Implications of 8 5 Years of Research Fi n di ngs,• Psychological Bulletin, September 1998, p. 272.
53 A. K. Nandkeo lyar, J. A. Sh affer, A. Li, S. Ekkira la , and J. Bagger, "Su rvivi ng a n Abusive Supervisor: T he Joint Roles of Conscie ntiousneS-< and Copi ng Strategies," Journal of Applied Psychology 99, no. I (2014), pp. 138- 150.
54 8. \.Ville, F. De Fruyt, a n d M. Feys, · s ig Five Traits and lnt rin.<ic Success in the New Career Era: A JS-Year Longitudinal Study on Em ployability and Work-Family Conflict,• Applied Ps)'cl1olog)•: An lntemational Review 62, no. I (2013), pp. 124 - 15 6.
55 M. K. Sh oss, K. Callison, a n d L. A. W itt, 'The Effects of Other- O riented Perfectio nism a nd Conscientiousness on Hel ping at Work, • Applied Ps)'clwlog)•: An hueniational Review 64, no. I (201 5), pp. 233- 25 1.
56 C. J. Feist, •A Meta-analysis of Persona lity in Scientific and ArtL<tic C reativity,• Personality and Social Psychology Review 2, no. 4 ( J 998), pp. 290- 309; C. Robert a nd Y. H. Cheung, •An Examinatio n of the Relation.~hip Between Conscientiousn~ and Gro up Performance on a Creative Task, · Joumal of Research in Personality 44, no . 2 (2010), pp. 222- 231; and M. Batey, T. Ch am o rro -Prem uzic, and A. Fu rnham, "Ind ividual Differences in ldeational Behavior: Can the Big Five and Psychometric Intelligence Predict Creativity Sco res?" Creativity Research Journal 22, no. I (2010), pp. 90- 9 7.
552 En dnotes
57 J. L. Huang, A. M. Ryan, K. L Zabel, and A. Palme r, *Personality and Adaptive Performan ce a t 'A1o rk: A Meta-an alytic Investigation,·
Joumal of Applied Psrchology99, no. I (2014), pp. 162- 179.
58 R. D. Zi mme rma n, 'A'. R. Boswell, A. J. Shipp, B. B. Dunfo rd, a n d J. W. Boud reau, "Explain ing the Pathways between Approach- Avoidan ce Personality Trails a nd Employees' Job Search Behavior,· Joumal of Ma11agement 38, no. 5 (2012), pp. 1450- 1475.
5 9 B. 'A'ille, F. De Fruyt, and M. Feys, "Big Five Tra its a nd Intrinsic
Success in the New Career Era: A JS-Year Longitudina l Study o n Employability and Work-Family Conflict.· Applied Psrchology: A11 illlemational Review 62, no. I (2013), pp. 124- 156.
60 R. J. Foti and M.A. Ha uen.stein , *Pattern a nd Variable Approache.< in Leaders hip Em ergence and Effectiveness,* Journal of Applied Psycholog)', March 2007, pp. 347- 355.
61 B. Weiss and R. S. Feldman, ' Looking Good and Lyi ng to Do It: Deception as an Impression Manageme nt Strategy in Job Interviews, · Joumal of Applied Social Psychology 36, no. 4 (2006),
pp. 1070 - 1086.
62 A. Minbashian, J. Earl, and J.E. H. Brigh t, *Open ness to Experience as a Predictor of Job Performance Trajectories,• Applied Psrchology: A11 International Review 62, no. I (2013), pp. 1- 12.
63 B. Wille, F. De Fruyt, and M. Feys, "Big Five Tra its a nd Intrinsic Success in the New Career Era: A JS-Year Longitudina l Study o n Employability and Work-Family Conflict.· Applied Psrchology: An illlemational Review 62, no. I (2013), pp. 124- 156.
64 R. !l ies, I. S. Fu lme r, M . Spitzm u ll e r, a n d M. D. Jo h nso n, *Persona lity and C it izenship Beh avior: The Med iating Role of Job Satisfaction,· Joumal of Applied Psychology 94, no. 4 (2009), pp. 945- 959.
65 D. H. Kl uemper, B. D. Mclarty, a nd M. N. Bing, ' Acquainta nce Ratings of th e Big Five Personality Traits: Increm ental Valid ity Beyond a nd Interactive Effects w ith Sel f-Repo rts in the Prediction of Workplace Deviance, · Joun,al of Applied Psychology JOO, no. I (2015), pp. 237-248.
66 S. Cla rke and I. Robertson, ' An Exa mination of th e Ro le of Personality in Accidents Using Meta-a na lysis,· Applied Psychology: A11 International Review 57, no. I (2008), pp. 94- 108.
67 B. Wille, F. De Fruyt, and M. Feys, "Big Five Tra its a nd Intrinsic Success in the New Career Era: A JS-Year Longitudina l Study o n Employability and Work-Family Conflict,· Applied Psrchology: An illlemational Review 62, no. I (2013), pp. 124- 156.
68 J. F. Rauthmann , *The Dark Triad and Interpersona l Perception: Si mi larities and Differe nces i n the Socia l Conseq uences of Na rcissism, Mach iavel lia nism, and Psychopathy. " Soc ial Psychological a11d Perso11ality Scie11ce 3 (2012), pp. 487-496.
69 P. D. Harms and S. M. Spa in, *Beyon d the Brig ht Side: Dark Persona lity a t Work,• Applied Psrchology: An /11temational Review
64, no. 1 (2015), pp. 15 - 24.
70 P. K. Jonason, S. Slomski, a nd J. Partyka, °The Dark Triad at \<\fo rk: How Toxic Employees Get T h eir Way,· Perso11ality a11d llldividual
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71 E. H. O'Boyle, D. R. Forsyth, G. C. Banks, a nd M.A. McDaniel, *A Meta-a na lysis of the Dark T riad and \<\fo rk Beh avio r: A Social
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72 L. Zhang, and M. A. Gowan, *Corporate Social Respons ib ility, Applicants' Individ ual Tra its, a nd O rgan izational Attraction: A Person- Organizatio n Fit Pe rspective, " Journal of Busitiess and Psyclwlog)' 27 (2012), pp. 345-362.
73 D. N. Hartog and F. D. Belschak, *Work Engagem ent a n d
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E. Grija lva a nd P. D. Harms, "Narcissis m : An Integrative Syn thesis a nd Dom inance Comple m entarity Model,* The Academ)' of Management Perspectives 28, n o. 2 (2014), pp. 108- 12 7.
D. C. Maynard, E. M. Brondolo , C. E. Connelly, a nd C. E. Saue r, *I'm Too Good fo r This Job: Narcissism's Ro le in the Experience of Overq ua lification, • Applied Psychology: An /nternatio11al Review 64, no. I (2015), pp. 208- 232.
E. Grija lva a nd P. D. Ha rms, "Narcissis m : An Integrative Syn thesis a nd Dom inance Comple m entarity Model,• The Academ)' of Management Perspectives 28, no. 2 (2014), pp. 108- 12 7.
B. J. Bru mme l and K. N . Parker, *Obligatio n and Entitlement in Society and the Workplace,• Applied Psycholog)': An lntemational Review 64, no. I (2015 ), pp. 12 7- 1 GO.
E. Grija lva a nd D. A. Newman, *Narcis.sism and Coun te!productive Work Beh avior (CWB): Meta-ana lysis and Consideration of Collectivist Culture, Big Five Personality, and Narcissism's Facet Struc ture,* Applied Psychology: A11 /nteniatio11al Review (2015), pp. 93- 126.
D. C. Maynard, E. M. Brondolo, C. E. Connelly, a nd C. E. Saue r, *I'm Too Good fo r This Job: Narcis.<ism's Ro le in the Experience of Overq ua lification, • Applied Psychology: An /ntematio11al Review 64, no. I (2015), pp. 208- 232.
E. Grija lva a nd P. D. Ha rms, "Narcissis m : An Integrative Syn thesis a nd Dom inance Comple m entarity Model,• The Academ)' of Management Perspectives 28, n o. 2 (2014), pp. 108- 12 7.
S. Konrath, B. P. Meier, and B. J. Bus hma n, "Development a nd Validatio n of the Sing le Item Narcissis m Scale (SINS).* Pl..oS ONE (Augtcst 5, 2014), doi: 10. 13 71/ joumal.pone.0103469; and h ttp.s:// news.osu.edu/ n ews/ 2014/ 08/ 05/ just·One-simple-question-can- identify-na rcissis tic-people/ .
J. J. Sosik, J. U. C hun, and W. Zhu, ' Hang On to Your Ego: The Moderating Role of Leader Narcissism on Relatio nships between Leader C h arisma a nd Follower Psych ologica l Empowerm ent and Moral Identity,* Joumal of Business Et/tics, Februaty 12, 2013; B. M. Ga lv in , D. A. \<\lald m an, and P. Ba lthazard , *Vision aty Com munica tion Qualities as Mediators of the Relationship between Na rcissis m and Attributio ns of Leader Cha ris m a," Person11el Ps)'cltology 63, no. 3 (2010), pp. 509-53 7.
D. Meinert, ' Narcissis tic Bosses Aren' t All Bad, S tudy Finds,• HR Magazi11e, March 2014, p. 18.
K. A. Byrn e and D. A. Worthy, "Do Narciss ist.< Make Better Decisions? An Investigation of Narcis.o;ism and Dynam ic Decision· Making Performance, • Persona/it)' and Individual Differences, July 2013,pp.112- 117.
C . And reassen, H . Ursin , H . Eriksen, a nd S. Pallesen, "T h e Relationship of Narcissism with 'A1orkah o lis m, \<\fo rk Engagemen t, and Professiona l Posit io n, · Social Behavior a11d Perso11ality 40, no. 6 (2012), pp. 881 - 890.
A. Chatterjee a nd D. C. Ha m brick, *Executive Personality, Capability Cues, and Risk Taking: How Narcissis tic CEOs React to Their Successes and Stumbles," Admi,iistrative Science Quarterly 56 (2011 ) , pp. 202- 237 .
C. J. Resick, D. S. W hitman, S. M. Weingarden, a nd N . J. H ille r, °The Bright-Side and Da rk-Side of CEO Personality: Examin ing Core Self. Evaluations, Narcissism, Transform ational Leadership, and S trategic Influence,· Joumal of Applied Psychology 94, no . G (2009), pp. 1365- 1381.
E. H. O ' Boyle, D. R. Forsyth, G. C. Banks, and M. A. McDa niel, *A Meta-analysis of the Dark T riad a nd Work Behavior: A Social Exchange Pe rspective, • Jounial of Applied Psychology 97, n o. 3 (2012), p. 558.
A. Reece, A. G irkan, and T. Cha morro-Pre m uzic, *G reed ls Good ? Assessing the Relationship between Entrep reneurship and Subclinical P,.ychopathy, • Perso11alit)' and /11dividual Differences 54, no. 3 (2013), pp. 420- 425.
90 B. W i lle, F. De Fru yt, and B. De C lercq, 'Expandi ng and Reconceptualizing Aberrant Personality at \<\fo rk: Validity of Five. Factor Model Aberrant Personality Tendencies to Predict Career O utcom es: Personnel Ps)'clwlogy 66 (2013), pp. 173- 223.
91 P. K. Jonason, S. Slomski, a nd J. Partyka, "The Dark Triad at Work: How Toxic Employees Get Their Way,· Perso11ality a11d flldividual Differences 52 (2012), pp. 449 - 453; and H. M. Baughman, S. Deari ng, E. Giamma rco, and P.A. Vernon, 'Relation.,hips between Bullying Behaviours and the Dark Triad: A Stu dy with Adults,· Perso11ality and Individual Differences 52 (2012), pp. 571- 575.
92 U. Orth and R. \.V. Robins, "Understanding the Link between Low Self-Esteem and Depression,· Current Directions i11 Psychological Scie11ce 22, n o. 6 (2013), pp. 455- 460.
93 B. \.Vi lle, F. De Fru yt, and B. De C lercq, 'Expanding and Reconceptualizing Aberrant Personality at \<\fo rk: Validity of Five. Factor Model Aberrant Personality Tendencies to Predict Career O utcom es: Personnel Ps)'clwlogy 66 (2013), pp. 173- 223.
94 T. A. Judge and J. E. Bono, "A Rose by Any Other Nam e .. . Are Self-Esteem, Genera lized Self-Efficacy, Neuroticism, and Locus o f Contro l I ndicators of a Commo n Construct?" in Personality Ps)'chology in the Workplace, ed. B. W. Roberts a nd R. Hogan, (Washingto n, DC: American Psycho logica l Associa t ion), pp. 93- 118; and A. M. Gra nt and A. Wrzesniewski, "I Won't Let You Down .. . or Will I? Core Self-Evaluations, O the r-O rie ntation, Anticipated Guilt a nd Gratitude, and Job Perforrnance, • Joumal of Applied PS)'Chology95, no. I (2010), pp. 108- 121.
95 A. N. Salvaggio, B. Schneider, L. H. N L,hi, D. M. Mayer, A. Ra mesh, a nd J. S. Lyon, 'Manager Persona lity, Manager Service Quality O rie ntation, and Service Climate: Test of a Model; Joumal of Applied Psyclwlogy 92, no . 6 (2007), pp. 1741 - 1750; B. A. Scott a nd T. A. Judge, "The Popula rity Contest a t Work: Wh o Wins, Why, and What Do They Receive?" Joumal of Applied Ps)'chology 94, no. I (2009), pp. 20- 33; a nd T. A. Judge and C. Hurst, ' How the Rich (and Happy) Get Richer (and Happier): Relationship of <:ore Se.If. Evaluations to Trajectories in Attaining Work Succe.~." Joumal of Applied Ps)'chology 93, no. 4 (2008), pp. 849- 863.
96 A. M . Grant and A. \+Vrzesniewksi, "I Won't Let You Down . .. or W ill I? Core Self- Evaluations, O ther-O rientation, Anticipated Guilt and Gratitude, and Job Performance: Journal of Applied Psyclwlog)' 95, no. I (2010), pp. 108- 121.
97 See M. Snyder, Public Appearances/Private Realities: The Ps)'chology of Self-Mo11itoring (New York: v,.1. H. Freeman, 1987); and S. \.V. Gangestad and M. Snyder, 'Self-Monito ring: Appraisal and Reappraisal,· Ps)'clwlogical Bulletin, July 2000, pp. 530- 555.
98 F. J. Flyn n and D. R. Am es, "What's Good fo r the Goose May Not Be as Good fo r the Gander: The Ben efits of Sel f-Monitoring fo r Men and \<\!o men in Task Group.< and Dyadic Conflicts,· Journal of Applied Ps)'clwlogy 91, no. 2 (2006), pp. 272- 281; and M. Snyder, Public Appearances/Private Realities: The Psyclwlogy of Self-Monitoring (New York: W. H. Freema n, 1987).
99 D. V. Day, D. J. Shleicher, A. L. Unckless, and N. J. Hiller, "Se)f. Monitoring Persona lity at Work: A Meta-a nalytic Investigation of Con.<truct Validity,• Joumal of Applied Psychology 87, no. 2 (2002), pp. 390- 401.
100 H. O h a nd M. Kilduff, "The Ripple Effect of Personality on Social Structure: Self-monitoring Origins of Network Brokerage,• Joumal of Applied Psychology 93, no. 5 (2008), pp. 1155- 1164; and A. Mehra, M. Kilduff, and D. J. Brass, 'The Socia l Networks of High and Low Self-Monitors: Implications for Workplace Perforrna nce, • Administrative Scie11ce Quarter/)', March 2001, pp. 121- 146.
101 A. Beer, "Comparative Pe rsonality Judgm ents: Replication and Extension of Robust Findings in Personality Perception Using a n Alternative Method: Journal of Per.;011ality Assessme11t 96, no. 6 (2014), pp. 610- 618; and S. Hirsch muller, B. Egloff, S. Nestler, and D. Mitja, 'The Dual Lens Model: A Compreh ensive Framework fo r Understanding Self- O the r Agreem en t of Persona lity Judgments at
En d note s 553
Zero Acquaintance, · Joumal of Perso11ality and Social Psyclwlogy 104 (2013), pp. 335- 353.
102 S. Hirschmuelle r, B. Egloff, S. C. Schmukle, S. Nestler, a nd M. D. Back. .. Accurate Judgments of Neuroticism at Zero Acquaintance: A Que.,tion of Relevance,· Journal of Personality 83, no. 2 (201 5), pp. 221 - 228.
10 3 M. D. Back, ' Personality Expre."-<ion and Imp ression Formation in O nline Social Networks : An In tegrative Approach to Understanding Processe.'i of Accuracy, Jmpre.'i.'iion Ma nagement, and Meta-accuracy: European Jounial of Personality 28 (2014), pp. 73- 94.
104 P.-Y. Liao, "The Ro le of Self-Concept in the Mechanism Linking Proactive Person ality to Em ployee \<\fo rk Outcomes: Applied Psychology: An International Review 64, no. 2 (2015), pp. 421- 443 .
105 K. Tornau and M. Frese, .. Construct Clean. up in Proactiv ity Resea rch : A Meta-analysis o n the Nom ologica l Net of \.Vo rk - Related Proactivity Concepts and Their Incrementa l Va lues," Applied Psychology: An fllternational Review 62, no. I (2013), pp. 44- 96.
106 W.-D. Li, D. Fay, M. Frese, P. D. Harrns, and X. Y. Gao, ' Reciprocal Re la tionsh i p betwee n Proact ive Perso nality and Work C h aracte ristics: A Latent Change Score Approach: Journal of Applied Psyc/10108)' 99, no. 5 (2014), pp. 948- 965.
107 P. D. Converse, Patrick J. Pathak, A. M. DePaul-Haddock, T. Gotlib, and M. Merbedone, 'Controlling Your Environment and Yoursel f. Implications for Career Success,· Journal of Vocational Behavior 80 (2012), pp. 148- 159.
108 G. Chen, J. Farh, E. M. Campbell-Bush, Z. Wu, a nd X. Wu, "Teams as Innovative Systems: Mu ltilevel Motivational Antecedents of In novation in R&D Teams,• Journal of Applied Psychology 98 (2013), pp. 1018- 1027.
109 Y. Gong, S.-Y. Cheu ng, M. Wang, and J.·C. H uang, 'Unfold ing the Proact ive Process fo r Creativity: Integra tio n of the Em p loyee Proactivi ty, Inform ation Exchange, and Psychological Safety Perspectives: Journal of Management 38, n o. 5 (2012), pp. 16 11 - 1633.
110 Z. Zhang, M. \.Va ng, and S. Junqi, ' Leader-Follower Congruence in Proactive Personality a nd Work O utcomes: Th e Mediating Role of Leader-Member Exchange,· Academy of Management Joumal 55 (2012), pp. 111 - 130.
ill G. Van Hoye a nd H. Lootens, "Cop ing w ith U n employment: Personal ity, Role Dema nds, and Ti me Structu re: Journal of Vocational Behavior 82 (2013), pp. 85- 95.
112 R. D. Meyer, R. S. Dalal, and R. Hermida, 'A Review and Syn thesis of Situational Strength in the O rganizational Sciences,• Journal of Management 36 (2010), pp. 121- 140.
113 R. D. Meyer, R. S. Da lal, I. J. Jose, R. He rmida, T. R. C he n, R. P. Vega, C. K. Brooks, V. P. Khare, "Measuring Job-Related Situational Strength and Assessing IL< In teractive Effects with Person ality on Volu ntary \<\fork Behavior,• Joun,al of Management 40, no . 4 (2014), pp. 1010- 1041.
114 A. M. Grant and N. P. Ro thbard, 'When in Dou b t, Seize t h e Day? Security Values, Prosocial Values, a nd Proactivity under Ambiguity; Joumal of Applied Psychology, 2013.
115 See, fo r in.stan ce, C. D. Fc,herand N. M. Ash kanasy, "The Emerging Role of Emotions in Work Life: An Introduction: Jounial of Organiuitional Behavior, Special Issue (2000), pp. 123- 129; N. M. Ashkanasy, C. E. J. Hartel, and W. J. Zerbe, eds., Emotions in the Workplace: Research, Theory. and Practice (Westport, CT: Quorum Books, 2000); N. M. Ash kanasy and C. S. Daus, 'Emo tion i n the \.Vorkplace: The New Challenge for Managers: Academy of Management Executive, February 2002, pp. 76- 86; a nd N. M. Ashkana.sy, C. E. J. Hartel, a nd C. S. Daus, ' Diversity and Em otion: The New f rontiers in Organizational Behavior Research," Jounial of Management 28, no. 3 (2002), pp. 307- 338.
554 En dnotes
116 S. G. Ba rsade and D. E. G ibson, ' v\lhy Does Affect Matter in O rganizations?" Academ)' of Management Perspectives, Februa ry 2007, pp. 36- 59.
117 Em otio n. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, h ttp://www. oxforddictionaries.com/ us/ definition/ american_en glish/ e mo tion, retrieved July 1, 201 7.
118 Mood. The American Heritage Medical Dictionary (2007), retrieved July 1, 201 7 fro m http:/ / medic:aJ.d ictionary.thefreedictionary.com/ m ood.
119 Mood. Far/ex Partner Medical Dictionary (2012), retrieved Ju ly, 2017, fro m h ttp:// m ed ica J.d ictionary. thefreediction ary.com/ m ood.
120 Based on K. Sa nford and A. J. Grace, ' Emotion and Underlying Co n cerns du ri n g Couples' Confl ict: A n Investigatio n of w ithi n -Person Cha nge, · Personal Relationships 18, no. 1 (2011 ) , pp. 96- 109; and Baylor U niversity, ' Explo ring How Partners Perceive Each O ther's Em o t ion du ring a Re la t ionsh ip Fight,• ScienceDaily, December 16, 2010, h ttp://\\~vw.scienceda ily.com/ re leases/ 2010/ 12/ 1012161615 14.htm .
lll P. S. Russell a nd R. Giner.Sorolla, "Bodily Moral Disgust: Wh at It Is, How It Is Different fro m Anger, and \.Vh y It Is a n Unreasoned
Emotio n: Psychological Bulletin 139, no. 2 (2013), pp. 328- 351.
112 H. A. C hapman and A. K. Anderson, "1n ings Rank a nd Gross in Nature: A Review a nd Synthesis of Moral Disgust,• Psychological Bulletin 139, no. 2 (2013), pp. 300- 327.
113 T. Krennenauer, J. B. Asendorpf, and G. Nunner·Winkler, "Moral Emotion Attrib utio ns a nd Personality T ra its As Long.Term Predictors of Antisocial Conduct in Early Adulthood: Find ings fro m a 20.Yea r Longi tud ina l Study, · /111enwtional Joumal of Behavioral Deve/opmelll, May 2013, pp. 192- 201 .
124 See J. A. Morris a nd D. C . Feld m an, "Ma n aging Emotions i n th e Workplace,• Journal of Managerial Issues 9, no. 3 ( 199 7) , pp. 2 57-2 7 4; S. Man n, Hiding Whal We Feel, Faking Whal \<Ve 0011 '1: Understanding the Role of Your Emotions at Work (New York: Ha rperColl ins, 1999); and S. M . Kru ml and D. Geddes, ' Catchi ng Fire w ith out Burn ing O ut: Is There a n Ideal \.Vay to Perform Emo tion Labor?' in £motions in the Workplace, ed. N. M. Ashkanasy, C. E. J. Ha rtel, and W. J. Zerbe (New York: Q uorum Books, 2000), pp. 177 - 188.
125 M. V.,,_ Kra m e r and J. A. Hess, "Commu nication Rules for the D isplay of Emotio ns in O rganizatio nal Settings," Manageme,it Comm1mica1io11 Quarterly, Aug ust 2002, pp. 66 - 80; and J. M. Diefendorff an d E. M. Richard, "Antecedents and Consequen ces of Emotional Display Rule Pe rceptions,· Journal of Applied Psychology, Apri l 2003, pp. 284- 294.
116 P. S. Ch ris toforo u and B. E. Ash fo rth, "Revis iti ng the Debat e on th e Relationsh ips between Display Ru les a nd Pe rfo rmance: Con.s idering the Explicitness of Display Ru les, • Journal of Applied Psycholog)' 100, no. I (2015), pp. 249- 261.
127 C. M. Brotheridge and R. T. Lee, "Developm ent and Validatio n of the Em o t ional Labou r Scale, • Journal of Occupational and Organizational Ps)'cholog)' 76, n o . 3 (September 2003) , pp. 365- 3 79.
128 U. R. Hulsheger, H. J. E. M. Alberts, A. Feinholdt, a nd J. W. B. Lang, ' Benefits of Mi ndful ness a t Work: The Role of Mindfu lness in Emotion Regulation, Emotional Exhaustio n, and Job Satisfaction,· Joumal of Applied Ps)'chology, March 2013, pp. 310- 325.
129 J. D. Kammeyer·Mueller, A. L. Rubenstein, D. M. Long, M.A. Odio, B. R. Buckm an, Y. Zhang, a nd M. D. K. Halvorsen · Ganepola, "A Meta -analytic Structural Model of Dispositionally Affectivity and Emotiona l Labor: Personnel Psyclwlog)' 66 (2013), pp. 4 7-90.
130 D. T. Wagner, C. M. Barnes, a nd B. A. Scott, "Dri ving It Ho me : How Workplace Emotio na l Labor Harms Employee Home Life,· Personnel Psyc/10/ogy67 (2014), pp. 487-516 .
131 J. D. Kam meyer·Mueller, A. L Rubenstein, D. M. Long, M.A. Odio, B. R. Buckm an, Y. Zhang, and M. D. K. Halvorsen·Ganepola, ' A Meta.analytic Structural Model of Dispositio na lly Affectivity and Em otional Labor: Personnel Ps)'chology 66 (2013), pp. 4 7-90.
132 J. P. Trougakos, D. J. Beal, S. G. Green, and H. M. Weiss, ' Mak ing the Break Count: An Episodic Examination of Recovery Activities, Em otional Experie nces, and Positive Affective Displays," Academ)' of Managemelll Joumal 51, no. I (2008), pp. 131 - 146.
13 3 J. M. Diefendorff, R. J. Erickson, A. A . Grandey, and J. J. Dahling, "Emotional D isplay Ru les as Work U nit Norms: A Mu ltil evel Ana lys is of Em otio n a l Labor a m ong N u rses,· Journal of Occupational Healtlt Psycltology 16 (2011 ) , pp. 170- 186.
134 S. Bras_sen, M. Gam er, and C. Bilch el, "An terior Cingu late Activation Is Re.lated to a Positivity Bias and Emo tional Stability in Successfu l Agi n g, " Biological Ps ychiatr)' 70, no. 2 (2011 ), pp. 131- 137 .
135 H . Gue n ter, I. J. H. van Em m e rik , and B. Schreu rs, ' T h e Negative Effects of Delays in Informa tion Exchange: Looking a t Workp lace Relationships fro m a n Affective EvenLs Perspective: Human Resource Manageme,u Review 24, no. 4 (December 2014), pp. 283- 298; a nd F. K. Matta, H. T. EroJ. Ko rkm az. R. E. Johnson, and P. Bi~aksiz, "Signi fica nt Work Events a nd Counterproductive Work Behavior: The Role of fai rness, Emotions, and Em o tion Regula tion: Journal of Organizational Behavior 35, no. 7 (2014), pp. 920- 944.
136 C. D. Fis he r, A. Minbash ian, N. Beckmann, and R. E. Wood, "Task Appraisals, Emotio ns, and Performance Goal Orientations, " Joumal of Applied Psychology 98, no. 2 (2013), pp. 364- 3 73.
137 N. M. Ashkanasy, C. E. J. Ha rtel, and C . S. Da u s, ' Diversity and Emotion: The New f ro ntiers in O rga nizationa l Behavio r Research, · Joumal of Managemelll 28, no. 3 (2002), p. 324.
138 Based on D. R. Caruso, J. D. Mayer, a nd P. Salovey, ' Emotional In telligence and Emotio na l Leadership; in Multiple Intelligences and Leaders/tip, ed. R. E. Riggio, S. E. Murp hy, and F. J. Pirozwlo (Mahwah , NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2002), p. 70.
13 9 P. Salovey a nd D. Grewal, "The Scien ce of Emotiona l Intelligence: Current Directions in Ps)'cltological Science 14, n o. 6 (2005), pp. 281 - 285; a nd D. Geddes a nd R. R. Call is te r, "Cros_sing the Li ne(s) : A Dual Thresh o ld Model of An ger in O rganizatio ns: Academ)' of Management Review 32, no. 3 (2007) , pp. 721- 746.
140 Based o n R. L. Hotz, "Too Important to S mile Back: The 'Boss Effect;" Wall Street Jouma/, October 16, 2012, p. D2; E. Kim a nd D. J. Yoon, ' Vsl hy Does Service w ith a Smile Make Em p loyees Happy? A Social Interaction Model,• Joumal of Applied Psychology 97 (2012), pp. 10 59 - 1967; and K. \.Veintraub, "But How Do You Really Feel ? Someday the Computer May Know: New York Times, October 16, 2012, p . D3.
141 E. H. O' Boyle, R. H. Hum phrey, J.M. Po llack, T. H. Hawver, a nd P. A. S toty, 'The Relation between Em otional Intelligence and Job Performance: A Meta.analysis," Journal of Organizational Behavior 32, no. 5 (2011), pp. 788- 8 18.
142 R. Gilkey, R. Caceda, a n d C. Kil ts, "Wh en Emotional Reasoning T ru mps IQ,· Harvard Business Review, September 2010, p. 27.
143 M . Seo and L. F. Ba rrett, ' Bei ng Em otional D uring Decision Maki ng- Good o r Bad? An Empirica l Investigatio n: Academ)' of Management Journal 50, no. 4 (2007 ), pp. 923- 940.
144 Based o n D. ll iescu, A. )lie, D. )spas, a nd A. Jon, "Emotional Intelligence in Personnel Selection: Applicant Reactions, C riterion, and Increm ental Va lid ity, " ltiternatio,ial Joumal of Selection and Assessment, Septe m ber 2012, pp. 34 7-358; D. L. Joseph, J. Jin, D. A. Newm a n, and E. H . O' Boyle, "Why Does Self. Reported Em otional In telligence Predict Job Perfo rmance? A Meta.analytic Investigation of Mixed El,· Jounwl of Applied Ps)'chology 100, no . 2 (2015), pp. 298- 342; R. Sharm a, "Measu ring Socia l a nd Emotio nal Intel ligence Com peten cies in the Indian Context, "
Cross Cultural Ma 11agement 19 (2012), pp. 30- 47; a nd S. Sh arma, M. Gangopadhyay, E. Austin, a nd M. K. Manda), ' Developmen t a nd Val idation o f a Sit uational Judgm e nt Test of Em otiona l I ntelligence," Intenwtio,ial Journal of Sele.ction and Assessme,11, March 2013, pp. 57 - 73.
145 See R. J. Ben n ett a nd S. L. Rob i n son , "Develop me nt of a Measu re of \.Vorkp lace Devian ce, • Journal of Applied Ps)'c/1olog)', June 2000, p p. 349- 360; see also P. R. Sackett and C. J. DeVore, "Counterproductive Beh aviors at Work, • in Handbook of Industrial, Work & Orga11izatio11al Psrcholog)\ vol. I , ed. N. Anderson, D.S. O n es, H. K. Sina ngil, and C. Viswesvaran (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001 ), p p. 145- 164.
146 K. Lee and N. J. Allen, "O rganizatio na l Citizenship Beh avio r a n d Workp lace Deviance: The Ro le o f Affect and Cogn itio n,• Joumal of Applied Psyclwlogy 8 7, no . I (2002), pp. 131- 142; T. A. Judge, B. A. Scot t, a n d R. Jlies, • Hostility, Job Attitudes, and Workplace Devia n ce: Test of a Multilevel Mode,• Journal of Applied Psyclwlogy 91, no. I (2006), pp . 126- 138; and S. Kapla n, J.C. Bradley, J. N. Luchm an, a nd D. Hayn es, "O n th e Ro le o f Positive a nd Negative Affectivity in Job Performance: A Meta.analytic Investigatio n," Journal of Applied Ps)'chology 94, no. I (2009), pp. 152- 176.
147 S. C. Do ug las, C. Kiewitz, M. Martinko, P. Harvey, Y. Kim, and J. U. Chun, .. Cognitions, Emotions, and Evaluations: An Elaboration Like li h ood Model fo r 'A'o rkplace Aggression, • Academy of Ma11agement Review 33, no. 2 (2008), pp. 425-451.
148 A. K. Kha n, S. Ouratu lain, a nd J. R. Crawsh aw, "The Mediating Role of Discrete Emotions in the Re latio ns hip between Injustice a nd Cou nterproductive \<\fo rk Beh avio rs: A Study in Pa kista n,· Journal of B11.1i11ess and Psyclwlog)', March 2013, pp. 49- 6 1.
149 S. L Koole, 'The Psycho logy of Emotio n Regulatio n : An Integrative Review,• Cog11itio11 and Emotio11 23 (2009), pp. 4 - 41; a n d H . A. Wadl inger and D. M. lsaacowitz, • Fixi ng Our Focus: Tra ining Attention to Regulate Emotion,• Personality a11d Social Ps)'chology Review 15 (2011), pp. 75- 102.
150 D. H. Kl uemper, T. DeGroot, and S. C ho i, • Emo tion Managem en t Ab ility: Predicting Task Performa nce, C itizen.sh ip, a nd Deviance,• Journal of Ma11agement, May 2013, pp. 878- 905 .
151 J. P. Trougakos, D. J. Beal, B. H. C he ng, I. Hideg, and D. Zweig, 'Too Dra ined to Help: A Resource Depletion Perspective o n Daily Interperson al C itizen.sh ip Behaviors,· Joumal of Applied Psyclwlogy JOO, no . I (201 5), p p. 227- 236.
152 B. A. Scott, C. M. Barnes, a nd D. T. Wagner, "C h a me leonic o r Cons is ten t ? A Mu lti level Investigat ion of Emotiona l Labor Variability a nd Sel f-Monitoring, · Academy of Ma11agement Joumal 55, no. 4 (2012), pp. 905- 926.
153 U. R. Hu lsh eger, J. W. B. Lang, A. F. Schewe, and F. R. H. Zij lstra, · w h e n Regu la ting Em otions at Work Pays Off: A Diary a nd a n Interventio n Study o n Em otio n Regu lation and Customer Tips in Service Jobs," Joumal of Applied Psychology, March 2015, pp. 263- 2 77.
154 J. L. Jooa a nd G. Francesca, • po ker-Faced Mora lity: Concealing Emotions Leads to Utilita rian Decision Making. " Organiu,tional
Behavior a11d Huma11 Decisio11 Processes 126 (Jan ua ry 20 15) , pp. 49- 64.
155 J. L. Jooa a nd G. Francesca, ' Po ker-Faced Mora lity: Concealing Emotions Leads to Utilita rian Decision Making. " Organiu,tional Behavior a11d Huma11 Decisio11 Processes 126 (Ja n ua ry 20 15 ) , pp. 49- 64.
156 T. L. Webb, E. M iles, a n d P. Sh eera n, · o ea ling w ith Feel ing: A Meta -analysis o f the Effectiveness of St rategies Derived fro m th e Process Model of Emo t io n Regu lat ion,· Psychological Bulletin 138, no . 4 (2012), pp. 7 75-808; S. Srivastava, M. Tam ir, K. M. McGonigal, 0 . P. John, a nd J. J. Gross, "The Social Costs of Emotio n a l Suppressio n : A Prospective Study of the Transitio n to College,· Journal of Perso11ality a11d Social Psychology 96 (2009), pp. 883- 89 7; Y. Liu, L. M. Prati, P. L. Perrewe, a nd R. A. Brymer,
End notes 555
"I nd ividua l D i fferences i n Emotion Regulation, Emotiona l Experien ces at \<\fo rk, and \<\fo rk-Re la ted Outcomes: A Two-Study Invest igation,• Journal of Applied Social Psychology 40 (2010), pp. 15 15- 1538; a nd H. A. Wadlinger an d D. M. lsaacowitz, •, w ng our Forus: T raining Attention to Regulate Emotion," Personality a11d Social Ps)'clwlogy Review 15 (2011), pp. 75- 102.
157 J. J. G ross, E. Ha lperin, a nd R. Porat, "Emotio n Regulatio n in Intractab le Conflicts,"' Current Directions in Ps)1C-lwlog ical Science 22, no. 6 (2013), pp. 423- 429.
158 A. S. Troy, A. J. Sha llcross, a nd I. B. Mauss, •A Person -by-Pe rson Situation Approach to Emotion Regulation: Cogn itive Reappraisal Can Either Help or Hurt, Depending o n the Context,• Ps)'chological Science 24, no. 12 (2013), pp. 2505-25 14.
15 9 E. Halperin, R. Porat, M. Tamir, a n d J. J. G ross, "Can Emotion Regulatio n C hange Po litical Attitudes in Intractable ConflicLs? From the Laborato ry to the Field,· Ps)'clwlogical Scie11ce, January 2013, p p. 106- 111 .
160 R. Teper, Z. V. Segal, and M. lnzlicht, "In.side the Mindful Mind: How Mi n dfu l n ess Enhances Em o t io n Regu la t io n throu gh I m provem ents in Execu tive Co ntrol," Current D irect ions i,i Psychological Science 22, no. 6 (2013), p p. 449- 454.
161 A. S. McCan ce, C. D. Nye, L. Wang, K. S. Jo n es, a nd C. Chiu, •Alleviating the Bu rden of Emo tion a l Lab o r: The Ro le of Social Sha ring," Journal of Manageme111 39, no. 2 (2013), pp. 392- 4 15.
162 F. N ils a nd B. Rime, • Beyond th e Myth o f Venting: Social Sharing Modes Determi ne the Be nefi ts of Emotio nal D isclosu re," Europea11 Journal of Social Ps)'chology 42 (2012), pp. 672- 681; a nd J. D. Pa rlam is, "Venting as Emotio n Regulatio n : The Influence of Venting Responses a nd Respon dent Identi ty on An ger and Em otional Tone,• 1"temational Journal of Conflict Ma11agement 23 (2012),pp. 7 7-96.
163 S.-C. S. Chi a nd S.-G. Lia ng, "\.Vh en Do Subo rd ina te.,' Emotio n - Regulatio n Strategies Matter? Abus ive S upervision, Subordina tes'
Emotional Exhaustio n, and \<\fo rk 'A' ithdrawal, • The Leadership Quarterly, Februa ry 2013, pp. 125- 137 .
164 R. H. Hu mphrey, "How Do Leaders Use Emo tional Labor?" Joumal ofOrga11izational Behavior, July 2012, p p. 740-744.
165 A. M. Grant, "Rocking the Boat but Keeping It Steady: Th e Ro le of Emotio n Regulation in Emp loyee Voice, • Academy of Manageme11t Joumal 5 6, no. G (2013), pp. 1703- 17 23.
166 Based on "Affecti ve Computi ng, · M IT, accessed Octo b e r I , 2014, h ttp://affect.m edia.mit.edu/ ; •Affective Computi ng and Inte ll igen t Interaction " (pap er presen ted at IEEE Co mputer Society Annual Conference. Geneva, Switz-e rl and, Septe m ber 2013 ), http://ieeexplo re.ieee.org/xpl/ mostRecentlssue.jsp ? re loa d=true&punumber=G67993G; a nd K. Weintraub, "But How Do You Really Feel ? Someday the Computer May Know, · New York Times, Octobe r 16, 2012, p . 03.
167 C. \.Vest, • How Culture Affects the Way We Think,· APS Observer 20, n o. 7 (2007), pp. 25-26.
168 T. Masuda, R. Gonzalez, L. Kwa n, a nd R. E. N isbett, · c ulture a nd Aesthetic Pre fe ren ce: Compa ring the Attentio n to Context of East Asians and Ame ricans,• Personality a11d Social Ps)'clwlog)' Bul/e1i11 34, no. 9 (2008), pp. 1260- 12 75 .
169 D. C. Pa rk, · oeveloping a Cu ltural Cogn itive Neuroscie nce of Aging,• in Ha11dbook of Cog11itive Agi11g, ed. S. M. Hofer and D. F. Alwi n (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 3 5 2- 367 .
170 Q . Wang, •o n th e Cultural Constitution of Collective Memo ry," Memory 16, no. 3 (2008), pp. 305-317 .
171 See, fo r instan ce, A. H. Mezulis, L Y. Abra m.son, J. S. Hyde, a nd B. L. Hankin, "Is There a Universal Positivity Bias in Attributions: A Meta-a nalytic Review of Individual, Developmen tal, and Cultural Diffe re n ces in the Self-Serving Attributio na l Bias, • Ps)'clwlogical B11/leri11 130, no. 5 (2004), pp. 711 -74 7; C. F. Falk, S. J. Heine, M. Yuki, a nd K. Takem ura, "'A'h y Do Westerners Self-Enh ance More
556 En dnotes
Than East Asians?' European Joumal of Personality 23, no. 3 (2009), pp. 183 - 203; a nd F. F. T. Ch iang a nd T. A. Birtch, 'Examining the Perceived Cause< of Successfu l Employee Performance: An East- West Comparison," huen1ational Journal of Human Resource Management 18, no. 2 (2007), pp. 232- 248.
172 R. Friedma n, VJ. Li u, C. C. Chen , and S. S. Chi, 'Causal Attribution fo r lnterfi rm Contract Vio la tion : A Comparative Study of Chinese and Am erican Com mercia l Arb itrators: Journal of Applied Psycholog)' 92, no. 3 (2007), pp. 856- 864.
173 J. Spencer-Rodgers, M. J. \.Villiams, D. L. Hamilton, K. Peng. and L. Wang, 'Cu ltu re a nd G roup Perception: D ispositional a nd Stereotypic Inferen ces about Novel and National Groups,• Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 93, no. 4 (2007), pp. 525-543.
174 J. D. Brow n , 'Across t h e (Not So) Great D iv ide: C u ltura l S imilarities i n Self. Eva luative Processes," Social and Personality
Psycholog)' Compass 4, no. 5 (2010), pp. 318 - 330.
175 A. Z h a n g , C. Reyna, Z . Q ia n , a n d G. Yu, "In te rpersona l Attributions of Respon.<ibility in the Chinese Workplace: A Test of Western Models in a Collectivis tic Context,· Journal of Applied Social Psychology 38, no. 9 (2008), pp. 2361- 2377; a nd A. Zhang, F. Xia, a n d C. Li, "The Antecedents of Help Giving in C hinese Culture: Attr ib ution, Judgment of Responsib ility, Expectation Change and the Reaction of Affect,• Social Behavior and Personality 35, no. I (2007), pp. 135-142.
176 See, fo r example, R. R. McCrae a nd P. T. Costa Jr., 'Personality Trait Structure as a Human Universal," American Ps}'r::hologisl, May 1997, pp. 509-516; S. Yamagata, A. Suzuki, J. Ando, Y. Ono, K. Yutaka, N . Kijima, K. Yosh imura, F. Ostendorf, A. Angle itner, R. Riem ann, F. M. Spinath, V\I. J. Livesley, and K. L Jang. ' Is the Genetic Structu re of Hu man Personal ity U niversal? A Cross. Cultu ra l Twi n S tudy fro m North America, Europe, and Asia,• Journal of Persona/it)' and Social Ps)'cholog)' 90, no. 6 (2006), pp. 987- 998; H. C. T riandis and E. M. Suh, 'Cultural Influences on Personality: in Annual Review of Ps)'chology, vol. 53, ed. S. T. Fiske, D. L. Schacter, and C. Zah n -~'axle r (Pa lo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews, 2002), pp. 133- 160; R.R. McCrae and J. Allik, The Five-Factor Model of Personality across Culwres ( New York: Kluwe r Academic/Plenum, 2002); a nd R. R. McCrae, P. T. Costa Jr., T. A. Ma rt in, V. E. OryoJ, A. A. Rukavish nikov, I. G. Senin, M. Hrebic'kova, and T. Urbanek, "Consensual Va lidation of Personality Traits across Cultures,· Journal of Research in Personality 38, no. 2 (2004), pp. 179 - 201.
17 7 M. Gurven , C. von Ruden, M. Massenkoff, H. Kapla n, and M. L. Vie, "How Universal Is the Big Five? Testi ng the Five-Factor Model of Persona lity Variation among Forager. farmers in the Bolivia n Amazon,· Joumal of Personality and Social Psychology 104, no. 2 (2013), pp. 354- 370.
178 M. Eid and E. Diener, 'Norms for Experie ncing Emotions in Differen t Cultures: In ter· and l ntranational D ifferences," Joumal of Personality a11d Social Ps)'cholog)' 81, no. 5 (2001 ), pp. 869- 885.
179 S. O ishi, E. Diener, and C. Napa Scollon, 'Cross-Sit u ation a l Consis te ncy of Affective Experiences across Cultures: Joumal of Personality a11d Social Ps)'clwlog)' 86, no. 3 (2004), pp. 460- 472; a nd J. Leu, J. \.Va ng, a nd K. Koo, 'Are Posit ive Emotions Just as 'Positive' across Cultures?" Emotion 11, no. 4 (2011 ) .
180 M. Gendron, D. Roberson, J. M. van der Vyver, and L F. Barrett, 'Cultural Relativity of Perceiving Emotio n fro m Vocalizations,· Psyclwlogical Scie11ce 25, no. 4 (2014), pp. 911 - 920.
181 S. Nelton, 'Em otions in the Wo rkp lace,• Nation's Business, February 1996, p. 25.
182 B. Carey, "The Benefits of Blowing Your Top: New York Times. July 6, 2010, p. D I ; R. Y. C h eung a nd I. J. Park, "An ger Suppression, Inte rdepen dent Self-Cons t rual, and Depression a mo ng Asian A merican and Europea n A merican College Stu dents," Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psycholog)' 16, no. 4 (2010), pp. 517- 425; D. Geddes a nd L. T. S tickney, "The Trouble w ith Sanctions:
O rganizational Respo n.ses to Deviant Anger Displays a t \.Vo rk: Human Relations 64, no. 2 (2011 ), pp. 201 - 230; J. Fairley, "Taking Contro l of Anger Managem en t,• Workforce Manageme11t, October 2010, p. JO; LT. Stickney and D. Geddes, "Positive, Proactive, and Committed: The Surprising Connection Between Good Citizens a nd Expressed (vs. Suppressed) Anger a t Work,• Negotiatio11 a11d Conflict Management Research 7, no. 4 (Novem ber 2014), pp. 243- 264; and J. W ha len, "An gry OutbursL< Rea lly Do Hurt Your Health, Doctors Find: \-Vall Street Jouma/, March 24, 2015, pp. DI, 04.
183 Exercise based on M.-A. Reinard a nd N. Schwartz, "The In fluen ce of Affective States on th e Presence of Lie Detection,· Joumal of Experimental Psychology 18 (2012), pp. 377- 389.
184 Based on S. Shellen barger, "Thinking Happy ThoughL< at Work,• Wall Street Journal, Ja nuary 27, 2010, p. 02; S. Sharm a a nd D. C h atterjee, "Cos Are Keenly Listen ing to ' Happiness Coach," Economic Times, July 16, 2010, h ttp://artides.economictimes.ind ia - t imes.com; J. Smith, 11ie Executive Happiness Coach, accessed May 3, 2011, http://,V\,~v.lifewithhappines.,.com; and S. Sonnentag and A. M. Grant, "Doing Good a t Work Feels Good at Hom e, But Not Right Away: \.Vh en and \.Vh y Perceived Pro.social Impact Predicts Po.<itive Affect,· Personnel Psrchology 65 (2012), pp. 495-530.
185 Based o n S. Cain, Quiet: The Power of l11troverts in a World 11iat Can't Stop Talking (New York: Ra ndom Ho u se/Broadway Paperbacks, 2013); G. Belojevic, V. Slepcevic, a nd B. Jakovljevic, "Mental Performance in Noise: The Ro le of Introvers ion," jounial of Environmental Psychology 21, no . 2 (2001 ), pp. 209 - 213; a nd P. Hi lls a nd M. Argyle, ' Happiness, l ntrove rsion-Extraversion and Happy Int roverts: Perso11ality and Individual Differe11ces 30, no. 4 (2001 ), pp. 595-608.
186 P. Hartcher, 'Voters Now at Ease w ith Rich Pickings,• The Syd11ey Morn ing Herald, July 30, 2013, h ttp://"~'~v.smh.com .au/fed- eral . po Ii t ics/ f edera I-e lect ion- 2013 / voters-n ow-at-ease-w ith . rich -p ickings-20J30729-2quvp.html; N. T. Feather, 'An alyzing Re lative. Deprivation in Rel atio n to Deservingness, Entitlement and Resent ment,· Social Justice Research 28 (201 5), pp. 7- 26; E. Ki m a nd T. M. Glomb, "Victimization of High Performers: The Roles of Envy and \<\fork Group Identi fi cation,• Joumal of Applied Psychology 99, no. 4 (2014), pp. 6 19 - 634; a n d K. Van Va lkenburgh, lllvestigating Tall Poppy Syndrome i11 United States Fi,iancial hlstitutions: A,i Attitude mid Values Perspective, doctoral dis.sertatio n, Alliant In ternational Univers ity (2013), publication number 3595388.
187 Based o n V. P. Richmond , J. C. McCroskey, and S. K. Payne, Nonverbal Behavior in Interpersonal Relatiol!S, 2 nd ed. (Englewood C liffs, NJ: Prent ice Hall, 1991), pp. 11 7- 138; and L.A. King, ''Ambivalence over Emotio nal Expressio n and Reading Emotions in Sit uations and Faces,• Journal of Personality and Social Ps)'cholog)', March 1998, pp. 753-762.
Chapter 3
1 Vignette based on K. Porter, 'Local Tech Com panies Sign Open Letter Opposing Trump Travel Ban: CBC News, January 31, 2017, h ttp://W\,~v.cbc.ca/ news/canada/ o ttawa/tech-companie.<-oppose- trump-travel-ban- J .3954433; M. Braga, "Canadian Tech Companies Say They Value Diversity - But \.Vhat Are T hey Doing About It?" CBC News, July 11, 2017, http://W\,~v.cbc.ca/news/technology/ canada-tech-companies-diversity-reports-2017- 1.4194556.
2 G . R. Maio, J. M. O lson, M. M. Bern ard, a n d M. A. Lu ke, 'Ideologies, Va lues, Attitu des, a nd Beh avio r,• in Handbook of Social Ps)'cholog)', ed. J. Delamater (New York, NY: Springer, 2003), pp. 283 - 308.
3 See, fo r exam p le, B. Meglino a nd E. Ravl in, ' Indiv idual Values in Organ izatio ns: Journal of Managemelll 24, n o. 3 (1998), pp. 351- 389.
4 See, fo r instance, A. Sa rd i, J. A. Lee, N. Ho fma nn-Towfigh, a nd C. Soutar, "The Structure o f l ntraindivid ual Value C hange,· Journal
of Personality and Social Ps)'chology 97, no. 5 (2009), p p. 913 - 929.
5 S. Roccas, L. Sagiv, S. H. Schwartz, and A. Knafo, "The Big Five Personality Factors an d Personal Va lues, " Personalit)' mid Social Psycholog)' Bulletin 28, no. 6 (2002), pp. 789- 801.
6 M. Ro keach, The Nature of Human Values (New York: Free Press, 19 73), p. 56.
7 K. Hodgson, A Rock and a Hard Place: How to Make Ethical Business Decisiom When the Choices Are To ugh (New York: AMACOM, 1992), pp. 6 6- 67 .
8 K. Hodg.son, "Adapting Ethical Decisio n., to a Glo bal Marketplace,· Management Review 81, no. 5 (May 1992), p p. 53 - 5 7. Reprinted by permis.,ion.
9 Vignette based on h ttp://www.canadalearningcode.ca/.
10 G. Hofstede, Culture's Co,isequences: huernatio,ial D ifferences in Work-Related Values ( Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1980); G. Hofsted e,
Cul111res and Organizatio11S: Software of the Mind (London: McCraw- H ill, 1991); G. Hofstede, "Cultural Const rainL< in Management Theories, • Academ)' of Management Execut ive 7, no. 1 (1993), pp. 81 - 94; G. Hofstede a nd M. F. Pe terson, "Natio nal Values a n d O rganizational Practices,• in Handbook of Organizational Culture and Climate, ed. N. M. Ashkan asy, C. M. \.Vilderom, a n d M. F. Pete rson (Thousa nd Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000), pp. 401- 416; a n d G. Ho fstede, Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, histitutio,is~ mid Organizatio,is across Nations, 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001 ). For criticism of th is research, see B. McSween ey, "Hofstede's Model of Natio nal C ultural Di ffere n ces a n d T h eir Consequences: A Tr iump h o f Fait h - A Fa ilu re of Analysis; Human Relations 55, no . 1 (2002), p p. 89- 118.
11 G. Hofstede, "Dime nsio nalizing Culture.<: The Hofstede Model in Context: O nline Readings in Psychology a nd Culture, Unit 2 , 201 1, h ttp://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/ o rpc/ vol2/ iss 1 / 8.
12 G. Hofstede, "Dime nsio nalizing Culture.<: The Hofstede Model in Context: O nline Readings in Psychology a nd Culture, Unit 2 ,
201 1, h ttp://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/ o rpc/ vol2/ iss 1 / 8.
13 V. Taras, B. L. Ki rkma n, and P. Steel, "Exam i ning the Im p act of C ulture's Conseque n ces: A Three-Decade, Multilevel, Meta- analytic Review of Hofstede's Cultural Value Dimensions,• Journal of Applied Psycholog,• 95, no. 5 (2010), pp. 405- 439.
14 M. Javidan a nd R. J. House, "C ultural Acumen fo r t h e G lo b al Manager. Les.,ons fro m Project G LOBE,• Organizational Dynamics 29, no . 4 (2001 ), pp. 289 - 305; a nd R. J. House, P. J. Ha n ges, M. Javida n, a n d P. ""· Dorfman, eds., Leadership, Culwre, and Organizatiom: The GLOBE S111dy of 62 Societies (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2004) .
15 J. P. Meyer, D. J. Stanley, T. A. Jackson, K. J. Mel nnis, E. R. Maltin, a n d L. Sheppard, ' Affective, Norm a tive, a n d Con ti n ua n ce Commitm e nt Levels Across Cultures: A Meta-a n alysis,• Journal of Vocational Behavior 80, no. 2 (2012), p p. 225-245.
16 B. Megli n o , E. C. Ravl in, and C. L. Ad ki n s, ' A Wo rk Va lues Ap p roach to Corporate Cu lt u re: A Field Test of t h e Va lue Congruence Process and Its Relationship to Ind ividual O utcomes,•
Journal of Applied Ps)'chology 74 (1989), p p. 424- 432.
17 B. Z. Posn er, J. M. Kouzes, and W. H. Sch midt, "Sh ared Va lues Make a Diffe re nce: An Empirical Test of Corporate C ult ure, •
Human Resource Management 24 ( 1985), pp. 293- 310; a nd A. L. Balazas, "Value Congruency: The Case of the 'Socially Respon.,ible' Firm," Journal of Bminess Research 20 (1990), p p. 171- 181.
18 C. A. O' Reill y, J. C h atman, a n d D. Caldwell, ' People a n d O rganizatio nal Culture: A Q -Sort Approach to Assessing Person. O rgan izatio nal Fit; Academ)' of Management Journal 34 (1 991 ) , pp. 487- 516.
End notes 557
19 C. Enz a n d C. K. Sch wen k, ' Pe rfor m a n ce a n d Sh aring of Organizatio nal Value,· (paper p resented at the annual meeting of the Academy of Manageme nt, Washington, DC, 1989) .
20 See, fo r example, The Multige11erational Workforce (Alexan d ria, VA: Society fo r Huma n Resource Management, 2009); a nd M. Adams, Sex in the Snow (Toronto: Penguin, 1997).
21 J. Timm, ' Leadership Q&A: Robert Dutto n,· Canadian Business, June 22, 2011 .
22 K. \.V. Sm o la and C. D. Sutton, ' Gen era tio n al D iffe re nces: Revisiting Gen erational Work Values fo r the New Millennium: Joumal of Orga11izational Behavior 23 (2002), pp. 363- 382; a nd K. Mellah i a n d C. Gu e rmat, ' Doe., Age Matter? An Em p irical Exam i n a tion of t h e Effect of Age on Ma n ageria l Values and Practices in India,· Journal of World Business 39, n o. 2 (2004), pp. 199- 215.
23 B. Malcolm, ' Millennials Now Represent the Largest Generation in the Canadian Workforce: January 2, 201 7, Ravenhill Croup Incorporated, http://ravenhiIlgroup.com/ millennials-canadian - workforce/ .
24 E. Pa rry a nd P. Urwin, ' Gen erational Di fferences in Work Values: A Review of Theory a n d Eviden ce," I,uernatio,ial Journal of Manageme11t Reviews 13, no. 1 (2011), pp. 79- 96.
2 5 J. M. Twenge, S. M. Ca mp b ell, B. J. Hoffman, a nd C. E. Lance, "Generatio nal Difference.'i'. in \+Vork Values: Leisure and Extrinsic Values Increasing. Social and Intrinsic Values Decreasing. "' Journal of Ma nagement 36, no. 5 (2010), pp. 111 7- 1142.
26 Based on P. Loriggio, 'Teen \<\!ho 'A'o n Google Prize Juggles School \<\fo rk w ith Science Fair,• Macle1111 's, Decemb er 2 7, 2013; and A. Kingston, ' Get Ready fo r Gen eration z; Maclea11's, July 15, 2014.
2 7 Statistics Canada, Jmmigratio,i and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada (Cata logue no. 99-0 10 -X2011001) (Ottawa: Statistic., Canada, 2013). Unfortuna tely these n umbe rs have not been updated due to cutb acks in data collected by the Canadian government.
28 The source fo r p rojections in the paragrap h is J.· D. Morency, E. C. Malen fant, an d S. Macisaac, Imm igration and Diver.sity: Population Projections for Canada and Its Regions, 2011 to 2036 (Cata logue N umber 91-551 -X) (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2017) .
29 h ttps://www.brooki ngs.edu/ b log/b rookings-now/ 2013/ 10/ 03/ what-percentage-of-u -s-popula tion-is-fo reign-b orn/ .
30 Stati,;:tics Canada, Jmmigratio,i and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada (Cata logue no. 99-0 10 -X2011001) (Ottawa: Statistic., Canad a, 2013).
31 Sta tis tics Canada, ' 2011 Census of Popu la ti o n: Lingu is tic C haracteristics of Canadians,· The Daily, October 24, 2012.
32 Sta tis tics Canada, ' 201 1 Census of Popu lati o n: Lingu is tic C haracteristics of Canadians,· The Daily, October 24, 2012.
33 B. Leber, "Police-Re p o rted Hate Cri me in Canada,• Statistic., Can ada, Juristat (85-002-X), Jun e 13, 2017.
34 M. Isaac, ' Ins ide Uber's Aggressive, U nre.<t rai n ed Workp lace Culture,• New York Times, February 22, 2017, p. A 1.
35 A. Bars~)', S. A. Kapla n, a nd D. J. Beal, "Just Feelings? Th e Ro le of Affect in the Formatio n of O rganizational Fairness Judgments,• Joun,al of Management, January 2011, pp. 248- 2 79; J. A. Mikels, S. J. Magl io , A. E. Reed, a nd L J. Ka p lowitz, ' Sh ould I Co with My C ut? Investigating the Ben efi ts of Emotio n-Focused Decision Making, · Emotion, August 2011 , pp. 743- 753; and A. J. Ro jas Tejada, 0. M. Loza n o Ro jas, M. Navas Luq u e, a n d P. J. Pe rez Moreno, ' Prejudiced Attitude Measurement Using the Rasch Scale Mod el; Ps)'chological Reports, October 2011 , p p. 553- 572.
36 M. Ri ketta, "The Causa l Relation b e tween Jo b Attitude., a n d Performance: A Meta-analysis o f Panel Stud ies,• Journal of Applied Psychology 93, no. 2 (2008), p p. 4 72 - 481.
3 7 D. P. Moynihan a n d S. K. Pandey, "Find ing 'A1orkable Levers over \<\fo rk Motivation: Compa ring Job Satisfactio n, Job Involvem ent,
558 En dnotes
and Organizational Commitment," Admi,iistratio,i & Society 39, no. 7 (2007), pp. 803- 832.
3 8 For problems w ith the concept of job satisfaction, see R. Hodson, 'Workplace Behaviors," Work and Occupations, August 1991 , pp. 271 - 290; and H. M. Weiss a n d R. C ropanzano, 'Affective Even ts Th eory: A Theoretical Discussion of the Structure, Causes and Consequence.Ii of Affective Experien ces at Work," in Research i11 Organizational Behavior, vol. 18, ed. 8 . M. Staw a n d L. L. Cumm ings (G reen wich, CT: JAi Press, 1996), pp. 1- 3.
3 9 ' O n e-half of Working Popu latio n Unh appy In Job: Survey,• Ca11adia1t HR Reporter, May 2, 2016, h ttp://W\,~v.hrreporter.com/ a rticle/2 7 4 61 -o n e-h alf-of-worki ng-popu l atio n -u nhappy-i n - job-survey/.
40 J. Barling, E. K. Kelloway, and R. D. Iverson, 'H igh-Quality Work, Job Satisfaction, a nd Occupational l njurie.<, • Joumal of Applied
Psychology 88, no. 2 (2003), pp. 276- 283; a nd F. W. Bond and D. Bunce, 'The Role of Acceptance and Job Cont ro l in Mental Hea lth, Job Satisfaction, and Wo rk Perform ance: Journal of Applied Ps)'chology88, no. 6 (2003), pp. 1057- 1067.
41 Y. Ceorgell is and T. Lange, ' Traditiona l versus Secul a r Values and the Job-Life Satisfaction Relationship across Eu rope,· British Jo11mal of Ma11ageme1tt 23 (2012), pp. 437- 454.
42 S. E. Humphrey, J. D. Nahrgang, and F. P. Morgeson, 'Integrating Motivational, Social, a nd Contextual \+Vork Design Features:
A Meta-a n alytic Su mmary a nd Theo retica l Extension of the Work De.sign Literature: Joumal of Applied Ps)'chology 92, no. 5 (2007), pp. 1332- 1356; a nd D.S. C hiaburu a nd D. A. Harrison, ' Do Peers Make the Pl ace? Conceptual Synthesis a n d Meta- a n alysis of Coworker Effect on Perceptions, Attitudes, OCBs, and Performance,• Jo11mal of Applied Psychology 93, no. 5 (2008),
pp. 1082- 1103.
43 K. H. Fong a nd E. Snape, 'Em powering Leadersh ip, Psychological
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44 S. Ronen, M. Mikuli ncer, "Predicting Employees' Satisfactio n and Bur nout from Ma nagers' Attach m e nt and Ca regiv i ng Orientations," Europea,i Jounial of Work and Orga,iizational Psyclwlog)' 21, no. 6 (2012), pp. 828- 849.
4 5 A. Ca lvo-Salgu ero, J.· M. Salinas Martinez-de-Lecea, and A.·M. Carrasco-Conza lez, 'Work-Fam ily and Fami ly-\.Vo rk Con flict: Does Intrinsic-Extrinsic Satisfactio n Mediate the r rediction of Genera l Job Satisfaction?" The Jo11mal of Ps)'cl1ology 145, no. 5 (2011 ), pp. 435- 461.
46 J. Zh ang, Q. Wu, D. Miao, X. Yan, a nd J. Peng, "The Impact of Core Sel f-Evaluations o n Job Satisfaction: Th e Mediator Ro le of Career Commitment,· Social Indicators Research 116, no. 3 (2014),
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47 T. A. Judge, C. J. Thore.<en, J. E. Bono, and C. K. Patton, "The Job Satisfaction- Job Perfo rma nce Rela tion.ship: A Qualitative and Quantitat ive Review,• Psychological Bulletin, May 2001, pp. 3 7 6 - 407.
48 D. \.V. O rgan, Orga1tizario11al Citizenship Behavior: The Good Soldier Syndrome (Lexington, MA: Lexi ngt o n Books, J 988), p. 4.
49 See P. M. Podsa koff, S. 8 . MacKenzie, J. 8. Pa ine, and D. C. Bach rach, .. O rganizational Citizenship Behaviors: A Critica l Review of the Theoretical a nd Empirical Literature and Suggestions for Futu re Re.sea rch: Journal of Ma11age111e111 26, no. 3 (2000), pp. 513-563.
50 8 . J. Hoffman, C. A. Blai r, J. P. Maeriac, and D. J. \.Voeh r, 'Expand ing the C riterion Domain? A Quantitative Review of the
OCB Literature: Joumal of Applied Ps)'cl1ology 92, no. 2 (2007), pp. 555-566.
51 8. 8. Reiche e t al., "\.Vhy Do Managers Engage in Trustworthy
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52 D.S. Chiaburu a nd D. A. Harrison, "Do Peers Make the Place? Conceptual Synthesis a n d Meta-a nalysis of Coworker Effect on Pe rceptions, Attitudes, OCBs, and Performa nce," Jo11mal of Applied Psychology 93, no. 5 (2008), pp. 1082- 1103.
53 R. ll ies, I. S. Fu l m e r, M. Spi tz m u lle r, and M. D. Joh nson,
"Personality and Citizenship Behavior: The Mediating Role of Job Satisfaction,· Jo11mal of Applied Psychology94 (2009), pp. 945- 959.
54 C. L. Le m o ine, C. K. Parsons, a n d S. Kansara, 'Above and Beyond, Aga in and Agai n: Self- Regulatio n in th e Afterm a th of Organizati onal Cit izensh ip Behaviors,• Journal of Applied Psychology JOO, no. I (201 5), pp. 40-55.
55
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C. Vandenbe rghe, K. Ben te i n, R. Michon, J. C hebat, M. Tre mblay, and J. Fils, 'An Examinatio n of the Role of Perceived Support and Emp loyee Commitm e nt in Emp loyee-C ustom e r Encounters,• Journal of Applied Ps)'chology 92, n o . 4 (2007), pp. 1177- 1187; a nd M. Schulte, C. Ostroff, S. Sh mulyian, and A. Kin icki, "Organizatio nal Climate Configu rations: Relationsh ips to Collective Attitudes, Customer Satisfaction, and f inancial Performance: Jo11m11I of Applied Psyclwlogy94 (2009), pp. 618-634.
8. Taylo r, "\<Vhy Am azon Is Copying Zappo., an d Paying Employees
to Qui t," Harvard B11si11ess Review, Apri l 14, 2014, h ttps:// h b r.o rg/ 2014 /04 /why-amazon -is-copyi ng-zappos-a nd -paying- em ployees-to-q uit/.
J. Barling, E. K. Kelloway, a nd R. D. Iverson, "High-Quality Work, Job Satisfaction, and Occupatio nal Injuries: Journal of Applied Ps)'cl1ology 88, n o. 2 (2003), pp. 276- 283; and F. W. Bond a nd D. Bunce, "The Ro le of Acceptance a nd Job Con trol in Menta l Healt h, Job Sati sfaction, a n d Work Perfor ma nce,• Journal of Applied Psycl1ology 88, no. 6 (2003), pp. 1057-1067.
Y. Georgellis and T. La nge, "'frad itional versus Secular Value.< and the Job-Life Satisfaction Relationship acrO."-< Europe,• British Jo11mal of Management 23 (2012), pp. 437- 454.
0. Stavrova, T. Sch losser, a nd A. Bau mert, "Life Satisfactio n and Job-Seeking Beh avio r of the Unemp loyed : The Effect of Ind ividual Diffe re nce.< in Justice Sen.<it ivity, • Applied Ps)'cl1ology:
An hilemational Review 64, no. 4 (2014), pp. 643- 670.
J. Zhou a nd J. M. George, ''A'h en Job Dissatisfaction Leads to C reativity: Encouraging the Expressio n of Voice." Academ)' of Management Jo11mal, August 2001, pp. 682 - 696; J. 8. O lson - Bucha nan a nd 'A'. R. Boswell, ' The Role of Employee Loyalty a n d Formality i n Voicing D isconte nt: Journal of Applied Ps)'clwlogy, December 2002, pp. 1167- 1174; a nd A. Davis-Blake, J. P. Broschak, a nd E. George, "Happy Together? How Using Nonstandard Workers Affects Exit, Voice, and Loyalty a mong Standard Employees: Academ)' of Ma11ageme11t Jo11mal 46, no. 4 (2003), pp. 475- 485.
A. J. Nyberg and R. E. Ployhart, 'Context-Emergent Turn over (CET) Theory: A Theory of Collective Turnover,· Academy of Management Review 38 (2013), pp. 109- 131.
P. E. Spector, S. Fox, L. M. Penney, K. Bruursema, A. Coh, a nd
S. Kessler, "111e D ime n.<ionality of Counterproductivity: Are All Coun terproductive Behaviors Created Equal?" Joumal of Vocatio11al Behavior 68, no. 3 (2006), pp. 446- 460; and D. S. C hiaburu a nd D. A. Harrison, 'Do Peers Make the Place? Conceptua l Synthesis a n d Meta-ana lysis of Coworker Effect o n Perceptions, Attitudes, OCBs, a nd Performance,· Journal of Applied Ps)'clwlogy 93, no. 5 (2008), pp. 1082- 1103.
P. A. O ' Keefe, ' Liking Work Really Does Matter,• New York Ti111es, September 7, 2014, p. 12.
D. ll iescu, D. Jspas, C. Su lea, a n d A. ll ie, "Vocat io n al Fit a nd Coun terproductive Work Behaviors: A Sel f- Regu la t ion
Perspective: Jo11r11al of Applied Psychology 100, n o . I (2015) , pp. 21- 39.
65 S. Gabriel, J. M. Diefendorf(, M. M. C h andler, C. M. M. Pradco, and G. J. Greguras, "The Dynamic Rela tionshi p.< o f Work Affect and Job Satisfactio n w ith Perceptio n., of Fit,• Perso1111el Ps)'chology 67 (2014), pp. 389- 420.
66 S. Diestel, J. \.Vegge, and K.· H. Sch midt, ' The Impact of Social Context o n the Rela tionsh ip between Individual Job Satisfaction and Absenteeism: The Roles of Differe nt Foci o f Job Satisfaction and Work-Unit Absenteeism,• Academy of Ma11ageme11t Joumal 57, n o. 2 (2014), pp. 353 - 382.
67 H. Lian, D. L Ferris, R. Morrison, a nd D. J. Brown, "Blame It o n the Supeivisor or the Subord inate? Reciprocal Relations between Abusive S upervisio n and Organizatio nal Deviance,,. Journal of Applied Ps)'chology99, no. 4 (2014), pp. 651 - 664.
68 T. A. Beauregard , 'Fairness Pe rceptio ns of Work - Life Ba lance Initiatives: EffecL'i on Counterproductive Work Behavior," British Joumal of Ma11ageme11t 25 (2014), pp. 772 - 789.
69 D. Jliescu, D. (spas, C. Su lea, a n d A. Jl ie, ' Vocational Fit and Counterproductive Work Behaviors: A Se(f.fu!gu lation Perspective, •
Joumal of Applied Ps)'chology JOO, n o. I (2015), pp. 21- 39.
70 S. Gabriel, J. M. Diefendorf(, M. M. C h andle r, C. M. M. Pradco, and G. J. Greguras, "The Dynamic Rela tionships o f Work Affect and Job Satisfactio n w ith Perception., of Fit, • Perso1111el Ps)'chology 67 (2014), pp. 389- 420.
71 S. Diestel, J. Wegge, and K.· H. Sch mid t , ' The Impact of Social Context o n the Rela tionsh ip between Individual Job Satisfaction and Absenteeism: The Roles o f Differe nt Foci of Job Satisfaction and Work-Un it Absenteeism,• Academy of Ma11ageme11t Joumal 57, n o. 2 (2014), pp. 353 - 382.
72 J. F. Ybem a, P. G. W. Smulders, a nd P. M. Bongers, ' AntecedenL< a nd Consequence.< of Emp loyee Absenteeism : A Longitud inal Perspective o n t h e Ro le of Job Sat isfaction a n d Bu r n ou t,• European Joumal of Work a11d Orga11izatio11al Psychology 19 (2010), pp. 102- 124.
73 J. P. Hausknech t, N. J. H iller, a n d R. J. Va n ce, ' Work -Un it Absenteeism : Effects of Satisfactio n, Commitment, Labo r Market Conditions, a n d lime, • Academ)' of Ma11ageme11t Joumal 51, no. 6 (2008), pp. 1123- 1245.
74 G. C hen, R. E. Ployh art, H. C. Thom as, N. An derson, and P. D. Bliese, "The Power of Momentum: A New Model of Dyn a mic Relationsh ips between Job Satisfaction Change a nd Turnover Intent ions,• Academy of Ma11ageme11t Journal, Feb ru ary 2011 , pp. 159- 181; a nd R. W. Griffeth, P. v,,1. Hom, and S. Gaertne r, ' A Meta-a n alysis of AntecedenL< a n d Correlat es of Employee Turn over: Update, Moderator Tests, a nd Research Implications fo r the Next Millenniu m, · Joumal of Ma11ageme11t 26, no. 3 (2000), p. 479.
75 D. Liu, T. R. Mitchell, T. W. Lee, B. C. Ho lto m, and T. R. H inkin, ' Wh en Emp loyees Are O ut of Step w ith Coworkers: How Job Satisfaction Trajectory a nd Dispersion lnOuence Individual· and Unit-Level Voluntary Turnover,• Academy of Ma11ageme11t Joun,al 55, no. 6 (2012), pp. 1360- 1380.
76 T. H. Lee, B. Gerh art, I. Weller, a n d C. 0. Trevor, ' Understanding Voluntary Turnover: Path-Specific Job Satisfaction Effects and the Importance of Unsolicited Job Offers,· Academy of Ma11ageme11t Joumal SJ, no. 4 (2008), pp. 651- 671 .
77 K. Jiang. D. Liu, P. F. McKay, T. W. Lee, a nd T. R. Mitchell, "V,,lh en and How Is Job Em beddedn ess Predictive of Turn over ? A Meta· a nalytic Investigation: Joun1al of Applied Psychology 97 (2012), pp. 1077- 1096.
78 G. J. Blau and K. R. Boal, ' Conceptualizing How Job Involvemen t and Orga n izat iona l Co m m it m e n t Affect Tu rnove r and Absenteeism: Academ)' of Ma11ageme11t Review, April 1987, p. 290.
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Endnotes 559
0 . N. Solinger, W. van Olffen, a n d R. A. Roe, ' Beyond the Three· Componen t Model of O rganizational Commit m ent,· Joumal of Applied Psycholog,• 93 (2008), pp. 70- 83.
N. J. Allen a n d J. P Meyer, "The Measurement a nd AntecedenL< of Affective, Continuance, and Normative Commitment to the O rga nizatio n, · Journal of Occupational Psycholog)' 63 ( 1990), pp. 1- 18; a n d J.P. Meyer, N. J. Allen, a n d C. A. S m ith, "Comm itment to Orga nizations a nd Occupatio ns: Extens ion and Test of a Three-Com pone nt Conceptualization,· Joumal of Applied Psycholog,• 78 (1993), pp. 538- 551.
M. Ri ketta, ' Attitud inal O rganizationa l Comm it m e nt a n d Job rerformance: A Meta.analysis, ... Journal of Organizational Behavior, March 2002, pp. 257- 266.
T. A. \<\frigh t a n d D. G. Bon ett, "Th e Modera t ing Effects of Em ployee Tenu re o n th e Relat ion between Orga nizatio nal Commitment and Job Performance: A Meta-ana lysis: Journal of Applied Psycholog,•, December 2002, pp. 1183- 11 90.
T. W. H. Ng, D. C. Feldman, a n d S.S. K. Lam, "Psychological Contract Breaches, O rganizational Comm itmen t, and Innovation· Related Beh aviors: A Latent Growth Modeling Approach,· Joumal of Applied Ps)'cltology 95 (2010), pp. 744- 751.
See, for example, W. Ho m , R. Ka t erberg, and C. L. H ul in, "Comparative Examinatio n of Three Approaches to the r rediction ofTurnover, • Joumal of Applied Psidwlog,•, June 1979, pp. 280- 290; H. Angle a nd J. Perry, "Organ izational Commit me nt: Individual and O rganizational Influence,• Work and Occupations, May 1983, pp. 123- 146; J. L Pierce a nd R. B. Du n h a m, ' Orga nizat io nal Com m itment: Pre-Emp loyme nt Propensity and Initial Work Experien ces,· Joumal of Management, Spring 1987, pp. 163- 178; and T. Simo ns a n d Q. Roberson, ' W hy Man agers Should Care about Fairne.o;s: The Effects of Aggregate Justice Perceptions on Organizational Outcomes,· Joumal of Applied Psi,:hology 88, no. 3 (2003), pp. 432- 443.
Y. Gong. K. S. Law, S. Ch ang. a nd K. R. Xin, ' Huma n Resources Management a nd Firm Performance: The Diffe rential Role of Managerial Affective and Continuance Commitment," Jounial of Applied Psycholog,• 94, no. I (2009), pp. 263- 275.
A. A. Luchak a n d I. R. Gell atly, ' A Comparison of Linear and Nonlinear Rel ations between Organizational Commitment and \<\fo rk Outcomes: Joumal of Applied Psychology 92, no. 3 (2007), pp. 786- 793.
See, for example, J.M. Diefen dorff, D. J. Brown, and A. M. Ka min, "Examin ing the Roles of Job Involvement a nd Work Centra lity in Pred icting Organizationa l Cit izensh ip Behaviors a n d Job Performance,· Joumal of Organizational Behavior, February 2002, pp. 93- 108.
Based on G. J. Bla u a nd K. R. Boal, "Conceptualizing How Job Involvement and Organizational Commitm en t Affect Tu rnover a n d Absenteeism: Academy of Ma11ageme11t Review, April 1987, p. 290.
G. Chen a n d R. J. Klimoski, "The Im pact of Expectations on Newcomer Pe rfo rm a nce i n Tea m s as Med ia ted by \+Vo rk Characteristics, Socia l Exchanges, and Empowennen t, " Academy of Management Joumal 46, no. 5 (2003), pp. 591- 607; A. Ergeneli, G. Saglam, and S. Metin, ' Psychological Empowerment and Its Relationship to Trust in Immediate Managers, " Journal of Business Research, Januaty 2007, pp. 41- 49; a n d S. E. Seibert, S. R. Silver, a n d W. A. Randolph, 'Taking Empowerment to the Next Level: A Mult ip le-Level Model of Em powerment, Pe rfo rm a n ce, and Satisfaction, · Academy of Ma11ageme11t Joumal 47, no. 3 (2004), pp. 332- 349.
B. J. Avolio, \.V. Zhu, W. Koh, a nd P. Bhatia, "Transformational Leadersh ip and O rganizational Commitm en t: Mediating Role of Psychological Empowerment and Moderating Role of Structural Dista nce: Joumal of Orga11izatio11al Behavior 25, n o. 8 (2004), pp. 951- 968.
560 En dnotes
91 ' 100 Best Companies to Work For,• Fortune, February 2015, http:// www.fortune..com/ best·companies/.
92 L. Rh oades, R. Eisenberge r, a nd S . A rm e l i, "Affective Comm itm ent to the O rganization: The Contribution of Perceived O rganizational Support: Joumal of Applied Ps)'clwlogy 86, no. 5 (2001 ) , pp. 825- 836.
93 B. L Rich, J. A. Lepine, and E. R. Crawford, ' Job Engagement: Anteceden ts and Effects o n Job Perfor m ance, · Academy of Management }oumal 53, no. 3 (2010), pp. GI 7 - 635.
94 B. L Rich, J. A. Lepine, and E. R. Crawford, ' Job Engagement: Anteceden ts and Effects o n Job Perfor m ance, · Academy of Management Joumal 53, no. 3 (2010), pp. GI 7- 635; a nd J. B. Ja mes, S. McKechnie, and J. Swanberg, ' Predicting Emp loyee Engagemen t in a n Age-Diverse Reta il Workfo rce,• }oumal of OrganiZ1Jtional Behavior 32, no. 2 (2011 ), pp. 173- 196.
95 ' Building a Better Workforce: PROFIT, February I G, 2011, http:// www.profitguide.com/ manage-grow/ huma n-resources/ b uilding· a -better-workforce-30073.
96 ' Building a Better Workforce: PROFIT, February I G, 2011, http:// www.profitguide.com/ manage-grow/ huma n-resources/ b uilding· a -better-workforce-30073.
97 T. Armstrong and R. \<\fright, "Em p loyee Engagem en t: Leveraging the Science to Inspire Great Performance,• The Conference Boord of Canada, July 13, 2016 .
98 S. Crabtree, ' Wo rldwide, 13•/o of Em ployees Are Engaged at Work: Gallup World, October 8, 2013; a nd http://W\,~v.molson· coors.com/ en/ Responsi b i Ii ty / \¥hat o/o20Matte rs•/o20To%20Us/ Em p loyees%20Com mu nity/ O ur%20Em p loyees/ Engagement. aspx.
99 Based o n C. Chase, "Butler Charles MacPherson Is Taking Ford of Canada's Service Advisors to School,• Driving, August 8, 2014, h t tp://d rivi ng.ca/ fo rd/ au to · news/ n ews/ how-a . butler. is-help· ing· tO· improve. fo rds.customer·service; H . Kafoury, .. C reating Customer Loyalty, One Employee a t a Time: Engaging Workers Can Start with Mutua l Respect between Managem ent and Staff," Gazette (Mo ntrea l), Ja nuary 21, 2014, p. 82; a nd J. Lofa ro , ' Charl es the Butler in O ttawa to Train Ford Employees Proper Etiquette,· Metro (Ottawa), August G, 2014, h ttp://metronews.ca/ news/ Ottawa/ 1119408/ charles-the-b utler -i n -o ttawa-to-trai n -fo rd · employees-proper-etiquette/ .
100 N. R. Lockwood, Leveraging Emplo)'ee Engagement for Competitive Advantage (A lexa n d ria, VA: Society fo r Human Resou rce Ma nagem ent, 2007); a nd R. J. Vance, Employee Engagement and Commitment {Alexandria, VA: Society fo r H u ma n Resource Management, 2006).
101 N. R. Lockwood, Leveraging Emplo)'ee Engagement for Competitive Advantage (A lexa n d ria, VA: Society fo r Human Reso u rce Ma nagem ent, 2007); a nd R. J. Vance, Employee Engagement and Commitment (Alexandria, VA: Society fo r H u ma n Resource Management, 2006).
102 ' Employee Engage m ent,• Workforce Manageme,11, Feb ru ary 2013, p. 19; and ' The Cornerstone O n Demand 2013 U .S. Emp loyee Report: Cornerstone OnDemand, 2013 , http://\\~Vw. corne rs toneondem a nd .com/ resources/ research/ survey· 2013.
103 ' Employee Engagement: Workforce Manageme,11 , February 2013, p. 19; an d "The Come.,,'tone On Demand 2013 U.S. Employee Report,· Comerstone OnDenumd, 2013, http://\V\V\v.comerstoneondemand.com/ resources/ research/ survey-2013.
104 Y. Brune tto , S. T. T. Teo, K. Shacklock, a nd R. Farr-\.Vharton, ' Em otional Intell igen ce, Job Satisfaction, Well -bei n g a n d En gagemen t: Exp lai n i n g O rganisationa l Com mitmen t a n d T urnover I ntentio ns in Po licing,,. Human Resource Management Joumal, 2012, pp. 428- 441.
105 P. Petrou, E. Dem erouti, M. C. W. Peeters, W. B. Schaufeli, and J. Hetland, "Crafti ng a Job o n a Daily Basis: Contextua l Correlates
and the Li n k to Work Engagem e nt,• Jounial of OrganiZ1Jtional Behavior, November 2012, pp. 1120- 1141.
106 \,V. H . Macey and B. Sch n e ider, "The Mean ing of Employee En gagemen t,• Industrial and Organizational Ps)'cholog)' I (2008), pp. 3- 30; and A. Saks, "The Meaning a nd Bleedi ng of Employee Engagem ent: How Muddy Is the \<\later?' Industrial and OrganiZ1Jtional Ps)'clwlogy I (2008), pp. 40- 43 .
107 J. M. George, "The Wider Context, Costs, and Benefits of Work Engagem ent,• European Journal of Work and Organ izational Psychology 20, no. I (2011 ), pp. 53- 59; and J. R. B. Halbesleben, J. Ha rvey, a nd M. C. Bolino, "Too Engaged? A Conservation of Resources View of the Rel ationship between Work Engagem ent and Work Interfere nce w ith Family,• }oumal of Applied Psyc/Jology 94, no. G (2009), pp. 1452- 1465.
108 Vignette based o n M. Braga, "Ca n ad ia n Tech Compa nies Say They Va lue D ivers ity - But W hat Are They Doi ng About It? " CBC News, July II, 2017, h ttp://"~'~v.cbc.ca/ news/ technology/ canada-tech-compa nies-d iversity-reports-2017- 1.4194556; a nd h ttp://ladieslearningcode.com/ annua l report2016/ .
109 A. H. Eagly a nd J. L. C hin, ' Are Memberships in Race, Ethnicity, and Gen der Categories Merely Surface Characteristic.~?" American Psychologist 65 (2010), pp. 934 - 935.
110 \.V. J. Casper, J. H. Wayne, and J. G. Manegold, "\.Vho \.Viii We Recruit?Targeti ng Deep· and Surface. l£vel Diversity with Human Resou rce Policy Advertising. ,. Human Resource Management 52, no. 3 (2013), pp. 311 - 332.
111 Corus Entertainment, "Accessib ility & Diversity,· acces.sed October, 2014, h ttp://www.corusent.com/ h o me/ Corporate/ AboutCorus/ Accessi bi I i ty Diversity/ tab id/ 2 5 7 2 / Defa u It.as px.
112 N . Giroua rd, D. Stack, a nd M. O' Neill-Gilbert, ' Ethnic Differences during Social Interactio ns of Preschoolers in Sam e-Ethnic a n d Cross-Eth nic Dyads,· European Joumal of Developmental Psychology 8, n o. 2 (2011), pp. 185 - 202.
113 A. Ch apin, ' Special Report: Diversity Knocks,· Canadian Business, October 7, 2010.
114 D. A. Thomas and R. J. Ely, ' Making Differe n ces Matter. A New r aradigm for Managing D iversity." Harvard Business Review, Septembe r 1996, pp. 79- 90; C. L. Holladay a nd M.A. Quinones, "11,e Influence of Tra ining Focus and Trainer Characteristic.Ii on
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115 L. Legault, J. Gutsell, and M. lnzlicht, ' Iron ic Effects of Anti· Prejudice Messages,• Psrcl1ological Science, Ju ly 6, 2011, http://\VW\V. psychologicalscience.org/index.php/ news/ releases/ ironic-effectS· of -a n ti· p rej u d ice· messages. h tm I .
116 h ttp:/ fbetakiLcom/ accessnow-foun der-maayan-z iv-talks-b tLsiness· b enefi ts-of. accessi bi I i ty ·at· tech to/ .
117 A. Pomeroy, ' Cultivating Female Leaders,· HR Magazine, February 2007, pp. 44- 50.
118 Based on P. Jeffery, ' A Call to Action,• FP Magazine, June 21, 2011 .
119 Based on A. L. Molinsky, T. H. Davenport, B. Iyer, and C. Davidson, •3 Skills Every 21st-Century Ma nager Needs,• Harvard Business Review, January/ Fe b ruary 2012.
12 0 P. C. Earley and E. Mo.sakowski, "Cultural Intelligen ce,· Harvard Business Review, October 2004, pp. 139- 146.
121 S. S. Ra malu, R. C. Rose, N . Kumar, and J. Uli, "Doing Business in Global Arena: An Examinatio n of th e Relationship b etween Cultu ral Intell igence a n d Cross-Cultural Adj ustm e n t,· Asian Academ)' of Manageme,11 Joumal 15, no . I (2010), pp. 79- 9 7.
122 M. Gorji and H. Ghareseflo, "The Survey of Relationship between Cultura l Intelligence and Em otio na l Intelligence with Employee's
Performance," h1ten1ational Proceedings of Economics Development & Research 25 (2011 ), p. 175 .
123 J. Sanchez.Bu rks, F. Lee, R. N isbett, I. Choi, S. Zhao, and J. Koo, "Conversing across Cultures: Ea.,;t.West Communication Style.,; in Work and Nonwork Contexts,• Journal of Perso11ality a11d Social Psycholog)' 85, no. 2 (2003), pp. 363- 372.
124 P. C. Earley and E. Mosakowski, •cultural Intelligence,• Harvard Bmi11ess Review, October 2004, pp. 139- 146.
125 A. L Molin.sky, T. H. Davenport, 8. Iyer, and C. Davidson, •3 Skills Every 21st-Century Manager Needs," Harvard Busi,iess Review, January/February 2012.
126 World Business Culture, ·ooing Bus ines., in South Korea,· http:// www.worldbusinesscuhure.com/Business-in·South-Korea.html.
127 C. Osbo rne, ·sou th Korea H its 100•/o Ma rk in Wi re less Broadband; CNET, July 23, 2012, h ttp://www.cnet.com/ news/ south-korea-hits- JOO-mark-in-wireless-broadband/.
128 Based on E. Snape, C. Lo, and T. Redman, 'The T hree-Compo nen t
Model of Occupational Commit m ent: A Com parat ive Study of Chi nese and British Accountants,· Journal of Cross-Cultural Ps)'chology, Novem ber 2008, pp. 765- 781; and Y. Cheng and M. S. Stockdale, 'The Va lid ity of the Th ree-Compo nent Model of Organizational Commitm ent in a Chinese Context," Jounwl of Voca1io11al Behavior, June 2003, pp. 465- 489.
129 J.M. Twenge, VJ. K. Campbell, a nd E. C. Freeman, •Generational Differen ces in Young AdulLs' Life Goals, Concern for O thers, and Civic O rien tatio n, I 966- 2009, • Journal of Perso11alit)' a11d Social Psychology 102 (2012), pp. 1045- 1062; M. Hartman, •Millennials at Work: Young and Callow, Like Their Parents," New York Times, March 25, 2014, p. F4; J. Jin a nd J. Ro unds, •stability and Change in Work Value.s: A Meta-a na lysis of Longitudinal S tudies,· Journal of Vocatio11al Behavior 80 (2012), pp. 326- 339; C. Lou rosa- Ricardo, "How Am erica G ives;" Wall Street Jountal, December 15, 2014, p. R3; "Millennials Rule,• New York Times Educa1io11 Life, April 12, 2015, p. 4; G. Ruffenach, •A Generational Gap: Giving to Cha rity; Wall Street Journal, Ja nuary 20, 2015, p . R4; a n d S. VI/. Lester, R. L. Standifer, N. J. Schultz., a nd J.M. \<\findsor, •Actual versus Perceived Generational Differe nce.,; at \+Vo rk: An Empirical Examination," Journal of Leadership & Orga11izatio11al Studies 19 (2012), pp. 341- 354.
130 L. G ilman, •Memo App Lets Worke rs Vent Anonymously about the Bo.«,· Wall Street Journal, January 21, 2015, p. 8 7; Glassdoor. com; A. S. McCance. C. D. Nye, L. Wang, K. S. Jones, and C. Chiu, •Alleviating the Burden of Em otiona l Labor. The Role of Social Shari ng,· Journal of Ma11ageme11t, February 2013, pp. 392- 415; R. E. Silverman, •Are You Happy in Your Job? Bosse., Push Weekly Surveys; \.Vall Street Journal, December 3, 2014, pp. BI, 84; and R. E. Silverm an, ·workers Really Do Put on a Happy Face for the Bo.«," Wall Street Journal, January 29, 2015.
131 A. 8. Bakker, M . T i ms, a nd D. Derks, •Proactive Perso n a lity and Job Performa n ce: The Ro le of Job C raft ing and Wo rk Engagement," Huma11 Relatiol!S, October 2012, pp. 1359 - 11 78; A. Wrzesniewski, J. M. Berg, and J. E. Dutton, 'Turn the Job Yo u Have i nto the Job You Want, " Harvard Busi,iess Review, June 2010, pp. 114- 117; A. Wrzesniewski and J. E. Dutton, ·crafting
a Job: Revisioning Employees as Active Crofters of Their Work," Academ)' of Ma11ageme111 Review 26 (2010), pp. 179- 201; and G. R. Sle mp and D. A. Vella-Brodrick, •optimising Employee Menta l Health: The Relationship between Intrinsic Need Satisfaction, Job Crafting, a nd Emp loyee \¥ell-Being,• Journal of Happi11ess Studies 15, no. 4 (2014), pp. 957- 977.
132 S. Goldenberg, • Exposing Hid den Bias at Google.• New York Times. September 25, 2014, pp. BI, 89; S. Lohr, "The Google Formula for Success," New York Times, September 29, 2014, p. 88; N . Vslingfield, •Microsoft Chief Backpedals on Women 's Pay; New York Times, October JO, 2014, pp. 87- 88; a nd E. Zell, Z. Krizan, and S. R.
En d note s 561
Teeter, .. Evaluati ng Gender Simi larities and Differences Usi ng Metasynthesis," America11 Psychologist 70 (201 5), pp. 10- 20.
OB on the Edge: Stress at Work
1 Based on W. Imme n, · i n This Office, Desks Are for \<1/o rking, Not Eating Lunch," Globe a11d Ma il, Feb ruary 27, 2017, h ttps:// beta . theglobeandm a i I .com/ report -o n . b usiness/i ndustry· news/ property-report/in-this-office-desks-are-fo r-working-not-eating- Junch/article341 53 148/; and A. O'Nei ll, · ooing Away Vslith ' Dining a l Desko:· Globe a11d Mail, May 26, 2017, https://beta. theglobea ndm a i I .com/ report-on· busi ness/ ca reers/leadersh ip- Jab/doi ng-away-w i th -dini ng-a l-desko/article3 5083 814 /.
2 Based on Statistics Canada, "Perceived Ufe Stress, Qu ite a Lot, by Sex, by Province a nd Territory," last modified June 12, 2014, http:/ /\\~Vw.statcan.gc.ca/ta ble.<-tab I eaux/ sum-so m/ 10 1 / cstO I/ health 107b -eng.htm .
3 http://W\,~v.cbc.ca/ news/ b us iness/ ca nada-economy-depression- anixety- J.3744300.
4 J. O'Kane, "Ca nada's Work- Life Bala nce More Off-Kilte r Tha n Ever," Globe and Mail, October 25, 2012.
5 J. O'Kane, "Ca nada's Work- Life Ba la nce More Off-Kilter Tha n Ever," Globe and Mail, October 25, 2012.
6 Based on Statistics Canada, "Perceived U fe Stress, Qu ite a Lot, by Sex, by Province a nd Territory," last modified June 12, 2014, http:/ /\\~Vw.statcan.gc.ca/ta ble.<-tab Jeaux/sum-so m/ 10 1 / cstO I/ health 107b-eng.htm. Note: Statistics Canada has not collected mo re recent data due to cutbac~ by the Harper governm ent.
7 Adapted from R. S. Schuler, ·oefi nit io n and Conceptualization of Stress in Organizations," Organizational Behavior and Human Performa11ce, Apri l 1980, p . 189 . For an u pdated review of definitio ns, see C. L. Cooper, P. J. Dewe, and M. P. O'Driscoll, Organizational Stress: A Review and Critique of'f11eory, Research, and Applicatiol!S (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 2002).
8 See. fo r example. M.A. Cavanaugh,\¥. R. Bo.swell, M. V. Roehling, and J. Y.l. Boudreau, "An Empirica l Examinatio n of Self-Reported Work S tress among U.S. Managers,• Joun,al of Applied Ps)'cltology, February 2000, pp. 65- 74.
9 S. S h ellenbarger, "\<I/hen Stress Is Good fo r You," Wall Street Journal, January 24, 2012, pp. DI , 0 5 .
10 S. S h ellenbarger, "\<I/hen Stress Is Good fo r You," Wall Street Journal, January 24, 2012, pp. DI, 0 5 .
11 N. P. Podsakoff, J. A. LePine, a nd M. A. LePi n e, "Differe ntial Challenge-Hindrance S tre.ssor Relatio nsh ips w ith Job Attitudes, Turnover Intentions, Turnover, and Withdrawal Behavior: A Meta· analysis,• Journal of Applied Psycl1olog,• 92, no. 2 (2007), pp. 438- 454; a nd J. A. LePine, M. A. LePine, and C. L. Jackson, •challenge and Hindrance Stress: Relationships with Exhaus tio n, Motivatio n to Learn, and Learning Performance. • Journal of Applied Ps)'cholog)', October 2004, pp. 883- 891.
12 L W. Hunter and S. M. 8. Thatcher, • Feeling the Heat: EffeCL< of Stress, Commit m ent, a nd Job Experience on Job Perform a nce." Academ)' of Ma11ageme111 Journal 50, no. 4 (2007), pp. 953- 968.
13 J. C. Wallace, 8. D. Edwa rds, T. Arn o ld, M . L. Frazier, and D. M. Fi nch, "Work Stre.ssors, Ro le-Based Performance, a nd the Moderat ing In fl uence of O rganizat iona l Support,• Journal of Applied Psycl1olog,• 94, no. I (2009), pp. 254- 262.
14 •Most Stressful Jobs of 2017," h ttp://www.careercast.com/ jobs- rated/mo.st-stressful-jobs-2017; a nd "Least Stressful Jobs of 2017, • http:/ f,V\,~v.ca reercast.com/jobs-rated/least-stressful-jobs-201 7.
15 •stress in Am erica: Payi ng with Our Health," America11 Ps)~hological Associatio11, February 4, 2015, p. 8.
16 J. de Jonge and C. Dorm a nn, •stressors, Re.sources, and Stra in at Wo rk: A Longit ud inal Te.st of the Triple-Match Principle,• Journal of Applied Ps)'cltology 91, no . 5 (2006), pp. 1359- 13 74;
562 En dnotes
K. Da niels, N. Bee.<ley, A. Cheyne, a nd V. W imalasiri, 'Coping Processe.< Linking the Demands-Control-Support Model, Affect and Risky Decisions a t \.Vo rk, • Huma11 Relations 61, no. 6 (2008), pp. 845- 874; and M. van den Tooren and J. de Jonge, 'Managing Job Stress in N ursing: What Ki nd of Resources Do We Need?" Joumal of Advanced Nursing 63, no. 1 (2008), pp. 75- 84.
17 E. A. Rafferty a nd M.A. Griffi n, 'Perceptions of Organizatio nal Cha nge: A St reS-< and Coping Perspect ive," Journal of Applied Psyclwlog)' 71, no. 5 (2007), pp. 11 54- 1162.
18 R. !l ies, N. Dimotakis, and I. E. De Pater, 'Psychological a n d Physiological Reacti ons to H igh \.Vo rkloads: Implications fo r Well-Bei ng,' Person11el Ps)'cl1ologJ1 Summer 2010, pp. 407- 436; A. B. Bakker, E. Demerouti, and A. I. Sanz-Verge!, ' Burnout a nd \<\fo rk Engagement: The JD- R Approach,· Annual Review of Organizntio11al Psychologr a11d Organizatio11al Behavior I (2014), pp. 389- 411.
19 G. Vv. Evans and D. Johnson, 'Stre.ss and Open-Office Noise,' Joumal of Applied Ps)'chologr, October 2000, pp. 779- 783.
2 0 T. M. G lo m b, J. D. Ka m meyer-Mueller, a n d M. Rotu n do, 'E m ot io n a l Labo r De m ands and Co m pe nsat i ng Wage Differentials,· Joumal of Applied Psyclwlogr, August 2004, pp. 700- 714; and A. A. Grandey, 'When 'fh e Show Must Go On': Surface Acting and Deep Acting as Dete.nninants of Emotional f.xha tL~tion and Peer. Ra ted Service Delivery," Academ)' of Manageme,1t Jountal, Februa ry 2003, pp. 86- 96.
21 S. Lim, L M. Cortina, a nd V. J. Magley, "Personal and \.Vo rkgroup Incivility: Impact on Work and Health Outcomes,' Joumal of Applied Psyc/1ologr 93, no. 1 (2008), pp. 95- 107; N. T. Buchanan a nd L. F. Fitzgerald, ' Effects of Racial and Sexual Harassment o n Work and the Psychological Well-Being of African Ame rican Wom en,• Journal of Occupational Health Psycholog)' 13, no. 2 (2008), pp. 137- 151; C.R. \¥illness, P. Steel, a nd K. Lee, 'A Meta· a n alysis of t h e Antecedents and Consequ e nces of Workplace Sexua l Harassment,· Personnel Ps)'chologr 60, no. 1 (2007) , pp. 127- 162; and B. Moreno-Jime n ez, A. Rod rfguez-Mui\oz, J. C. Pastor, A. I. Sanz.Verge!, and E. Garro.<a, "The Moderating Effects of Psychologica l Detachment and ThoughL< of Revenge in Workp lace Bullying,• Personality and /11dividual Differe11ces 46, no. 3 (2009), pp. 359- 364.
22 L. Yang, J. Bauer, R. E. Joh nson, M. W. Groer, and K. Salo mon, ' Physiologica l Mechanism s T h a t U n de rlie the Effects of lnteractional Unfairness on Deviant Behavior: Th e Role of Cortisol Activity," Joumal of Applied Psychology 99 (2014), pp. 310- 321.
23 M. T. Schmitt, N. R. Branscombe, T. Postm es, and A. Garcia, "The Consequences of Perceived Discrimination for Psychological \.Vell- Being: A Meta-analytic Review," Psychological Bulletin 140 (2014), pp. 921- 948.
2 4 J. O'Reilly, S. L Robinson, J. L Berdahl, a nd S. Banki, ' Is Negative Attention Better Than No Attentio n? Th e Comparative Effects of Ostracism a nd Harassment at \<\fo rk,· Organizatio11 Scie11ce (2014), pp. 774- 793.
25 'Stress in America: Paying with Our Health,• America11 Psidwlogical Association, Februa ry 4, 2015, http://\\~Vw.apa.o rg/news/press/ re I eases/ stre.ss/2 01 4 / stres.s-report. pd f.
26 G. Livingston, "Survey Says: We're Stressed (and Not Loving It},· Globe and Mail, February 2, 2015, https://\\~vw.theglobea nd m ail. co m/report ·On -bus iness/ ca reers/ ca reer-ad v ice/ Ii fe -a t· work/ survey-says-were-stressed-and-not-loving-it/artide22722102/.
27 Q. H u, W. B. Schaufeli, a nd T. W. Taris, "Th e Job Dema nds- Resource.< Model: An Analysis of Addit ive a nd Joi nt Effects of Dema nds a nd Re.sources,• Joumal of Vocario11al Behavior 79, no. I (2011), pp. 181 - 190.
28 R. S. Sch uler, 'Defi nit ion and Conceptualizat io n of Stress i n O rganizations," Organizntional Behavior and Human Perfonnance, April 1980, p. 191; a nd R. L. Kah n and P. Byosie re, 'Stress in
O rganizations." Organizational Behavior mid Human Perfonnance, April 1980, pp. 604- 610.
29 M. Kiv imiiki, J. Head, J. E. Ferrie, E. Brunner, M. G. Marmot, J. Vahtera, and M. J. Shipley, 'Why Is Evidence o n Job Strain a nd Coronary Heart Disease Mixed? An Illustration of Measurement C hallenges in the Whitehall II Study,• Ps)'chosomatic Medici11e 68, no. 3 (2006), pp. 398- 401.
30 M. Borri tz, K. B. Christen.sen, U. Bultmann, R. Rugulies, T. Lun d, I Andersen, E. Villadsen, F. Did reichsen, and T. S. Krisen.sen, "Impact on Burnout and Psychosocial Work Characteristics o n Future Long. Term Sickness Absence, Pro.,pective Re.suits of the Danish PUMA Study a mong Hu m an Service \,Vo rkers, • Joumal of Occupational and E11virom11e111al Medici11e 52, no. 10 (2010), pp. 964- 970.
31 R. ll ie.<, N. D imotakis, a n d I. E. DePater, "Psychological a nd Physio logical Reactions to High Workloads: Implications for 1A'ell- Being, • Person11el Psyclwlo!l)' 63, no. 2 (2010), pp. 407- 463.
32 D. Ortqvist a nd J. Wincent, "Prominent Consequences of Ro le Stress: A Meta. analytic Review,,. International Journal of Stress Ma11agement 13, no. 4 (2006), pp. 399- 422.
33 J. J. Hakanen, A. B. Bakker, a nd M. Jokisaari, "A 35-Year Follow-Up St udy o n Bu rno u t a m o n g Fi n n ish Emp loyees,· Journal of Occupatio11al Health PS)c/10/ogy 16, no. 3 (2011), pp. 345- 360; E. R. Crawford, J. A. LePine, and B. L Rich, 'Linking Job Dem ands and Resources to Employee Engagem ent and Burnout: A Theoretical Extension and Meta-a nalytic Test,• Joumal of Applied Ps)'cholO!l)' 95, no. 5 (2010), pp. 834- 848; a nd G. A. Chun g-Yan, "The Nonlinear Effects of Job Complexity and Auto n o my o n Job Satisfactio n, Turnover, and Psychological Well-Being,• Joumal of Occupario11al Health Ps)'clwlogr 15, n o. 3 (2010), pp. 237- 251.
34 LL Meier, N. K. Semmer, A. Elfering, a nd N. Jacobshagen, "The Dou b le Meaning of Control: Three-Way Interactions between In ternal Resources, Job Control, and Stre.ssors a t Work,· Joumal of Occupario11al Health Psi,;liologr 13, no. 3 (2008), pp. 244- 258.
35 E. M. de Croon, J. K. Slu ite r, R. W. B. Blonk, J. P. J. Broersen, and M. H. \,V. Frings- Dresen, "Stressful Work, Psychological Job Strain, a nd Turnover: A 2-Year Prospective Coh ort Study of Truck Drivers," Joumal of Applied Ps),;holo!l)', June 2004, pp. 442- 454; R. C rapanzano, D. E. Rupp, and Z. S. Byrn e, "The Relatio nsh ip of Emotional Exhaustio n to \<\fork Attitudes, Job Performance, and O rganizational Citizenship Behavio rs,· Joumal of Applied Psycholog)', Feb ru ary 2003, pp. 160- 169; and S. D ie.< tel and K. Sch m idt, "Costs of Simu ltaneous Coping w ith Em otional Dis.sonan ce and Self-Control Demands a t Work: Results from Two German Samp les,• Joumal of Applied Ps)'chologr 96, n o. 3 (2011 ), pp. 643 - 653.
36 S. E. R. Crawford, J. A. LePi n e, a n d B. L. Rich, ' Linking Job Demands a nd Resources to Employee Engagement and Bu rnout: A Theoretical Extension a nd Meta-analytic Test,' Joumal of Applied Psychologr 95, no. 5 (2010), pp. 834- 848.
3 7 See J. B. Halbesleben, "Sou rces of Social Support a nd Burnout: A Meta-analytic Test of the Conservation of Resource.< Model,• Joumal of Applied Ps)'clwlo!l)' 91, no. 5 (2006), pp. 1134- 1145; N. Bolger a nd D. Arn a rel, 'Effects of Social Support Visib ility o n Adjustment to Stre.ss: Experimental Evidence,• Joumal of Applied Psychology 92, no. 3 (2007), pp. 458 - 475; a n d C. Fernet, M. Gagne, and S. Austin, 'When Does Q uality of Rela tionsh ips with Coworkers r redict Burnout over Time? The Moderating Ro le of \<\fo rk Motivatio n,• Joun,al of Orga11izario11al Behavior 31 (2010), pp. 1163- 1180.
38 J. B. Avey, F. Lu thans, and S. M. Jensen, "Psychological Capital: A Po.<itive Resource fo r Combating Emp loyee Stress and Tu rnover,• Human Resource Manageme,it, September- October 2009, pp. 677 - 693.
39 See, fo r example, C. M. Middeldorp, D. C. Cath, A. L Beem , G. Willemsen, and D. I. Boomsma, "Life Events, AnxiotL< Depression, and Personality: A Prospective and Genetic Study,· Ps)'clwlogical
Medici11e 38, no . 11 (2008), pp. J 557- 1565; a n d A. A. Ul iaszek, R. E. Zinbarg. S. Mineka, M. C. Craske, J.M. Sutto n, J. v,,1. Griffith, R. Rose, A. \.Va ters, and C. Hammen, "The Role of Neuro ticism a nd Extraversion i n the Stre.o;s. Anxiety a nd Stre.~s. Depre.o;sion Rela t ionsh ips: A11xiety, Stress, a11d Copi11g 23, no. 4 (2010) , pp. 363- 381.
40 J. D. Kammeyer-Mueller, T. A. Judge, a nd B. A. Scott, "Th e Ro le of Core Self-Evaluations in the Coping Process,· Jo11mal of Applied Psyclwlog)' 94, no. I (2009 ), pp. I 77- 195.
41 R. J. Burke, A. M. Richardson, and M. Mortinussen, "Workah o lism among Norwegia n Managers: Work and Well-Being Outcomes,• Journal of Orga11izatio11al Cha11ge Ma11ageme111 7 (2004), pp. 459- 4 70; and \.V. B. Schaufeli, T. W. Taris, and \.V. van Rhen e n, "Wo rkah olism , Burnout, and Wo rk Engagement: Th ree of a Kind o r Three Differen t Kinds of Employee Well-Being. · Applied
Ps)'chology: A11 /111ema1ional Review 57, no. 2 (2008), pp. 173 - 203.
42 R. v,,1. Renn, D. C . Al le n, a n d T. M. Hun ing, " Emp ir ica l Examination of Individual-Level Personal ity-Based Theory of Self-Manageme nt Failure, • Journal of Orga11izational Behavior 32, no. I (201 I), pp. 25- 43; a nd P. Grope) and P. Steel. "A Mega-Trial lnve.~tigatio n of Goal Setting, In terest Enhanceme nt, and Energy o n Procrasti nation." Personality and Individual Differences 45, n o. 5 (2008), pp. 406- 411.
43 S. Klaperski, B. von Dawans, M. Hein richs, an d R. Fu chs, "Does the
Level of Physical Exercise Affect Physiological and Psychological Responses to Psychosocial Stre.ss in Women?' Psycholog,• of Sport a11d Exercise 14, no. 2 (2013), pp. 266- 274.
44 K. M. Richardson a nd H. R. Ro thstein, "Effects of Occupational S tress Ma n agem e nt Intervention Programs: A Meta.analysis,"
Jo11r11al of Occupational Health Ps ychology 13, no. 1 (2008) , pp. 69- 93.
4 5 V. C. Hahn, C. Binnewies, S. Sonnentag. and E. J. Mojza, "Leaming How to Recover From Job Stress: Effects of a Recovery Training Program on Recovery, Recovery-Related Self-Efficacy, and Well· Being. · Journal of Occupational Health Psrchology 16, no. 2 (2011), pp. 202- 216; and C. Binnewies, S. Sonnentag, and E. J. Mojza, "Recovery d uring th e Weekend and Fluctuations in Weekly Job Performance: A \<\leek-Level Study Exami ni ng Intra-Individ ual Relatio nsh ips," Journal of Occupational a,id Orga,iiz.atio,ial Psyclwlog)' 83, no. 2 (2010), pp. 419- 441.
4 6 "Three Canadian Com pa nies Lauded fo r Em ployee Well n ess Programs." h rreporter.com, December 9, 2016, http://www. hrreporter.com/ anide/ 31948-th ree-canadian-companies-Jauded· fo r-e mployee-welln ess-programs/ .
47 N. Reese, " 10 Simple Ways to Relieve Stress,· July I , 2016, https:// www. h eal th ) i ne.com/ heal th/ 10 -ways-to -rel ieve-stress# I .
48 Sun Life Financial. 51111 Life·Buffett Na1io11al Wellness Sil""')' 2013, 2013, h ttp://"~vw.sunli fe.ca.
49 "Cdn Emp loyers Not Measu ri ng Well ness O utcomes: Su rvey,· Benefits Canada , May 4, 2011 , h ttp ://\\~vw.benefitscanada. com/ news/ e nd . e m p loyers · not· m easuri ng. wel I ness.o u tcomes· survey- 16510.
50 E. R. C reenglas., and L. Fiksenbaum, "Proactive Coping. Positive Affect, a nd Well-Be ing: Test ing fo r Mediat io n Us i n g Pa th Analysis: European Psychologist 14, no. 1 (2009), pp. 29- 39; and P. Miquelo n and R. J. Vallerand, "Coal Motives, V\1ell-Being. a n d Physical Health: Happiness a nd Self-Realization as Psychological Resources u nder C hallenge. " Motivation and Emotion 30, no. 4 (2006), pp. 259 - 2 72.
51 M. M. Butts, R. J. Vandenberg. D. M. DeJoy, B. S. Schaffer, and M. C. Wilson, "Individual Reactio n., to High Involveme nt \.Vo rk Processes: Investigating the Ro le of Empowen n en t and rerceived O rganizational Suppott, • Journal of Occupational Health Psyclwlogy 14, no. 2 (2009), pp. 122- 136.
End notes 563
52 L. Blue, "Making Good Health Easy, · Time, November 12, 2009,
h ttp://W\,~v.t ime.com; and M. Andrews, "Am erica's Best Health Plans,• US News and World Report, Novem ber 5, 2007, pp. 54- 60.
53 L. Blue, "Making Good Health Easy, · Time, November 12, 2009, h ttp://W\,~v.t ime.com; and M. Andrews, "Am erica's Best Health Plans,• US News and World Report, Novem ber 5, 2007, pp. 54 - 60.
54 K. M. Richardson and H. R. Roth<tein, "Effects of Occupational Stress Management Intervention rrograms: A Meta. analysis, " Journal of Occupa1io11al Health Ps)'c/1olog)' 13, no. 1 (2008), pp. 69- 93.
55 Based on S. Martin, ' Money Is the Stres.wr for Americans,• Mo11itor 011 Ps)'chology, December 2008, pp. 28- 29; Helicobacter p)'lori a11d Peptic Ulcer Disease, Centers fo r D Lsease Cont rol and Prevention, U.S. Departmen t of Health a nd Human Services; a nd M. Maynard, "Maybe the Toughest Job Aloft, • New Yorn Times, August 15, 2006, pp. CL C6.
Chapter 4
1 Open ing vignette based o n R. Black-well, "Lee Valley Tools Founder Leo n a rd Lee Treated Custo me rs as Friends,• Globe a11d Mail,
July 15, 2016.
2 See, fo r example, C. P. Latham a nd C. C. Pinder, "\,Vork Motivation Theory and Research a t the Dawn of the Twenty-First Cen tury,· A111111al Review of Psycholog)' 56 (2005), pp. 485 - 516; and C. C. Pinder, Work Motivatio,i j,i Organiznlional Behavior, 2 nd ed. (London, UK: Psychology Press, 2008).
3 S. Crabtree, "Worldwide, 13o/o of Em p loyees Are Engaged at \.Vo rk." Gallup World, October 8, 2013, http://"~vw.gallup.com/ poll/ I 65269/ worldwide-emp loyees-engaged-work.aspx.
4 °The 2014 Wasting Time at \.Vo rk Survey: Everything You've Always Wanted to Kn ow about Wasting li me in the Office,"' Salary.am,, acces.sed October 10, 2014, h ttp://W\,~v.salary.com .
5 See, fo r exam ple, T. R. Mitchell, "Matching Motivational Strategies w ith O rgan izational Contexts," in Research in Orga,iizational Behavior, vol. 19, ed. L. L. Cummings and B. M. Staw (Greenwich, CT: JAi Press, 1997), pp. 60- 62.
6 D. G regor, The H11ma11 Side of E111erprise (New York: McGraw· Hill, 1960). For an updated analysis of Theory X and Theory Y constructs, see R. J. Summers and S. F. C ronshaw, "A Study of McGregor's Theory X, Theory Y and the Influence of Theory X, Theory Y Assu mptio ns on Causal Attributio ns fo r Insta nces of \+\forker Poor Performa nce., " in Organizntional Behavior. ed. S. L McShan e, ASAC Conference Proceedings, vol. 9, part 5, Halifax, 1988, pp. 115- 123.
7 K. \.V. Thomas, /11tri11Sic Motivation at Work (San Francisco: Berrett· Koehler, 2000); and KW. Tho mas, "Intrinsic Motivation and How It \<\fo rks,• Trai11i11g, October 2000, pp. 130- 135.
8 Based on D. Albarraci n, I. Sen ay, a nd K. Noguchi, "'A' ill \.Ve Succeed? Th e Science of Self-Motivation,· Psychological Scie11ce, Apri l 2010; a n d "\.Vi ii We Succeed? T h e Science of Se)f. Motivatio n,• Scie11ceDai/y, June I, 2010, http://www.scien cedaily.
com/ releases/ 20!0/ 05/ !00528092021.htm .
9 Vign ette based on R. Blackwell, "Lee Valley Tools Founder Leonard Lee Treated Custom ers a< Friends,• Globe a11d Mail, July 15, 2016.
10 A. H. Maslow, Motiva1io11 a11d Personality (New York: Harper a nd Row, 1954).
11 H. Skelsey, "Maslow's Hiera rc hy of Needs- The Sixth Level: Psychologist (2014), pp. 982- 983.
12 C. Conley, Peak: How Great Compa11ies Get Their Mojo from Maslow
(San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007 ).
13 H. Skelsey, "Maslow's Hiera rc hy of Needs- The Sixth Level,• Psychologist (2014), pp. 982- 983.
564 En dnotes
14 S. H. Mousavi and H. Dargahi, "Ethn ic Differences a nd Motivation Based o n Maslow's Theory o n Iranian Employees," Iranian Joun1al of Public Health 42, no. 5 (2013), pp. 516 -521.
15 D. Lester, "Measuring Maslow's Hiera rchy of Needs," Ps)'clwlogical Reports 113, no . 1 (2013), pp. 127- 129.
16 J.-K. Lee and J.-C. Choi, 'Testing the App licability o f the Herzberg's Motivation-Hygien e Theoiy to the Ho tel lndustiy, • Korean Joumal of Business Admi11istra1ion (2012), p p. 2091 - 21 11 .
17 See, fo r insta nce, C.-S. r a rk and K.-S. Ko, "A Study o n Factors of Job Satisfaction of Caregivers in Home Care Facilities Based o n Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theoiy, • Church Social Work (2012), pp. 123 - 158; and "Study o n the Important Facto rs fo r Non-Commissioned Officer's Job Satisfaction in R.O.K. Army Based on Herzberg's Two Factor Th eoiy, • Joumal of Korean Public Police and Security Studies (2012), pp. 21 7- 238.
18 H. va n Emme rick, W. L. Gardner, H. Wen dt, and D. Fischer, "As_sociat ion s of Cu ltu re and r erson ali ty w ith McClella nd 's Motives: A Cross-Cultura l Study of Managers in 24 Countries,• Croup a11d Orga11iza1io11 Managemelll 35, no. 3 (2010), pp. 329- 367.
19 D. C. McClelland, The Achievi11g Society (New York: Van Nostran d Reinhold, 1961 ).
2 0 D. C. 'A' in t e r, 'The Motiva tion al D imens ions o f Leadership: Power, Ach ievem ent, and Affiliatio n," i n Multiple Intelligences a11d l..endership, ed. R. E. Riggio, S. E. Murph y, and F. J. r irozzolo (Mah wah, NJ: Lawrence Erl baum, 2002), p p. 119 - 138.
21 H. va n Emme rick, W. L. Gardner, H. \.Ve n dt, and D. Fisch e r, "Associat ion s of Cu ltu re and r e rson ali ty w ith McClella nd 's Motives: A Cross-Cultura l Study of Managers in 24 Countries.• Croup a11d Orga11iza1io11 Managemelll 35, no. 3 (2010), pp. 329- 367.
22 See, fo r insta nce, F. Yang, J. E. Ramsay, 0. C. Schu ltheiss, a n d J. S. rang, "Need fo r Achieveme nt Moderates the Effect of Motive- Relevant Challe nge o n Salivaiy Cortisol C ha nges,• Motivatio11 and Emotion (201 5) , pp. 321 - 334; M. S. Kha n, R. J. Breitnecker, a n d E. J. Schwa rz, "Adding Fuel to the Fi re: Need fo r Achievement D iversity a nd Relationship Conflict in Entrepreneurial Teams," Management Decisio11 5 3, n o. 1 (2015), p p. 75 -79 ; M. C. Koellner and 0. C. Sch ulth e iss, "Meta-ana lyt ic Evidence of Low Convergence between Implicit and Explicit Measures of the Needs fo r Achievem en t, Affi liation, and Power," Frontiers in Psycholog)' 5 (2014), article 826; a nd T. Sipp a nd K. va n Dam, "Exte nd ing H iera rchical Achieveme nt Motivation Models: The Role of Motivational Needs fo r Achievement Coals a n d Academic rerform a nce: Perso11ality and Individual Differe11ces 64 (2014), pp. 157- 162.
23 M. C. Koellner and 0 . C. Schulth eiss, "Meta-a nalyt ic Eviden ce of Low Convergence between Implicit and Explicit Measures of the Needs fo r Achievem en t, Affi liation, and Power," Frontiers in Psycliolog)' 5 (2014), article 826.
2 4 J. Hofer, H. Busch, a nd C. Sch neider, 'The Effect of Motive-Tra it Interactio n o n Sat isfactio n of th e Imp licit Need for Affi li atio n among Germ an a nd Cameroonia n Adults: Joumal of Personality 83, no. 2 (2015 ), pp. 167- 178.
25 Vignette based on V. Lu, "Leonard Lee, Fou nder of Lee Va lley Tools, Was th e Ultima te Craftsman: thestar.com , July 16, 201 6, h ttps://www.thesta r.com/ b usi n ess/ 2016/ 0 7 / 16/ leon ard-lee- fo under-of-lee-valley-tools-was-the-ult ima te-craftsman.htm l.
26 R. L r u rvis, T. J. Zagenczyck, a nd G. E. McCray, "\.Vh at's in It fo r Me? Using ExpectancyTheoiy an d Clima te to Explain Stakeholder Participatio n, Its Direction and Inte nsity," Jmeniational Journal of Project Ma11ageme11133, no. 1 (2015), p p. 3- 14.
27 M. Re nko , K. C. Koeck, and A. Bu llo ugh, "Expecta ncy Theoiy a nd Nascent Entrepreneurship," Small Busitiess Economics 39, n o. 3 (2012), pp. 667 - 684; J. J. Do novan, "Work Motivation: in Ha11dbook of Industrial, Work & Orga11 iza1ional Ps ychology, vol. 2 , ed. N. Anderso n, D.S. O n es, H. K. S i n angi l, and
C. Viswe,,varan (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001 ), pp. 5 6-59; a nd
C. Yu a nd J. Guo, "Research o n Employee Motivation Mechanism in Modem Enterprises Based on Victo r H. Vroom's Expectancy Theoiy, • in Proceedings of the 9th lnternatio11al Co11ference 011 lm10vation and Management, ed. C. Duyste.rs, A. DeHoyos, a nd K. Ka minishi, (2012), pp. 988- 991.
28 Based o n J. Nocera, "The Anguish of Being a n An alyst,· New York Times, March 4, 2006, pp. Bl , 812.
29 See, for example, H. G. Henema n Ill a nd D. r . Schwab, "Evaluation of Resea rch o n Expecta n cy Th eoiy rred iction o f Employee r e rforma n ce: Psychological Bulleti11 , July 19 72 , pp. 1- 9; T. R. Mitchell, "Expectan cy Models of Job Satisfaction, Occupatio nal rrefere n ce a n d Effort: A T h eo retica l, Met h odological and Empirical Appraisal,• Psychological Bulletill, November 1974, pp. 1053- 1077; and L Reinharth a nd M.A. \.Va h b a, "Expectancy Theoiy as a r redictor of Work Motivation, Effort Expen d iture, a nd Job rerform a nce: Academy of Management Joumal, Septemb e r 1975, pp. 5 02 -53 7.
30 See, for exam p le, L. W. rorter and E. E. Lawle r Il l, Ma11agerial Auiwdes and Perfonna11ce ( Ho m ewood, IL: Richard D. Irwi n, 1968); D. F. r arker a nd L. Dyer, ' Expecta ncyTh eoiy as a Within- r e rson Behavioral C h oice Model: An Empirical Test of Som e Con ceptual and Meth odologica l Refin e me nts: Organizational Behavior a11d Hunia11 Performa11ce, Octob er 19 7 6, pp. 9 7- 117; H. J. Arnold, "A Test of the Multip licati ve Hypothesis of Expectancy- Valence Th eories of \.Vo rk Motivatio n,• Academy of Management Journal, April 1981 , pp. 128 - 141; and W. Va n Eerde a nd H. Th ieriy, "Vroom's Expectancy Models a nd Work-Rela ted C riter ia: A Meta-analysis: Jou ma I of Applied Ps)'c/1ology, October 1996, pp. 575-586.
31 r . C. Ea rley, Face, Harmony. a11d Social Structure: A11 Anal)'sis of Organizatio,ial Behavior across Cultures (New York: Oxford University rres_s, 1997 ); R. M. Steers and C. Sa nc h ez-Runde, "Culture, Motivation, a nd Work Behavior,• in Ha11dbook of Cross· Cultural Ma11agement, ed. M. Cannon a nd K. Newm a n ( London: Blackwell, 2001), p p. 190- 215; and H. C. Tria n d is, "Motivation and Achievement in Collectiv ist a nd Individualistic Cultures, " in Advances in Motivation and Adiieveme,it, vol. 9, ed. M. Maehr and r . r intrich (G reenwich, CT: JAi r ress, 1995), p p. 1- 30.
32 C. Gabelica, r. Van den Bossche, M. Segers, a n d W. Gijselaersa, "Feedback, a r owerful Lever i n Teams: A Review,· Educational Resean;h Review, June 2012, p p. 123- 144.
33 S. Huan g, Y. Zhang, a n d S. M. Bronia rczyk, "So Near and Yet So Far: Th e Mental Representation of Coal r rogress, • Joun,al of Perso11ali1y a11d Social Psycholog)' 103, n o. 2 (2012), pp. 225-241.
34 B. D. Cawley, L. M. Keepi ng, and r. E. Levy, · r a rticipation in the r e rforma n ce Appraisal r rocess a nd Employee Reactio ns: A Meta-analytic Review of Field Investigatio ns,• Joumal of Applied Psychology, August 1998, p p. 615 - 633; and r . E. Levy a nd J. R. Williams, "The Social Context of r e rfo rma nce App raisal: A Review and Framework fo r th e Fu ture,· Joumal of Ma11ageme11t 30, no. 6 (2004), p p. 881- 905 .
35 List d irectly q uo ted fro m R. Kreitner a n d A. Kinicki, Orga11izational Behavior, 6 th ed. (New York: McGraw-H ill/ Irwin, 2004), p. 335 ( emphasis added).
36 E. A. Locke, "Toward a Theoiy of Task Motivation and Incen t ives,· Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, May 1968, pp. 157 - 189.
3 7 r . C. Earley, r . \.Vojnaroski, a nd 'A'. r rest, 'Task r la nni ng a nd En e rgy Expen ded : Explorat ion o f H ow Goa ls Infl u e n ce r erforma nce: Journal of Applied Ps ychology, Februaiy 1987, pp. 107 - 114.
38 "KEYCroup Survey Fi nds Nearly Half o f All Employees Have No Set rerforma n ce Coals; IPMA·HR Bul/e1i11, March 10, 2006, p. l ; S. Hamm, "SAr Dangles a Big, Fat Carrot,• Busi11essWeek, May 22,
2006, pp. 67- 68; a nd "P&G CEO \<\fields H igh Expectations but No 'A'hip," USA Today, Februaiy 19, 2007, p . 38.
3 9 See, for exam p le, S. J. Ca rro ll a nd H. L. Tosi, Management by Objectives: Applicatiol!S and Research (New York: Macm illan, 1973); a nd R. Rodgers and J. E. H u n ter, "Im pact of Management by Objectives on O rgan izatio n a l Produc tivity." Joumal of Applied Psychology, Apri l 1991, pp. 322- 336.
40 See, fo r instance, F. Ceresia, "A Model of Goa l Dynam ics i n O rgan izations: Goa l Setti ng. Goal Commitment, Train ing, a nd Ma nagement by Objectives,• Proceed ings of 2009 Conference o n System'i Science, Managem ent Science & System Dynamics 1 (2009), pp. 3 7-46; and H. Levinson, "Management by W hose Objectives!" Hanx,rd Business Review, Januaiy 2003, pp. 107- 11 6.
41 See, for example, E. Lindberg and T. L. Wilson, "Management by Objectives: The Swedish Experien ce in Upper Secondaiy Schools," Joumal of Educational Administration 49, no. I (2011 ), pp. 62- 75; a nd A . C. Spau ld ing, L. D. Gamm, and J.M . Griffith, "Studer U n plugged : Identify i ng U nderlying Ma n ageria l Con cepts, " Hosp ital Topics 88, no. 1 (2010), pp. 1- 9.
42 M. B. Kristiansen, "Ma nagement by Objectives and Results in the Nordic Countries: Continuity a nd Change, D ifferences and S imilarities," Public Perfonnance and Management Review 38, no. 3 (201 5), pp. 542- 569.
43 See, for insta nce, M. Tanikawa, *Fujitsu Decides to Backtrack o n Performance-Based Pay," New York Times, March 22, 2001, p. \<\I I ; a nd 'A'. F. Roth, "Is Managem ent by Objectives Obsole te ?" Global Business and OrganiZlltional Excellence 28 (May/ June 2009), pp. 36- 43.
44 E. A. Locke and G. P. Latham, A Theory of Coal Setting and Task Perfonnance (Englewood C li ffs, NJ: Pren t ice Hall, 1980).
45 L. D. Ordonez, M. E. Schwe i t ze r, A. D . Ga l i ns ky, and M. Bazerman, "Goals Gone Wild: The System atic Side Effects of Overp rescribing Goal Setting. " Academy of Manage111e111 Pmpectives 23, no. 1 (2009), pp. 6 - 16; a nd E. A. Locke a n d G. P. Latham, *Has Goal Setting Gone Wild , or Have Its Attackers Abandoned Good Scholarsh ip ?" Academy of Management Perspect ives 23, n o. 1 (2009), pp. 17- 23.
4 6 C. P. Cerasoli, J.M. N icklin, and M. T. Ford, "lnt rin.sic Motivation a nd Extri nsic Incentives Jointly Pred ict Performance: A 40· Year Meta -analysis," Psychological Bulletin 140, n o. 4 (2014), pp. 980- 1008.
4 7 K. Lanaj, C. D. Cha ng, a nd R. E. Johnson, "Regulatory Focus and Work- Related O utcom es: A Review a nd Meta-analysis, " Psychological Bulletin 138, no. 5 (2012), pp. 998- 1034.
4 8 K. Lanaj, C. D. Cha ng, a nd R. E. Johnson, "Regulatory Focus and Work- Related O utcom es: A Review a nd Meta-analysis, " Psychological Bulletin 138, no. 5 (2012), pp. 998- 1034.
49 D. L. Ferris, R. E. Joh nson, C. C. Rosen, E. Djurdjevic , C.- H. Chang. and J. A. Tan, "Wh en Is Success Not Satisfying? Integrating Regulatoiy Focus and Approach/ Avoidance Motivation Theories to Expla in the Relation between Co re Se)f. E;va luation a nd Job Satisfaction," Journal of Applied Psychology 98, no. 2 (2013), pp. 342- 35 3.
5 0 M. Roskes, A. J. Elliot, and C. K. W. De Dreu, *\<\lhy Is Avoidance Motivation Proble m a t ic , a nd \<\/hat Can Be Done about It? " Current Directions in Psychological Science 23, n o. 2 (2014) , pp. 133- 138.
51 J. R. Themanson and P. J. Rosen, "Examining the Relationship., between Self-Efficacy, Task-Re levant Attentional Cont ro l, a nd Task Performa nce: Evidence fro m Event-Rela ted Brain Potentials," British Joumal of Psyclwlogy 106, no. 2 (2015) , pp. 253 - 2 71.
52 A. Band u ra , "Cultivat e Se l f- Effi cacy fo r Pe rsona l and Orga n izationa l Effect iveness,• in Handbook of Principles of Organizational Behavior, ed. E. Locke (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004), pp. 120- 136; and M. Ventura, M. Sa lanova, and S.
Endnotes 565
Llo rens, "Professiona l Sel f-Efficacy as a Predictor of Bu rno ut a nd Engageme nt The Role of Challenge a nd Hindran ce Demands,• Joumal of Psychology 149, n o. 3 (201 5), pp. 277-302.
53 M. Sa lanova, S. Llorens, a n d \<\/. B. Schaufeli, "'Yes I Can,
I Feel Good, and I Just Do It!' On Ga in Cycles and Spirals of Efficacy Beliefs, Affect, a n d Engagement," Applied Psychology: An Jntematio11al Review 60, no. 2 (2011 ), pp. 255-285.
54 J. R. Them anson a nd P. J. Rosen, ' Examining the Relationships between Self-Efficacy, Task-Relevant Attent io n a l Control, and Task Performance: Evidence from Even t-Related Brain Potentials,• British Joumal of Psychology 106, no. 2 (201 5), pp. 253- 27 1.
55 A. P. Tolli a nd A. M. Schm id t , "The Role of Feedback, Causal
Attribut ions, and Self-Efficacy in Coal Revision," Joumal of Applied Psychology 93, no. 3 (2008), pp. 692 - 701.
5 6 P. Tierney and S. M. Farmer, "C reative Self-Efficacy Development and C reative Performance over Time," Journal of Applied Psycholog)' 96, no. 2 (2011), pp. 277-293.
5 7 A. Bandura, Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control (New York: Freema n, 199 7).
5 8 T. A. Judge, C. L. Jackson, J. C. Sh aw, B. Scott, and B. L. Rich, *Self-Efficacy and Work-Related Per forma nce: The Integral Role of Individual Differences," Joumal of Applied Psychology 92, no. I (2007) , pp. 107- 127.
59 T. A. Judge, C. L. Jackson, J. C. Sh aw, B. Scott, and B. L. Rich, "Self-Efficacy and Work-Related Per forma nce: The Integral Ro le of Individual Difference.,," Joumal of Applied Psychology 92, no. I (2007) , pp. 107- 127.
60 A. M. Paul, "How to Use the ' Pygm alion' Effect." Time, April I. 20 13 , h ttp:/ / ideas.time.co m/ 2013/ 04/ 01/ h ow-to-u se-the- pygma lio n-effect/ .
61 A. Friedrich, B. Fl u nger, B. Nagengast, K. Jonkm a n n, a nd U . Trau twein, *Pygm a lion Effects in t h e C lass roo m : Teache r Expectancy Effects on Studen ts' Math Achievem e nt," Omtemporary Educational Psychology 41 (201 5), pp. 1- 12.
62 L. Karakowsky, N. DeGa m a, and K. McBey, "Facilitating t h e Pygmalion Effect: The Overlooked Role of Subordinate Perceptions of the Leader,• Journal of Occupational and Orga11izational l'syclwlogJ' 8 5, no. 4 (2012), pp. 5 79-599; and P. 'A'hiteley, T. Sy, and S. K. Johnson, "Leaders' Conceptio ns of Followers: Implications fo r Naturally Occurring Pygmalion Effects." Leadership Quarterly 23, no. 5 (2012), pp. 822- 834.
63 A. Gegenfurtner, C. Q uesada-Pallares, and M. Knogler, "Dig ita l Si mulat io n-Based Train ing: A Meta -analysis," British Joumal of Educational Teclmology45, no. 6 (2014), pp. 1097- 1114.
64 E. C. Dierdorff, E. A. Surface, a n d K. G. Brown, "Frame-of- Refere nceTrain ing Effectiveness: EffecLs of Coal O rientation a nd Self-Efficacy on Affective, Cognitive, Skill- Based, and Tra n.sfer O u tco m es,• Journal of Applied Psychology 9 5, no. 6 (2010), pp. 1181- 1191; and R. Gros.sm a n, and E. Salas, "The Transfer of Training: What Really Matters," ll1tematio11al Journal of Training and Developme11t JS, no. 2 (2011), pp. 103 - 120.
6 5 K. M. Edd ington, C. Majest ic, and P. J. Si lvia, "Con t rast ing Regulatoiy Focus and Reinforceme nt Sen., it iv ity: A Daily Diary Study of Goal Pursuit a nd Emotion," Perso11ality a11d Individual Differences, August 2012, pp. 335-340.
6 6 X. Zhu and M. lian, "On the Incentive System fo r Chinese Local Governments' Wo rk of Environmental Protection from th e Pe rspective of Skin ner's Reinforcement Theoiy," Proceedi11gs of the 2013 Jntematio11al Co11ference on Public Ad111inistratio11 (2013), pp. 271 - 2 77.
6 7 M. J. Goddard , ' Critical Psych ia try, Critical Psychology, and the Behavio rism of B. F. Skin ne r," Review of General Psycl,ology 18, no. 3 (2014), pp. 208- 215 .
566 Endnotes
68 F. Luthans a nd R. Kreitne r, Orga11iznrio11al Behavior Modificario11 and Be)'o11d, 2nd ed. (Glenview, IL: Scott Foresma n, 1985); a n d A. D. Stajkovic a nd F. Lutha ns, "A Meta.ana lysis of the EffecL< of Organizatio nal Behavior Modification o n Task Performance, 1975 - 95; Academy of Ma11ageme111 Journal, October 1997, pp. 11 22- 1149.
69 Vignette based o n R. Blackwell, " Lee Valley Tools Founder Leona rd Lee Treated Customers as Friends,• Globe and Mail, July 15, 2016; and T. O 'Reilly, "Bra nd Envy: #Canada! 50," May JI, 2017, CBC Radio, h ttp://\\~vw.cbc.ca/ radio/ undertheintl uencef brand·envy· canada 150· 1.4108158.
70 P. S. Goodm a n, "An Exam ination of Refere nts Used in t h e Eva luatio n of Pay, ,. Organiz.ational Behavior and Huma,i Performance, October 19 74, pp. 170 - 195; S. Ronen, " Equity Perception i n Multiple Comparisons: A Field Study," Huma11 Relatio11s, April 1986, pp. 333- 346; R. W. Scholl, E. A. Cooper, a nd J. F. McKenna, "Referent Selection in Determining Equi ty Perception: Differe ntial Effects on Behavioral a nd Attitud inal Outcomes: Personnel Psychology, Sp ring 1987, pp. 113- 127; T. P. Su mmers a nd A. S. DeNis i, "In Sea rch of Adams' O th er: Reexa mination of Refere nts Used i n the Evaluation of ray, •
Human Relatio11s, Ju n e 1990, pp. 497-511 ; S. \.Vern e r and N. P. Mero, "Fair or Foul? The Effects of External, Internal, and
Employee Equity on C hanges in Performance of Major League Baseball Players,· Human Relations, October 1999, pp. 1291- 1312; and R. W. Griffeth a n d S. Gaertne r, "A Ro le fo r Equity Theory in the Turnover Proce.s.s: An Empirical Te.st, • Journal of Applied Social Psycliolog)', May 2001, pp. 1017- 1037.
71 See, fo r example, E. \,Valster, G. \.V. Wa ister, and V.,,. G. Scott, Ef/uity: Theory and Research (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1978); and J. Greenberg, "Cognitive Reevalua tion of Outcomes in Response to Underpayment Inequ ity,• Academy of Manageme11t Journal, March 1989, pp. 174- 184.
72 J. Bai, "Analysis of Equity Theory in the Modern Enterp rise Staff Motivation,• Proceedings of the 2012 /111ernario11al Confere11ce 011 Ma11agement Innovation a11d Public Policy (2012), pp. 16 5- 16 7; C. Buzea, "Equity Theory Construc ts i n a Romanian Cultu ra l Context,• Human Resource Development Quarterly 25, no. 4 (2014), pp. 421- 439; R. W. Griffeth and S. Gaertner, "A Ro le for Equity Theory in th e Turnover Process: An Empirical Te.<t, • Journal of Applied Social Psychology 31 , n o. 5 (2001), pp. 1017- 103 7; a n d L. K. Sch eer, N. Kumar, and J.· B. E. M. Steenka mp, "Reactio ns to Perceived Inequity i n U.S. and Dutch lntero rga nizationa l Rela t io nships, · Academy of Manageme111 46 , no. 3 (2003) ,
pp. 303- 316.
73 B. K Miller, .. Entitlement and Con.'icie.ntiousnes.'i in the Prediction of O rganizational Deviance,• Perso11ality a11d Individual Differe11ces 82 (2015), pp. 114- 11 9; and H.J. R. Woodley and N. J. Allen, "The Dark Side of Equity Sensit ivity,• Perso11ality a11d /11dividual
Differe11ces 67 (2014), pp. 103- 108.
74 J. M. Jensen, P. C. Patel, and J. L. Raver, "Is It Better to Be Average? H igh a nd Low Performance as Predicto rs of Employee Victimization,• Joumal of Applied Ps)'c/1ology 99, n o. 2 (2014), pp. 296- 309.
75 C. 0. T revor, G. Reilly, a nd B. Gerha rt, "Reconsidering Pay Dispersio n's Effect on the Performance of Interdependent Work: Reconci ling Sorting a nd Pay Inequality,• Academy of Ma11agement Joumal, June 2012, pp. 585- 610.
76 C. 0. T revor, G. Reilly, a nd B. Gerha rt, "Reconsidering Pay Dispersio n's Effect on the Performance of Interdependent Work: Reconci ling Sorting a nd Pay Inequa lity,• Academy of Ma11agement Joumal, June 2012, pp. 585- 610.
77 See, for examp le, R. Cropanzano, J. H. Stein, and T. Nadisic, Social Justice a11d the Experience of Emotio11 (New York: Routledge/Taylor and Francis Group, 2011 ).
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
8 6
87
8 8
8 9
G. S. Leven thal, "Vslh at Sh o uld Be Done with Equity Theory? New Approaches to the Study of Fairness in Social Relatio nships, • in Social Exchange: Advances in Theory a11d Research, ed. K. Gergen, M. G reenberg, a nd R. \,Villis (New York: Plenum, 1980), pp. 27-55 .
J. Brockner and B. M. Wiesenfeld , "An Integrative Framework fo r Examining Reactions to Decisions: Interactive EffecL~ of O utcomes a n d Procedures," Psychological Bulleti11 120 (1996), pp. 189- 208.
J. C. Sh aw, E. Wild, and J. A. Colquitt, "To Justify o r Excuse? A Meta-a nalytic Review of th e Effects of Expla nations,• Journal of Applied Psychology 88, no. 3 (2003), pp. 444- 458.
R. J. Bies, "Are Procedura l a nd ln teractional Justice Conceptually Distinct?" in Ha11dbook of Organizntio11al Justice, ed. J. G reenberg and J. A. Colquitt ( Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2005), pp. 85- 112; a nd B. A. Scott, J. A. Colquitt, a nd E. L. Paddock, "An Actor. Focused Model of Justice Rule Adheren ce a n d Vio la t io n: The Ro le of Managerial Motives and Discretion, • Journal of Applied Psychology 94, no.3 (2009), pp. 756- 769.
G. A. Va n Kleef, A. C. Homan, B. Beersm a, D. V. Knippenberg, B. V. Kni ppenberg, and F. Darne n, ' Searing Sentime nt or Cold Calculatio n ? The Effects of Leader Em otional Displays o n Team rerfonnance Depend on Follower Epis tem ic Motivation," Academy of Ma11agemen1 Joumal 52, no . 3 (2009), pp. 562- 580.
J.M. Robbins, M. T. Ford, a nd L. E. Tetrick, "Perceived Unfairness and Em p loyee Health: A Meta.a nalyt ic Integratio n," Journal of Applied Psychology 97, no. 2 (2012), pp. 235- 2 72.
J. A. Colquitt, B. A. Scott, J. B. Rodell, D. M. Long, C. P. Zapata, D. E. Conlo n, and M. J. Wesson, ' Justice a t the Millennium, A Decade Later. A Meta.analytic Test of Social Exchange a nd Affect· Based Perspectives,· Joumal of Applied Psycholog)' 98, no. 2 (2013), pp. 199 - 236.
K. Leung, K. Tong, and S. S. Ho, "Effects of lnteractio nal Justice o n Egocentric Bias in Resource Al locatio n Decisions," Jounial of Applied Psycholog)' 89, n o. 3 (2004), pp. 405- 415; and L. Francis. Gladney, N. R. Manger, a nd R. B. Welke r, "Does Outcome Favorability Affect Procedu ral Fairn ess as a Result of Self.Serving Attributions,• Joumal of Applied Social Psycliolog)' 40, no. I (2010), pp. 182 - 194.
L. J. Barkay a n d D. P. Skarlicki, " Heal ing the Wou n ds of O rga nizationa l I njustice: Exa mini ng the Benefi ts of Expressive Writ ing,· Journal of Applied Psychology 94 , n o. 2 (2009), pp. 511 - 523.
Th i.< section is based on B. A. Scott, A. S. Garza, D. E. Conlon, and Y. J. Kim, "Why Do Managers Act Fairly in the First Place? A Daily Investigatio n of 'Hot' and 'Cold ' Motives and Discretion,• Academ)' of Ma11ageme111 Jou ma I 5 7, no . 6 (2014 ), pp. 1571 - 1591.
E. Deci and R. Ryan, eds., Ha11dbook of Self-Determi11arion Research ( Rochester, NY: University of Rocheste r Press, 2002); R. Rya n and E. Deci, "Self. Determi natio n Theory and the Facilitation of Int rinsic Motivatio n, Socia l Developm ent, and Well. Being, • American Ps)'chologist 55, no. 1 (2000), pp. 68-78; a nd M. Gagne and E. L. Deci, "Self. Determinatio n Theol)' and \.Vo rk Motivation,• Journal of Organizational Behavior 26, no. 4 (2005), pp. 331- 362.
E. L. Deci, R. Koestner, a nd R. M. Rya n, "A Meta.analytic Review of Experi ments Examining the Effects of Extrins ic Rewards on Intr insic Motivation." Ps)'c/1ological Bulleti11 125, n o. 6 ( 1999), pp. 627- 668; N. Ho ul fort, R. Koe.<tner, M. Joussemet, A. Nantel· Vivier, and N. Lekes, "The Impact of Performan ce. Contingent Rewa rds on rerceived Auto nomy and Competen ce," Motivatio,i & Emotion 26, no. 4 (2002), pp. 279 - 295; G. J. G reguras a nd J. M. Diefendo rff, "D iffe ren t Fi ts Satisfy D i fferen t Needs: Linki ng Perso n. Envi ronment Fit to Employee Comm itment and Perfo rm a nce Usi ng Self. Determ i n a tion Theory,• Journal of Applied Psychology 94, n o. 2 (2009), pp. 465- 477; and M. P. Moreno-Jimenez and M. C. H. Villodres, "Prediction of Burnout in Volunteers,• Journal of Applied Social Psychology 40, no. 7 (2010), pp. 1798 - 1818. This work studies the personal experie nce of vol·
unteering and several antecedent and consequent variables. We stud ied the effect of the a mo unt of time dedicated to the organiza- tion, mo tivatio n, social support, integration in the o rganization, self. efficacy, and characteristics of the work on a consequent variable of the volunteeri ng experience; that is, burnout, with its th ree components of efficacy, cynicism, and exhaustion. The statistical analysis shows that the time dedicated to volunteering and the extrins ic m otivations (that is, social and career) predicts higher levels of burno ut, whereas intrinsic motivations (that is, values and understanding), life satisfaction, and integration in the o rganization are negatively related to burno ut.
90 C. r . Cerasoli, J.M. Nicklin, and M. T. Ford, "Intri nsic Motivation a nd Extrinsic Incentives Jo intly Pred ict Perfo rmance: A 40·Year Meta -analysis,• Psychological Bulletin 140, n o. 4 (2014), pp. 980- 1008.
91 K. M. Sheldon, A. J. Elliot, and R. M. Ryan, "Self-Concordance and Subjective Well-Being in Four Cultures,• Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 35, no. 2 (2004), pp. 209- 223.
92 K. M. Sheldon, A. J. Elliot, and R. M. Ryan, "Self-Concordance and Subjective Well-being in Four Cultures,· Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 35, no. 2 (2004), pp. 209- 223.
93 L. M. Graves, M. N. Ruderm an, r. J. O h lott, and T. J. Webber, "D riven to Wo rk and En joy m en t of \<\fork: Effects o n Managers' Outcom es,· Journal of Management 38, no. 5 (2012), pp. I 655- 1680.
94 K. M. Sheldon, A. J. Elliot, and R. M. Ryan, "Self-Concordance and Subjective Well-Being in Four Cultures,• Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 35, no. 2 (2004), pp. 209- 223.
95 J. r. Meyer, T. E. Becker, a nd C. Vandenbergh e, "Em ployee Com m itme nt and Motivation: A Conceptua l Analysis a nd Integrative Model,· Journal of Applied Psyclwlogy 89, no. G (2004), pp. 991- 1007.
96 K. v,,1. Thomas, E. Jansen, and VI/. G. Tym on Jr., "Navigat ing in t h e Real m of Th eory: An Empowering View of Construct Deve lopment," i n Research in Organ izational Change and Developme111, vol. JO, ed. \<\/. A. rasm o re and R. \<\/. Woodm an (Greenwich, CT: JAJ r ress, 1997), pp. 1- 30.
97 This section based on C. Michaelson, "Meaningfu l Motivation fo r Work Motivation Theory,· Academy of Management Review 30, no. 2 (2005 ), pp. 235- 238; a nd R. M. Steers, R. T. Mowday, and D. L. Shapi ro, "Response to Mea ni ngful Motivation for Work Motivation Theory," Academy of Management Review 30, no. 2 (2005), p. 238.
98 C. Michaelson, "Meaningfu l Motivat io n fo r Work Motivat io n Th eory; Academy of Management Review 30, no. 2 (2005), p. 237.
99 H.-T. Chang, H.-M. Hsu, J .• \<\I. Liou, and C.-T. 'faai, · rsychological
ContracL< and Innovative Behavio r: A Moderated rath Analysis of Work Engagement a nd Job Resources: Journal of Applied Social Psyclwlogy 43, no. JO (2013), pp. 2021- 2135 .
100 See topics of e mp loyee engagem en t fro m Gallup o n h ttp://www. gallup.com/topic/employee_engagemen Laspx.
101 M. S. Ch ristian, A. S . Ga rza, and J. E. Sla u g h te r, ·work Engagement: A Quantitative Review a nd Test of Its Relations w ith Task and Contextual rerformance, • Personnel Psychology 64, no. I (2011 ), pp. 89- 136.
102 W. B. Scha u feli, A. B. Bakker, a n d W. va n Rh ene n, " How Cha nges in Job Demands and Resources Predict Burnout, \<\fo rk Engagement, and Sickn ess Absenteeism,· Journal of Organizational Behavior 30, no. 7 (2009), pp. 893- 917; E. R. Crawford, J. A. LePine, and B. L. Rich, "linking Job Demands and Resources to Employee Engagem ent and Burno ut A Theoretical E>.~ension and Meta-ana lytic Test: Journal of Applied Psychology 95, no . 5 (2010), pp. 834- 848; and D. Xanthopoulou, A. B. Bakker, E. Dem erouti, and W. B. Schaufeli, "Reciproca l Relationships between Job
End notes 567
Resources, Personal Resources, a nd Work Engagemen t,• Journal of Vocational Behavior 74, no. 3 (2009), pp. 235- 244.
10 3 B. L. Rich, J. A. LePine, and E. R. Crawford, "Job Engagem ent: An tecedent.< and Effects on Job r e rfo rma n ce, • Academy of Management Journal 53, no. 3 (2010), pp. GI 7- 635.
104 M. Tims, A. B. Bakker, an d D. Xanthopoulo u, "Do Tran.<formatio nal Leaders Enhance Their Followers' Daily Work Engagem e nt?" Leadership Quarterly 22, no. I (2011), pp. 121- 131; and F. 0 . Wa lu m bwa, P. \<\fang, H. \<\fang, J. Schaub roeck, and B. J. Avolio, "Psychological Processes Linking Authentic Leadership to Follower Behaviors,• Leadership Quarterly 21, no. 5 (2010), pp. 901- 914.
105 D. A. Newman and D. A. Harrison, "Been There, Bottled That: Are State and Beh avioral Work Engagem e nt New a nd Useful Construct '\Aiines'?" Industrial and Organizational Ps)1cl1ology 1, no . I (2008), pp. 31- 35; and A. J. \<\lefald and R. G. Downey, "Job Engagement in O rga n izations: Fad, Fashio n, o r Folderol; Journal of Organizntional Behavior 30, no. I (2009), pp. 141- 145.
10 6 See, fo r example, B. L. Rich, J. A. LePi n e, a nd E. R. Crawford , "Job Engagement: An tecedents and Effects on Job r erformance, • Academy of Management Joumal 53, no. 3 (2010), pp. GI 7-635.
107 J. M. George, "Th e Wider Context, Costs, and Benefits of Work Engagem ent: European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 20, no. I (2011 ), pp. 53-59; and J. R. B. Halbesleben, J. Ha rvey, a nd M. C. Boli no, "Too Engaged? A Conservation of Resources View of the Re lationship between Work Engagement and Work Interfe rence w ith Family; Journal of Applied Psycl1ologJ' 94, no. G (2009), pp. 1452- 1465.
10 8 N. J. Adle r, llllernational Dimensions of Organizational Behavior, 4th ed. (Cincinnati, O H: South-Western Publishing, 2002), p. 174.
10 9 G. Hofstede, "Mot ivat ion, Leadershi p, and O rganization: Do American T heories Apply Abroad?" Organizational D)'tiamics, Summer 1980, p. 55.
110 G. Hofstede, "Mot ivat ion, Leadershi p, and O rganization: Do American T heories Apply Abroad?" Organizational D)itiamics, Summer 1980, p. 55.
ill D. F. Crown, "The Use of Grou p a nd Groupcent ric Indiv idual Goa ls fo r Cu lturally Heterogeneous a n d Homogeneous Task G ro ups: An Assessment of European Work Tea ms,· Small Group Research 38, no. 4 (2007), pp. 489 -5 08; J. Ku rm an, "Se lf. Regulation Strategies in Achievement Setting.: Culture and Gender Differences,• Journal of Cross-Cultural Psyclwlogy 32, no. 4 (2001 ), pp. 491- 503; and M. Erez a nd P. C. Earley, "Comparative Analysis of Goa l-Setting St rategies across Cultures,· Jounial of Applied Psychology 72, no. 4 ( 1987), pp. 658- 665.
112 C. Sue-Chan and M. Ong, "Goal Assignment and Pe rfo rmance: Assessing t h e Med iating Ro les of Goal Co m m itment and Se lf- Efficacy and the Modera t ing Role of Power Distance,• Organizational Behavior and Huma,1 Decision Processes 89. no . 2 (2002), pp. 1140- 1161.
113 R. Fischer and P. B. Sm ith, "Rewa rd Alloca t ion a nd C ult ure: A Meta-analysis,• Journal of Cross-Cultural Psycl1ology 34, no. 3 (2003), pp. 251 - 268.
114 F. F. T. Ch iang and T. Birtch, "Th e Transferability of Management rractices: Exam i ni ng Cross. Natio nal Di ffe re nces i n Rewa rd r references: Human Relations GO, no. 9 (2007), pp. 1293- 1330; A. E. Li nd, T. R. Tyler, and Y. J. Huo, "Procedura l Context a nd Cultu re: Variation in the Antecedents of Procedura l Justice Judgmen ts: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73, no. 4 ( 1997), pp. 767-780; and M. J. Gelfand, M. Erez, a nd Z. Aycan, "Cross. Cu ltural Organ izational Behavior," Anmwl Review of Psychology 58 (2007), pp. 479 -514.
115 J. K. Giacobbe-Mille r, D. J. Mi l ler, and V. I. Victo rov, "A Compa rison of Russian and U.S. r ay Allocation Decisions, Distributive Justice Judgments, and Productivity under Differen t
568 Endnotes
Payment Conditio ns," Personnel Psychology 51, no. 1 (1998), pp. 13 7- 163.
116 M. C. Bolino and V\I. H. Turnley, 'Old Faces, New Places: Equity T heory in C ross-Cultural Contexts,• Journal of Organizational Behavior 29, no. 1 (2008), pp. 29- 50.
117 F. F. T. Chiang and T. Birtch, "The Transferability of Management Practices: Exam in ing Cross. National D iffe rences in Reward Preferen ces," Human Relations 60, no. 9 (2007), pp. 1293- 1330; and M. J. Gelfand, M. Erez, and Z. Aycan, "Cross-Cu ltura l O rganizational Behavior,· Annual Review of Psychology 58 (2007), pp. 479- 514.
118 M. C. Bolino and V\I. H. Turnley, 'Old Faces, New Places: Equity Theory in C ross-Cultural Contexts,• Journal of Organizational Behavior 29, no. 1 (2008), pp. 29- 50.
119 R. Shao, D. E. Rupp, D. P. Skarlicki, and K. S. Jones, 'Employee Justice across Cultu res: A Meta. ana lytic Review," Journal of Management 39, no. 1 (2013), pp. 263- 301.
120 Based o n S. E. DeVoe and S. S. Iyenga r, "Ma n agers' Th eorie.< of Subordinates: A C ross-C u ltura l Exami n ation of Manager Perceptio ns of Motivatio n and Appra isa l of Performance," Orgmiizatio,ial Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Ja nuary 2004, pp. 47- 61.
121 I. Ha rpaz, ' The Impo rtance of Work Coa ls: An Inte rnat io n al Perspective." Journal of lntemational Business Studies. First Quarter 1990, pp. 75- 93.
122 C. E. Popp, H.J. Davis, and T. T. Herbert, 'An International Study of Intrinsic Motivation Composition," Manageme,1t h1ten1ational Review, January 1986, pp. 28- 35.
123 R. Fischer and P. B. Smit h, 'Reward Allocation and Culture: A Meta-a nalysis," Joumal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 34, no. 3 (2003), pp. 251- 268.
124 F. T. Ch iang and T. Birtch, "The Transferability of Manageme nt Practices: Exam in ing Cross. National D iffe rences in Reward Preferen ces," Human Relations 60, no. 9 (2007), pp. 1293- 1330; A. E. Lind, T. R. Tyler, and Y. J. Huo, "Procedural Context and Cu lture: Variation in the Antecedents of Proced ural Justice Judgm ents,• Joumal of Personality and Social Psychology 73, no. 4 (1997), pp. 767- 780; and M. J. Celfu nd, M. Erez, and Z. Aycan, "'Cros..~·Cultura l O rga nizational Behavior,"' Annual Review of Psycltolog)' 58 (2007), pp. 479- 514.
125 Based o n E. A. Locke and C. P. Latha m, "Building a Practically Useful Theory of Coal Setti ng and Task Motivation,• American Psychologist 57 (2002), pp. 705- 771; A. Tugen d, 'Expert's Advice to the Coa l-Oriented: Don't Overdo It,• New York Times, October 6, 2012, p. BS; and C. Richards, 'Letting Co of Long-Term Coals,· New York Times, August 4, 2012.
126 A. Ellin, "Failure Is Not an Optio n," New York Times, April 15, 2012, pp. 13- 14; A. Massoia, "The New Normal: The Problem of Grade Inflation in Am erica n Schools,• Huffington Po st, January 12, 2015, http://www.huffi ngt onpost.com/angelina- m assoia/the-n ew-no rm al-the-p roble_b_6146236.html 15; and S. Slavov, ' How to Fix College Grade In flatio n,• US News, Decem ber 26, 2013, http://www.usnews.com/opi nion/blogs/ economic-intel I igence/ 2013/ 12/ 2 6/why-col lege-grade-i nflatio n - is-a-real-p roblem-a nd -how-to-fix-it.
127 Based o n J. McFarla nd, 'Major CEO Pay Increases in the Cards Again,· Globe and Mail, Ju ne I, 2014, h ttp://www.theglobean- d m ai I .com/ report ·On·busi ness/ careers/ managem ent/ executive. com pensation/pay· iS· On· the· rise. fo r.ca nadas· tOp·executives/ artidel 8940701/; 'CEO vs Average Pay in Canada: All in a Day's Work?" Canadian Centre fo r Policy Alternatives, January 2, 2014, h ttps://www.policyalternatives.ca/ceo; J. Bizjak, M. Lemmon, and T. Nguyen, 'Are All CEOs Above Average? An Empirical Analysis of Compensatio n Peer Croups and Pay Design,• Joumal of Financial Economics 100, no. 3 (2011 ). pp. 538- 555; R. Foroohar, 'Stuffing Their Pockets: For CEOs, A Lucrative Recession" Newsweek,
Septembe r 13, 2010; A. Kleinman, 'Mark Zuckerberg $1 Salary Puts Him in Elite Croup of$! CEOs," Huffington Post, April 29, 2013; a nd C. Morgen.,on, "If Shareholders Say 'Enough Already; the Board May Listen,· New York Times, April 6, 2013 .
128 Based o n ' Q uebecor Plays Ha rdba ll with Defiant U n ion : Videotron 'Ready to Listen': Aims to Sell Cab le Insta llatio n Operations,· Financial Post (National Post), March 5, 2002, p. FP6; and S. Silcoff, 'Quebecor and Union in Showdown over Costs,• Financial Post (National Post), February 28, 2002, p. FP3.
129 Based on S. P. Robbins and D. A. DeCenzo, F,mdamentals of Management, 4th ed. ( Upper Saddle Ri ver, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2004), p. 85.
Chapter 5
1 "'Secrets of Ca nada's Best Managed Com pa nies," Canadian Business, May 9, 2017, http://W\,~v.canadianbusiness.com/best- managed-companies/#winners; C. Mcintyre, ' How C Adventure.< Made Socia l Good Part of IL< Manageme nt Stra tegy,• Canadian Business, May 9, 2017, http://www.maclea ns.ca/economy/ b usiness/ h ow -g-ad ventu res- m ad e -soci a I -good · pa rt -of· i ts - ma nagement-strategy/.
2 ADP, 'Many Canadian Workers Face a Growth Cap: ADP Canada Poll," Ma rch 15, 2017, https://www.adp.ca/en-ca/press-room/ media-releases/ 201 7 / many-canadian-workers-face-a-growth-gap. aspx.
3 C. Welle r, ' 10 Compa nie.< That Pay Em p loyees Ext ra to Take Vacations," Inc., October 3, 2016, https://"~vw.inc.com/business- insider/ JO.co mpanies·that· pay ·e m pl oyees·extra· for ·vacatio ns. htm l.
4 E. Wh ite, 'Opportunity Knocks, and It Pays a Lot Better,· Wall Street Journal, November 13, 2006, p. B3.
5 D. A. Mcintyre a nd S. Weigley, "8 Companies That Most Owe Workers a Raise,• USA Today, May 13, 2013, h ttp://\V\\~v.usatoday. com/story/money /business/2013/05/ 12/8-compa nie.<-that-most- owe-workers-a-raise/2144013/.
6 M. Sabramony, N. Krause, J. Norton, a nd C. N. Burn s, ' The Re la tionship between Hu ma n Resou rce Investme nts and O rgan iza tiona l Perfo rma nce: A Fi rm. Leve l Exa mi nation of Equ ilibriu m Theory,• Joumal of Applied Psycltolog)' 93, no. 4 (2008), pp. 778- 788.
7 H. Shaw, "Wa l ma rt Canada Stung as Re tail Competit ion Heats Up," Financial Post, November 14, 2013.
8 J. Sturgeon, 'Meet the Big-Box Retai ler That's Muscling in on Canadian Superma rkets," Global News, January 28, 2016, h ttp:// glob a I news.ca/news/ 2 483 631 / m eet-the-b ig-box-retai I er -thats- eating·canadian.supennarkets,.lunch/.
9 J. Bowman, "Why Wal-Mart Will Never Pay Employees A< Much As Costco," Motley Fool, November 6, 2016, h ttps://"~vw.fool.com/ investi ng/2016/ l l /06/ why-wal-mart-wil (. never-pay-employees-as- much. as-c.aspx.
10 Ba.sed on J. R. Schuster a nd P. K. Zingheim, "fhe New Variable Pay: Key De.sign Issues," Compensation & Benefits Review, March- April 1993, p. 28; K. S. Abosch, "Variable Pay: Do We Have the Basics in Place? " Compe11sation & Benefits Review, July- August 1998, pp. 12- 22; and K. M. Kuh n and M. D. Yockey, "Variable Pay as a Risky Choice: Detennina nts of the Rel ative Attractiveness of Incentive Plans," Organizational Behavior and Huma,1 Decision /'ro;;esses, March 2003, pp. 323 - 341.
11 'Canada's General Motors Workers to Get Up to 16 Per Cent of Salary in Bonuses," Canadian Press, February 14, 2011.
12 'Canada's General Motors Workers to Get Up to 16 Per Cent of Salary in Bonuses," Canadian Press, February 14, 2011 .
13 See, for example, M. Damia ni and A. Ricci, 'Managers' Education and the Choice of Differen t Variable Pay Schemes: Evidence from
Ita lia n Firms," European Managemellt Joun1al 32, no . G (2014), pp. 891- 902; a nd J. S. Heywood a nd U. )irjahn, "Va riable Pay, Indust ria l Relation s and Fore ig n Own e rsh ip: Evidence fro m Germany,· British Journal of Industrial Relations 52, no. 3 (2014 ) ,
pp. 521- 552.
14 J. C lo utier, D. Morin, and S. Rena ud, "How Does Variable Pay Relate to Pay Satisfaction among Canadian Workers?" hltemational Joumal of Manpower 34, no. 5 (2013), pp. 465- 485.
15 H. Ki m, K. L. Sutto n, and Y. Gon g, "Grou p -Based Pay-for- Performance Plans a nd Firm Perform ance: The Moderating Ro le of Empowerment Practices," Asia Pacific Journal of Management, March 2013, pp. 3 1- 52.
16 E. Belogolovsky and r. A. Bamberger, "Signaling in Secrec Pay for Performance and the Incentive and Sorting Effects of Pay Secrecy,• Academy of Managemellt Joumal 57, no. 6 (2014), pp. 1706- 1733.
17 E. Belogolovsky and r. A. Bamberger, "Signaling in Secrec Pay for Performance and the Incentive and Sorting Effects of Pay Secrecy,• Academy of Managemellt Joumal 57, no. 6 (2014), pp. 1706- 1733.
18 B. Wysocki, J r., "Chilling Reality AwaiL< Even the Employed,· Wall Street Joun,al, November 5, 2001, p. A 1.
19 K. A. Bender, C. r. Green, and J. S. Heywood, "Piece Rates and Workp lace Injury: Doe.< S urvey Evidence Support Adam Smith?" Joumal of Population Economics 25, no. 2 (2012), pp. 569- 590.
2 0 J. S. Heywood, X. Wei, a nd G. Ye, "Piece Rates fo r Professors," Economics Letters 113, n o. 3 (2011 ), pp. 285- 287.
21 A. Ba ker a n d V. Mertins, " Risk-Sorting a n d Preference fo r
Team Piece Rate.<," Journal of Economic Ps)'chology 34 (2013), pp. 285- 300.
22 A. Clemens, "Pace of Work and Piece Rates; Economics Letters 11 5, n o. 3 (2012), pp. 477- 479.
23 K. A. Bender, C. r. Green, and J. S. Heywood, "Piece Rates and Workp lace Injury: Doe.< S urvey Evidence Support Adam Smith?" Joumal of Population Economics 25, no. 2 (2012), pp. 569- 590.
2 4 S. L. Ryne.<, B. Gerha rt , and L. Pa rks, " Pe rsonnel Psychology: Performance Evaluation and Pay for Performance," Ammal Review of Psychology 56, no. I (2005), pp. 571- 600.
25 S. Halzack, "Co m panies Look to Bonuses Instead of Sa lary Increases in an Uncertain Economy," Wasl,i,1gton Post, November G, 2012, h ttp://www.wash ingtonpost.com/ business/economy/ com pa nies.look· tO-bonuses-instead-of-sa lary-i ncreases-i n-an· uncertai n -econ omy/ 2012/ l i/06/52a7ecl 2 -2751 - 1 l e2-9972- 71 bf64ea091 c_story.h t ml .
26 C. M. Ba rn es, J. Reb, and D. Ang, "More Tha n Just th e Mean: Moving to a Dynamic View' of Perfonnance- Ba,;ed Compensation," Joumal of Applied Ps)'chology97, no. 3 (2012), pp. 71 1- 718.
27 E. J. Castillo, "Gen de r, Race, a n d t h e New (Me rit - Based) Employment Re lationship," Industrial Relatio1tS Si, no. S J (2012),
pp. 528- 562.
28 "Bonus Pay in Canada," Manpower Argus, Septem ber 1996, p. 5; E. 'A'h ite, "Employers Increasingly Favor BontLses to Raises,• Wall Street Journal, Augus t 28, 2006, p . 83; and J. S. Lublin, ' Boards Tie CEO Pay More Tightly to Pe rfo rmance,• \.Vall Street Joumal, Februa ry 21, 2006, pp.A l , A l 4.
29 Based on R. C urran, "Did Bonuses Help to Fuel Meltdown ?" Post. IE online, Septem ber 21, 2008; and V. Bajaj, A. R. Sork in, and M. J. de la Merced, "As Goldm an and Morgan S hift, a Wall St. Era Ends, • New York Times, Septem ber 21, 2008, http:// dealbooknyti mes.com/ 2008/ 09/ 21/ gold man-mo rgan -to-become- bank-h o lding-companies/.
3 0 S. S. \.Vi lte rm uth and F. Gi n o, "'I'll Have One of Each': How Separati ng Rewards i nto (Mean i ng less) Categories l nc rea<e.< Motivation,• Journal of Personality and Social Psrchology, January 2013, pp. 1- 13.
End notes 569
31 "Mark Zuckerberg Reaped $2.3 Billion o n Facebook Stock Options, • Huffington Post, April 26, 2013, http://www.h uffingt o npost.com.
32 D. D'Art and T. Turner, "Profit S h a ring, Firm Perform ance, and Union Influence in Selected European Countries," Person,iel Review 33, no. 3 (2004), pp. 335 - 350; and D. Kruse, R. Freeman, and J. Blasi, Shared Capitalism at Work: Employee Owners/tip, Profit and Cain Sharing, and Brood-Based Stock Options (Chicago: University of C hicago Press, 2010).
33 A. Bayo-Moriones and M. Larraza-Kintana, "Profit-Sharing Plans and Affective Commitm ent: Does the Context Matter?" Human Resourr;e Management 48, no. 2 (2009), pp. 207- 226.
34 N. C h i a n d T. Han, " Exploring th e Li n kages between Formal Own ership and Psychological Ownership for the Organ ization: The Mediating Role of Organizationa l Justice,· Joumal of Occupational and Organizational Ps)'chology81, no. 4 (2008), pp. 691 - 711 .
3 5 J. H. Ha n , K. M . Ba ro !, a n d S. Ki m, "T igh ten i ng Up the Pe rfo rma nce-Pay Li nkage: Roles of Contingent Reward Leadership and Profit-Sharing in the C ross-Level In fl uence of Individual Pay-for-Performance," Jounwl of Applied Psycholog)' JOO, n o. 2 (2015), pp. 417- 430.
36 R. r. Garrett, "Does Employee Ownersh ip Increase Innovation!" New England Joumal of Enttepreneurship 13, no. 2, (2010), pp. 37-46.
3 7 D. McCarthy, E. Reeves, a n d T. Turner, "Can Employee Sh a re - Own ersh ip Imp rove Emp loyee Attitudes and Behavio ur!" Emploi~e Relations 32, no. 4 (2010), pp. 382- 395.
38 A. Pendleton, "Sha red Capitalis m a t Work: Employee Ownership, Profit a n d Ga in Sha ring, a nd Broad -Based Stock Optio ns," lndt1Strial & Labor Relations Review 64, no. 3 (2011 ), pp. 621- 622.
39 A. Pe nd leton and A. Rob inson, "Employee Stock Ownership, Involvem en t, and Productivity: An Interaction-Based Approach,• lndt1Strial and Labor Relations Review 64, no. I (2010), pp. 3 - 29.
40 "Ca n ada Celebrate.< Firs t Employee Ownership Day," ESOP Association Canada, Ju n e 5, 2017, h tt ps://\\~Vw.esopca n ada.ca/ si n gle -post/ 201 7 / 06/ 05/Ca n ada-Celebrates-Fi rst-Em p loyee- Ownersh ip·Day.
41 X. Z hang, K. M. Bartol, K. G. S m ith M . D. Pfa rrer, a nd D. M. Khanin, "CEOs o n the Edge: Earnings Manipulation and Srock. Based Incentive Misalignment," Academ)' of Manageme,1t Journal 5 1, no. 2 (2008), pp. 241- 258.
42 C. B. Cadsby, F. Song. and F. Tapon, "Sorting and Incen tive Effects of Pay for Perform ance: An Experimental Investigation," Academr of Management Joumal 50, no. 2 (2007), pp. 387- 405.
43 J. H. Han, K. M. Baro!, and S. Kim, 'Tightening Up the Performance- Pay Linkage: Roles of Contingent Reward Leadership and Profit.Sharing in the Cros.<-1..evel Influence of Individual Pay-for-Perfonnance. • Journal of Applied Ps)dtology 100, no. 2 (2015), pp. 417-430.
44 Z. Lin, J. Kelly, and L. T renberth, "An tecedenL< and Consequence.< of t h e In t rod u c t ion of Flex ib le Be n efi t Plans i n Ch ina," hllenwtional Journal of Human Resource Ma,iagement 22, no. 5 (2011 ), pp. 1128- 1145.
45 r. Steph ens, "Flex Pl ans Gai n in Popu larity," CA Magaz ine, January/ Februa ry 2010, p. 10.
46 N . S tewart, "The Power of Appreciatio n : Rewards and Recognit ion Practices in Ca nadian Orga nizations," The Co,iference Board of Omada, June 22, 2017.
47 B. Scudam o re, "Pum p up Employee Pas.,ion, • PROFIT, October 13, 2010, h ttp ://"~'~v.profitguide.com/ man age-g row/ human- re.,ources/ pump-up -em ployee-passion-29964.
48 "Building a Better Workfo rce, " PROFIT, February JG, 2011, http:// W\\~v.profitguide.com/ ma nage-grow/ h uman-resources/ building- a -better-workforce-30073.
4 9 See a lso D. A. Johnson and A. M. Dickinson, "Employee-of-the- Month Programs: Do They Really \.Vo rk?" Journal of Organizational Behavior Management 30, no. 4 (2010), pp. 308- 324.
570 En dnotes
5 0 S. E. Markham, K. D. Scott, and G. H. McKee, "Recogn izing Good Attendance: A Longitudinal, Q uasi-Experime nta l Field Study,· Personnel Psycholog)' 55, no. 3 (2002), p. 641; a nd S. J. Peterson a n d F. Lu tha ns, "'Th e Impact of Fi n ancial a nd Non fi n ancial Incentives o n Bus ine.~'i Unit Outcomes over Time," Jountal of Applied Psrchology91, no. I (2006), pp. 156- 165.
51 C. Xu a nd C. Liang, "'The Mechanisms Underlying a n Employee Recognitio n Program: in Proceedings of the lntemational Omference on Public Human Resource Management and Innolllltim1, ed. L Hale and (). Zhang Marietta, GA: American Scholars Press, 2013), p p. 28- 35.
52 S. Kerr, "On th e Folly o f Rewa rd ing A, Wh i le Hoping for B, • Academy of Management Executive 9, no. 1 ( 1995), pp. 7- 14.
5 3 "More o n the Folly; Academy of Management Executive 9, n o. I (1995), pp. 15 - 16.
54 Based o n L. r o p e and J. Harvey-Seri n o, " Burn a nd Earn: A Randomized Controlled Trial lncentivizing Exercise d uring Fall Semester for College First-Year Students,· Preventive Medicine 56, no. 3- 4 (March 2013), pp. 197- 201.
55 C. B. Gibson, J. L. G ibbs, T. L. Sta n ko, r . Tesluk, a nd S. G. Coh e n, "Includ i n g the ' I' i n V ir t u a l ity a n d Mode rn Job Design: Extendi ng t h e Job Ch aracteristics Model to Incl u de th e Moderating Effect of Ind iv id ual Experien ces of Electro nic Dependence and Coprese.nce," Orgmiization Science 22, no. 6 (2011), pp. 1481 - 1499.
5 6 Payscale, "The Most a n d Least Meaningful Jobs, 2014, • accessed October 14, 2014, http://www.payscale.com/data-packages/ most- and-least-m eaningful-jobs/ full -list.
57 J. R. Hackman, "Work Design,· in Improving Life at \.\fork, ed. J. R. Hackm an a nd J. L. Suttle (Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear, 1977), p. 129.
5 8 Based on M. Gagne a nd D. Shave, "Auton o my in the Workplace: An Essential Ingredient to Em p loyee Engagemen t and Well-Being in Every Culture?" in Human Autonomy j,i Cross·Cultural Comext: Perspectives on the Psychology of Agency. Freedom, and Well-Being, ed. V. I. Chirkov, R. M. Ryan, and K. M. Sheldon (Ber lin, Germany: Springer, 2011 ); and "Freedom's Just Anothe r Word for Emp loyee Satisfactio n," Concordia University, Ja nuary 24, 2011, http://www. concordi a.ca/ c unews/ m ain/ releases/ 2011 / 0 I / 2 4/ freedo ms -just- another-word-fo r-e mployee-satisfaction. html.
5 9 S. E. Humphrey, J. D. Nahrgang, and F. P. Morgeson, "Integrating Motivatio nal, Social, and Contextual Work Design Featu res: A Meta-a nalytic Summary a nd Theoretical Exten., ion of the \.Vo rk Design Literature, • Journal of Applied Psrchology 92, no. 5 (2007), pp. 1332- 1356.
60 B. M. Megl i n o and A. M. Ko rsgaard, "T h e Ro le of Other Orientation in Reactions to Job Characteristics, " Jounial of Management 33, no. 1 (2007), pp. 57- 83.
61 J. L Pierce, I. Jus.,ila, a nd A. Cummings, "Psychological Ownership w ith in the Job Design Context: Revision o f the Job C haracteristics Model,• Journal of Organizational Behavior 30, n o . 4 (2009) , pp. 477- 496.
62 C. B. Gibson, J. L. G ibbs, T. L. Sta n ko, r . Tesluk, a nd S. G. Coh e n, "Includ i n g the ' I' i n V ir t u a l ity a n d Mode rn Job Design: Extendi ng th e Job Ch aracteristics Model to Incl ude th e Moderating Effect of Ind iv id ual Experien ces of Electro nic Dependence and Coprese.nce," Orgmiization Science 22, no. 6 (2011), pp. 1481 - 1499.
63 B. Ingra m, "Island Health Care Model Shift Criticized By Nurses,• Nanaimo Dail)' News, January 15, 2014, p. AS.
64 T. Silver, "Rotate Your Way to Higher Value,• Baseline March/ April 2010, p. 12; and J. J. Salopek, "Coca-Cola Division Refreshes IL< Talent w ith Diversity Push o n Ca mpus: Workforce Managemenl Online, March 2011, http://\\~vw.workforce.com.
65 Skytrax website review of Singapore Ai rlines, accessed May 31, 2013, h ttp://\\~vw.airlinequality.com/ Airlines/ SQ.h tm .
6 6 A. Christin i a nd D. r ozzol i, "Workplace Practice.< a nd Firm Pe rfo rm a nce in Manufactu ri ng: A Comparative Study of Ita ly and Bri tain, · lrltemational Journal of Manpower 31, no. 7 (2010), pp. 818- 842; and K. Kaymaz. "The Effects of Job Rotatio n Practices o n Motivation: A Research o n Managers i n the Auto motive O rganizatio ns," Busitiess and Economics Research Jounial 1, no. 3 (2010), pp. 69- 86.
67 S.-H. Hua ng and Y.·C. Pan, "Ergono mic Job Rotatio n Strategy Based on an Auto m ated RG B-D Anthropom etr ic Measuring Syste m: Journal of Manufacturing Systems 33, no. 4 (2014), pp. 699 - 710; and r . C. Leider, J. S. Boschm a n, M. H. \¥. Frings-Dresen, a nd H. F. van der Molen, "Effect.< of Job Rotation on Musculoskeletal Complaints a nd Rela ted Work Exposures: A Systematic Literature Review: Ergonomics 58, no. 1 (2015), pp. 18- 32.
68 A. M. G rant, "Leadi n g w it h Mea ni ng: Beneficiary Co n tact,
r rosocial Impact, a nd the Performance Effects ofTransforma tional Leadersh ip,· Academ)' of Management Journal 55 (2012), pp. 458- 476; a nd A. M. Grant and S. K. Parker, "Redesigning Work De.,ign Theories: The Rise of Relationa l and Proactive Perspectives, " Annals of the Academy of Managemetll 3, no. 1 (2009), pp. 317-3 75 .
69 J. Devaro, "A Theoretical An alysis of Relational Job Design a nd Com pensation,• Journal of Organizalional Behavior 31 (2010), pp. 2 79 - 301.
70 A. M. Grant, E. M. Campbell, G. Chen, K. Cottone, D. Lapedis, and K. Lee, "I mpact and the Art of Motivation Mainten ance: The Effects of Contact w ith Ben eficia ries on Pe rs iste nce Behavio r," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 103, no. 1 (2007), pp. 53 - 67.
71 Y. N. Turner, I. Hadas-Halperin, and D. Raveh, "Patient Photos Spur Radiologist Empathy and Eye for Detail " (paper p resented at the annual meeting o f the Radio logical Society of North America, Novem ber 2008).
72 A. M. Gran t, "T h e Sign i ficance of Task S ig n ificance: Job Pe rfo rm ance Effects, Relationa l Mech anisms, a n d Bou ndary Co n d itions,• Journal of Applied Psrcholog)' no. 93 (2008), pp. 108- 124.
73 K. r ajo and L. Lee, "Corporate-Sponsored Volu nteering: A Work De.sign Perspective,· Journal of Business Ethics 99, no . 3 (2011 ), pp. 467- 482.
74 L Duxbury a nd C. Higgins, "Revisiting \<\fo rk-Life ls.sues in Canada: The 2012 Nationa l Study on Balancing Work a nd Caregiving in Canada,· acce.ssed October 14, 2014, http://\\~Vw.healthywork- places.info/ wp-contentf up loads/ 2012/ 1 l / 2012 -Natio nal-Work - Long-Sum mary.pdf.
75 K. Bal, "Does Flext ime Pen alize Night Owls?" Human Resource Execlllive, June 23, 2014, h ttp://\\~vw.hreonline.com/ H RE/ v iew/ story.jhtml ?id=534357257.
7 6 T. Ka to , "\<\fork and Fa m i ly Practices in Jap anese Fi rms: Thei r Scope., Nature., and Impact o n Employee Turnover," International Journal of Human Resource Management 20, no. 2 (2009), p p. 439- 456; a n d P. Mourdoukoutas, "v\lh y Do \¥omen Fare Better in the German World of Work than in the US?" Forbes, March 25, 2013, h ttp:/fW\,~v.forbe.,.com/ sites/ panosm ourdoukoutas/ 2013/ 03/ 25/ why-do-women-fare -better-in-the-ge.nnan-world-0f-work-than-in· the-us/.
7 7 R. Waring, "Sunday D ialogue: Flexib le \<\fo rk Hours,· New York Times, January 19, 2013, h ttp:/lw,vw.nytimes.com/ 2013/ 01/ 20/ opinion/ su n d a y / sun day-dia logue- flex i b le -work -hou rs . html ?pagewanted=all&_r=O.
7 8 S. Y. He, "Does Flextime Affect Choice of Departure Time for
Morning Home-Based Commuti ng Trips? Evidence from Two Regions in Californ ia," Transport Polic)' 25 (2013), pp. 210 - 221.
7 9 S. \.Vestcott, "Beyond Flextime: Trashing t h e Workweek,· Inc. , August 2008, p. 30.
8 0 B. Y. Lee and S. E. DeVoe, "Flextime and Profitability; /11d11strial Relatio,u 51, no. 2 (2012), pp. 298- 316.
81 K. M. Shockley and T. D. Allen, "\,Vh en Flexibility Help.s: An o ther Look at th e Avai labil ity of Flexible Work Arrangem e nts a nd Work-Family Con flict: Journal of Vocatio11al Beltavior 71, no. 3 (2007), pp. 4 79 - 493; J.C. G rzywacz, D. S. Carlso n, a n d S. Shulkin, "Schedule Flexibility and Stress: Linking Formal Flexible Arrangements and Perceived Flexibil ity to Em p loyee Health,· Comm,mity. Work, a11d Family 11, no. 2 (2008), pp. 199 - 214; a nd L.A. McNa ll, A. D. Masu da, a nd J. M. Nic kl in, "Flexib le Work Arrangem ents, Job Satisfactio n, and Turnover Intentions: The Mediating Role of Work-to -Fa mily Enrich ment,• Journal of Psycltolog)' 144, no. I (2010), pp. 61- 81.
82 S. Schiem an and M. Young, "Is There a Downside to Schedu le Control fo r the Work-Family Interface? " Journal of Family Issues 31, no. 10 (2010), pp. 1391 - 1414.
83 K. M. Sh ockley and T. D. Allen, "Investigating the Mes.sing Li nk in Flexible \.Vo rk Arra ngem ent Utilizatio n: An Individual Difference Perspective," Jo11r11al of Vocatio11al Beltavior 76, no. I (2010), pp. 131- 142.
84 C. L. Munsch, C. L. Ridgeway, a nd J. C. \.Vi llia ms, "Pluralistic Ign orance a nd the Flexibility Bias: Understanding a nd Mitigating Flextime and Flexplace Bias at Work; Work a11d Occupations 41, no. 1 (2014), pp. 40- 62.
85 D. Eld ridge and T. M. Nisa r, "Em p loyee and O rgan izationa l Impact.< of Flextime Work Arra ngem ents, · Industrial Relatio11s 66, no. 2 (2011), pp. 213- 234.
86 T. Grant, "Job Sharing, · Globe a11d Mail, May 16, 2009.
8 7 T. Grant, "Job Sharing,· Globe a11d Mail, May 16, 2009.
88 See, fo r example, E. J. Hill, M. Ferris, a nd V. Martinson, "Doe., It Matter Where You Work? A Comparison of How Three \.Vo rk Venu e.< (Traditiona l Office, Virtual Office, and Home Office) Influence Aspects of \<\fo rk and Personal/ Family Life,· Journal of Vocatio11al Beltavior 63, no. 2 (2003), pp. 220- 241; B. Williamson, "Managing Vi rt u al Workers, · Bloomberg B11si11essweek, Ju ly 16, 2009, http://www.businessweek.com/ stories/ 2009-07-15/ managing- virtual-workers; a nd B. A. Lautsch a nd E. E. Ko.,sek, "Managing a Blended \.Vo rkforce: Telecommuters a nd Non-Telecommuters,· Orga11izatio11al Dynamics 40, no. 1 (2010), pp. 10 - 17.
89 B. Belton, "Best Buy Copies Yah oo, Reins in Telecommuting,• USA Today. March 6, 2013, h ttp://\\~vw.usatoday.com .
90 C. Tkaczyk, "Marissa Mayer Breaks Her S ilence on Yahoo's Telecommuting Policy,· Fort1111e, Apri l 13, 2013, http://fortune. co m/ 2013/ 04 / 19 / m arissa-mayer-b reak.s-h er-si lence-o n-ya h oos- telecom mu ting-pol icy/ .
91 C. Karste n.s-Smith, "Re mote Work an Escape \¥hen Trapped by Grid lock," Torolllo Star, May 29, 2014, p. Bl.
92 "Canadian Studies on Telework, • /11n0Visio11s C,mada, http://www. ivc.ca/studies/ canada/ .
93 M. E. Roloff, "Vslhy Teleworkers Are More Satisfied with Their Jobs Than Are Office-Based Workers: Wh en Less Contact Is Beneficial,• Journal of Applied Comm1111icatio11 Researclt 38, no. 4 (2010), pp. 336- 361.
94 E. E. Kossek, B. A. l.autsch, and S. C. Eaton, "Telecommuting, Control, a nd Boun daiy Man agemen t: Correlate.< of Policy Use and Practice, Job Control, and \<\fo rk-Family Effectiveness,· Journal of Vocatio11al Beltavior 68, no. 2 (2006), pp. 347 - 367.
95 J. Kotkin, "Marissa Mayer's Misstep and th e U n.stoppable Rise of Telecommuting, " Forbes, March 26, 2013.
96 L. Ta.skin and F. Bridoux, "Telework: A Challenge to Knowledge Transfer in Organizations.,. hlternational Journal of Human Rescurce Ma11ageme111 21, no. 13 (2010), pp. 2503- 2520.
97 S. M. B. Thatcher and J. Bagger, "\<\fo rking in Pa ja m as: Telecommuting. Unfairness Sources. and Unfairness Perceptions, "
En d note s 571
Nego1ia1io11 and Co11flic1 Ma11age,11e111 Researclt 4, no. 3 (2011 ), pp. 248- 276.
98 E. C. Dutcher, "The Effects of Telecommu ting on Productivity: An Experimental Examination. The Role of Dull and C reative Tasks,• Jounial of Eco11omic Beltavior & Orga11iza1io11 84, no. 1 (2014), pp. 355-363.
99 M. C. Noonan a n d J. L. C lass, "Th e Ha rd Tru t h abou t Telecommuting, • Mo111/tly Labor Review, 2012, pp. 1459- 1478.
100 J. Welch and S. Welch, "Th e Impo rtance of Bei ng The re, · B11si11essWeek, April 16, 2007, p. 92; Z. I. Barsness, K. A. Diekmann, and M. L. Seidel, "Motiva tion and Opportu n ity: T h e Role of Re mote Work, Dem ographic Dissimilarity, and Social Network Centrality in Impressio n Managem ent," Academy of Management Journal 48, no. 3 (2005), pp. 401 - 419.
101 P. Zhu and S. C. Mason, "The Im pact of Telecom muti ng on Personal Veh icle Usage a nd Environ mental Sustai n abi lity,• Jmernational Journal of Environmental Sciet1ce and Technology 11, no. 8 (2014), pp. 2185- 2200.
102 "Secrets of Canada's Best Ma n aged Co m pan ies (201 7 ) , • Canadia,i Busi,iess, http://www.ca nadia nbusi ness.com/ best· managed-compa nies/ .twinne rs; B. Poon Tip, Looptail: How One Company Changed 1/te World b)' Reinventing Business. (Toronto: Ha rperColl i ns Canada, 2013); P. H u nter, "Meet th e 'Mayor' of G Adventu re.<, W h ose Job Is to Make Emp loyees Happy,• tltestar.com , June 6 , 2015, https://www.thest a r.co m/ n ews/ i nsig h t/ 20 i 5 / 06/ 06/ meet-th e-mayor -of -g-adventures-whose- job-is-to -make-e m p loyees-happy. h t m I.
10 3 M. Ma rc h ingt o n, "Ana lysi ng t h e Forces Shapi n g Employee Involvement a nd Participation (EIP) at Orga nisatio n Level in Liberal Market Economies (LMEs), • Human Resource Ma11agement Journal 25, no. I (2015), pp. 1- 18.
104 See, fo r example, the increasing body of literatu re on e mpow- e rment, su ch as D. P. Ash mos, D. Duch on, R. R. McDaniel Jr., and J. \,V. H u onker, "Wh a t a MeS-<! Participation as a Si mp le Managerial Rule to 'Complexify' Organ iza t ions,• Journal of Ma11agement Studies 39, no. 2 (2002), pp. 189 - 206; S. E. Seibert, S. R. S ilve r, and v,,1_ A. Randolph, "Taking Empowe rm e n t to the Next Level: A Multiple-Level Model of Em powerment, Performance, a nd SatL,faction, • Academy of Managemelll Journal 4 7, no. 3 (2004), pp. 332- 349; M. M. Butts, R. J. Vanden berg, D. M. DeJoy, B. S. Schaffer, and M. C. V,,lilson, "Ind ividua l Reactions to H igh Involvement Work Processes: Investigating the Role of Empowerment a nd Perceived Organ izatio nal Support,• Journal of Occupational Healtlt Ps)'cltology 14, no. 2 (2009), pp. 122- 136; R. Park, E. Applebaum, a nd D. Kruse, "Employee Involvement a nd C roup Incentive.Ii in Manufacturing Companies: A Multi.Leve.I Analysis,• H1111ia11 Resource Managemelll Journal 20, no. 3 (2010), pp. 227-243; D. C. Jones, P. Kalmi, and A. Ka uhanen, "How Doe., Employee Involvem en t Stack Up? The Effect.< of Human Resource Managem ent Pol icies in a Re.tail Firm, " h idustrial Relations 49, no. 1 (2010), pp. 1- 21; and M. T. Maynard, L. L. Gilson, and J.E. Mathieu, "Empowerment- Fad o r Fab? A Multilevel Review of the Past Two Decades of Research,• Journal of Ma11agemen1 38, no. 4 (2012), pp. 1231- 1281.
105 M. Ma rc h ingto n, "Ana lysi ng t h e Forces Shapi n g Employee Involvement a nd Participation (EIP) at Orga nisatio n Level in Liberal Market Economies (LMEs), • Human Resource Ma11agement Journal 25, no. I (2015), pp. 1- 18.
106 J. J. Caughron a nd M. D. Mu m fo rd, "Embedded Leadership: How Do a Leader's Supe rio rs Impact Midd le -Managemen t Performance?" Leaders/tip Quarterly, June 2012, pp. 342- 353.
107 See, fo r example, K. L. Mille r and P. R. Monge, " Participatio n, Satisfaction, and Productivity: A Meta-a nal}~ic Review,• Academy of Managemelll Journal, December 1986, pp. 727-753; J. A. \.Vagn er Ill, "Participatio n's Effects o n Performance a nd Sat isfaction: A Reconsideration of Resea rch Evidence," Academy of Management
572 En dnotes
Review, April 1994, pp. 312- 330; C. Doucou liagos, "Worke r Participation an d Productivity in Labor-Managed and Participatoiy Capitalist Firms: A Meta-analysis: Industrial and Labor Relations Review, October 1995, pp. 58- 77; J. A. Wagn e r Ill, C.R. Leana, E. A. Locke, and D. M. Schweiger, "Cognitive a nd Motivational Frameworks in U.S. Research o n Participatio n: A Meta.analysis o f Prim aiy Effects: Joumal of Organizational Behavior 18 ( 1997), pp. 49- 65; E. A. Locke, M. Alavi, an d J. A. Wagner Ill, "Participatio n in Decision Maki ng: An Information Exchange Pers pective.," in Research in Personnel and Human Resource Management, vol. 15, ed. G. R. Ferris (Greenwich, CT: JAi Press, 1997), pp. 293- 331; a nd J. A. Wagn e r Ill a nd J. A. LePine, "Effects of Pa rt icipation o n Performan ce and Satisfaction: Additional Meta-an alytic Evidence,• Ps)'chological Reports, Jun e 1999, pp. 719- 725.
108 D. K. Datta, J. P. Guthri e, a n d P. M. \<\fright, "Hu m a n Resource Management and Labor Productivity: Does Industry Matter?" Academy of Management Joumal 48, no. 1 (2005), pp. 135- 145; C. M. Riordan, R. J. Vanden berg, and H. A. Richardson, "Employee Involvement C limate and Organizational Effectiveness," Human Resouru Management 44, no. 4 (2005), pp. 471 - 488; a nd J. Ki m, J. P. MacDuffie, and F. K. Pil, "Employee Voice a nd O rganizatio nal Performance: Team versus Re presenta tive Influe nce," Huma,1
Relatiol!S 63, no. 3 (2010), pp. 371- 394.
109 M. March i ngton, "An alysing the Forces Sh ap in g Em ployee Involve m e nt and Participatio n (EIP) at O rganisation Level in Liberal Market Economies (LMEs), • Human Resource Management Joumal 25, n o. I (201 5), pp. 1- 18.
110 M. March i ngton, "An alysing the Forces Sh ap in g Em ployee Involve m e nt and Participatio n (EIP) at O rganisation Level in Liberal Market Economies (LMEs), • Human Resource Management Joumal 25, n o. I (201 5), pp. 1- 18.
ll1 N. Nohria, B. Groysberg, and L.-E. Lee, "Employee Motivation: A Powerful New Model,• Harvard Business Review, July- August 2008, pp. 78 - 84.
112 P. R. Lawren ce and N. Nohria, Driven: How Human Nature Shapes Our Choices (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2002) .
113 S. Miller, "Variable Pay Spending Spikes to Record High,· Society
for Human Resource Management, Septem ber 2, 2014, http://\\~VW. sh rm.org/hrd isciplines/compensation/articles/pages/variable-pay- h igh.aspx.
114 S. Miller, "Companies Worldwide Rewarding Performance with Variable Pay," Society for Human Resource Mmiagement, March 1, 2010, http://\\~vw.sh rm.org/hrd iscipl i n es/compensation/articles/ pages/varia bleworld.aspx.
115 S. Miller, "Asian Firms Offer More Variabl e Pay Than \<\leste rn Firms," Society for Human Resource Manageme,1t, March 28, 2012, http://www.sh rm .org/h rd iscipl ines/ compensatio n/articles/pages/ asianvariablepay.aspx.
116 Z. Lin, J. Kellly, and L Tren berth, "Anteceden ts a nd Consequences o f t h e Introductio n of Flexible Benefi t Plans in Ch ina,• The lnternatio,ial Jountal of Human Resource Management 22, no. 5 (2011), pp. 11 28- 1145.
117 R. C. Koo, "Glob al Added Value of Flexib le Benefi ts: Benefits Quarterly 27, no. 4 (2011 ), pp. 17 - 20.
118 D. Lovewell, "Flexib le Benefi ts: Ben efits on Offer: Emplo)'ee Be11efits, March 2010, p. SIS.
119 M. Erez, "Cult u re and Jo b Desig n,• Journal of Organizational Behavior 31, no. 2/3 (2010), pp. 389- 400.
110 B. M. Naba a nd L Fan, "Employee Motivation a nd Satisfactio n
in Niger: An Application of the Job Characteristics Model: in Proceedings of the 10th Inteniational Co,iference on /,i,iovation and Management, ed. A. de Hoyos, K. Ka m inishi, and G. Duysters, (Wuhan, Ch ina: Wuhan University of Technology Press, 2013), pp. 523- 527.
121 M. F. Peterson and S. A. Ru iz.Quinta nilla, "Cultural Socialization as a Source o f Intrinsic Work Motivation," Croup & Organizatio,i Management, June 2003, pp. 188- 216.
122 D. \.Vi lkie, " Has th e Telecom mut ing Bubbl e Burst?" Society for Human Resource Management, June I , 2015, h ttp://www.sh rm . o rg/pub l icati o ns/h rm agazi ne/ ed i tori alcon ten t/2015/0615/ pages/0615-telecommuti ng.aspx.
123 S. Raghuram a nd D. Fang, "Telecommuti ng a n d th e Ro le of Supervi sory Power in China," Asia Pacific Jounial of Management 31, no . 2 (2014), pp. 523- 547.
12 4 See, fo r i nstance, A. Sagie a nd Z. Ayca n, "A C ross-Cu ltu ral Analysis o f Participative Decisio n . Making i n O rga n izatio ns," Human Relations 56, n o. 4 (2003), pp. 453- 473; and J. Brockne r, "Unpacking Count!)' Effects: On the Need to O perationalize the Psychological Determ in a nts of Cross-Natio nal Differences,• in Research in Organizntional Behavior, vol. 25, ed. R. M. Kramer and B. M. Staw (O xford , UK: Elsevie r, 2003), pp. 336- 3 40.
125 C. Robert, T. M. Probst, J. J. Man occh io, R. Drasgow, and J. J. Lawler, .. Empowerment and Continuous I mprovem ent in the United States, Mexico, Poland, and India: Predicting Fit o n the Basis o f the Dimensions o f r ower D istance and Individualis m," Joumal of Applied Psychology, O ctober 2000, pp. 643- 658.
12 6 Z. X. Chen and S. Aryee, "Delegation a n d Employee Work Outcomes: An Examination o f the Cultural Context o f Mediating r roce.~ses in Ch ina," Academ)' of Management Journal SO, no. 1 (2007), pp. 226- 238.
12 7 G. H u a ng, X. Niu, C. Lee, a n d S. J. Ashford, " Diffe re ntiati ng Cogn it ive and Affective Job Insecurit y: An teceden ts and Outcom es,· Journal of Organizational Behavior 33, no . 6 (2012), pp. 752 - 769.
12 8 Z. Cheng, "1ne Effects of Employee Involvemen t a nd Participa tion o n Subjective \<\lellbei ng: Evidence fro m Urban China,• Social Indicator, Resean;/J 118, n o. 2 (2014), pp. 457- 483.
12.9 Based on J. Surowiecki, "Face Time: New Yorker, March 18, 2013, h ttp://www.newyorker.com/ magazine/2013/03/ 18/face-time; a nd L Taskin a nd F. Bridoux, "Telework: A C hallenge to Knowledge Transfer in Organizatio ns," /ntemational Joun1al of Human Resource Management 21, no. 13 (2010), p p. 2503- 2520.
13 0 Th is exe rcise is based o n V.,,. P. Fe rris, "En l ive n ing the Job Characteristics Model,• in Proceedings of the 29th Ammal Eastem Academy of Management Meeting, ed. C. Harris and C. C. Lundberg (Baltimore, MD: May 1992), pp. 125- 128.
131 Based o n J. Hansen, "Canada's Top CEOs Ea rn 193 T imes Average Worker's Salaiy; cbcnews, Janual)' 3, 2017, http://W\,~V. cbc.ca/n ews/b usiness/top-ceo-pay- J.3907662; R. Kerber and P. Szekely, "CEO Pay Sti ll Dwarfin g Pay of U.S. Workers: Union Report, May 9, 2017, https://"~'~v.usnews.com/news/top-news/ a rticles/201 7 -05-09/earnings-gap-o ver-us-workers-g rows-fo r-s-p- 500-ceos-union -report; J. McFarland, "Major CEO Pay Increases in the Cards Again; Globe and Mail, June 1, 2014, http://W\,~V. theglobeandmail.com/ report-on-business/careers/manageme n t/ execu tive.compensatio n/pay· iS· On ·the· rise-fo r-ca n adas· tOp· executives/articlel8940701/; T. Tedesco, "U.S. CEO Pay Leaves Canadia n.< in Dust; Up 9o/o in a Year,• National Post, May 30, 2014, p. Al ; E. Ch em i a nd A. Gio rgi, "1ne Pay-for-Pe rform ance Myth; Bloomberg Business,ioeek, July 22, 2014, http://"~vw.businessweek. com/articles/2014-07-22/for-ceos-correla tion-between -p ay-and- stock-performance-is-pretty-random; an d "How They Perfo rmed,• Financial Post Magazine, November 2013, p. 43.
13 2 Based o n P. Coy, "The Leisure Gap,· Bloomberg Businessweek, July 23- 29, 2012, pp. 8 - 10; A. B. Krueger and A. I. Mueller, "Time Use, Em otional Well- Being, a nd U n e m p loym e n t: Evidence from Longitudinal Data," Americnn Economic Review, May 2012, pp. 594 - 599; a nd L. Kwoh, "More Fi rms Offer Option to Swap Cash for Time, · Wall Street Journal, Septem ber 26, 2012, p. 86.
133 R. Feintzeig. ' When the Annual Ra ise Isn' t Enough,· Wall Street Joumal, July 16, 2014, pp. Bl , 8 5; J. C. Marr a nd S. Thau, ' Falling fro m Great (and Not.so.G reat) Heig h ts: How In itia l Status Posit ion Influences Perform a nce after Status Loss,• Academy of Manageme11 t Journal 57, no. I (2014), pp. 223 - 248; a nd ' Pay Equity & Discrimination,• IWPR, h ttp://W\,~v.iwpr.org/init iatives/ pay .,equity ·and ·d iscri mi natio n.
134 Based on J. R. Hackman, "'Nork Design." in Improving Life at \<\fork, ed. J. R. Hackman and J. L. Suttle (Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear, 19 77) , pp. 132- 133.
Chapter 6
1 Opening vign ette based o n T. Hatherl y, "New S umme r Progra m in East York Helps Kids Bridge N ut rition Gap,• East York Mirror, August 17, 2016; and personal interview notes, July 201 7.
2 J. R. Katzen back a nd D. K. S mith, The Wisdom of Teams: Creating the High·Performance OrganiuJtio11. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Bus ines., Review Press, 201 5), p . 2 14.
3 R. Cross, R. Rebele, a nd A. Grant, ' Collaborative Overload,• Harvard Busi11ess Review, January- Februa ry 2016, pp. 74-79 .
4 J. Mathieu, M . T. Mayn a rd , T. Rapp, and L. G ilson, 'Tea m Effectivenes., 1997-2007: A Review of Recent Advancem enL< a nd a Glimpse into the Fu ture,• Joumal of Ma11ageme11t 34, no. 3 (2008), pp. 4 10- 476 .
5 See, fo r exam p le, A. Erez, J. A. LePine, a nd H. Elms, ' EffecL< of Rotated Leadership and Peer Eva luation o n the Fu nctioni ng and Effectiveness of Self.Managed Teams: A Q uasi. Experiment,· Perso11nel Psycl1olog,• (Winter 2002), pp. 929- 948.
6 See, fo r exam p le, A. Erez, J. A. LePine, a nd H. Elms, "EffecL< of Rotated Leaders hip and Peer Eva luation o n the Fu nc tioni ng and Effectiveness of Self.Managed Teams: A Q uasi. Experiment,· Perso11nel Psycl1olog,• (Winter 2002), pp. 929- 948.
7 G. L. Stewart, S. H. Courtright, and M. R. Barrick, "Peer. Based Control in Sel f.Managing Teams: Linki ng Ra tiona l an d Nonnative Influence w ith Ind ividua l a nd Group Pe rfo rmance,· Joumal of Applied Ps)'chology9 7, no. 2 (2012), pp. 435-447.
8 C. W. La n gfred, "T h e Downs ide of Sel f. Managemen t : A Longitudina l Study of the Effea< of Conflict o n T rust, Autonomy, and Task Interdependence in Sel f.Managing Teams,· Academ)' of Ma11ageme11t Joumal 50, no. 4 (2007), pp. 885-900.
9 B. H. Bradley, B. E. Postlethwa ite, A. C. Klotz, M. R. Hamdani, and K. G. Brown, ' Reaping the Benefi ts of Task Conflict in Teams: T h e Cri tical Ro le of Team Psychological Safety Climate, • Joumal of Applied PS)'Chology9 7, no. 1 (2012), pp. 15 1- 15 8.
10 J. Deva ro , 'The EffecL< of Self.Managed a nd C losely Managed Teams on Labor Productivity a nd Product Quality: An Emp irical Ana lysis of a Cross.Section of Establish ments,· /11dustrial Relatio11s 47, no. 4 (2008), pp. 65 9- 698.
11 A. S h a h , "Starb uc k.< Strives fo r Insta nt Gra tification w ith Via Launch,• PRWeek, December 2009, p . 15 .
12 F. Aime, S. Humphrey, D. S. DeRue, and J. B. Paul, 'The Riddle of H eterarchy: Power Transitions in Cross. fu nctional Teams," Academy of Ma11ageme11t Joumal 5 7, no. 2 (2014), pp. 327-35 2.
13 See, fo r example, L. L. Martins, L. L. Gilson, and M. T. Mayn a rd , ' Virtua l Teams: Wh a t Do We Know and \<\!h e re Do We Go fro m Here?" Joumal of Manageme11t, Novem ber 2004, pp. 805-835; a n d B. Leonard, "Managing Virtual Teams." HR Magazi11e, June 2011 , pp. 39- 42.
14 J. E. Hoch a nd S. V\I. J. Kozlowski, ' Lead ing Virtual Teams: H ierarchical Leadership, Structura l Supports, and S h ared Team Leaders hip ," Journal of Applied Psychology 99, no. 3 (2014), pp. 390- 403.
15 'Virtual Teams a First in Canada,• Fi11ancial Post, January 19, 2011 , http://b us iness.financia lpost.com/ 201 I /OJ/ 19/ mba.virtua l· teams·
Endnotes 573
a.firs t·in·canadaf. Material reprinted with the express permissio n of: National Post, a division of Postmedia Network Inc.
16 C. Joinson, ' Managing Virtual Teams,• HR Magazi11e, June 2002, p. 71. Repri nted with the pennis.,ion of HR Magazine, published by th e Society fo r Hu man Resource Management, Alexandria, VA.
17 A. Malh otra, A. Majch12ak, a nd B. Rosen , ' Leading Virtual Teams,• Academy of Manageme11t Perspectives, Feb ruary 2007, pp. 60-70; and J. M. Wilson, S. S. Straus, and B. McEvily, 'All in Due T ime : The Development of T rust in Computer Mediated and Face· tO· Face Teams," OrganiZ11tional Behavior and Human Decision Processes 19 (2006), pp. 16- 33.
18 Based o n P. Ti lstone, "Cut Carbon .. . and Bills." Director, May 2009, p. 5 4; L. C. Latimer, ' 6 Strategies fo r Susta inable Business Travel," Gree11biz, February II , 2011, http://,VW\v.green biz.com/ blog/20 II / 02/ JJ / 6 ·Stra tegies·s us ta i nable. busi neSS· travel; a nd F. Gebhart, 'Travel Takes a Big Bite O ut of Corporate Expenses,• Travel Market Report, May 30, 2013, http://www.travelmarketreport. com/ a rticlesfTravel·Takes·Big· Bite·O Ut·Of·Corporate· Expenses.
19 P. Balku ndi and D. A. Harrison, "Ties, Leaders, and Time in Teams: Strong Inference about Network Structu re 's Effects on Team Viability and Per fo rma nce, · Academy of Manageme11t Joumal 49, n o. 1 (2006), pp. 49- 68; G. Chen, B. L. Kirkman, R. Kanfe r, D. Alle n, and B. Rosen, "A M ulti level S tudy of Leadersh ip , Empowennent, and Performance in Teams,· Jounial of Applied
Ps)'cltolog,• 92, no . 2 (2007), pp. 331- 346; L. A. DeCh u rch a nd M.A. Marks, ' Leadership in Multiteam Systems,• Joumal of Applied Psychology 91, n o. 2 (2006), pp. 3 11 - 329; A. S rivastava, K. M. Bartol, and E. A. Locke, "Empowering Leadership in Management Teams: Effects on Knowledge Shari ng. Efficacy, and Pe rfo nna nce." Academy of Ma11ageme11t Joumal 49, no. 6 (2006), pp. 1239- 1251; and J. E. Mathieu, K. K. Gilson, and T. M. Ruddy, "Empowerment a nd Team Effectiveness: An Em p irica l Test of an Integrated Model,· Joumal of Applied Ps)'cholog,• 91, no. I (2006), pp. 9 7- 108.
20 R. B. Davison, J. R. Hollenbeck, C. M. Barnes, D. J. Sleesma n, a nd D. R. llgen, "Coord inated Action in Mult i team Systems,· Joumal of Applied Ps)'clwlogy 9 7, no. 4 (2012), pp. 808 - 824.
21 M. M. Luciano , J. E. Math ieu, a nd T. M. Ruddy, "Leading Mult iple Tea ms: Average and Re lative External Leadership Influence.< o n Team Empowerment and Effectiveness,· Journal of Applied Psychology 99, no. 2 (2014), pp. 322- 331.
22 Vignette based on persona l interview notes, July 2017 .
23 Based on Ed Ta it, ' Bombers Believe in Wi lly,• W i1111ipeg Free Press, August 5, 2014, p. DI; 'Tale nt, Teamwork Fue l Bombers Turnaroun d." Brando11 Su11, August 6, 2014; G. Lawless, 'They've Got a Marquee Man, Now Bombers' Task Is a Talent Hunt to Fill Supporting Roles." Wi1111ipeg Free Press, October 29, 2014; a nd ' Coach Will Keep Tabs On Players' Effort,· Wi1111ipeg Free Press, October 30, 2014, p. 03.
24 K. S. Wilson a nd H. M. Baumann, "Capturing a More Comple te View of Em p loyee.,' Lives Outside of\.Vork: The In trod uction a nd Devel opment of New lnterro le Conflict Constructs," Persomtel Psychology 68, no. 2 (201 5 ), pp. 235-282.
25 See, fo r exa mple, F. T. Amstad, L. L. Meier, U. Fasel, A. Elfe ring. and N . K. Semme r, "A Meta.a na lysis ofVs'ork·Fam ily Conflict a nd Various Outcomes with a Special Em phasis o n Cross.Domain verstL< Matching. Domain Relatio ns,· Joumal of Occupational Health Psychology 16, no. 2 (2011), pp. 15 1- 169.
2 6 K. S. 'A'ilson a nd H. M. Baumann, "Capturing a More Comple te View of Em p loyee.,' Lives Outside of\.Vork: The Introd uction a nd Devel opment of New lnterro le Conflict Constructs," Personnel Psychology 68, no. 2 (201 5 ), pp. 235-282.
2 7 D. Vora a n d T. Kos tova, ' A Model of Dua l O rgan iza t io n al Identification in the Context of the Multi national Ente rprise,"' Joumal of Orga11iZ1Jtional Behavior 28 (2007), pp. 327- 3 50.
574 Endnotes
28 C. Reade, ' Dua l Identificatio n in Mu ltinational Corporations: Loca l Managers a nd T h eir Psychologica l Attach m e nt t o t h e Subsid iary versus the Global Organization: /11tematio11al Joumal of Human Resour<:£ Ma11ageme111 12, no. 3 (2001 ), pp. 405- 424.
2 9 E. H. Schein, Organizational Ps)'chology, 3rd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pre n tice Hall, 1980), p. 145.
3 0 Y. Huang. K. M. Kendrick, a nd R. Yu, ' Conformity to the Opinions of Other People LasL< fo r No More Tha n 3 Days,• Psychological Science 25, no. 7 (2014), pp. 1388- 1393.
31 M. S. Hagger, P. Rentzelas, and N. K. D. Chatzisrantis, ' Effecc< of Individualist a nd Collectivist G ro u p Norms and Choice on In trinsic Motivatio n," Motivation a,id Emotio,i 38. no. 2 (2014), pp. 215 - 223; a nd M. G. Ehrh a rt a nd S. E. Naumann, ' O rganizational Citizenship Behavio r in Work Groups: A Group Norms Approach,• Joumal of Applied Ps)'clwlogy, Decem ber 2004, pp. 960- 9 74.
32 Adapted fro m P. S. Good man, E. Ravlin, a n d M. Sch mi nke, "' U nderstand i ng G roups i n O rgan izations," in Research i,i Orga11iza1io11al Behavior, vol. 9, ed. L L. Cumm ings a n d 8. M. Staw (G reen wich, CT: JAi Press, 1987), p. 159.
3 3 Sub m itted by Do n Mis kima n, C h ai r and U-C Professor of Management, Malaspina University College, Nanaimo, BC. Vslith pennis.o;ion.
34 D. C. Feldman, "1ne Development and Enforcement of G roup Norms,· Academ)' of Management Jouma/, Jan uary 1984, pp. 47- 53; and K. L. Bettenhausen and J. K. Mu rnighan, "1ne Developme nt of a n l ntragroup Norm and th e Effecc< of Interperson al a nd S tructura l Challenges," Admi,iistratille Science Quarterl)', March 1991, pp. 20- 35.
3 5 D. C. Feldman, "1ne Development and Enforcement of G roup Norms,· Academ)' of Management Jouma/, Jan uary 1984, pp. 47- 53; and K. L. Bettenhausen and J. K. Mu rnigh a n, "1ne Developme nt of a n l ntragroup Norm and th e Effecc< of Interperson al a nd S tructura l Challenges, " Admi,iistrat-ive Science Quarter/)', March 1991, pp. 20- 35.
3 6 R. 8. Cialdini an d N. J. Goldstein, ' Social ln Auence: Compliance and Conformity,• Annual Review of Psyclwlogy 55 (2004), pp. 591- 621.
3 7 S. E. Asch, "Efferu of Group Pressure upon the Modificatio n and Distortion of Judgments,• in Groups, Leadership and Men, ed. H. Guetzkow (Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Press, 1951), pp. 177- 190; a nd S. E. Asch, "Studies of Independen ce a n d Con fo rmi ty: A Mino rity of O ne Against a Unanimous Majority,• Psychological Monographs: General and Applied 70, no. 9 (1956), pp. 1- 70.
3 8 S. L. Robinson a nd A. M. O'Lea ry-Ke lly, ' Monkey See, Monkey Do: The Influence of Work Groups on the Antisocial Behavior of Em p loyees,· Academ)' of Ma11ageme111 Journal 4 1 ( J 998) , pp. 658- 6 72.
3 9 J.M. George, ' Personality, Affect a nd Behavior in Groups,• Joumal of Applied Ps)'clwlogy 78 (1993), pp. 798- 804; and J. M. George a nd L. R. James, ' Personality, Affect, and Behavior in G roups Revisited: Comment on Aggregation, Levels of An alysis, and a Recent Applicatio n of With in and Between Analysis,· Joumal of Applied PS)'Chology 7 8 (1993), pp. 798- 804.
40 J. A. Goncalo, J. A. C ha tman, M. M. Duguid, a nd J. A. Kennedy, "'Creativity from Constraint? How the Political Correctness Norm Influences Creativity in Mixed.Sex Work Croups." Administrative Science Quarlerl)' GO, no. 1 (2015), pp. 1- 30.
41 E. Gonzalez-Mule, D. S. DeGeest, 8. W. McCormick, J. Y. Seong. and K. G. Brown, "Can VVe Get Some Cooperation Around H ere? Th e Mediating Role of Group Norms o n the Relationship between Team Personality and Individual Help ing Beh aviors,• Journal of Applied Ps)'chology 99, no. 5 (2014 ), pp. 988- 999.
42 T. Mas.,on a nd I. Fri L<che, ' Adhe rence to Climate Change- Related lngroup Norms: Do Dimensions of G roup Identi ficatio n Matter?' European Jou ma/ of Social Ps)'chology 44, no. 5 (2014 ) , pp. 455- 465.
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
See R. J. Bennett and S. L. Robinson, "The Past, Present, an d Future of \,Vo rkplace Deviance,• in Organizational Behavior: T/Je Slate of lhe Science, 2nd ed., ed. J. G reenberg (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2003), pp. 23 7-271; and C. M. Berry; D.S. O nes, a nd P.R. Sackett, "I nterpersonal Deviance, Orga nizationa l Deviance, and Thei r Common Correlates: A Review a nd Meta.analysis," Journal of Applied Psychology 92, no. 2 (2007), pp. 410- 424.
M. A. Baysinger, K. T. Schere r, a nd J. M. LeBreton, "Explori ng the Disruptive Effecc< of Psychopathy and Aggression o n Group Processes and Group Effectiveness, · Joumal of Applied Psycltolos,• 99, no. I (2014), pp. 48 - 65.
T. C. Re ic h and M. S. Hershcovis, "Observ ing Workp lace In civi lity,· Journal of Applied Psychology JOO, no. 1 (2015), pp. 203- 215; a n d Z. E. Zhou, Y. Yan, X. X. Che, and L. L. Meier, "Effect of Workplace Incivility on End -of-\,Vo rk Negative Affect: Examining Individual a nd Organizational Moderators in a Daily Diary Study,• Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 20, no. 1 (2015), pp. 117- 130.
See C. Pearson, L M. An dersson, a nd C. L. Porath, ' Workplace Incivility," in Counterproductive Work Behavior: lnvestigatio,is of Aclors and TargelS, ed. S. Fox a nd P. E. Spector (Wash i ngt on, DC: American Psychological Association, 2005), pp. 177 - 200.
S. Lim, L. M. Cortina, and V. J. Magley, ' Personal a nd Workgro up Incivi lity: Impact o n \.Vork a nd Health O utcomes,· Journal of Applied Psycl1ology 93, no. I (2008), pp. 95- 107.
M. S. Christian and A. P. J. Ellis, "Examin ing the Effecu of Sleep Deprivatio n o n \.Vorkplace Deviance: A Self-Regula tory Perspective, • Academ)' of Management Joumal 54, no. 5 (2011 ), pp. 913 - 934.
S. L. Robinson a n d A. M. O'Leary-Kelly, "Monkey See, Monkey Do: The Influence of Work Groups o n the Antisocial Behavior of Em p loyees, · Academ)' of Management Joumal 41 ( J 998), pp. 658- 672; and T. M. G lomb a nd H. Liao, "Interpersonal Aggre.s.,ion in Workgroups: Social Influen ce, Reciprocal, and Individ ual Effero, • Academ)' of Management Joumal 46 (2003), pp. 486- 496.
r. Bamberger a nd M . Biron, "G roup Norms a nd Excessive Absenteeism: The Role of Peer Refere nt O thers, • Orga11iza1io11al Behavior and Human Decision Processes 103, no. 2 (2007), pp. 17 9 - 196; and A. Vaiiniin e n, N. Tordera, M. Kiv ima ki, A. Kouvonen, J. Pentti, A. Linna, and J. Vahtera, "The Ro le of Work Group in Individual Sickness Absen ce Behavio r,• Journal of Hen/ti, & Human Behavior 49, no. 4 (2008), pp. 452- 467 .
M. S. Cole, F. Walter, a n d H. Bruch, "Affect ive Mechan is ms linking Dysfunctional Behavior to Performance in Work Teams: A Moderated Mediation Study,• Joumal of Applied Ps)'clwlogy 93, no. 5 (2008), pp. 945- 958.
8. W. Tuckman, ' Developm ental Sequences i n Small G roups,· Ps)'cltological Bulletin, June 1965, pp. 384- 399; 8. V\I. Tu ckm an and M. C. Jensen, "Stages of S m all -G roup Develop m en t Revisited,• Group and Orga11izatio11al Studies, December 19 77, pp. 419 - 427; and M. F. Maples, "Group Development: Extending Tuckman's Theoty, • Journal for Specialists in Group \.\fork, Fall 1988, pp. 17 - 23 .
J. K. Ito, C. M. Bro theridge, "Do Teams Grow Up One Stage at a Time?: Exploring the Comp lexity of Gro up Development Models,• Team Performance Mmiagemet1t: An hlteniational Journal 14, no. 5/ 6 (2008), pp. 214- 232.
R. C. Ginnett, "1ne Airl ine Cockpit Crew, · in Groups 111at Work (and 111ose Tlta1 0011'1), ed. J. R. Hackman (San Francisco: Jossey- Bass, 1990).
D. A. Bonebright, "40 Years Of Storming: A Historical Review of Tuckman's Model of Sma ll Group Development, • Human Resource Development /111ernatio11al 13, no. I (2010), pp. 111- 120.
M. J. Garfield and A. R. Denis, "Toward a n Integrated Model of G roup Developm e nt: Disru p tion of Ro utines by Technology. Induced Ch ange, · Journal of Management /11fon11atio11 Sysiems 29,
n o. 3 (2012), p p. 43- 86; M. J. Waller, J.M. Conte, C. B. Gibson, a nd M. A. Carpenter, "The Effect of Ind iv id ual Percept io ns of Deadlin~ on Team Pe.rfo nnance," Academy of Management Review, October 2001, pp. 586- 600; an d A. Cha ng, P. Bord ia, and J. Duck, "' Punctuated Equilibriu m an d Linea r Progressio n: Toward a New' Un derstan d ing o f Group Developme nt,• Acndem)' of Managemelll Joumal, Fe bruary 2003, pp. JOG- II 7.
5 7 C. J. G. Gersick, "Time a nd Transition in Work Teams: Toward a New Model of Group Developme n t,· Academy of Management Joumal, March 1988, p p. 9 - 41; a nd C. J. G. Gersick, "Marking T ime: Pred ictab le T ra ns it io ns in Task Groups,· Academ)' of Managemelll Joumal, June 1989, pp. 274 - 309.
5 8 M. M. Kazme r, "D isengagi ng fro m a Dis tri b u t ed Research Pro ject: Refi n ing a Model of Group Departu res, • Joumal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, April 2010, pp. 758 - 7 71.
5 9 M. M. Kazme r, "D isengagi ng fro m a Dis tri b u t ed Research Pro ject: Refi n ing a Model of Group Departu re.<, • Joumal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, April 2010, pp. 758 -771.
60 Vignette based on personal interview notes, July 201 7.
61 V. Gonza lez-Rom a a nd A. Hernandez, "Cli m ate U n iform ity: Its JnOuen ce on Team Commu nicatio n Q uality, Task ConO ict, a nd Team Performance, · Journal of Applied Ps)'cltologr 99, no. G (2014), pp. 1042- 1058; C. F. Pe ralta, P. N. Lopes, L. L. Gilson, r. R. Loure nco, a nd L. Pa is, .. In novation Processes and Team Effectiveness: The Ro le o f Goa l Clarity a n d Commitme n t, a n d Team Affective Tone," Journal of Occupatio,ial and Organizational Ps)'clwlogy 88, no. 1 (2015), pp. 80- 107; L Thompson, Making the Team (Uppe r Saddle River, NJ: Pre ntice Hall, 2000), p p. 18 - 33; a nd J. R. Hackm a n, Leading Teams: Setting the Stage for Great Perfonnance (Bo.,ton: Harvard BLL<ines< School Press, 2002).
62 See G. L. Stewart a n d M. R. Ba rrick, "Tea m Structu re a n d Perfo nnan ce: Assessing the Mediati ng Role of lntrateam Proces.'i and the Moderating Ro le of Task Type,· Acndem)' of Management Joumal, April 2000, pp. 135- 148.
63 E. M. Sta rk, "In te rdependen ce a n d Preference for G roup Work: Ma in a nd Con gruen ce EffecL< o n t h e Satisfactio n a n d Perform a nce of Gro u p Memb e rs,· Jounial of Management 26, n o. 2 (2000), p p. 259 - 279; and J. V.,,. Bishop, K. D. Scott, a nd S. M. Bu rroughs, "Support, Commitm ent, a nd Em p loyee O utcomes in a Team Environment," Journal of Mmiagement 26, n o. G (2000), pp. 111 3 - ll32.
64 D. E. Hyatt a nd T. M. Ruddy, "An Examina tio n o f the Relationship between \+Vo rk Group Characteristics and Perfonnance., " Per.som1el Psyc/10/og)' SO, no . 3 (1 997) , p. 577.
65 D. Aarts, ' Canada's Smartest Employers 2014: PROFIT, November 7, 2013 , h ttp ://www.pro fitgu ide.com/ m a n age-g row/ human- resources/ meet-can ada<-sma rtest-emp loyers-2014-59150/ 2.
66 J. R. Hackm a n, Leading Teams ( Boston: Harva rd Business School Press, 2002) .
67 P. Balkun d i and D. A. Harrison, '"fies, Leaders, a nd Time in Teams: S tro ng Infere nce a bo ut Network Structure's Effects o n Tea m Viability a nd Performa n ce,• Academy of Manageme111 Joumal 49, n o. I (2006), pp. 49 - 68; G. C h e n, 8. L. Kirkm a n, R. Ka nfe r, D. Allen, and 8 . Rosen, "A Mu ltileve l Stu d y of Leadership, Empowerment, a nd Performa nce in Teams,• Journal of Applied Psyc/10/ogy 92, no. 2 (2007), p p. 331- 346; L. A. DeCh u rch a nd M. A. Marks, "Leadership in Multitea m Syste ms," Joumal of Applied Psychology 91, no . 2 (2006), pp. 311 - 329; A. Srivastava, K. M. Bartol, and E. A. Locke, "Em powering Leadership in Managemen t Teams: Effects o n Knowledge Sharing, Efficacy, and Performan ce, • Academ)' of Managemelll Journal 49, no. G (2006), pp. 1239- I 251; and J. E. Mathie u, K. K. Gilson, a nd T. M. Ruddy, "Empowerme nt a n d Tea m Effectiven ess: An Empir ical Test of a n Integrated Model: Journal of Applied Psyc/101ogr91, no. I (2006), p p. 97- 108.
End notes 575
68 J. L. Berdahl a n d C. Anderson, "Men, Women, and Leadership Centralizatio n in Grou ps over Time," Group D)'namics: Theory, Research, and Practice 9, no. I (2005), p p. 45-57; and V.'. Imme n, "'The More V.1omen in Groups, the Better,• Globe and Ma il, April 27, 2005, p. C3 .
69 K. T. Dirks, "Trust in Leadership a nd Team Performance: Eviden ce fro m NCAA Baske tball,· Joumal of Applied Psycholog)', December 2000, p p. 1004- 1012; M. \.Villiams, "In \.Vh o m \.Ve Trust: G roup Membe rs hip as an Affective Context fo r Trust Development, " Academy of Ma11age111e111 Review, July 2001, pp. 3 7 7- 396; a nd J. Schaubroeck, S.S. K. Lam, a nd A. C. Peng, "Cogn itio n -Based a nd Affect-Based Trust as Mediators of Leader Behavior JnOue nces on Team Pe rfo rma nce," Journal of Applied Psychology, O nline First Pu blication, February 7, 2011, doi: 10. J037/a0022G25 .
70 8. A. De Jong, and K. T. Dirks, "Beyond Sh ared Pe rceptio ns of Trus t a nd Mon ito ring in Tea ms: Im plications of Asym m etry and Dissensus, • Journal of Applied Ps)'cltology 97, n o. 2 (2012), pp. 391- 406.
71 P. L. Schindler and C. C. Thomas, "'The Structu re of Interperson al Trust i n t h e Workplace," Ps)'chological Reports, Octob er J 993, pp. 5 63- 573 .
72 Based on D. L. Fe rrin a nd N. Gillespie, "Trust Differe nces Across National-Societal Cultu res: Much to Do, o r Much Ado About Nothing,· in Orga11i.z1Jtional Tntst: A Culn,ral Perspective, ed. M. N. K Sanders, D. Ski nne r, G. Dietz, N. G illespi e, a n d R. J. Lewic ki (New Yo rk: Cambr idge U n ivers ity Press, 2010), pp. 42 - 86; a n d J. Lau ring a n d J. Selmer, "Openness to Diversity, Trust a nd ConOict in Multicultural Organizations: Joumal of Ma11agemen1 & Orga11izntion , Novembe r 2012, pp. 795- 806.
73 G. Brown, C. C rossley, and S. l. Rob inson, " Psych o logical Ownership, Territorial Behavior, and Being rerceive:d as a Tea m Contributor. Th e Critical Role of Trust in the Work Enviro nment, • Personnel Ps)'clwlogy 6 7 (2014), pp. 463- 485.
74 See F. Ai me, C. J. Meyer, a n d S. E. Humph rey, "l egitimacy of Team Rewards: An alyzing Legitimacy as a Con d ition for the Effective ness o f Team Incen tive Designs ," Jounrnl of Business Research 63, no. I (2010), p p. G0- 66; and P. A. Bamberger a nd R. Levi, "'Team . Based Reward Al location Structures and the Helping Behaviors o f O utcome-Interdependent Team Mem bers,• Joumal of Ma11agerial Ps)'clwlogy 24, no. 4 (2009), pp. 300- 32 7; a n d M. J. Pearsall, M. S. Christia n, and A. P. J. Ell is, "Motivating Inte rdependent Teams: In d ividual Rewards, Shared Rewards, o r Something in Between?" Jounial of Applied Psycholog)' 95, no . I (2010 ), pp. J 83- 191.
75 K. Merri m a n, "Low-Trust Tea m s Prefer Ind ivid u alized Pay,• Harvard Business Review, Novem ber 2008, p. 32.
76 J. Pfeffer and N. La ngt o n, "The Effect of V.•age Dispersio n o n Satisfaction, Productivity, and Working Collaboratively: Evidence from College and U n iversity Facu lty, " Administrative Science Quarterly 38 (1 993), pp. 382- 407 .
7 7 M. Bloom, "Th e Perfo rma nce Effects o f Pa y Dispersio n on Ind ividuals and O rganizations," Arodem)' of Management Journal 42 (1999), p p. 25- 40.
78 8. Beersm a, J. R. Hollenbeck, D. E. Con lo n, S. E. Hu mphrey, H. Moon, and D. R. llgen, "Cutthroat Cooperatio n: The Effects o f Team Ro le Decisio ns o n Adaptation to Alternative Reward Structures," Organizntio,ial Behavior and Human Decision Processes 108, no. I ( 2009), p p. 131- 142; a nd M. D. Joh nson, S. E. Hump h rey, D. R. llgen, D. Ju nd t, a n d C. J. Meyer, "Cutt hroat Cooperation: Asym metrical Adaptation to Changes in Team Reward Structu res, " Academy of Manageme,11 Journal 49, no. 1 (2006), p p. 103- 11 9.
79 N. Middlem iss, "We V.1ere Dead \.Vrong,' Admits Google H R Team,• HRD Canada, March 7, 2016, ht tp://www.h rmonline.ca/ hr-news/ we-were-dead-w ro ng-admits-google-h r-team-204028.aspx; and C. Duhigg, "\<\!hat Google Learned fro m Its Quest to Build the Perfect
576 Endnotes
Team: New York Times Magazine, February 25, 2016, http.s://www. nytimes.com/ 2016/ 02/ 28/ magazine/ wh at-google-learned-from- i ts-quest-to-b ui Id -the-perfect-team.html ? _ r=O.
8 0 R. R. H irschfeld, M. H. Jordan, H. S. Feild, W. F. Giles, and A. A. Arm enakis, ' Becoming Team Players: Team Members' Mastery of Teamwork Knowledge as a r redictor of Team Task Pro fi ciency and Observed Teamwork Effectiveness,· Joumal of Applied PS)dwlogJ• 91, n o. 2 (2006), pp. 467- 4 74; a nd K. R. Randa ll, C. J. Resick, and L. A. DeChurch, ' Build ing Team Adaptive Capacity: The Roles of Sensegiving a nd Team Composit io n,• Joumal of Applied Psychology 96, no. 3 (2011 ), pp. 525- 540.
81 H. Moon, J. R. Hollenbeck, a nd S. E. H ump hrey, "Asymmetric Adaptab ility: Dynam ic Tea m Structu res a< O n e-\.Vay Streets,* Academ)' of Management Journal 4 7, no. 5 (October 2004) , pp. 681- 695; A. P. J. Ell is, J. R. Ho llenbeck, and D.R. llgen, *Team Leami ng: Collectively Connecting the Dots: Joumal of Applied Psycholog)' 88, no. 5 (October 2003), pp. 821 - 835; C. L. Jackson a nd J. A. LePine, ' Peer Responses to a Team's \.Veakest Li nk: A Test and Extension of LePine a nd Van Dyne's Model,• Joumal of Applied PS)'Chology 88, no. 3 (June 2003), pp. 45 9- 475; and J. A. LePine, "Team Adaptation a nd Postchange Performance: Effects of Team Composit ion in Terms of Members' Cogn itive Abil ity and Personality,• Joumal of Applied PS)'chology 88, no. 1 (Februa ry 2003), pp. 2 7-39.
82 C. C. Cogliser, W. L. Gardne r, M. B. Cavin, and J. C. Broberg. "Big Five Personality Factors a nd Leader Em ergence in Virtual Teams: Relationships with Team Trustworthiness. Membe r Perfonnan ce Contributions, a nd Tea m Perform ance," Group & Organization Management 37, n o. 6 (2012), pp. 75 2-784; and *Deep-Level Com position Va riables as Predictors of Tea m Perfo rm ance: A Meta-analysis,· Journal of Applied PS)'chology 92, no. 3 (2007), pp. 595- 615.
83 T. A. O' Neill and N. J. Alle n, ' Person ality and th e Predictio n of Tea m Perfo rmance,* European Joumal of Persona/ii)• 25, no. 1 (2011 ), pp. 31- 42.
84 S. E. H umph rey, J. R. Hollenbeck, C. J. Meyer, a nd D. R. llgen, ' Personality Configuratio ns in Self-Managed Teams: A Natural Experi m ent on th e Effects of Max imizing and Mi ni mizing Variance in Traits,• Joumal of Applied PS)'cholog)' 41, no. 7 (2011 ),
pp. 1701- 1732.
85 A. P. J. Ell is, J. R. Hollenbeck, and D. R. llgen, *Team Leaming: Collectively Connecting the Dots, · Journal of Applied Ps)'cl1ology 88, no. 5 (October 2003), pp. 821- 835; C. 0 . L. H. Po rter, J. R. Holle n beck, and D. R. Jlgen, "Backing Up Beh aviors i n Teams: T h e Role of Pe rsona lity and Legit i macy of Need, · Journal of Applied Ps)'clwlogy 88, no. 3 (June 2003), pp. 391- 403; a nd J. A. Colquitt, J. R. Ho llenbeck, and D. R. llgen, "Com puter-Assisted Commu nicatio n a nd Team Decision.Making Perform ance: The Moderating Effect of Opennes., to Experience,• Joumal of Applied Psyclwlog)' 87, no. 2 (April 2002), pp. 402 - 410.
86 B. H. Bradley, B. E. Postlewa ite, and K. G. Brown, ' Ready to Rumb le: How Team Personality Compositio n a nd Task Conflict Interact to Improve Performance,• Joumal of Applied PS)'clwlogy 98, n o. 2 (2013), pp. 385- 392.
87 E. Gonzalez-Mule, D. S. DeCeest, B. W. McCormick, J. Y. Seong. and K. C. Brown. "Can We Get Some Cooperation aro und Here? Th e Mediating Role of Gro up Norms o n the Relationship between Team Personality and Individual Help ing Beh aviors,• Joumal of
Applied Ps)'chology99, no. 5 (2014), pp. 988- 999.
8 8 S. E. Humphrey, F. P. Morgeson, a nd M. J. Mannor, "Developing a T heory of th e Strategic Core of Teams: A Role Com posit io n Model of Tea m Perform ance,• Joumal of Applied PS)'chology 94, n o. 1 (2009), pp. 48- 61.
89 C. Ma rgerison and D. McCann, Team Management: Practical New Approaches ( London: Mercury Books, 2000).
90 A. Joshi, *The Influen ce of O rgan izational Dem ograph y on the External Networking Behavio r of Teams," Academ)' of Manageme,u Review, July 2006, pp. 583- 595 .
91 A. Joshi and H. Roh, *The Role of Conte>.~ in Work Team Diversity Research: A Meta-analytic Review,• Academy of Manageme11t Joumal 52, n o. 3 (2009), pp. 599- 627; S. K. Horwitz a nd I. B. Horwitz, *The Effects of Team Diversity on Team Outcomes: A Meta-analytic Review of Team De mography,· Joumal of Management 33, no. 6 (2007), pp. 987- 1015; and S. T. Bell, A. J. Villado, M.A. Lukasik, L. Belau, and A. L Briggs, "Getting Specific about Demographic Diversity Variable and Team Performance Relationshi p.<: A Meta- analysis: Journal of Management 3 7, no. 3 (2011 ), pp. 709-743.
92 S. J. Sh i n a n d J. Zh o u, "Wh e n Is Education al Specialization Heterogeneity Related to Creativity in Research and Development Teams? Tra nsformatio nal Leaders hip as a Moderator." Jounial of Applied PS)'cl1ology 92, no. 6 (2007), pp. I 709- 1721 ; a n d K. J. Klein, A. P. Knigh t, J. C. Ziegert, B. C. Lim, and J. L. Saltz, *When Tea m Mem bers' Values D iffe r: T he Moderating Ro le of Team Leadership," Organizntional Behavior and Human Decision Processes 114, no. 1 (2011 ), pp. 25- 36.
93 J. Shin, T. Kim, J. Lee, and L. Bian, "Cognitive Team Diversity a nd Individual Team Mem ber C reativity: A Cross-Level In teraction,* Academ)' of Manageme11t Joumal 55, no. 1 (2012), pp. 197- 212.
9 4 W. E. \.Vatson, K. Ku m ar, a nd L. K. Mich aelsen, "C u ltural Divers ity's Impact o n Interaction Process a nd Performa nce: Compari ng Ho m ogeneous a nd Diverse Task C ro ups," Academy of Manageme11t Journal, June 1993, pp. 590- 602; P. C. Earley a nd E. Mo.<akowski, "C reating Hybrid Team Cultures: An Empirical Test of Transnatio nal Team Functioning," Academy of Managemetlt Joumal, Februa ry 2000, pp. 26- 49; a nd S. Moh a mmed and L. C. An gell, "Surface- a n d Deep-Level D iversity in Workg roups: Exam i ning th e Moderating Effects of Tea m O rie ntation a n d Team Proces., o n Rela tionship Conflict,· Joumal of Organizational Behavior, December 2004, pp. 1015- 1039.
95 Y. F. Gu illa ume, D. va n Knippenberg, a n d F. C. Brodebeck, "Nothing Succeeds Like Moderation: A Social Self-Regulation Perspective o n Cultural Dissimila ri ty a nd Performance,• Academy ofManageme11tJ011mal 5 7, no . 5 (2014), pp. 1284- 1308.
96 D. Coutu, *\.Vh y Teams Don't \<\fo rk,• Haroard Business Review, May 2009, pp. 99- JOS. The evidence in this section is described in L. Thompson, Mak ing 1he Team ( Upper Saddle Ri ver, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000), pp. 6 5-67. See also L. A. Curra!, R. H. Forrester, a nd J. F. Dawson, "It's Wh at You Do a n d th e \.Vay That You Do It: Team Task, Team Size, a nd Innovation-Related Croup Processes,• European Joumal of Work & Organizational Ps)'Cliology 10, no. 2 (June 2001), pp. 187- 204; R. C. Liden, S. J. Wayn e, a nd R. A. Jaworski, "Social Loafing: A Field Investigation,* Joun,al of Management 30, n o. 2 (2004 ), pp. 285-304; a n d J. A. \.Vagner, ' Stud ies of Individualism - Collectivism : Effects o n Cooperation in Croups,* Academy of Management Joumal 38, no. 1 (February 1995 ), pp. 152 - 172.
97 R. Ka rlgaard, *Think (Really!) Small,* Forbes, April 13, 2015, p. 32.
98 R. Ka rlgaard, *Think (Really!) Small: Forbes, April 13, 2015, p. 32.
99 R. Ka rlgaard, *Think (Really!) Small,* Forbes, April 13, 201 5, p. 32.
100 "Is Your Tea m Too Big? Too Small? Wh a t's the Right Num ber?* Knowledge@Wharton , June 14, 2006, pp. 1-5; see also A. M. Carton a nd J. N. Cummings, *A Theory of Subgroups in \<\fork Tea ms," Academ)' of Management Review 3 7, n o. 3 (2012), pp. 441- 470.
101 D. E. Hyatt and T. M. Ruddy, "An Examination of the Relationship between Work Group Characte ristic.Ii a nd Perfo rm ance: O nce More into the Breech,* Persomiel PS)'clwlogy, Autumn 1997, p. 555; and J. D. Sh aw, M. K. Duffy, a nd E. M. Sta rk, ' Interdependence and Preference fo r Group Work: Main a nd Congruence Effects o n the Satisfaction and Perform ance of Group Members,• Joumal of Management 26, no . 2 (2000), pp. 259- 279.
102 J. A. LePine, R. F. Piccolo, C. L. Jackson, J. E. Mathieu, and J. R. Sau l, "A Meta. a nalysis of Tea m work Processes: Tests of a Multidi m ens io n a l Model and Rela t io nsh ips w ith Tea m Effectivenes., Criteria,• Personnel Psydwlogy61 (2008), pp. 273- 307.
103 J. F. Dovid io, "Bridging ln t ragro u p Processes and Intergro u p Relatio ns: Needing the Twain to Meet, • British Joumal of Social Ps)'chology 52, n o. I (2013), pp. 1- 24; a nd J. Zhou, J. Dovid io, and E. Wang. • How Affectively-Based a nd Cogn itively-Based Attitudes Drive In te rgroup Behaviours: The Moderating Role of Affective. Cogn itive Consistency; PloS ONE 8, no. 11 (2013), a rticle e82JSO.
104 J. A. LePine, R. F. Piccolo, C. L Jackson, J. E. Mathie u, a nd J. R. Sau l, "A Meta. a na lysis o f Team work rrocesses: Tests of a Multid i m ens ional Mode l a n d Re lat io nsh ips w i t h Tea m Effectiveness Crite ria: Personnel Psychology 61 (2008), pp. 273- 307; and J. E. Math ie u and T. L. Rapp, • Laying th e Foundatio n fo r Successful Team Performa nce Trajectories: The Roles of Team Ch arters a n d Performance Strategies,• Joumal of Applied Psyc!wlogy 94, no. I (2009), pp. 90- 103.
105 M. Corrin, "The Women Behind Freshii's Fast G rowt h,• Fresh ii, March 8, 2017.
106 J. E. Mathieu and W. Schulze, "The Influence o f Team Knowledge a nd Forma l Pl ans o n Ep isod ic Team Process- Pe rfo rma nce Relationships,• Academy of Management Joumal 49, no . 3 (2006), pp. 605- 619.
107 A. N. Pieterse, D. van Kn ippen berg, and W. P. va n G inkel, "' Diversity i n Coa l Orie ntation, Team Re fl exivity, and Tea m Perform ance," Organizatio,ial Beliavior and Human Decision Processes 114, no. 2 (2011), pp. 153- 164.
108 A. C urtner, F. Tscha n, N. K. Semmer, and C. Nagele, "Getting C roups to Develop Good St rategies: Effects of Reflexiv ity Interventions on Team Process, Team Performance, and Shared Mental Models," Orgmiizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 102 (2007), pp. 127- 142; M. C. Sch ippers, D. N. Den Hartog, and P. L. Koopman, "Reflexivity in Teams: A Measure a nd Correlates,· Applied Psychology: An International Review 5 6, no. 2 (2007), pp. 189- 211; and C. S. Burke, K. C. Stag), E. Salas, L. Pie rce, and D. Kenda ll, · understa nd ing Team Adaptation: A Conceptual Analysis and Model,· Joumal of Applied Psrchology 91, no. 6 (2006), pp. 11 89- 1207.
109 A. N. Pieterse, D. van Knippenberg, a nd W. P. van Ginkel, • Diversity in Coal Orientatio n, Team Reflexivity, and Team Performance," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 11 4, no. 2 (2011 ), pp. J 53-164.
no See R. P. DeShon, S. W. J. Kozlowski, A. M. Schmidt, K. R. Milner, and D. Wiechmann, "A Mult iple-Coal, Multilevel Model of Feedback Effects o n the Regulatio n of Individual and Team Perform ance: Journal of Applied Psychology, Decem ber 2004, pp. 1035- 1056.
111 K. Tasa, S. Taggar, a nd C. H. Seijts, "1he Developmen t of Collective Efficacy in Teams: A Multilevel and Longitudinal Perspective; Joumal of Applied Psychology 92, n o. I (2007), pp. 17-27; D. I. Ju ng a n d J. J. Sosik, ·cro u p Potency a nd Collective Efficacy: Examining Their Predictive Valid ity, Level o f An alysis, and Effects of Performa nce Feedback o n Future C ro up Perform ance,• Group & Organizntion Management, Septem ber 2003, pp. 366- 391; and R.R. Hirschfeld and J.B. Bem erth, "Mental Efficacy and Ph ysical Efficacy at the Team Level: Inputs and O utcomes a m o ng Newly Formed Action Teams: Joun1al of Applied Psychology 93, no . 6 (2008), pp. 1429- 1437.
ll2 A. VJ. Richter, C. Hi rs t, D. van Knippenberg. a nd M. Baer, ·creative Self-Efficacy and Individual Creativity in Team Contexts: C ross- Level Interactions with Team Inform ational Resourc~." Joun1al of Applied Ps)'chology 97, no. 6 (2012), pp. 1282- 1290.
ll3 N. Ellemers, E. Sleebos, D. Stam, a n d D. de G ilder, •Feel ing Included and Valued: How Pe rceived Respect Affects Positive Team
End no tes 577
Identity a nd Willingness to Invest in the Team,• British Joumal of Management 24 (2013), pp. 21- 37.
ll4 T. A. De Vries, F. Wa lter, C. S. Van Der Vegt, a nd P. J. M. D. Esse.ns, •Antecedents of Ind iv iduals' lnterteam Coord ination: Broad Functional Experie n ces as a Mixed Blessing; Academy of Management Journal 57, no. 5 (2014), pp. 1334- 1359.
115 S. Chang. L. Jia, R. Takeuchi, a nd Y. Cai, "Do High-Commitment Work Systems Affect C reativity? A Mult ilevel Com binational Approach to Employee Creativ ity,• Joumal of Applied Psychology 99, no. 4 (2014), pp. 665- 680.
ll6 S. Moh a mmed, L. Ferza nd i, a nd K. Ha milto n, • Metaphor No More: A JS-Yea r Review of the Team Mental Model Construct: Joumal of Management 36, no. 4 (2010), pp. 876- 910.
ll7 A. P. J. Ellis, •system Breakdown: The Ro le o f Mental Models a nd Transactive Memory on the Re lationships between Acute Stress and Team Performance,.. Academy of Mmiagement Jounial 49, no. 3 (2006), pp. 576-589.
U S L. A. DeCh u rch and J. R. Mesm e r-Magn us, •Th e Cogn itive Underpinnings of Effective Teamwork: A Meta-analysis,• )oumal of Applied Ps)'chology 95, no. I (2010), pp. 32-53 .
119 S. VJ. J. Kozlowski and D. R. llgen, •Enhancing the Effectivenes., of Work C ro ups and Teams,• Psrchological Science in the Public Interest (December 2006), pp. 77- 124; and B. D. Edwa rds, E. A. Day, Vv. Arthur Jr., and S. T. Bell, •Rela tionships a mong Team Ability Com positio n, Tea m Mental Models, and Team Perform ance,"
Joumal of Applied PsycholO!l)' 91, no. 3 (2006), pp. 727-736.
12 0 K. M. Eisenh ardt, J. L. Kahwajy, and L. J. Bourgeois 11 1, "How Management Teams Can Have a Good Fight," Haroard Business Review, July- August 1997, p. 78.
121 J. Fa rh, C. Lee, and C. I. C. Farh, "Task Confl ict a n d Tea m C reativity: A Question of How Much a nd When,• Journal of Applied Psychology 95, no. 6 (2010), pp. 1173 - 1180.
122 K. J. Behfar, R. S. Peterson, E. A. Mannix, and W. M. K. Trochim, "Th e C rit ical Ro le of Confl ict Resolut ion i n Team s: A Close Look at the Links between Confl ict Type, Conflict Management Strategies, a nd Team Outcomes,• Joumal of Applied Psrchology 93, no. I (2008), pp. 170- 188.
123 V. Conzalez-Ro m a and A. Hernandez, ·climate Uniformity: Its Influence o n Team Communication Quality, Task Confl ict, a nd Team Performance,• Journal of Applied Psyc!wlogy 99, n o. 6 (2014 ), pp. 1042- 1058.
12 4 R. Kreitn e r a nd A. Kinicki, Organizntional Behavior, 6th ed. (New York: hw in, 2004), p. 460. Repri nted by permission of McGraw Hill Education.
125 K. Je h n, •A Multi m e th od Exam inat ion of t h e Benefits a n d Detrimen ts of l ntragro up Confl ict, " Adm i,iistrative Scie,ice Quarterly, June J 995, pp. 256- 282.
12 6 K. H. Price, D. A. Harrison, and J. H. Cavin, "Withhold ing Inputs in Team Contexts: Mem ber Composition, Interaction Processes, Eva luat ion Str uc tu re, and Social Loafing.• Journal of Applied Psychology 91, no. 6 (2006), pp. J 375- 1384.
127 C. E. Naquin and R. 0. Tynan, "The Team Halo Effect: \.Vh y Teams Are Not Blamed fo r Their Failures,· Joumal of Applied Psrchology, April 2003, pp. 332- 340.
128 D. Brown, "I nnovative H R Ineffective in Manufacturing Fi rms,"
Omadian HR Reporter, April 7, 2003, pp. 1- 2.
12.9 E. R. Crawford and J. A. Le Pi ne, •A Co n fig u ra l Theory of Team Processes: Accou nting for the Structu re ofTaskwork a nd Teamwork," Academ )' of Aif.anagement Review, Ja nuary 2013, pp. 32- 48.
13 0 W. E. Watson, K. Ku m ar, and L. K. Mich aelsen, "Cu ltural Diversity's I m pact on Interaction Process a nd Performa nce:
Comparing H om ogeneous and D iverse Task Groups," Academ)' of Management Journal, June 1993, pp. 590-602; P. C. Earley a nd
578 Endnotes
E. Mosakowski, ' Creating Hybrid Team Cultures: An Em p irical Te.'i't of Transnational Team Functioning. " Arodemyof Management Journal, Feb ruary 2000, pp. 26- 49; and S. Moh am m ed a nd L. C. Angell, "Su rface- a nd Deep-Level Diversity in \.Vo rkgroups: Exam ini ng t he Moderati ng Effects of Team O rientat io n a n d Team Process o n Relationship Conflict,• Journal of Organizational Behavior, December 2004, pp. 1015 - 1039.
131 Y. F. G ui llaume, D. van Kni p penbe rg, a nd F. C. Brodebeck, ' Not hi ng Succeeds Like Moderatio n : A Socia l Self-Regu latio n Perspective o n Cultura l Dissimilarity an d Perfonnance, " Amdemy of Management Journal 57, no. 5 (2014), pp. 1284- 1308.
132 D. F. C rown, "The Use of C roup a n d Croupcen tric Individua l Coals fo r C ult u ra lly He te rogeneous a n d Ho mogeneous Task C roups: An Assessme nt of European \<\fo rk Teams,• Small Group Research 38, n o. 4 (2007), pp. 489- 508.
133 Based on D. Man a nd S. S. K. Lam, 'The Effec:L< of Job Complexity and Autono my on Cohe.'i'ive.nes.'i in Collectivist and Individualistic Work Croup.<: A Cro.<0-Cultural An a lysis,· Journal of Organizational Behavior, December 2003, pp. 979- 1001.
134 S. C ha ng, L Jia, R. Takeuchi, a n d Y. Cai, ' Do H ig h -Commitme nt Work Syste ms Affect C reativity? A Multilevel Comb ina t io n a l Ap p roach to Employee C reativity; Journal of Applied Ps)'cltology 99, no. 4 (2014), pp. 665- 680.
135 P. L Perrewe, K. L. Zellars, C. R. Ferris, A. M. Ro.s.,i, C. J. Kacm ar, and D. A. Ra lston, ' Neutra lizing Job Stressors: Po litical Skill as a n An tidote to the Dysfu nctional Consequences o f Role Conflict, · Academy of Management Journal, Februa ry 2004, pp. 141- 152.
136 Based o n S. I. Tannen baum, J. Mathieu, E. Salas, a nd D. Cohen, 'Teams Are Chang ing: Are Research and Practice Evolvi ng Fast En ough? " Industrial and Organizational Psychology 5 (2012) , pp. 2 - 24; and R. Ash kenas, "How to Empower Your Team fo r Non -Negotiab le Re.,u lL, : Forbes, Apri l 24, 2013 , h ttp://www. fo rbes.com/ sites/ rona,hkenas/ 2013/ 04/ 24/ how-to-e mpower-your- team-with-n o n-negot iable -results/ .
137 Based o n E. Bernstein, "Speaking Up Is Ha rd to Do: Researchers Expl ai n W hy; Wall Street Journal, February 7, 2012, p . DI ; M. Kashtan, "Want Tea mwork ? Pro m ote Free Speech,• New York Tim es, April 13, 2014, p. 8; and H. Leroy, 8. Dierynck, F. Anseel, T. Si m o n s, J. R. Ha lbesleben, D. McCaugh ey, C. T. Savage, a nd L. Sels, ' Behavioral Integrity fo r Safety, Priority of Safety, Psycho logical Safety, and Patient Safety: A Team-Level Study,· Joumal of Applied Ps)'cltology, Novem ber 2012, pp. 1273- 1281.
138 M. A. Korsgaard , H. H. Brower, and S. \.V. Lester, ' It Isn' t Always Mutual: A C ritical Review of Dyadic Trust,• Journal of Management 41, no. I (2014), pp. 4 7-70; R. L. Priem a n d P. C. Nystro m, ' Explo ring th e Dyn a m ics of Workgroup Fractu re: Commo n Ground, Trust. w ith.Trepidation, and Warranted Distrust, " Journal of Management 40, no. 3 (2014), p p. 764 - 795; and 'Th e Call of Malaysia's 'Conquerable' Mount KinabaJu ; BBC, June 5, 2015, http://\\~vw.bbc.com/ news/ world-asia-33020356.
139 Based on ROBB INS, STEPHEN P.; HUNSAKER, PH I LLIP L., T RAJNINC IN INTERPERSONALSKI LLS:TIPS FO R MANAGING PEOPLE ATWORK, 2 n d Ed., <> 1996. Rep ri nted a nd Electronically reproduced by perm issio n of Pearson Education, Inc., Upp er Saddle River, New Jersey.
OB on the Edge:Trust
1 Based on 8. Maclellan, ' Turn ing 20, a n d Still a Young a n d In depen dent Agency," Environ ics, August 14, 2014, h ttp :// envi ronicspr.com/ u s/ 20 I 4 / 08/ turn ing-20-sti I I -young-i n depen- den t-agency/; "Stitches of Laughter Help Create light-Knit Team,• Globe and Mail, April 17, 2014; a nd C. Marr, ' Sabbaticals 800.<1 Job Satisfaction," Gazette (Montreal) , August 18, 2012, p. F14.
2 See, for examp le, K. T. Dirks a nd D. L. Ferrin, 'Trust in Leadership: Meta-an a lytic Find ings and Implications for Research and Practice, · Joumal of Applied Psychology, Augu st 2002, pp. 611 - 628; 8. McEvily,
3
4
5
6
7
V. Perro ne, A. Zaheer, guest editors, The special issue o n trust in
an o rganizational context, Organization Sciet1ce, January- February 2003; and R. Galford a n d A. S. Drapeau, Tlte Tmsted Leader (New York: Free Press, 2003).
F. K. Sonnen berg, 'Trust Me, Trust Me Not,• lndustry•,Veek, August 16, 1993, pp. 22 - 28; a n d L. T. Hosmer, "Trust: the Connecting Li nk between Organ izational Theoiy a nd Philosophical Ethics: Academ)' of Manageme111 Review, April 1995, pp. 379 - 403.
'A Lack of Trust and Confiden ce: Majority of Canadian Employees Don't Believe Their Senior Leaders,• CNW, news release, O ctober 18, 2012, h ttp://W\,~v.hrvoice.org/wp-content/ uploads/ 2013/ 05/ BABW-1 n fogra phic.jpg.
h ttp :// e n v ir o n i cs p r. co m / thi n k i ng/ the - env iro n i cs · communications·cantruSt· i ndex/.
J. Pollack, ' Do Your Em ployees Trust You? Beh aviou r Su rvey Fin ds Lack of Trust in Senio r Leaders as Top Reason fo r Quitting, · Telegraph-Journal, May 30, 2009, p. El .
D. M. Ro usseau, S. 8. Sitkin, R. S. Bu rt, and C. Camerer, "Not So Diffe rent After All : A C ross-Discipline View o f Trust," Academy of Management Review, July J 998, pp. 393 - 404; a n d J. A. Simpson, "Psychologica l Fou ndatio ns of Trust," Current Directions in Psychological Science 16, no. 5 (2007), pp. 264 - 268.
8 See for instance, K. T. Dirks and D. L. Ferrin, 'Trust in Leadersh ip: Meta-analytic Findings an d Imp lication.< fo r Research and Practice,• Journal of Applied Ps)'chology 8 7, n o . 4, (2002), p p . 611 - 628; D. I. Ju ng a n d 8 . J. Avo l io, ' Open i n g t h e Black Box: A n Experime n ta l Invest igation of t he Med ia ting Effects of Trust and Value Congruence o n Transformation a l a nd Transactio n a l Leadership,· Joumal of Organizational Behavior, Decem ber 2000, pp. 949 - 964; and A. Zacharatos, J. Barl ing, a n d R. D. Iverson, ' H ig h -Performance \<\fo rk Systems and Occupat io n a l Safety, · Joumal of Applied Psychology, January 2005, pp. 77- 93.
9 J. 8. Rotte r, "Interpersona l Trust, Trustworthin ess, and Gullib ility," American Ps)'cltologist, January 1980, pp. 1- 7.
10 J. D. Lewis a nd A. Weigert, 'Trust as a Social Reality," Social Forces, June 1985, p. 970.
11 J. K. Rempel, J. G. Ho lmes, and M. P. Za nna, ' Trust in C lose Relatio ns h i ps,• Jo u rnal of Persona/it)' and Social Ps )'cholog)', July 1985, p . 96.
12 C. M. Cra n ovetter, "Eco nomic Act io n and Social S tructu re: The Problem o f Embed dedness," American Journal of Sociology, Novem ber 1985, p. 491 .
13 R. C. Mayer, J. H. Davis, a n d F. D. Schoorma n , ' An Integrative Mod e l of Organ izatio n al Trust,• Academy of Management Review, July 1995, p . 712.
14 C. Joh nson-George a nd \.V. Swap, ' Measu rement of Specific Interpersonal Trust: Constructio n and Validation of a Scale to Assess Trust in a Specific O ther,• Joumal of Personality and Social Psychology, Septembe r J 982, p. 1306.
15 J. A. Colquitt, 8. A. Scott, and J. A. LePin e, 'Trust, Trustworth iness, a nd Trust Pro p e n sity: A Met a -analytic Test of Th e ir U n iq u e Re lationsh ips with Risk Taking and Job Performan ce, • Journal of Applied Psychology 92, no. 4 (2007) , pp. 909- 92 7; a n d F. D. Schoorman, R. C. Mayer, and J. H. Davis, ' An Integrative Model of O rganizational Trust: Pa<t, Present, a n d Fut ure: Academy of Management Review 32, no. 2 (2007), pp. 344- 354.
16 C ited in D. Jones, "Do You Trust Your C EO?" USA Today, Februaiy 12, 2003, p. 7 8.
17 J. A. Si mpson, ' Foundatio ns of Interpersonal Trust: in Social Ps)'clwlog)': Ha ndbook of Basic Principles, 2 nd ed., ed . A. W. Kru gla n ski and E. T. H iggi n s (New York : Gu ilford, 2007), pp. 587 - 607.
18 Th is sectio n is b ased on D. E. Za nd , Tlte Leadership Triad: Knowledge, Tmst, and Power (New York: Oxford University Press,
1997) , pp. 122- 134; a nd A. M. Zak, J. A. Cold, R. M. Ryckm an, a nd E. Lenney, "Asses.<ments of T rus t in Intimate Relatio ns hips and the Self-Perceptio n Process,• Journal of Social Psychology, April 1998, pp. 217-228.
19 D. L. Sh apiro, A. D. Boss, S. Salas, S. Ta ngirala, a n d M. A. Von C linow, "\.Vh e n Are Transgressing Leaders Punitively Judged? An Emp irical Test: Jounwl of Applied Psychology 96, no. 2 (2011 ) , pp. 4 12 - 422.
2 0 D. L. Ferrin , P. H. Kim, C. D. Cooper, and K. T. D irks, "Silence Speaks Volumes: The Effectiveness of Reticence in Comparison to Apo logy and De n ial fo r Responding to In tegrity- and Competence-Based T rust Violations: Journal of Applied Psychology 92, no. 4 (2007), pp. 893- 908.
21 Based o n J. R. Detert a nd E. R. Burris, "Leadersh ip Beh avior and Em ployee Voice: Is the Door Really Open ?" Academy of Manage111ent Journal 5 0, n o. 4 (2007), pp. 869- 884; a nd J. A. Colq uitt, B. A. Scott, a nd J. A. LePine, "Trust, Trustworth iness, and T rust Propensity: A Meta. ana ly tic Test of Thei r Un ique Relationships with Risk Taking and Job Performa n ce,· Journal of Applied Psychology 92, no. 4 (2007), pp. 909- 927.
22 J. R. Detert a nd E. R. Burris, "Leadership Behavior and Employee Voice: Is the Door Really Open?" Academy of Management Journal 50, no. 4 (2007), pp. 869 - 884.
23 J. A. Colq uitt, B. A. Scott, a nd J. A. LePine, "Trust, T rustworthiness, and T rust Propensity: A Meta -ana ly t ic Test of Thei r Un ique Relationships with Risk Taking and Job Performa n ce,· Journal of Applied Psychology 92, no. 4 (2007) , pp. 909- 927.
2 4 M. E. Schweitzer, J. C. Hershey, a nd E. T. Bradlow, "Pro mises a n d Lies: ~toring Violated Trust," Orgmiizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 101 (2006), pp. 1- 19.
25 B. A. De Jong a nd T. 0. M. Elfring. "How Does T rust Affect the Perforrnance of Ongoing Teams? The Mediating Role of Refl exivity, Monito ring. and Effort, " Acnde111y of Manage111ent Journal 53, no. 3 (2010), pp. 53 5-549.
26 H. Zhao, S. J. \.Vayne, B. C. C libkowski, a nd J. Bravo, "Th e Impact of Psychological Contract Breach o n Work-Rela ted Outcomes: A Meta -ana lysis: Personnel Psyclwlogy 60 (2007), pp. 647-680.
27 K. T. Dirks and D. L. Ferrin, "Trust in Leadership: Meta-analytic Fi nd ings and Imp lications for O rganizatio na l Research,• Journal of Applied Psycholog,• 87 (2002), pp. 6 11 - 628.
28 B. C roysberg and M. Sl ind, "Leadership Is a Co nversation,· Harvard Business Review, June 2012, pp. 76 - 84.
29 Adapted from J. OToole and W. Ben nis, "What's Needed Next: A Culture of Can dor,• Harvard Business Review, June 2009, pp. 54- 61.
3 0 P. J. Zak, "The Neuroscience of Trust," Harvard Business Review, January- February 2017, pp. 84- 90.
3 1 K. T. Dirks, "Trust in Leadership and Team Pe rfo rrnance: Evidence fro m NCAA Basketball: Journal of Applied Psycl1olog,• 85 (2000), pp. 1004- 1012.
3 2 Based on P. J. Zak, 'The Neuroscience Of T rust,• Harvard Business Review, January- February 2017, pp. 84- 90.
3 3 B. A. De Jong a nd T. 0. M. Elfring. "How Does T rust Affect the Perforrnance of Ongoing Teams? The Mediating Role of Reflexivity, Monito ring. and Effort, · Acade111y of Manage111ent Journal 53, no. 3 (2010), pp. 53 5-549.
34 Adapted fro m R. M. Kra me r, "Re thinking Trust," Harvard Business Review, June 2009, p. 71.
3 5 C. W. Langfred, "Too Much of a Good Thing? Negative Effects of H igh Trust and Ind ividua l Autonomy in Self-Managing Teams,· Academy of Manage111ent Journal 4 7, no. 3 (Jun e 2004), pp. 385-399.
3 6 N. Klein and H . Z hou, "Their Pa nts Aren' t on Fi re," New York Ti111es, March 2 5, 2014, p. 03.
3 7 S. D. Levitt and S. J. Dubner, ' Trapono mics, • Wall Street Journal, May 10- 11 , 2014, pp. Cl, C2.
End notes 579
3 8 R. M. Kramer, " Rethi nki ng T rust," Harvard Business Review, June 2009, p. 77 .
Chapter 7
1 Opening vign ette based on h ttp://www.busines.,insider.com/ slack- ceO·Stewart·butte.rfieJd. inte.rview.2015 ·4; S. Steven.~on, .. Stewart Butterfield , Em ail Killer," Wall Street Journal, November 4 , 2015, h ttps://www.wsj.com/ a rt ides/ slack-ceo-s t ewart -butterfield-o n- changing-the-way-we-work - 14466895 64; J. Bercovici, "Slack Is Our Company of the Year. Here's \.Vh y Everybody's Talking about 11: l11c., December 2015/ Ja nuary 2016 , https://www.i nc.com/ magazine/ 201512/ jeff-bercovici/ s lack-co mpany-of-th e-year-201 5 . html; and A. Ko nrad, "Slack Moves Its App Sto re Fro nt and Center, Backs Seven More Startups i n Pla tfo rm Push," Forbes, July 11 , 2017, https://www.forbes.com/ s ites/ a lexkonrad/ 2017/07/ 11/ slack- moves-app-store-invests-more-fo r-p la tfo rrn/ #6588a2bf73ab.
2 "Carle ton Study Fi nds People Spending a Third of Job li me o n Email; Carleton Newsroom , April 20, 2017, http ://newsroom . carleton .ca/ 2017 / 04/ 20/ ca rleton-study-fi nds-people-spendi ng- th i rd -j ob-time-e ma i I/ .
3 A. Tenhiaelae and F. Salvador, "Looking Ins ide G litch M itigation Capability: The Effect of lntraorganizational Commun icat ion C hannels," Decision Sciences 45, no. 3 (2014), pp. 43 7-466.
4 L. A. Vslithers, and L. L. Vernon, "To Err Is Human : Em barras.,ment, Attachment, and Communication Apprehensio n,,. Personality and Individual Differences 40, no. I (2006), pp. 99- 110.
5 See, fo r i n stance, S. K. Opt a nd D. A. Loffredo, ' Re thinking Com munica tion Apprehe nsion: A Myers .Briggs Perspective:,,. Journal of Psychology, Septe mber 2000, pp. 556-5 70; and B. D. Blume, G. F. Dreher, and T. T. Baldwin, "Examin ing the EffecL, of C:Ommu nication Apprehen.~ion w ithin Assessment Centres,,. Journal of Occupatio11al a11d Orga11izatio11al Psychology 83, no. 3 (2010), pp. 663- 671.
6 See L K. Trevino, J. Web.,ter, and E.W. Stein, "Maki ng Connections:
Comple mentary lnfluenc~ on Communication Media Choices, Attit u des, and Use, · Organizntio11 Science, March - April 2000, pp. 163- 182; an d N. Kock, 'The Psychobio logical Model: Towards a New Theory of Computer-Mediated Communication Based on Darwinian Evolution," Organization Science 15, no. 3 (May- June 2004), pp. 327-348.
7 D. K. Denton, ' Engaging Your Employees in limes of Uncertainty, •
International Journal of Productivity and Quality Manage111e11t 7, no. 2 (2011 ), pp. 202- 208.
8 Vignette based o n S. N iedoba, ' How CANA Croup Focused on Communication to Build a Stronger Tea m,,. Canadian Business, Decem ber 28, 2016, http://\\~vw.canadianb us iness.com/ lis Ls-a nd - ra nkings/ best-m anaged-companies/ cana-group/ .
9 S. N iedoba, ' How CANA Grou p Focused on Commun ication to Build a Stronger Team ,,. Canadia,i Business, December 28, 2016, http://www.canadia nbusiness.com/ 1 ists-and -ranki ngsfbest- ma naged-companies/ cana -gro up/ .
10 Vignette based o n A. Scott, "How Stewa rt Butterfie ld Built a
Billion-Dolla r Compa ny in Eight Months: Canadian Business, January 5, 201 5, http://www.canadianbusiness.com/ innovation/ stewa rt· butte rfi e Id -s lack/.
11 K. SaviL,ky, B. Keysa r, N . Epley, T. Carter, and A. Swanson, "Th e Closeness.Communication Bias: Increased Egocentrism am o ng Friends versus Strangers,· Journal of Experime11tal Social Psychology 47, no. I (2011), pp. 269- 2 73.
12 D. Derks, D. van Duin, M. li ms, a nd A. B. Baker, ' Smartphone Use and \<\fo rk- Home Interfe rence: The Moderating Ro le of Social Norms and Emp loyee Work Engagement,· Journal of Occupational and Orga11izntional Psychology 88, no. 1 (2015), pp. 155- 17 7.
580 En dnotes
13 r. Briiiol, R. E. Petty, a nd J. Barden, "Happine.s.< versus Sad ness a< a Determina nt of Thought Confidence in Persu asion: A Self. Validation An alysis,• Journal of Perso11ality and Social Psychology 93, n o. 5 (2007), pp. 711 - 727.
14 R. C. Sinclair, S. E. Moore, M. M. Mark, A. S. Soldat, a nd C. A. Lavis, " Incidental Moods, Source Likeabi lity, and Pe rsu asio n: Liking Motivates Message Elaboration in Happy People, · Q,g1titio11 a11d Emotion 24, no . 6 (2010), pp. 940- 961; a nd V. Griskevicius, M. N. Shiota, a nd S. L Neufeld, "Influen ce of Different Positive Emotions on Persuasion Processing: A Functional Evolutionary Approach,· Emotion JO, no. 2 (2010), pp. 190- 206.
15 J. Sandberg. "The Jargon Jumble, • Wall Streel Journal, October 24, 2006, p. Bl.
16 E. Vv. Morrison an d F. J. Milliken, "O rgan izatio nal Silence: A Barrier to Change and Development in a Pluralistic World ,• Academ)' of Ma11ageme111 Review 25, no. 4 (2000), pp. 706-725; and B. E. Ashforth a nd V. Anand, "The Normalization of Corrup tio n in Organizations,• Research in Organizatio11al Behavior25 (2003), pp. 1- 52.
17 F. J. Milliken, E. v,,1_ Morrison, a nd r. F. Hewlin, "An Exploratory Study of Employee S ilen ce: Issu es Th a t Employees Don't Commu nicate Upward a nd Why,· Journal of Manageme111 Studies 40, no. 6 (2003), pp. 1453- 1476.
18 S. Ta ngirala and R. Ramunuja m, "Em p loyee Silence on C ritical Wo rk Issu es: The C ross-Level Effects of Procedu ra l Justice Climate, • Personnel Psyc/1olog)' 61, no. I (2008), pp. 37- 68; and F. Bowen and K. Blackm on, "Spirals ofSilen ce:The Dynamic Effects of D iversity o n Orga nizatio nal Voice, " Journal of Manageme,11 Studies 40, no. 6 (2003), pp. 1393- 1417.
19 K. B. Serota, T. R. Levine, a n d F. J. Boster, "The Preva lence of Lying in America: Three Studies o f Self-Reported Lies,· Human Co111mu11ica1io11 Research 36, no. I. (2010), pp. 2- 25.
2 0 B. M. DePaulo, D. A. Kash y, S. E. Kirkendol, M. M. V,,lyer, a nd J. A. Epstein, "Lying in Everyday Life, • Journal of Perso11ality and Social Psyclwlog)' 70, no. 5 ( 1996), pp. 979- 995; a nd C. E. Naguin, T. R. Kurtzberg, and L. Y. Belkin, "The Finer Po ints of Lying O nline: E-Mail versus Pen a nd Paper,• Journal of Applied Psyclwlogy 95, no. 2 (2010), pp. 387- 394.
21 A. Vrij, r. A. Granhag, a nd S. Porter, "Pitfalls and Opportunities in Nonverbal and Verbal Lie Detectio n,• Psychological Scie11ce in the Public fllteresl 11, no. 3 (2010), pp. 89- 121.
22 Vignette based on S. Stevenson, "Stewart Butterfield , Email Ki ller,• Wall Streel Journal, https://www.wsj.com/ a rticles/ slack-ceo-stewart- butterfield-on-changi ng-the-way-we-work-1446689564.
23 S. Jh u n, Z.-T. Bae, and S.-Y. Rh ee, " Performa nce Cha nge of Ma n agers in Two D iffe rent Uses of Upwa rd Feedback: A Longitudinal Study in Korea," International Journal of Human Resource Manageme111 23, n o. 20 (2012 ), pp. 4246 - 4264; a n d J. W. Sm it her and A. G. Wa lker, "Are the Characteristics of Na rra tive Comments Related to I mprovem ent i n M ultirater Feedback Rati ngs over Time?* Journal of Applied Ps)'clwlogy 89, n o. 3 (Jun e 2004), pp. 575 - 581.
2 4 r. Dvorak, "How Understanding th e 'Wh y' of Decisio ns Matters, · Wall Street Journal, March 19, 2007, p. 83.
25 T. Neeley and r . Leonard i, ' Effective Managers Say the Same Thing Twice (or More): Harvard Business Review, May 2011, pp. 38- 39.
26 A. DiPaula, M. Bacica, a nd J. V,,linram, "To Be Believed Is to Be Heard , • Leadership, Sum mer 2014, http://sentisresearc h.com/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2014/ 07 / BCH RMA-Summer-2014.pdf.
2 7 B. A mbl e, ' Ma n agers Igno ring t h e People W h o Matte r, • Management-issues.com, Septem ber 18, 2006, h ttp://www. m anagement· issues.com/ n ews/ 35 9 3/ m anages-igno ri n g-t he- people-wh o -matter/ .
28 H. A. Richa rdson a n d S. G. Taylo r, "Understa nding Input Events: A Model of Em p loyees' Responses to Requests fo r Th eir Inpu t,· Academy of Management Review 37 (2012), pp. 4 71 - 491.
29 J. R. Detert and L. K. Trevino, "Speaking Up to H ighe r-Ups: How Supervisors a nd Skip-Level Leaders Influence Employee Voice: OrganiZ1Jtio1t Science 21. no. I (2010), pp. 249- 2 70.
30 E. Nichols, "Hyper-Speed Managers: HR Magazine, April 2007, pp. 107 - 110.
31 R. Wa lker, "Decl ini ng a n Assig nment, w ith Finesse: New York Times, August 24, 2014, p. 8.
32 See, fo r exa mple, N. B. Kurl and and L H. relied, ' PaS-<ing the Word: Toward a Model of Gossip and Power in th e Workplace, • Academy of Managemelll Review, April 2000, pp. 428 - 438; a nd G. Michelson, A. van Jterson, and K. Wadd ington, ' Gossip in Organization.Ii: Contexts, Qmsequences, and Controversies," Croup and Orga11izatio1t Managemelll 35, no. 4 (2010), pp. 371 - 390.
33 G. Van Hoye and F. Lievens, "Tapping the Grapevine: A Closer Look at \<\lord -of-Mouth as a Recruitment Sou rce, · Journal of Applied Psychology 94, no. 2 (2009), pp. 341- 352.
34 J. K. Bosson, A. B. Johnson, K. Niederhoffer, and v,,1_ B. Swann Jr., "Interpersonal C hem istiy thro ugh Negativity: Bond ing by Sharing Negative Attitudes about O thers.• Personal Relatio11ships 13 (2006), pp. 135 - 150.
3 5 T. J. Grosser, V. Lopez-Kidwell, and G. Lab ianca, ' A Social Network Analysis of Po.,itive a nd Negative Gossip in O rgan izational Life, • Group and Orga11izatio11 Ma11ageme111 35, no. 2 (2010), pp. 177-212.
36 R. Feintzeig. "The Boss's Next Demand: Make Lots of Friends,• Wall Street Journal, Feb ruary 12, 2014, pp. Bl, 86 .
3 7 R. E. Silverman, "A Victo ry fo r Small Office Talkers,• Wall Streel Journal, October 28, 2014, p. 02.
38 M. Feinberg, R. \.Vill er, J. Stellar, and D. Kelt n e r, ' The Virtu es of Gossip : Reputational Info rmation Sha ri n g as Prosocia l Beh avior,• Journal of Personality a11d Social Ps)'c/1ology 102 (2012), pp. 1015 - 1030.
39 L. Hi rsch horn, ' Ma n aging Ru m o rs,· in C1111i11g Back, ed. L. H irschhorn (Sa n Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1983), pp. 54 - 56; a nd D. K. Den to n, "Engaging You r Em p loyees in T imes of Uncertai nty: flltematio11al Jounial of Product ivit)' and Quality Management 7, no. 2 (2011), pp. 202 - 208.
40 Vignette based o n J. Bercovici, "Slack Is Our Com pa ny of th e Year. Here's \.Vhy Eveiybody's Talking About It", Inc., December 2015/ Januaiy 2016, https://www.inc.com/ magazine/ 201512/ jeff- bercovici/ slack-co mpany-of-the-year-2015.html .
41 L. D ulye, ' Get O ut of Your Office, · HR Magazi11e, July 2006, pp. 99- 101.
42 M. Mihelich, ' Bit by Bit: Stand-up Comedy as a Team-Building Exercise: \.Vorkforce Managemelll, Feb ruary 2013 , p. J 6; and "Comedy Experience,· Peppercomm, accessed July 2, 2015, http:// peppercomm.com/ services/ comedy-experience.
43 A. Biyant, "Finding. and Owning. Their Voice, • New York Times, Novem ber 16, 2014, p. 6.
44 T. D. Mayn es and r. M. Podsakoff, "Speaking More Broadly: An Examinatio n of the Nature. Antecedents, and Consequences of a n Expanded Set of Employee Voice Behaviors,• Journal of Applied Psychology 99, no. 1 (2014), pp. 8 7- 112.
45 J. Lipman, ' A Gu ide for Men,· Wall Street Journal, Decembe r 13- 14, 2014, pp. Cl, C2.
46 S. Sh ellenbarger, "Help ! I' m on a Confere nce Call: Wall Street Journal, February 26, 2014, pp. DI, 02.
47 S. Sh ellenbarger, "Help ! I'm on a Confere nce Call: Wall Street Journal, February 26, 2014, pp. DI, 02.
48 r . A. Mueller and D. M. Oppenheimer, "The Pen Is Mightier Than the Keyboard: Advantages of Longhand over Laptop Note Taking. · Psychological Science 25, no. 6 (2014), pp. 11 59- 1168.
4 9 N. Bilton, "Disruptions: Life's Too Sh ort fo r So Much E-mail.• New York Times , Ju ly 8 , 2012, h ttp:// b its.b logs. nytimes.
com/ 2012/ 07 / 08/ I i feO/o E20fc,80o/o99s-too-sh o rt-f Or·SO• m u ch-e· m ail/; a nd "Carleto n Study Finds People Sp endi ng a Third of Job Time on Email," Carleto11 Newsroom, Ap ril 20, 201 7, http:// n ewsroom .ca rleton.ca/ 201 7 / 04 / 20/ carleton-study-fi nds-peopJe. spen d ing-th ird -jo b -ti me-email/ .
5 0 G. J. Mark, S. Voida, a nd A. V. Cardello, "'A race Not Dictated by Elect ro ns': An Em pi rical Study of \<\fo rk w it h out E-mail,• Proceedings of lhe S/CCH I Conference on Human Factors in Comp11ti11g S)'stems, 2012, pp. 555- 564.
51 "Overloaded Can adia ns Trash 42% of All E-Mails: Study,· Ottawa Citize11 , Jun e 26, 2008, p. 05.
52 Based o n A. Anwar, "V.'hen Long Distan ce Makes the Startup More Complicated," Natio11al Post, August 5, 2014, p. FP6; a nd A. Seale, "Slim Cut Media Proud of Its Dual Toronto-Pa ris Cit izensh ip,· StartUp Torollto, November 8, 2016.
5 3 C. L.· L. Tan, "Mind Your E-m a il Ma nne rs: No 'XOXO' or ' LO I..'. Allowed,· Wall Street Journal, April 21, 2015.
54 C. L.· L. Tan, "Mind Your E-m a il Ma nne rs: No 'XOXO' or ' LO I..'. Allowed, · Wall Street Journal, April 21, 2015.
55 E. Bem stein, "Th e Miscommunicators, • Wall Street Journal, July 3, 2012, pp. D I , 0 3.
56 B. Ro be rts, "Social Media Gets Strategic,• HR Magazine, Octobe r 2012, pp. 30- 38.
57 "Number of Month ly Active Facebook Users Worldwide as of Jst Q u arter 2015 (in Millio ns),• Statista/ Facebook, acce.ssed July I, 201 5, h ttp:/ / www.statista.com/ s ta t istics/ 2648 10/ numbe r-of- m onth ly-active-facebook-users-worldw ide/ .
58 K. Wagner, "Th e \<\lo rld's To p CEOs Are Tweet i n g Mo re, Facebooking Less," Re/Code, May 17, 2015 , h ttp:// recode.n et/ 2015/ 05/ J 7 / the-worlds-top -ceos-are-tweeting-more-facebooking- less/.
59 P. Mozur, J. Osawa, a nd N. Pu rnell, "Facebook a nd V.'h a LsApp a Tough Sell in Asia," 11'all Street Journal, February 21, 2014, p. 84.
60 C. Smith, "By the Numbers: 125+ Amazing Linked In Statistics,· DMR, Jun e 6, 2015, http://expa n dedra mb lings.com/ index.php/ by-the-num bers-a-few-importa nt-linkedin-stats/ .
61 K. Wagner, "Th e \<\lorld's To p CEOs Are Tweet i n g Mo re, Facebooking Less. · Re/ Code, May 17, 2015, h ttp ://recode. n et/ 2015/ 05/ l 7 / th e-worlds-top-ceos-a re-tweeti ng-more-face- booking-less/ .
62 "Number of Monthly Active Twitter Users \<\lorldwide fro m !st Q ua rte r 2010 to 1st Quarter 2015 ( in Millions),· Statistaflivitter, accessed July I , 2015 http:/ f W\,~v.statista.com/ statistics/ 282087 / number.of.m o nth Jy.active· tw itter ·Users/ .
63 K. Wagner, "Th e Wo rld's Top CEOs Are Tweet i n g Mo re, Facebooking Less. · Re/ Code, May 17, 2015, h ttp ://recode. n e t/ 2015/ 05/ J 7 / the-wo rlds-top -ceos-a re-tweeting- m o re- facebooking-less/ .
64 P. Mozur, J. Osawa, a nd N. Pu rnell, "Facebook a nd V.'h a LsApp a Tough Sell in Asia," \.Vall Street Journal, February 21, 2014, p. 84.
65 P. Mozur, J. Osawa, a nd N. Pu rnell, "Facebook a nd V.•h a LsApp a Tough Sell in Asia," \.Vall Street Journal, February 21, 2014, p. 84.
66 0. Allen, "6 Stats You Should Know a bout Business Blogging in 2015, • HubSpot Biogs, March II, 2015, http://blog.hubsp o t.com/ m arke ting/business-b loggi ng-in-2015.
67 M. Richtel, "Lost in E-mail, Tech Finns Face Self-Made Beast, • New York Times, Jun e 14, 2008, p p. A l , Al4; a nd M. Johnson, "Quelling Distraction,· HR Magazi11e, August 2008, p p. 43- 46.
68 L. Tal ley a n d S. Temple, "How Leaders Infl u e nce Followers through th e Use of Nonve rbal Communicatio n,· Leadership & Orga11izatio11al Developmellt Journal 36, no. I (2015), p p. 69- 80.
69 C. K. Coman, • 5 Body Language Tips to Inc rease You r Cu rb Ap peal, · Forbes , March 4, 2013, h ttp://"~'~v.forbes.com/ sites/
Endnotes 5 8 1
caro lki nseygo m a n/ 20 13/ 03/ 14/ 5 -body-language -t i ps-to · increase-your-curb-appeal/ .
70 A. Metall inou, A. Katsa m a n is, a n d S. Narayanan, "Track ing Continuous Emotional Trends of Participants Du ring Affective Dyadic Interactions Using Body Language a nd Speech In fo rmation,• Image a11d Visio11 Om1puti11g, February 2013, pp. 137- 152.
71 J. S mith, " JO Nonverbal Cues Tha t Convey Con fide n ce a t \<\fo rk,· Forbes, March II , 2013 , h ttp://www.forb es.com/ s ites/ jacq u ely n smith/ 2013/ 03/ i l / JO-n onverbal-cues-th a t-convey- confiden ce-a t-work/ .
72 See E. T. Hall, Be)'o11d Culture (Garden City, NY: Ancho r Press/ Doub leday, 19 7 6 ); W. L. Ada ir, "Integrat ive Seq u e nces a n d Negotiation Outcome in Same· an d Mixed.Culture Negotiations," /11ternational Journal of Co11flict Manageme11t 14, no. 3 - 4 (2003), pp. 1359- 1392; v.1. L. Adair and J.M. Brett, "The Negotiation Dance: lime. Cul ture. and Behavioral Seque.nce.'i in Negotiation," OrganiZ1Jtio11 Science 16, no. I (2005), p p. 33 - 51; E. Giebels a nd r. J. Taylor, "' Interaction Patterns in Crisis Negotiatio ns: Persuasive Argu menL< a n d Cultural Differences,• Journal of Applied Ps)'chologJ' 94, n o. I (2009), pp. 5 - 19 ; a n d M. G. Kittler, D. Rygl, a nd A. Mackinnon, "Beyond Culture o r Beyon d Control? Reviewing the Use of Hall's High-fl.ow-Context Concept,• /11tematio11al Journal of Cross·Culwral Ma11ageme11t 11, no. I (2011 ) , pp. 63- 82.
73 M. C. Ho pson, T. Hart, a nd G. C. Be ll, "Meeting in the Middle: Fred L. Casm ir's Co ntributio ns to t he Field o f l n terc u ltural Communicatio n," Inten1atio,ial Journal of fotercultural Relations, Novem ber 2012, p p. 789- 797.
74 M. C. Ho pson, T. Hart, a nd G. C. Be ll, "Meeting in the Middle: Fred L. Casm ir's Co ntributio ns to t he Field o f l n terc u lt ural Communicatio n," Inten1atio,ial Journal of fotercultural Relations, Novem ber 2012, p p. 789- 797.
75 "C ha rting a New Course," Natio11al Post, Februa ry 4, 2014.
76 Based o n S. F. Gale, "Po licies Must Score a Mutual Li ke, • 'vVorkforce Ma11agemen1 , August 2012; R. Huggins a nd S. Ward, "Countries with the High est Percen tage o f Adults \<\/h o Use Social Networking Sites,· USA Today, February 8, 2012, p. I A; A. L. Kavana ugh, E. A. Fox. S. D. Sheetz, S. Yang, L. T. Li, D. J. Soema ke r, A. Natsev, a nd L. Xie, "Socia l Media Use by Governmen t: From the Ro utine to the Critical," Co11enu11e,1t Information Quarterly, Octobe r 2012, pp. 480- 491; and S. Johnson, "Those Facebook Posts Could Cost You a Jo b," San Jose MercuT)' News, January 16, 2012, http://W\,~V. me rcurynews.com/ busi ness/ ci_ 19 7544 51.
7 7 S. E. Ante, "Perilous Mix: Cloud, Devices fro m Home,• Wall Street Journal, Feb ruary 20, 2014, p. 84; D. Derks a n d A. B. Ba kker, "Sma rtphone Use, \<\fork- Ho me In te rference, a nd Burnout: A Diary Study on the Role of Recovery,• Applied Psychology: A11 lr1ternatio11al Review 63, n o. 3 (2014), p p. 411 - 440; L. Duxbury, C. Higgins, R. Sma rt, a nd M. Stevenson, "Mobile Tech no logy a nd Boundary Permeab ility,· British Journal of Ma11ageme11t 25 (2014), pp. 5 70 - 588; E. Holmes, "W he n One Ph o n e Isn' t Enough," Wall Street Joun,al, April 2, 2014, p p. DI , 02; C. Mims, "2014: The Year of Living Vulnerably,· Wall Street Journal, December 22, 2014, pp. BI, 82; L. Weber, "Leaving a Job? Better Watch Your Cellph one, • Wall Street Joun,al, January 22, 2014; a nd E. Yost, "Can an Employer Re motely V.'ipe a n Employee's Cellphone? " HR Magaz.ine, July 2014, p. 19.
78 Based on B. Acohido, "Social-Med ia Tools Boost Productivity," USA Today, August 13, 2012, p. 18; H.Anna bi andS. T. McGann, "Social Media as th e Missing Li nks: Conn ecting Communities of Practice to Business Strategy,• Journal of OrganiZ1Jtio11al O,mputi11g a11d Electro11ic Commerce 23, no. 1- 2 (2013), pp. 56- 83; S. Dutta, "What's Your Person al Social Media Strategy,· Harvard Business Review, November 2010, pp. 12 7- 130; G. Connors, " 10 Social Media Commandments for Employers," Workforce Management, Feb ruary 2010 , http://www.workfo rce.com/ a rt icles/ JO-sociaJ. media-comma ndments-fo r-employers; a nd L. Kwoh a nd M. Korn,
582 Endnotes
' 140 Characters of Risk: CEOs o n Twitter: Wall Street Joumal, Septe mber 26, 2012, pp. B 1, 88.
79 Based on A. A. Buchko, K. J. Buchko, a nd J. M Meyer, "Is There Power in PowerPoint? A Field Test of the Efficacy of Power Po int o n Mem oiy and Recall of Religious Sennons, • Computers in Human Behavior, March 2012, pp. 688- 695; "Full Text of Iran's Proposals to Six World Powers in Moscow: FARS News Agenc)' (Teh ra n) , h t tp :// engl i sh .fa rs n ews. com/ n ews text. php? n n =9103 0854 86; a nd B. Parks, "'Death to PowerPoint," Bloomberg Businessweek, September 3 - 9, 2012, pp. 83- 85.
80 Based on S. r. Robbins and r. L Hunsaker, Tra ining in Interpersonal Skills: T/Ps for Managing People at Work, 2 nd ed. ( Upper Sadd le River, NJ: Pre ntice Ha ll, 1996), Chapter 3; a n d data in R. C. Husema n, J.M. Lahiff, and J.M. Penrose:, Business Ommmnication: Strategies and Skills (Chicago: Diyden Press, 1988), pp. 380, 425.
Chapter 8
1 Vignette based on "C h o meshi Acquitted: Read the Verdict and
Catch Up on Wh a t You Missed," Globe and Mail, Januaiy 5, 201 7, https://www.theglobeand mail.com/ news/ nationalfjian-ghomeshi/ a rticle284767J3/ ; J. Bradsh aw and C. McArth ur, "Beh ind the CBCs Decision To Fi re Jia n C h omeshi, • Globe and Ma il, October 31, 2014, https://www.theglobea nd m a ii.com/ n ews/ national/ behi nd -the-cbcs-decision-to-fi re-ghomesh i/ a rticle2J 39699 8/ .
2 R. M. Kanter, "'Power Failure in Managem ent C ircuits," Harvard Business Review, July- August 1979, p. 65.
3 Based o n B. M. Bass, Bass & Stogdil/'s Handbook of Leadership, 3rd ed. (New York: Free Press, I 990).
4 B. Oc, M. R. Bashshur, and C. Moore, "Speaking Truth to Power: The Effect of Ca nd id Feedback on How Individuals with Power Allocate Resou rces,• Journal of Applied l's)'dwlogy JOO, no. 2 (2015), pp. 450- 463.
5 D. H. Gruenfelcl, M. E. lnesi, J.C. Magee, an d A. D. Calin., ~)', ' Power and the Objectification of Social Targets,· Journal of Personality and Social Psycltology 95, no. 1 (2008), pp. 11 1- 127; A. D. Galin.,ky, J.C. Magee, D. H. Cruenfeld, J. A. \'lhitson, an d K. A. Liljen quist, "Power Red uces th e Press of the Sit u atio n : Implications fo r Creat ivity, Conformi ty, a nd D issonance, · Journal of Personality and Social Ps)'chology 95, no. 6 (2008), pp. 1450- 1466; and J. C. Magee a n d C. A. Langner, "How Per.;onalized and Socialized Power Motivatio n Faci litate Antisocial and Prosocial Decision-Making, · Journal of Research in Personality 42, no. 6 (2008), pp. 1547- 1559.
6 G. A. Van Kleef, A. C. Ho ma n, C. Finkenauer, S. Gundemir, and E. Stamkou, ' Breaki ng the Rules to Rise to Power: How Nonn Violators Gain Power in the Eye.< of O ther.;,· Social PS)'c/1ological and Personality Science, January 26, 2011, published online before p rint, h ttp://selfteach ingre.,ources.pbworks.com/ f/ Brea king+ the+ Rules+to+ Rise:+to+Power+·+H ow+Norm +V iolators+Cain + Power+ in+the+Eyes+of+O thers.pdf.
7 J. La m mers, D. A. Stapel, and A. Galinsky, "Power In creases Hypocrisy: Moralizing in Reasoning, lmmunity and Behavior," Ps)'clwlogical Scie11ce 21, no. 5 (2010), pp. 73 7-744.
8 Based o n E. lnesi, S. Botti, D. Dubois, D. D. Rucker, and A. D. Gal insky, "Power a nd C ho ice: Their Dynamic Interp lay in Q uen ching the Thirst fo r Persona l Cont rol, · Ps)'chological Science, June 2011 , published onl ine before p rin t; a n d Association for Psychologica l Science, "Power and C h o ice Are Interchangeable: It's All about Contro lling Your Life,• ScienceDai/y, April 28, 2011 , http://www.sciencedaily.com/ releases/ 201 !/ 04/ 1104 26111419 .h tm.
9 Vign ette based o n "Jia n Ghomeshi Earned A Loyal Following With
CBC's Q: Torstar News Service, October 26, 2014, h ttp://www. m etronews.ca/ enterta inment/ 2014 / 10/ 2 7 / j ian-ghomesh i-earned- a -loyal-following-wi th-cbcs-q.h tml; an d A. Humpries, ' T roubling and Disappointing': CBC 'Severing Ties' with Executives i n Chomeshi Scandal,• National Post, April 16, 2015, http://nationa lpo.st.
com/ news/ canada/ cbc.severing·ties--with·executives·in·gh o meshi· scandal/ wcm / 8005c6c8-ffa2-40ed-8686-fu I ec2171 f39.
10 E. Landells a nd S. L. Albrecht, "Organ izational Po litical Climate: Shared Perceptions about the Building and Use of Power Bases,•
Human Resource Management Review 23, no. 4 (2013), pp. 357- 365; r. Rylander, "Coaches' Bases of Power: Developing Som e Init ial Knowledge of Athle tes' Compliance with Coaches i n Team Sports,• Journal of Applied Sport PS)'Cltology 27, no. 1 (2015), pp. 110- 121; and C. Yuki, ' Use Power Effectively, · in Handbook of Principles of Organizational Behavior, ed. E. A. Locke ( Malden , MA: Blackwell, 2004), pp. 242- 247.
11 E. A. Ward, ' Social Power Bases of Managers: Emergence of a New Factor,• Journal of Social Ps)'clwlog)', February 2001, pp. 144- 14 7 .
12 S. R. G iessn e r a n d T. \'l. Schubert, ' H ig h i n t h e H ierarchy: How Vertical Locatio n and Judgments of Leaders ' r ower Are Interrelated," OrganiZJ1tional Behavior and Human Decision Processes 104, no. I (2007), pp. 30- 44.
13 S. Milgram, Obedience to Alllhority (New York: Harper a n d Row, 197 4).
14 C. Yuki, H. Ki m, and C . M. Falbe, ' Antecedents of Influ e nce O u tco m es: Journal of Applied Psycltology 81, n o . 3 ( 1996), pp. 309- 31 7.
15 r. r. Car.;on, K. D. Car.;on, and C. W. Roe, "Socia l Power Bases: A Meta.analytic Examination of Interrelationships and Outcomes," Journal of Applied Social Psychology 23, no. 14 (1993), pp. 11 50- 1169.
16 C. M . Fa lbe a n d C . Yu k i, ' Co nsequ ences fo r Manage rs of Us ing Single Tactics a nd Com b inations of Tactics,• Academy of Management Journal 35 ( I 992), pp. 638- 652.
17 C ited in J. R. Ca rlson, D.S. Carlson, and L L. \.Vadsworth, 'Th e Relationsh ip between I ndividual Powe r Moves a n d G roup Agreement Type: An Examinat io n a nd Model,· SAM Advanced Management Journal 65, no. 4 (2000), pp. 44- 51.
18 Vignette based o n J. Bradsh aw a n d G. McArthu r, ' Beh ind the CBC's Decision To Fire Jia n Ghomesh i, • Globe and Mail, October 3 1, 2014, h ups://www.th eglobeandmai l.com / news/ nat ional/ beh i nd · l h e-cbcs-decision · lO· fi re-g h omesh i/ a rticl e2 J 3 9 6 99 8 /; and S. Houp t , "CBC Memo: Evidence of 'Physica l l njuiy to a \.Vo man' Spu rred Ghomeshi Firing, • Globe and Mail, October 31, 2014, https:/ f w,, ... v.theglobea nd m a i l.com / news/ n ationa l/ cbc- fi red -gh o m esh i -after -seeing -g raph ic-evi dence-o f · physical· injury· to-a -woma n-me mo/ article2141283 9/ .
19 R. E. Sturm a nd J. Anton akis, ' Interpersonal Power: A Review, C ritique, and Research Agenda: Journal of Management 41, no. 1 (2015), pp. 136- 163.
2 0 Than ks are due to an anonym o us reviewer for s u pply ing th is in.,ight.
21 M . C . J. Can ie ls and A. Roeleveld, "Power and Dependence r erspectives on Outsourcing Decisions," European Mmiagement Journal 27, no. 6 (2009), pp. 402- 417; and R.· J. Bryan, D. Kim, and R. S. Sinkovics, "Drivers and Perform ance Outcom e.< of S upplier Innovation Generation in Customer.Supplier Relationsh ips: The Role of Power-Dependen ce,• Decision Sciences, 2012, pp. 1003- 1038.
22 See, fo r exam ple, D. M. Cable a n d T. A. Judge, ' Managers' Upward Influence Tactic Strategies: The Ro le of Manager Persona lity a nd Supervisor Leadersh ip Style: Journal of Organizational Behavior 24, n o. 2 (2003), pp. 197 - 214; M. r. M . Chong, "In fl u e nce Behaviors an d O rga nizationa l Commitment: A Com parative St udy; Leaders/tip and Organization Development Journal 3 5, no. 1 (2014), pp. 54- 78; and C . Blickle, ' Influence Tactics Used
by S ubordinates: An Em pirical An a lysis of the Kip n is and Schmid t Sub_,cales; Psycltological Reports, February 2000, pp. 143- 154.
23 C. R. Ferris, W. A. Hochwarte r, C . Doug las, F. R. Blass, R. W. Kolodinksy, and D. C. Treadway, ' Social In fl uence Processes in O rgan izations a nd Human Resou rce Systems," i n Research in Perso,rnel and Huma,1 Resources Mmiagement, vol. 21, ed. C. R.
Ferris and J. J. Manocchio (Oxford, U K: JAi Press/Elsevier, 2003), pp. 65- 127; a n d C. A. H iggins, T. A. Ju dge, and C. R. Ferris, "'Influence Tactics and V.'ork Outcomes: A Meta.analysis," Jounwl of OrganiZ1Jtional Behavior, March 2003, pp. 89- 106.
24 M. r. M. Chong, " In fl uence Beh aviors a nd O rgan izational Commitment: A Comparative Study,• Leadership and OrganiZ1Jtion Developmellt Journal 35, no. I (2014), pp. 54- 78.
25 R. E. Petty a nd r . Brinol, "Persuasion: From Single to Multiple to MetaC.ognitive Processes," Perspectives on Psychological Science 3, no. 2 (2008), pp. 137 - 147.
26 M. r. M. Chong, " Influence Beh aviors a nd O rgan izational Commitment: A Comparative Study." Leadership and Organiznrion Development Journal 35, no. I (2014), pp. 54- 78.
27 M. r. M. Chong, " Influence Beh aviors a n d O rgan izational Commitment: A Comparative Study,• Leadership and OrganiZ1Jtion Developmellt Journal 35, no. I (2014), pp. 54- 78.
28 0. Epitropaki and R. Martin, ·'Transformational.Transactional Leadership a nd Upward Influence: The Ro le of Rela tive Leader- Mem ber Exchanges (RIMX) and Perceived Organizational Support eras): Leadership Quarterly 24, no. 2 (2013), pp. 299- 315.
29 A. W. Krugla n ski, A. Pie rro, and E.T. H iggi n s, "Regu latory Mode a nd Preferred Leadersh ip Styles: How Fit Increases Job Satisfaction,· Basic and Applied Social Psycholog)' 29, no. 2 (2007), pp. 137- 149; and A. Pierro, L Cicero, and B. H. Raven, "Motivated Complia nce with Bases of Social rower,· Journal of Applied Social Psyclwlog)' 38, no. 7 (2008), pp. 1921 - 1944.
3 0 C. R. Ferris, D. C. Treadway, r. L. r errewe, R. L. Brouer, C. Douglas, a nd S. Lux, "Political Skill in O rga n izations: Journal of Management, Ju n e 2007, pp. 290- 320; K. J. Ha rr is, K. M. Kacm a r, S. Zivnuska, and J. D. Sh aw, "Th e Impact of Politica l Skill on Impression Managem e nt Effectiveness,• Journal of Applied Ps)'cholog)' 92, no. I (2007), pp. 278- 285; W. A. Hochwarte r, C. R. Ferris, M. B. Cavin, r. L. rerrewe, A. T. Hall, and D. D. Frink, "Political Skill as Neutra lizer of Felt Accountability- Job Tension Effect.< o n Job Perform a nce Ratings: A Longitudi n al Investigation," Organizational Behavior mid Human Decision Processes 102 (2007), pp. 226- 239; a nd D. C. Treadway, C. R. Ferris, A. B. Duke, C. L Adams. a nd J. B. Tatcher, "The Moderating Role of Subordinate Political Ski ll on Supervisors' Imp ressions of Subord inate Ingratiation a nd Ratings of Subordinate Interpersonal Facil itation,• Journal of Applied Ps)'chology 92, n o. 3 (2007 ) , pp. 848- 855.
31 M. C. An d rews, K. M. Kacmar, a nd K. J. Harris, "Cot Polit ical Ski ll? The Impact of Justice o n the Importa nce of Po litical Skills fo r Job Performa nce: Journal of Applied Psychology 94, no. 6 (2009), pp. 1427- 1437.
32 C. Anderson, S. E. Spata ro, and F. J. Flyn n, "Personal ity a n d O rganizational Culture as Determinants of Influence," Journal of Applied Ps)'chology93, no . 3 (2008), pp. 702- 710.
3 3 Vignette based on J. Bradshaw and C. McArth ur, "Behi nd the CBCs Decision To Fi re Jian Chomeshi, • Globe and Mail, October 31, 2014, https://www.theglobea nd m ail.com/ news/national/ beh i nd-the-cbcs-decision · to -fi re-gh o mesh i/artide2J 3 96998/; and A. Hasham, "J ian Ghomeshi Apologizes In Court, Sex Assault Charge \,Vithdrawn," thestar.com , May II, 2016, https://W\,~v.the- star.com/news/crime/201 6/05/ J J /jia n-ghomeshi-trial .htm l.
34 R. Sutton, "How to Be a Good Bos., in a Bad Economy; Harvard Business Review, June 2009, pp. 42- 50.
35 D. Keltner, D. H. Cruenfelcl, a nd C. Anderson, · rower, Approach, and Inhibitio n,• Psychological Review 110, no. 2 (2003), pp. 265- 284.
3 6 Y. Cho and N. J. Fast, •rower, Defensive Den igration, and the Assuaging Effect of Gratitude Expression,• Journal of Experimental Social Psycl1ology 48 (2012), pp. 778- 782.
37 M. Pitesa and S. Thau, "Masters of the U niverse: How Power and Accou ntabil ity In fluence Self-Servi ng Decisions under Mora l
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Endnotes 583
Hazard,• Journal of Applied PS)"Cholog)' 98 (2013), pp. 550- 558; a nd N. J. Fast, N. Sivanathan, D. D. Mayer, and A. D. Calio.sky, ·rower and Overcon fident Decision.Making." Organizatio,ial Behavior and Human Decision Processes 117 (2012), pp. 249- 260.
J. K. Maner, M. T. Caillot, A. J. Menzel, a nd J. \.V. Ku nst ma n, "Dispo.sitional Anxiety Blocks the l'sychological Effects of rower,• Personality and Social P5>"Ci10logy Bulletin 38 (2012), pp. J 383- 1395.
J. Tierney, "A Serving of Gratitude May Save the Day,· /11ternational New York Times, Novem ber 21, 2011 , http://www.nyt imes. com/201 1 / JI /2 2/science/a-servi ng-of-grat i tude-b rings-healthy- dividends.html? _r=O.
N. J. Fast, N. Halevy, and A. D. Calinsky, "The Destructive Nature of rower without Status,· Journal of Experime111al Social Psycl1olog,, 48 (2012), pp. 391 - 394.
T. Seppa la, J. Lipponen, A. Bardi, a n d A. Pi rttilii-Backm an, "Change. O rie nted Organizational C itizensh ip Behaviour: An Interactive Product of Open ness to Change Values, \.Vork Un it Identification, and Sense of r ower,• Journal of Occupational and OrganiZ1Jtional Ps)'chology 85 (2012), pp. J 36- 155.
K. A. DeCelles, D. S. DeRue, J. D. Margolis, a nd T. L. Ceran ic, "Does rower Corrupt o r Enable? 'A'h e n a nd 'A'hy rower Facilitates Self-In terested Behavio r,· Journal of Applied Psychology 97 (2012), pp. 681- 689.
T. Lee a nd C. M. Broth e ridge, "Wh e n the Prey Becom es the Predator. Bullying as Predictor of Reciprocal Bullying, Coping, and Well-Being, · working paper, University of Regina, 2005.
N. J. Fast and S. C hen, "When the Boss Feels Inadequate: rower, Incompetence, and Aggression," Psychological Science 20, no. II (2009), pp. 1406- 1413.
University of Cali fo rnia-Berkeley, "Bosses \.Vho Feel Inadequate Are More Li kely to Bully,· ScienceDail)', October JS, 2009, http:// W\,~v.sciencedai ly.com/ releases/ 2009/ J0/091014102209 .htm .
S.-C. Trepan ier, C. Fernet, and S. Austin, "A Longitud i n al Investigation of Workplace Bullying, Basic Need Satisfaction, a nd Em ployee Functioning,• Journal of Occupational Health Psycl1olog,, 20, no. I (2015), pp. 105- 118.
Quebec Labour Standards, s. 81. 18, "Psychological Harassmen t at Work."
Janze11 v. Platy E11terprises Ltd., I 1989] JO CHRR D/6205 SCC. K. Jiang, Y. Hong, r. F. McKay, D. R. Avery, D. C. \.Vilson, and S. D. Volpone, "Retaining Em p loyee., through An ti-Sexual Harassment Practices: Exploring the Media ting Role of l'sychological Distress and Em p loyee Engagem ent," Human Resource Management 54, no. I (2015), pp. 1- 21; J. \,V. Kunstm an, "Sexual Overperception: Power, Mating Motives, a nd Biases in Social Judgment," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 100, no. 2 (2011 ), pp. 282- 294; and J. C. Quick and M. A. Mcfadyen, "Sexual Harassmen t Have \.Ve Made Any Progress?" Journal of Occupational Health PS)"Chology 22, no. 3 (2017), pp. 286- 298.
F. Kr ings and S. Facch i n, "Orga niza tional Justice and Men's Li kelihood to Sexually Harass: The Moderating Role of Sexism and Personality; Journal of Applied Psychology 94, no . 2 (2009), pp. 501- 510.
A. M. Dion is i, J. Ba rl ing, and K. E. D u p re, "Revis iting the Com parative Outcom es of Workplace Aggression a nd Sexual Harassment: Journal of Occupational Health Ps)'chology 17 (2012), pp. 398- 408.
M. B. Nielsen and S. Einarsen, "Prospective Relationships between \,Vo rkplace Sexua l HaraS-<ment and Psych o logica l D istress,· Occupational Medicine 62 (2012), pp. 226- 228.
Based on "The Dos and Don't.< of Office Rom ances,· Toronto Star, August 2, 2012, http:I/W\,~v.thesta r.com/life/2012/08/02/ the_dos_a nd_donts_of_office_rom ances.h t ml; H. Levitt, "What Ta ngled \.Vebs \.Ve Weave," Financial Post, May 23, 2012, http://
584 Endnotes
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54 ' Human Rights rolicies and r rocedures, rart JV,• Carleton.ca, accessed October 21, 2014, h ttp://www.carleton.ca/ equity/ human- rights/ policy/ hum an-rights-policies-and-procedures-part-2/ .
5 5 M. Lalonde, ' Campus Culture: Crude, Degrading, Dangerous,· Montreal Gazette, December JO, 2016.
56 ' Western University Student Newspaper rens 'Guide on How to Sexually Ha rass' TA, (TWEETS),· Huffington Post, August 26, 2014, h ttp ://www.huffingtonpost.ca/ 2014 / 08/ 2 6/ western-u n iversity· gazette-seduce-ta_n_5 718759 .html.
57 ' Building a Better Workforce: PROFIT, Februaty 16, 2011, h ttp:// www.profitguide.com/ manage-grow/ huma n-resources/ b uilding- a-better-workforce-30073.
58 Based on J. L. Berdahl and K. Aquino, "Sexual Beh avior at Work: Fu n o r Folly?' Journal of Applied Psychology 94, no. 1 (2009), pp. 34 - 4 7; and C. Boyd, "The Debate over the r roh ib ition of Romance in th e Workplace: Journal of Business Ethics 97, no. 2 (2010), pp. 325-338.
5 9 Th is is the definition given by R. Forrester, "Em powerment: Rejuvenating a Pote nt ldea," Academy of Managemem Executive, August 2000, pp. 67- 80.
60 R. E. Qui nn and G. M. Spreitzer, "The Road to Empowerment: Seven Q u estions Evety Leader Should Consider,• Organizational Dynamics, Autumn 1997, p. 38.
61 C. Argyris, ' Empowerment: The Emperor's New Clothes,· Harvard Business Review, May- June 1998.
62 J. Schaubroeck, J. R. Jones, and J. L. Xie, ' Individual Differences in U t ilizi ng Contro l to Cope with Job Demands: EffecL, on Susceptibility to Infectious Disease, • Journal of Applied Ps)'chology 86, no. 2 (2001), pp. 265- 278.
63 S. Niedoba, ' How Singular Focus Made Steam Whistle Brewing One of Canada's Top Workplaces,· Canadian Business, April 20, 201 7, http://www.canadianbusi n ess.com/ lists-and-ra nki ngs/ best·managed.companies/ steam·wh istle.brewi ng/.
64 S. A. Culbert and J. J. McDonough, The Invisible H'ar: Pursuing Self· hllerest at Work (New York: \,Viley, 1980), p. 6.
65 H. Mintzberg, Power ill and Around Organizatiom (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: rrentice Hall, 1983), p. 26.
66 G. R. Ferris and W. A. Hochwarter, ' O rganizatio nal rolitics, • in APA Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, vol. 3, ed. S. l.edeck (Wash ington, DC: American J'sychological Association, 2011 ), pp. 435- 4 59 .
67 D. Farrell a nd J. C. rete rsen, · rauerns of rolitical Behavior in O rganizations,• Academ)' of Manageme,11 Review, July 1982, p. 405. For a thoughtful a nalysis of the academic controversies underly- ing any definition of o rganizatio nal politics, see: A. Drory and T. Romm, "The Definitio n of O rga n izationa l rolit ics: A Review,· Human Relations, November 1990, pp. 11 33- 11 54; and R. S. Crapanzano, K. M. Kacma r, and D. r. Boze.m an, "'O rganizational rolitics, Justice, and Support: Th eir Differen ce., and Similarities,· in Orgmiizational Politics, Justice mid Support: Managing Social Climate at Work, ed . R. S. C rapanza n o and K. M. Kacmar (Westport, CT: Quoru m Books, 1995), pp. 1- 18.
68 D. A. Buchanan, 'You Stab My Back, I'll Stab Yours: Management Experience and Perceptions of Organization Political Behavior," British Journal of Ma11agement 19, no. 1 (2008), pp. 49- 64.
69 J. rfeffer, Power: Why Some People Have It-And Others 0011'1 (New York: Harper Collins, 2010).
70 G. R. Ferris, G. S. Russ, a nd r . M. Fan dt, · rolitics in Organizations,· in Impression Management in Organizations, ed. R. A. Giacalone and r. Rosenfeld (Newbu ty rark, CA: Sage, 1989), pp. 143- 170; and K. M. Kacma r, D. r. Bozem an, D. S. Ca rlson, and \,V. r . An thony,
•An Examination of the Perceptions of Organizational Politics Model: Replication and Extension: Hu111a11 Relatiom, March 1999, pp. 383 - 416 .
71 K. M. Kacmar and R. A. Baron, "O rgan izat ional rol itics: The State of the Field, Links to Related rroces.ses, and an Agenda fo r Future Research," in Research in Persomiel and Huma,1 Resources Management, vol. 17, ed. G. R. Ferris ( Greenwich, CT: JAJ r ress, 1999); and M. Valle a nd L. A. Witt, "The Moderat ing Effect of Tea mwork rerceptions o n t h e Organiza tion al rol itics-Job Satisfaction Relationship,• Journal of Social Psychology, June 2001 , pp. 3 79 - 388.
72 S. Atyee, Z. Chen, a nd r . S. Bu dhwar, ' Exch ange Fairness and Employee rerforma nce: An Exami n ation of th e Relationship between O rgan izational Poli tics and Procedu ral Justice," Orgmiizntional Behavior & Human Decision Processes, May 2004, pp. 1- 14.
73 C. Kiewitz, V\I. A. Hochwarter, G. R. Ferris, a nd S. L. Castro, "The Role of rsychological Cli m a te in Neutralizi ng t h e Effects of O rga n izatio nal rolitic.< o n Work Outcomes,• Journal of Applied Social Psychology, June 2002, pp. 1189- 1207; and J. M. L. roon, "S ituational Anteceden t'i and O utcomes of Organizational Politics r erceptions: Journal of Managerial Psychology 18, no. 2 (2003), pp. 138- 155.
74 K. M. Kacmar, D. r. Bozeman, D.S. Carlson, and W. r. Anthony, "An Examinatio n of the Perceptions of Organizational Politic.Ii Model: Human Relations 52, no. 3 ( 1999), p. 389.
75 K. M. Kacrnar, M. C. Andrews, K. J. Harris, and B. Tepper, ' Eth ica l Leadership and Subordi na te O utcome.<: The Mediating Role of O rgan izational rolitics a n d t h e Moderati ng Role of rolitical Skill: Journal of Business Et/tics 115, no. 1 (2013), pp. 33- 44.
7 6 K. M. Kacm a r, D. G. Bach rach, K. J. Ha rris, and S. Zivnuska, ' Fosteri ng Good Cit izensh ip t h rough Et h ica l Leadersh ip : Exploring the Moderating Role of Gender a nd O rganizatio nal r o litics, • Journal of Applied Ps)'chology 96 (2011 ), pp. 633- 642.
7 7 C. Homburg and A. Fu erst, ' See No Evil, Hear No Evil, Speak No Evil : A Study of Defensive O rgan izational Behavior towa rds Customer Comp laints,• Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 35, no. 4 (2007), pp. 523- 536.
78 See, for example, M. C. Bolino and W. H. Tu rnley, ' More Than One Way to Make an lmpres.,ion: Explo ring r ro files of Imp ression Managem ent,' Journal of Managemellt 29, no. 2 (2003), pp. 141- 160; S. Ziv nuska, K. M. Kacmar, L. A. \.Vitt, D. S. Carlso n, and V. K. Bratton, .. In teractive Effects of Im pression Ma nagement and O rgan izationa l rol itics on Job rerformance, • Journal of Organizational Behavior, August 2004, pp. 627- 640; a nd M. C. Bolino, K. M. Kacrnar, \.V. H. Turnley, and J. B. Gilstrap, ' A Multi· Level Review of Impression Management Motive.Ii and Behaviors," Journal of Management 34, no . 6 (2008), pp. !080- 1109.
7 9 D. J. Howard and R. A. Kerin, "Individual Differen ces in the Name Similarity Effect: The Role of Self-Monitoring. • Journal of /11dividual Differences 35, no. 2 (2014), pp. 111- 118.
80 Based o n M. Thom pson, ' How to Work w it h Your Startup Frenemies, • Ve11t11reBeat, December 22, 2012, http://venturebeat. com/; and N. L Mead and J. K. Maner, "On Keeping Your Enemies Close: rowerful Leaders Seek rroxim ity to Jngroup rower Threats, • Joumal of Perso11ality and Social Ps)'chology 102 (2012), pp. 576- 591.
81 M. R. Leaty and R. M. Kowalski, ' Im p ressio n Managem ent: A Litera ture Review and Two.Com ponent Model, .. Ps)1chological Bulleti11, Januaty 1990, p. 40.
82 D. H. M. C hng. M. S. Rodgers, E. Shih, and X.-B. Song, "Leaders' Impression Managem e nt During Orga nizational Decl ine: The Roles of rublicity, Image Concerns, and Incentive Compensation,• Leaders/tip Quarter/)' 26, no. 2 (2015), pp. 2 70 - 285; and L. Uziel, "Life See ms D i ffe re nt w ith You Aro u nd: Differential Shifu in Cogn itive Appra isal in the Mere rresence of O thers
fo r Neuroticism and l mpre.~~io n Management," Personality and /11dividual Differe11ces 73 (2015), pp. 39- 43.
83 J. Ha m and R. Von k, ' Impressions of Imp ressio n Manageme nt : Evidence of Spontaneous Suspicion of Ulterio r Motivation," Journal of Experimental Social Ps ychology 47, n o. 2 (2011 ), pp. 466- 471; a nd VJ. M. Bowler, J. R. B. Halbesleben, a nd J. R. B. Paul, 'If Yo u' re C lose with the Leader, Yo u Must Be a Brownnose: The Role of Leader- Member Re lationships in Follower, Leader, and Cowo rker Attributio ns of O rgan izationa l Cit izenship Behavio r Motives," Human Resource Manageme,u Review 20, no. 4 (2010), pp. 309- 316.
84 J. R. B. Halbesleben, W. M. Bowler, M. C. Bolino, an d W. H Turnley, "Organ izational Conce rn, rrosocia l Val ues, o r Impression Ma nage ment? How S u pervisors Att ri b u te Motives to O rganizatio nal C itizensh ip Behavior: Joumal of Applied Social Psyclwlogy40, no. 6 (2010), pp. 1450- 1489.
8 5 G. Bl ickle, C. Die km ann, P. B. Schneider, Y. Kah h ofer, a n d J. K. Su mmers, "\+Vhen Modesty Wins: Impression Ma nagement th rough Modesty, Pol itical Skill, and Career Succes.,- A Two. Study Investigation,· European Journal of Work and Orga11izatio1tal Psyclwlogy, December I , 2012, pp. 899- 922.
86 A. P. J. Ellis, B. J. West, A. M. Ryan, a nd R. P. DeShon, "Th e Use of Impression Manageme nt Tactics in Structural Interviews: A Function of Q u est ion Type?" Journal of Applied Psychology, December 2002, pp. 1200- 1208.
87 C. K. Stevens a nd A. L. Kristof, 'Maki ng the Right Imp ression: A Field Study of Applicant Impression Managem ent d uring Job Interviews: Joumal of Applied Psychology 80 (1995), pp. 587- 606; L. A. McFarland, A. M. Ryan, a nd S. D. Kriska, ' Impression Management Use and Effectiveness acro.~s Asse.~sment Methods," Journal of Management 29, no. 5 (2003), pp. 641- 661; C. A. H iggins and T. A. Judge, "The Effect of Applicant In flue nce Tactics on Recruiter Perceptions of Fit a nd Hiri ng Recommendations: A Fie ld S tudy,· Joumal of Applied Psychology 89, no . 4 (2004), pp. 622- 632; a n d W. C. Tsa i, C . C. Ch en, a n d S. F. C h iu, "Exploring Bou ndaries of th e Effects of Applicant Imp ression Management Tactics in Job Interviews," Joun1al of Management, February 2005, pp. 108- 125.
8 8 M. R. Barrick, J. A . Shaffer, a nd S. W. DeGrassi. "What You See May Not Be What You Get: Relationships among Self-Presentation Tactics and Ratings of Interview and Job Perform ance,• Joumal of Applied Psychology 94, no. 6 (2009), pp. 1394- 14 11.
8 9 E. Molle m an, B. Emans, and N . Turusbekova, "How to Control Self-Pro motio n a mong Performance-O riented Employees: The Roles of Task Clarity a nd Personalized Responsibility,• Perso1111el Review 41 (2012), pp. 88- 105.
90 K. J. Harris, K. M. Kacmar, S. Zivnuska, and J. D. Shaw, "The Impact of Pol itica l Skill o n Imp ression Ma n agement Effectiveness,· Journal of Applied Psychology 92, no. I (2007), pp. 278- 285; and D. C. T readway, G. R. Ferris, A. B. Duke, G. L. Adams, and J. B. Thatcher, ,he Moderating Role of Subord ina te Polit ical S kill o n Supervisors' Impressions of Subordinate Ingratiatio n and Ratings of S u bord inate Interpersonal Facilitation,· Joumal of Applied Psyclwlogy 92, no. 3 (2007), pp. 848- 855.
91 J. D. Westphal and I. S te rn, 'Flattery 'A'ill Get You Everywh e re (Especially i f You Are a Male Caucasian): How Ingrat ia tion, Boardroom Behavior, and Demographic Minori ty Status Affect Additional Board Appointments of U.S. Companies,• Academy of Ma11ageme111 Journal 50, no. 2 (2007), pp. 267- 288.
92 Y. Liu, G. R. Ferris, J. Xu, B. A. Wei tz, and P. L. Perrewe, "When Ingratiation Backfires: The Role of Po litical Skill i n the Ingratia tion- Inter n.sh ip Perform ance Re lationship,· Academy of Ma11ageme111 Leaming a11d Education 13 (2014), pp. 569-586.
93 C. C h en a n d M. Li n, ' T h e Effect of Applicant Im p ressio n Manageme nt Tactics o n Hi ring Recommendations: Cognitive and Affective Processes,· Applied Psychology: An /111ematio1tal Review
Endnotes 585
63, no. 4, (2014), pp. 698- 724; J. Levashina, C. J. Hartwell, F. P. Morgeson, and M. A. Campion, "The Structured Em p loyment Interview: Narrative a nd Quantitative Review of the Research Literature,• Personnel PS)dwlogy, Spring 2014, pp. 241- 293; a nd M. Nemko, "The Effective, Eth ical, and Less Stressful Job In terview: Psychology Today, March 25, 2014, h ttps://www.psychologytoday. com/ blog/h ow -do-Ii f e/ 2015 03 / th e -effect i ve-eth ica 1-and-less- stressfu 1-job-interview.
9 4 Based on A. Lavoie, "How to Get Rid of Toxic Office Politics,• Fast On1tpa1ty, Apri l 10, 2014, h ttp://www.fastcompany.com/3028856/ work-s m art/ how -to -make-office-pol it icking. a -lame-duck; and C. Conner, "Office Pol itics: Must You Play?" Forbes, April 14 , 2013 , h ttp://www. fo rbes.co m /s ites/cherylsnappcon - ne r/2013/04/ 14/office-politics-must-you-p lay-a -h andbook-for- survivalsuccess/.
95 R. Westwood, "O rder of Ca n ada Winner Lied about Ph.D, • Maclea11's, September 26, 2013, h ttp://www.macleans.ca/ general/an-o rder-of-lies/; and ' Louis La Pierre Stri pped of O rder of Canada,· CBC News, June 13, 2014, http://W\,~v.cbc.ca/news/ ca nada/ new-b ru nsw ick/lou is- I a pierre -stri pped-o f -o rder -of. canada- 1.2675141.
96 C. Robert, T. M. Probst, J. J. Martocch io, F. Drasgow, and J. J. Lawler, .. Empowerment and Continuous Imp roveme nt in the United S tates, Mexico, Poland, and India: Predicting Fit o n the Basis of the Dime nsions of rower Distance and Individualism," Journal of Applied Psycl1olog,• 85 (2000), pp. 643- 658.
97 Vv. A. Randolph and M. Sash ki n , "Ca n Organ izational Empowerment Work in Mu ltinat ional Setti ngs?" Academy of Management Executive, February 2002, pp. 102- 115.
98 M . Gagne and D. Bh ave, "Au tonomy in th e \,Vo rkplace: An Essential Ingredient to Em p loyee Engagem ent and Well-Being in Eve.ry Culture?" in Human Autonomy in Cross·Cultural Context: Perspectives on die Psycholog,• of Agency, Freedom, a11d \,\1ell·Being, ed. V. I. C hirkov, R. M. Rya n, and K. M. Sheldon (Berlin, Germa ny: Springer, 2011 ).
99 Concord ia Un iversity, "Freedom'sJtLstAn otherWord for Emp loyee Satisfaction,· ScienceDaily, January 24, 2011, http://www.concordia.
ca/ cu news/mai n/ releases/20 J J /01/24 / freedo ms -just -another. word -for-employee-satisfaction .h tml.
100 P. P. Fu and G. Yuki, ' Perceived Effectiven ess of lnOuen ceTactics in the United State., an d China,· Leadership Quarterly, S ummer 2000, pp. 251- 266; 0. Branzei, "Cultural Explanations of Individ ual r references fo r Influence Tactics in Cross. Cultural Encounters," /111ematio1tal Journal of Cross Cultural Management, Augu s t 2002, pp. 203- 218; G. Yuki, P. P. Fu, and R. McDonald, 'Cross-Cultura l Differences in Perceived Effectiveness of Influence Tactics for In itiating o r Resisting Change,• Applied Psyclwlogy: A11 h1tematio11al Revieu\ January 2003, pp. 66- 82; and P. P. Fu, T. K. Peng, J. C. Kennedy, a nd G. Yuki, "Examining the Preferences of Influence Tactics in Chinese Societies: A Comparison of Chinese Managers in Hong Ko ng, Taiwan, and Mai nla nd Ch ina: Orgatiizational Dynamics 33, no. I (2004), pp. 32- 46.
101 C. J. Tore lli a nd S. S h avitt, 'Cultu re and Concepts of Power,• Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 99, no. 4 (2010), pp. 703-723.
102 E. Szabo, 'Meaning and Context of Participation in Five European Countries: Ma1tageme11t Decisio11 44, no. 2 (2006), pp. 276- 289.
10 3 J. L. T. Leong, M. H. Bond, and P. P. Fu, "Perceived Effectiveness of Influence Strategies in the United S ta te., a nd Three Chinese Societies," Ituen1atio11al Joun1al of Cross Cultural Ma11ageme,1t, May 2006, pp. 101- 120.
104 Y. Miya moto and B. \.Vi lken, 'Cultu ra lly Conti ngent Situated Cognition: Influencing O ther People Fosters An a l}~ic Perception in the U nited States b ut Not in Japan,· Psyclwlogical Science 21, no. 11 (2010), pp. 1616 - 1622.
586 En dnotes
105 Based o n B. Bu rroug h and B. McLean, •The Hun t for Steve Cohen,• Vanity Fair, June 2013, http://www.van ityfai r.com/ b usiness/ 2013/ 06/ steve-cohen-insider-trading-case; C. An derson, R. \<\filler, G. J. Kild uff, and C. E. Brown, "The O rigin., of Deference: When Do People Prefer Lower Status?" Joumal of Persona/ii)• and Social Psychology 102 (2012), pp. !077- 1088; C. An derson, M. W. Kraus, A. D. Ga linsky, and D. Keltner, "The Local-Ladder Effect: Social Status and Subject ive Well-Being, · Psychological Science 23, no. 7 (2012), pp. 764-771; S. Ke nne lly, ' Happiness Is About Respect, Not Riches: Greater Good, July 13, 2012, http:// g rea tergood. berkeley. ed u/ a rt i de/ i tern/ h app i ness_is_a bout_ respect_not_riches; and r . Lattman and B. rrotess, ·s 1.2 Billion Fine fo r Hedge Fu nd SAC Capita l i n Insider Case: New York Times Dea/book, November 4 , 2013, http://dealbook.nyti mes. com/ 2013/ J J / 04/ sac-capita I-agrees-to-plead-gu i I ty-to -insider- tradi ng/? _r=O.
106 Based o n J. Sa n cto n, "Milgra m at McDona ld's,• Bloomberg Businessweek, Septe m ber 2, 2012, pp. 74- 75; and A. Wolfson, .,Compliance' Re-Creates McDonald's St rip -Search O rdea l,· USA Today, Septem ber I , 2012, h ttp://usat oday30.usatoday. com/ news/ nation/ st ory/ 2012 -09-OJ / Com p liance-strip-search- h oax/ 5 7509182/ 1.
107 Based on M. L. Tushma n, W. K. Sm i th, a n d A. Binns, •Th e Am b idextrous CEO; Harvard Business Review, Ju ne 2011 , pp. 74 - 79; and S. Bogan, • Find Your Focus, · Financial Plar111ing, Februa ry 2011, p. 7 2.
108 Based on M. G. Mcintyre, • o isgru ntle m ent Wo n' t Adva n ce You r Ca reer,• Pittsburgh Post·Cautte, Septe mber 23, 2012; a nd S. Shellen barger, "'A'hat to Do with a Workplace Whiner: Wall Street Jouma/, September 12, 2012, pp. D I , 03.
109 Based on S. r. Robbins and r . L Hunsaker, Training in /11terpersonal Skills: Tips for Managing People at Work, 2nd ed. ( Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996), pp. 131 - 134.
Chapter 9
1 Vignette based on K. Owra m, "Canadia n Auto Industry Faces Biggest Existential Th reat s ince 2009 Crise< As Labour Talks Begin,· Financial Post, August 8, 2016, http:/ fbus ines.,.fi nancialpost.com/ tra ns po rta ti on/ can ad i a n ·auto· i nd us try· faces-bi gge.'it .,exj s te n ti al· th reat-since-2009-as-labour-talks-begin; a nd K. Owra m, • General Motors of Canada Ltd, Union 'Mile.<Apart' as Labour Negotiations Begi n, · Finan cial Post , Au gust JO, 2016, http://b usiness. fi nancia I post.com/ tra nsportation/ general-motors-of -canada · ltd-union-m iles-apart-as-labour-negotiations-begin.
2 See, fo r in.stance, D. Tjosvold, A. S. H. Wong, a nd N. Y. F. Chen, "'Constructively Managing Conflicts in Organizations," Amiual Review of Organizational Ps)1cl1ology and Organizational Behavior I (March 2014), pp. 545- 568; and M. A. Korsgaard , S. S. Jeong, D. M. Mahony, and A. H. Pitariu, •A Multilevel View of lntragroup Conflict,· Joumal of Management 34, no. 6 (2008), pp. 1222- 1252.
3 L. L. Putn am a nd M. S. Poole, • eonfl ict and Negotiation: in Handbook of Organizatio,ial Commw1ication: An Interdiscipli,iary Perspective, ed. F. M. Jablin, L. L. Putnam, K. H. Roberts, and L. \¥. Porter (Newbuiy Park, CA: Sage, 1987), pp. 549-599.
4 K. W. T h o m as, · co n fl ict and Nego t iat ion Processes i n Organiza tions," in Handbook of fodustrial a,id Organizational Psychology, 2 nd ed., vol. 3 , ed. M. D. Dun nette a nd L. M. Hough (Palo Alto, CA: Con.,ulting Psychologists Press. 1992), pp. 651 -717 .
5 F. R. C. de W it, L. L. G reer, and K. A. Jeh n, "The Paradox of lntragroup Conflict: A Meta-analysis,• Joumal of Applied Psychology 9 7, no. 2 (2012), pp. 360- 390; a nd N. Ga me ro , V. Gonza lez. Roma, and J. M. r eir6 , "The Influen ce of In tra-Team Confl ict o n Work Teams' Affective Cli ma te: A Lo ngitudinal Study,· Joumal of Occupational a11d Organizatio11al Psychology 81, no . I (2008), pp. 47 - 69.
6 N. Ha levy, E. Y. Chou, and A. D. Ga li n sky, • Exhausting o r Exhilarating? Conflict as Threat to Interests, Relatio n.sh ips a nd Identities,· Joun1al of Experimental Social Psychology 48 (2012), pp. 530-53 7.
7 F. R. C. de \¥i t, L. L. G reer, and K. A. Je h n, •Th e Paradox of lntragroup Conflict: A Meta-a nalysis,· Journal of Applied Psychology 97 (2012), pp. 360- 390.
8 J. Fa rh, C. Lee, and C. I. C. Farh, "Task Confl ict and Tea m C reativity: A Question of How Much and When: Joumal of Applied Psychology 95, no. 6 (20!0), pp. 11 73 - 1180.
9 B. H. Bradley, A. C. Klotz, B. F. Postlethwaite, and K. G. Brown, • Ready to Rumble: How Team Personality Composition and Task Confl ict Interact to Imp rove Perfo rma nce, • Journal of Applied Psychology98 (2013), pp. 385- 392.
10 B. H. Bradley. B. F. Postlethwaite, A. C. Klotz, M. R. Ha mdani, a nd K. G. Brown, • Reaping the Ben efits of Task Conflict in Team.<: The C ritical Role of Team Psychological Safety Climate: Journal of Applied Psychology97 (2012), pp. 151- 158 .
11 S. Benard, · eoh esio n fro m Confl ict: Doe., Intergroup Con fli ct Motiva te l n tragroup Norm Enforcem e nt a nd Suppo rt fo r Centralized Leadership?" Social Psychology Quarterly 75 (2012), pp. !07 - 130.
12 G. A. Van Kleef, \¥. Steine!, and A. C. Ho m an, · o n Being Pe rip h eral and raying Attent ion: r rototypicality a nd Information Processing in Intergroup Conflict,• Joumal of Applied Psychology 98 (2013), pp. 63-79.
13 R. S. Peterso n a nd K. J. Behfar, "The Dyn a m ic Relationsh ip between Performance Feedback, Trust, and Conflict in Groups: A Longitudinal Study," OrganiZlltional Behavior and Human Decision Processes, September- Novem ber 2003, pp. 102- 112.
14 See K. A. Jeh n, "A Multi m ethod Exami n ation of t h e Benefit.< and Detriments of lntragroup Conflict," Admi,iistrarive Science Quarter/)\ June 1995, pp. 256- 282.
15 T. M. G lo m b and H. Liao, • i nterpersonal Aggression in \'/ork G roups: Social Infl uence, Reciprocal, a nd Ind iv id ua l Effects, · Academy of Manageme11t Joumal 46, no. 4 (2003), pp. 486- 496; and V. Venkatara m a ni and R. S. Dalal, "\¥ho Helps and \¥ho Harms? Relational Aspects of In terpersonal Helping a nd Ha rming in Organ izations,• Joumal of Applied Psyclwlogy 92, no. 4 (2007), pp. 952 - 966.
16 R. Friedm an, C. Anderson, J. Brett, M. Olekalns, N. Goates, a nd C. C. Lisco, "The r o.,itive and Negative Effec:L< of Anger on Dispute Resolution: Evidence from Electronica lly Mediated D isputes: Joumal of Applied Psychology, April 2004, pp. 369- 376.
17 J. S. Chun, and J. N. Choi, •Mem bers' Needs, lntragro up Conflict, and Croup Performance, • Jou ma/ of Applied Psychology 99 (2014 ) , pp. 437- 450.
18 Vignette based o n .. U nifor Announces Tentative Deadli ne Dea l wi t h GM to Ave rt St rike, • CBCNews, Septem ber 20, 2016, h ttp://w,,~v.cbc.ca/ news/ busi ness/ uni fo r -tentati ve-dea J. gm-s t rike- 1.37 70013 ; a nd General Motors of Canada Med ia Statement , 2016 U nifo r Negot ia t ions- September 20, 2016, h ttp://media.gm.ca/ media/ ca/ en/ gm/ h o me.detail.html/ content/ r ages/ news/ ca/ e n/ 201 6/ Sep/ 09 20 _MediaStatement. h tm I.
19 D. Tjo.svold, · cooperative a nd Com petit ive Goa l Approach to Confl ict: Accomplishm ent< and Ch allenges; Applied Psychology: An llllemational Review 47, no. 3 ( 1998), pp. 285- 342.
2 0 K. \¥. T homas, · conflict a n d Negotiation P rocesses i n O rga nizations,· in Ha11dbook of Industrial and Orga11izatio11al Psychology, 2nd ed., vol. 3, ed. M. D. Dunnette and L. M. Hough (Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, J 992), pp. 651 - 717.
21 C. K. \¥. De Dreu, A. Evers, B. Beersma, E. S. Kluwer, and A. Nauta, •A T heory-Based Measure of Confl ict Management Stra tegie.< in th e Workp lace,• Jou ma/ of Organizational Behavior 22, no . 6 (Septe m ber 2001), pp. 645- 668. See also D. G. Pruitt and J.
Rubin, Social Conflicl: Escala1ion, Stalemale and Settlement (New York: Random House, 1986).
22 C. K. W. De Dreu, A. Evers, B. Beersm a, E. S. Kl uwer, and A. Nauta, ' A Th eory-Based Measu re of Con fl ict Ma n agem e nt Strategies in the Workplace, • Jo11rnal of Organizntional Behavior 22, no. 6 (September 2001 ), pp. 645- 668.
23 L.A. DeChurch, J. R. Me.<mer-Magnus, and D. Doty, "Moving beyond Relatio n.sh ip and Task Conflict: Toward a Process-State Perspective, • Jo11mal of Applied Psyclwlogy 98 (2013), pp. 559- 5 78.
2 4 R. A. Baron, ' Personality and Organ izational Conflict: Effects of the Type A Behavior Pattern a nd Self-Monitoring,· Organizntional Behavior and H11man Decision Processes, October 1989, pp. 281- 296; A. Drory and I. Ritov, ' Effects of Work Experien ce and Opponent's rower on Conflict Ma nagem ent Styles: /ntemational Jo11mal of Conflict Management 8 ( 1997) , pp. 148- 161; R. J. Ster nberg and L. J. Soriano, ' Styles of Conflict Resolution,• Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, July 1984, pp. 115- 126; and R. J. Volkema and T. J. Bergmann, ' Confl ict Style.< as Indicators of Behavioral Patterns in Interpersonal Con fl icts,• Joun,al of Social Psycholog)', Februa ry 1995, pp. 5- 15.
25 Based on S. r . Robbi n s, Manag ing Organizational Conflicl: A Nontraditional Approach ( Upper Sadd le River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 19 74), pp. 59- 89.
2 6 Based o n K. W. Th omas, "Toward Mu ltidi m ensiona l Val u es in Teaching: The Exam ple of Confli ct Beh aviors,• Academy of Management Review, July 197 7, p. 487; and C. K . .,,...,_ De Dre u, A. Evers, B. Beersma, E. S. Kluwer, and A. Nauta, ' A Theory-Based Measure of Conflict Management Strategie.s in th e Workplace,· Journal of Organizational Behavior 22, no . 6 (September 2001 ) , pp. 645- 668.
2 7 R. Kreitner and A. Kinicki, Organizational Behavior, 6 th ed. ( New York: McGraw- Hi ll, 2004), p. 492, Table 14 - 1. Reprinted by per mis.<ion of McGraw Hill Education.
28 ' Managers Spend More Than 6 Hours per Week Handling Staff Conflicts: Survey,' HR Reporter, March 23, 2011.
29 R. D. Ramsey, ' Interpersonal Confl icts: S11perVision 66, no . 4 (April 2005), pp. 14- 17.
3 0 G. Todorova, J. B. Bear, a n d L. R. \.Veingart, ' Can Conflict Be Energizing? A Study of Task Confli ct, ro.sitive Emotions, and Job Satisfaction,· Jo11mal of Applied Psyclwlogy99 (2014), pp. 451 - 467.
31 Based o n D. Tjosvold , Leaming to Manage Conflicl: Getting People to \.\fork Together Prod11ctively (New York: Lexington Books, 1993), pp. 12- 13.
3 2 M. E. Zell mer-Bru h n, M. M. Malon ey, A. D. Bh appu, a nd R. Salvador, .. When and How Do Differences Matter? An F.xploration of Perceived Similarity in Teams," Orgmiizntional Behavior and H11man Decision Processes 107, no. 1 (2008), pp. 41 - 59.
3 3 See T. H. Cox, S. A. Lobel, and r . L. Mcl eod, ' Effect.< of Eth nic Group C ultu ra l Differences on Cooperative Behavior o n a Group Task: Academ)' of Management Journal, December 1991, pp. 827- 847; and D. va n Knippenberg, C. K. W. De Dreu, and A. C. Homa n, "Work Group Diversity a nd Group Performance: An Integrative Model and Resea rch Agenda,• Journal of Applied Psyclwlog)', December 2004, pp. 1008- 1022.
34 R. !lies, M. D. Johnson, T. A. Judge, and J. Keen ey, ' A W ithin- Ind ividual Study of Interpersonal Conflict as a \.Vork Stressor: Disposit iona l a n d Situational Moderato rs,· Jo11rnal of Organizational Behavior 32, no. 1 (2011 ), pp. 44- 64.
3 5 K. J. Beh far, R. S. Peterson, E. A. Mannix, a nd W. M. K. Trochim, ' Th e Critica l Role of Con fl ic t Re.solution in Tea ms: A Close Look at the Li nks between Conflict Type, Conflict Manageme nt Strategies, and Team Outcomes, · Jo11mal of Applied Ps)'clwlogy 93, no. 1 (2008), pp. 170 - 188; A.G. Tekleab, N. R. Q uigley, a nd r. E. Tesluk, "A Longitudi nal Study of Team Conflict, Conflict Management, Cohesion, and Team Effectiveness," Croup mid
End notes 587
Organizntion Management 34, no. 2 (2009), pp. 170 - 205; a nd E. Va n de Vliert, M. C. Euwema, and S. E. Hu ism a ns, ' Managing Confl ict w ith a Subo rd inate o r a Superior: Effectiveness of Conglome rated Behavior,• Jo11mal of Applied Ps)'cholos,• 80 ( 1995), pp. 2 71 - 281.
36 A. So m ech , H. S . Desiv i lya, and H. Lidogoste r, "Team Conflict Ma nageme nt a nd Tea m Effectiven es-<: The Effects of Task Inte rdepen dence a nd Team Iden t ifi cation, · Journal of Organizntional Behavior 30, no. 3 (2009), pp. 359- 3 78.
3 7 r . J. H inds a n d D. E. Ba iley, "Ou t of Sigh t, O u t of Sync: Understandi ng Conflict in D istrib uted Teams," Organiz.atio,i Science, November- Decem ber 2003, pp. 615- 632.
38 K. A. Jeh n, L. G reer, S. Levi ne, a nd G. Szu la nski, "The Effect.< of Conflict Types, Dimensions, and Em ergent States on Group Outcomes, · Group Decision and Negotiation 17, n o. 6 (2005), pp. 777- 796.
39 M. E. Zellmer-Bruh n, M. M. Maloney, A. D. Bhappu, and R. Salvador, "\"'hen an d How Do Differe nces Matte r? An Exploration of Perceived Similarity in Teams," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 107, no. I (2008), pp. 41 -59 .
40 Vignette based on A. Brockman, ' Auto Analysts Split on Unifor's Stre ngth in GM Contract Talks; CBCNews, September 6, 2016, h ttp://www.cbc.ca/ news/ canada/ windsor/ unifor-gm-contract- talks-bargain ing-position- I .3750203.
41 M. H. Bazerm a n, J. R. Curhan, D. A. Moore, a nd K. L. Valley, ' Negotiation,• Ammal Review of Ps)'chology 51 (2000), pp. 279- 314.
42 See, fo r example. D. R. Ames, .. A~sertiveness Expectancies: How Ha rd People r ush Depen ds o n the Consequences Th ey Predict,• Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95, no. 6 (2008), pp. 1541- 1557; and J. R. Curh a n, H. A. Elfenbein, and H. Xu, ' W hat Do People Va lue W h e n They Negotiate? Mapping t h e Domain of Subjective Value in Negotiation,· Journal of Persona/it)' and Social Ps)'clwlogy 91, no. 3 (2006), pp. 493- 512.
43 This model is based o n R. J. Lewicki, ' Bargaining a nd Negotiation,• Excl1a,ige: The Orga,iiz.atio,ial Behavior Tea chitig Jounial 6, no . 2 ( 1981 ), pp. 39- 40; a nd B. S. Mo.ska]. "The Art of the Deal; lndustr)'Week, January 18, 1993, p. 23.
44 J. C. Magee, A. D. Ga linsky, a nd D. H. Gruen fe ld, · rower, Propens ity to Negotiate, and Movi ng First i n Competitive In teractions,• Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, February 2007, pp. 200- 212.
45 H. R. Bowle.<, L. Babcock, a n d L. Lei, "Social Incentives fo r Gender Diffe rences in the Propensity to Initiative Negotiations: Sometimes It Does Hurt to Ask," Organizational Behavior a,id Human Decision Processes 103 (2007) , pp. 84- 103.
46 Ba.sed on G. Ku, A. D. Gali ns~-y, a nd J. K. Murnighan, ' Starting Low but Ending High: A Reversal of the Anchori ng Effect in Auctions,• Journal of Personality and Social Ps ychology 90 (June 2006), pp. 9 75- 986; K. Sherstyuk, 'A Comparison of First Price Multi· Object Auction s," Experimental Economics 12, no. 1 (2009), pp. 42- 64; and R. M. Isaac, T. C. Salmon, and A. Zillante, ' A Theory of Ju m p Bidd ing i n Ascend ing Auct ions," Jo11rnal of Economic Behavior & Organizntion 62, no. 1 (2007), pp. 144- 164.
47 D. A. Moore, ' Myopic Prediction, Self-Destructive Secrecy, an d the Unexpected Benefits of Revealing Final Deadlines in Negotiation,• Organizntional Behavior and Human Decision Processes, July 2004, pp. 125- 139.
48 M.A. Ra him, Manag ing Conflict in Organizntions, 4th ed. (New Brun.swick, NJ: Transaction Pu blishers, 2011 ).
4 9 C. KW. De Dreu, L R. Weingart, and S. Kwon, "Influence of Social Motives on Integrative Negotiation: A Meta.analytic Review and Test of Two Theories,• Joumal of Personality and Social Ps)'clwlogy, May 2000, pp. 889- 905 .
50 A. .,,..,,_ Brooks and M. E. Schweitzer, "Can Nervous Nelly Negotiate? How Anx iety Ca uses Negotiators to Make Low Fi rst Offers,
588 Endnotes
Exit Early, and Earn Les_, Profi t, · Orga11iza1io11al Behavior and Human Decisio11 Processes 115, n o. 1 (2011 ), p p. 43- 54. (Awa rded Be.st Paper w ith a Student as First Auth o r by th e Internatio n al Association fo r Confl ic t Management, 2010.), http://www.hbs. edu/ faculty/ Pages/ item.aspx?num=4513 7.
51 A. \¥. Brooks a nd M. E. Schweitzer, "Can Netv0us Nelly Negotiate? How Anxiety Causes Negotiators to Make Low First Offers, Exit Earl y, and Earn Less Profit." Organizntio,ial Behavior and Human
Decision Processes 115, n o. 1 (2011 ), pp. 43- 54.
52 This model is b ased on R. J. Lewicki, D. Saunders, and B. Barry, Negoriario11 , 7th ed. (New York: McGraw Hill, 2014).
5 3 D. Malhotra and M. Bazerm an, "Investigative Negotiation," Harvard Busi11ess Review, Sept em ber 2007, pp. 72- 78.
54 J. R. Curhan, H. A. Elfenbein, and G. J. Kilduff, "Getting off o n the Righ t Foot: Subjective Value versus Economic Value in Predicting
Longitudinal Job Outcomes fro m Jo b Offer Negotiations,· Journal of Applied Psyc/1olog,• 94, no. 2 (2009), pp. 524-534.
5 5 R. Fisher and V\f. U iy. Getting lo \~s: Negotiating Agreement without Giving /11, 2nd ed. (New York: Penguin, 1991 ) .
5 6 Based o n L. L. Thomp.,on, J. \'/ang, a nd B. C. Gunia. "Negotiation,• A1111ual Review of Psyc/1olog,• 61 (2010), pp. 491 - 515 .
57 M. Schaerer, R. I. Swaab, and A. D. Galin.,ky, "An chors Weigh More Th an Power: Vslhy Absolu te Powerles.,ness Liberates Negotiators to Achieve Better Outcomes,· Psychological Science, December 2014, doi: 10. ll 77 / 095679 7614558718.
5 8 R. P. Larrick and G. Wu, "Claiming a Large Slice of a Small Pie: Asymmetric Disconfirmation in Negotiation,• Journal of Personality a11d Social Psyc/1olog,• 93, no. 2 (2007), pp. 212- 233.
5 9 M. Marks a nd C. Ha ro ld, "V.' ho Asks and Wh o Receives in Sa la ry Negotiation,• Joumal of Orga11izario11al Behavior 32, no. 3 (2011 ) , pp. 371 - 394.
60 R. Fisher and W. U iy. Getting lo \~s; Negotiating Agreement without Giving /11, 2nd ed. (New York: Penguin, 1991 ) .
61 H. A. Elfe n bein, "Individua l D iffere nce in Negotia tion: A Nearly Abandoned Pursuit Revived, " Current Directions i,i Psychological Scie11ce24 (2015), pp. 131 - 136.
62 R. Fis her and W. U iy. Getting lo \~s: Negotiating Agreement without Givi11g /11, 2nd ed. (New York: Penguin, 1991 ) .
63 T. A. Judge, B. A. Liv ingston, a n d C. H urst, " Do Nice Guys- a n d Ga ls- Really Finish Last? T h e Join t Effects of Sex and Agreeab le n ess on Incom e, · Journal of Perso11ality and Social Psyclwlog)' 102 (2012), pp. 390- 407.
64 Based o n T. R. Cohen, ' Moral Emotions and Unethical Ba,gaining: The Differe ntial Effects of Em pathy and Pe rspective Taking i n Dete rri ng Deceitful Negotiatio n," Journal of Busi11ess Ethics 94, no. 4 (2010), pp. 569- 579; a nd R. Volkem a, D. Fleck, a n d A . Hofm e is ter, .. rredicting Com petitive. U nethical Negotiati ng Behavio r a nd Its Consequences, " Negotiation Journal 26, no. 3 (2010), pp. 263- 286.
65 N. Di m o t a k is, D. E. Co nlon, a n d R. ll ies, "Th e Mind a nd Heart ( Literally) of the Negotiato r: Person ality a n d Contextual Determinants of F.xperiential Reactions and Economic Outcomes in Negotiation," Joumal of Applied Psychology97 (2012), pp. 183- 193.
66 E.T. Amanatullah, M. W. Morris, an d J. R. Curh an, "Negotiators 1Nho Give Too Much: Unmitigated Communio n, Relational Anxieties, and Economic Costs in Distributive and Integrative Bargaining. " Journal of Personality a11d Social Psychology 95, no. 3 (2008), pp. 723- 738; and D.S. DeRue, D. E. Conlo n, H. Moon, and H. \¥. Willaby. "When Is Straightforwardnes., a Liability in Negotiation.,? Th e Role of Integrative Potential and Structural Power,• Joumal of Applied Ps)'clwlogy 94, no. 4 (2009), pp. 1032- 1047.
67 S. Sharma, W. Bottom, a nd H. A. Elfenbein, "On the Ro le of Person ality, Cogn itive Ab ility, a n d Emotional In tell igence in
r redicting Negotiation Outcom~: A Meta.analysis," Organizational Psychology Review 3 (2013), pp. 293- 336.
68 H. A. Elfe nbein, J. R. Cu rhan, N. Eisenkra ft, A. Shirako, a n d L. Baccaro, "'Are Som e Negotiato rs Be tte r Than Others? Individua l Differe nces in Ba rgaini ng O utcom es,"' Jountal of Research i,i Personality, December 2008, pp. 1463- 1475 .
69 A. Zerres, J. Hiiffmeier, P. A. Freund, K. Backhaus, and G. Hertel, "Does It Take Two to Tango? Longitudinal Effects of U nila terial and Bilateral Integrative Negot iatio n Training,• Joumal of Applied Psychology98 (2013), pp. 478- 491.
70 G. Lelieveld, E. Van Dijk, I. Va n Beest, and G. A. Va n Kleef, "Why Anger a nd Disappointm e nt Affect Oth er's Ba rga ining Behavio r Differently: The Moderating Role of Power a nd the Mediating Role of Reciprocal Complementary Emotions,· Personality and Social Psychology B111/eti11 38 (2012), pp. 1209- 1221.
71 S. Cote, I. H ideg, a nd G. A . van Kl eef, "The Consequen ces of Faking An ger i n Negotiations,• Journal of E.xperime11tal Social Psychology 49 (2013), pp. 453- 463.
72 G. A. Van Kleef a nd C. K. W. De Dreu, "Longer-Term Con.sequences of Anger Expres.,ion in Negotiation: Retaliation o r Spillover?" Joumal of F.xperime111al Social Psyclwlogy 46, no. 5 (2010), pp. 753- 760.
73 H. Ada m a n d A. Shirako, "Not All An ger Is C reated Equal: The Impact of th e Expresser's Cu lture on th e Socia l Effects of Anger in Negotiations," Joumal of Applied Psychology 98, no . 5 (2013), pp. 735- 798.
74 G. Lelieveld, E. Van Dijk, I. Va n Beest, a nd G. A. Va n Kleef, "Why Anger a nd Disappointme nt Affect Oth e r's Ba rga ining Behavio r Differently," Personality a11d Social Psycholog)' Bulleti11 38 (2012), pp. 1209- 1221.
75 M. O lekalns a nd P. L. Smith, "Mutually Dependent: Power, Trust, Affect, and the Use of Deception in Negotiation," Joumal of Busi11ess Ethics 85, no. 3 (2009), pp. 347-365.
7 6 A. W. Brooks a n d M. E. Sch wei tze r, "Can Nervous Nell ie Negotiate? How Anxiety Causes Negotiators to Make Low First Offers, Exit Earl y, and Earn Less Profit,• Orga11izatio11al Behavior and Human Decision Processes 11 5, no. I (2011 ), pp. 43- 54.
7 7 M. Sinaceur, H. Adam, G. A. Van Kleef, a nd A. D. Galin.,ky, "The Advantages of Being Unpredictable: How Emotional Inconsistency Extracts Conc~ions in Negotiation, .. Jountal of Experimentnl Sodal Psychology49 (2013), pp. 498- 508.
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
8 5
K. Leaiy, J. Pillemer, a nd M. Wheeler, "Negot iating with Emo tion,• Harvard Business Review, Jan uary- February 2013 , pp. 96- 103, https://hbr.org/201 3/ 01 / negotiating-with-emo tion.
P. D. Trapnell a nd D. L. Paulhus, "Agent ic a nd Commu nal Values: Their Scope a nd Measu rement. "' Journal of Personality Assessment 94 (2012), pp. 39- 52.
C. T. Ku lik and M. Oleka lns, "Negotiating the Gender D ivide: Lesso ns fro m the Negotiation and Organ izational Behavio r Literatures," Jou ma I of Ma11ageme111 38 (2012), pp. 1387- 1415 .
C. Su ddat h, "The Art of Haggli ng,· Bloomberg Busi11essweek, November 26, 2012, p. 98.
J. Mazei, J. Hiiffmeier, P.A. Freund, A. F. Stuhlmacher, L. Bilke, and C. Hertel, "'A Meta-analysis on Gender Differenc~ in Negotiatio n O utcom es a nd Thei r Moderat ors," Psychological B11/leti11 141 (2015), pp. 85- 104.
L. J. Kray, C. C. Locke, and A. B. Van Zan t, "Feminine Ch arm : An Experimen tal Analysis of Its CosL< and Benefits in Negotiations,• Perso11ality and Social Psrchology B11/leti11 38 (2012), pp. 1343- 1357 .
S. de Lemus, R. Spears, M. Bukowski, M. Moya, a nd J. Lupiai\ez, "Reversing Implicit Gender S te reotype Activatio n as a Functio n of Exposure to Trad it iona l Gender Ro les,• Social Psychology 44 (2013), pp. 109- 116.
D. A. Small, M. Gelfa nd, L. Babcock, a nd H. Gettman, "\¥ho Goes to the Ba rgaining Table? The Influence o f Gender a nd Framing
o n the Initiatio n o f Negotiat ion,• Journal of Personality and Social Psyclwlogy93, no. 4 (2007), pp. 600- 613; a nd C. K. Stevens, A.G. Bave tta, and M. E. G is t, "Gender Differen ces in th e Acqu isitio n o f Sa la ry Negotiation Skills: The Ro le of Goals, Self-Efficacy, a nd Perceived Control,• Journal of Applied l's)'chology 78, no. 5 (October 1993), pp. 723-73 5.
86 L Schweitzer, E. Ng, S. Lyons, and L. Kuro n, ' Explo ring the Career Pipeline: Gender Differenc~ in Pre-Career Expectations," Relations lndustrielles/111dustrial Relations 66, n o. 3 (2011 ), pp. 422- 444.
87 Based o n N. McDon ald, ' Uni fo r President Dias Has Had Quite the Yea r: thestar.com, Decembe r 31, 2016 , h ttps://\\~Vw.thestar. com/ autos/ 2016/ 12/ 31/ unifor-president-d ias-has-h ad-quite-the- year.htm l.
88 D. T. Ko ng, K. T. Dirks, a nd D. L Ferrin, ' In terpersonal Trust within Negotiatio ns: Meta-an alytic Evidence, Critical Contingen cies, and Directions fo r Fu ture Resea rch," Academ)' of Management Jounial 57 (2014 ), pp. 1235- 1255.
89 G. R. Ferris, J. N. Harris, Z. A. Russell, B. r . Ellen, A. D. Martin ez, a nd F. R. Blass, "The Role of Reputation in the O rgan izational Sciences: A Mu lt ilevel Review, Construct Assessmen t, and Research D irections," Research in Persomiel mid Human Resources Management 32 (2014), pp. 241- 303.
90 R. Zinko, G. R. Ferris, S. E. Humphrey, C. J. Meyer, a nd F. Aime, "'Personal Reputation in O rganizations: Two-Study Constructive Rep lication and Extensio n o f An tecedents an d Consequ ences," Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psrchology 85 (2012), pp. 156 - 180.
91 A. Hinsh aw, r. Reilly, a n d A. Kupfer Schneider, ' Attorneys a nd Negotiation Ethics: A Material Misunderstanding?"' Negot;atio,i Journal 29 ( 2013 ) , p p. 265- 287 ; a n d N . A. Welsh, ' T h e Rep utatio nal Advantages o f Demonstrating Trustworthiness: Using the Reputation Index with Law Studen ts," Negot;ation Journal 28 (2012), pp. 11 7- 145.
92 J. R. Cu rhan, H. A. Elfenbei n, and X. Heng, ' What Do People Value \¥h en They Negotiate? Mapping the Domain of Subjective Value in Negotiation,· Journal of Personality and Social Ps)'chology 91 (2006), pp. 493-512.
93 W. E. Ba ke r a n d N. Bulkley, · raying It Forwa rd vs. Reward ing Reputa tion: Mechan isms o f Gen eralized Reciprocity,• Organization Science25 (lun e 17, 2014), pp. 1493- 1510.
94 G. A. Van Kleef, C. K. V.,,. De D reu, a nd A. S. R. Manstead, "An Interpersonal Approach to Emotio n in Social Decision Maki ng: T he Emotio ns as Social I nfo rma tio n Model, " Advances i,i Experimental Social Psychology 42 (2010), pp. 45- 96.
95 F. Lu mineau and J. E. Hen derson, "The Influe n ce o f Relation al Experie nce and Contractual Governance o n the Negotiation Strategy i n Buyer- Supplier D isputes,· Journal of Operations Management 30 (2012), p p. 382- 395.
96 Mediate BC, ' Mediator Survey 2014: Mediate BC, October 14, 2014, h ttp://www.media tebc.com/ PDFs/ M BC-Survey-Summary- Fina l.aspx.
97 Conciliatio n and Labour Tribun als Division, Nova Scotia Labour and Advanced Education, Conciliation: A Guide for Employer and Un ion Committees ( Halifax: Author, 2012), h ttp://novascotia.ca/ Jae/ conciliation/ docs/ Con ci I ia tion_ Guide_ WEB.pdf.
98 H. R. Markus and S. Kitayama, ' Culture a nd the Self: Implications fo r Cognitio n, Em otio n, a nd Motivation,• Psychological Review 98, n o. 2 (1991), pp. 224- 253; a nd H. Re n a n d B. Gray, ' Repairing Relatio nsh ip Confl ict: How Violatio n Types a nd Culture Influence the Effectiven ess of Restoratio n Ri tuals,• Academ y of Management Review 34, n o. 1 (2009), pp. 105- 126.
99 M. J. Gel fa n d, M. Higgins, L. H. Nish ii, J. L. Raver, A. Domingu ez. F. Muraka m i, S. Yam aguch i, a nd M. Toya m a, "Cu ltu re a n d Egocentric re.rceptions o f Fairness in ConAict an d Negotiation," Journal of Applied Psychology, Octob e r 2002, pp. 833- 845; a nd
Endnotes 589
Z. Ma, "Ch in ese Confl ict Management Styles and Negotiation Behaviours: An Empirical Test," International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, April 2007, p p. 101 - 11 9.
100 r . r . Fu, X. H. Yan, Y. Li, E. \.Vang, a n d S. Pe n g, "Exam i n ing Conflict-Hand ling Approaches by Ch in ese Top Manageme nt Teams in IT fi rms," hiternational Journal of Co,ifl ict Management 19, no. 3 (2008), p p. 188- 209.
101 \¥. Liu, R. Friedma n, a nd Y. Ho ng, ' Culture a nd Accounta b ility in Negotiation: Recognizing the Importance of In-Group Relations,• Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 117 (2012), pp. 221- 234; a nd B. C. Gunia, J. M. Brett, A. K. Nan d keolya r, a n d D. Kamdar, "Paying a Price: Cultu re, Trust, a n d Negotiation Consequences,· Journal of Applied Psychology 96, n o. 4 (2010 ), pp. 774- 789.
102 L A. Liu, R. Friedma n, B. Ba rry, M. J. Gelfand, a n d Z. Zh ang, "The Dynam ics of Consensus Bu ild ing in lntracultural a nd lntercultural Negotiatio n s,• Admin istrat ive Science Quarterl y 5 7 (20 12), pp. 269- 304.
103 Based o n S. Kopelman and A. S. Rosette, ' C ultural Varia tion in Response to Strategic Em otions in Negotiations," Group Decision and Negotiation 17, n o. I (2008), pp. 6 5-77; a n d M. Liu, "The lntrapersonal a nd Interpersonal Effects of Anger o n Negotiation Strategies: A Cro.~"·Cul tural Investigation," Human Commun ication Resean;h 35, no. 1 (2009), p p. 148- 169.
104 M. Liu, "The lntrapersona l and Interperson al Effects of Anger on Negotiatio n Strategies: A Cross-Cultu ral Investigatio n," Human Com ,mmication Resean;h 35, no . 1 (2009), pp. 148- 169; and H. Adam, A. Shimko, and\¥. \,V. Maddux, ' Cultura l Varia nce in the In t e rpersona l Effects of Anger in Negotiat ions, · Psychological Science 21, no. 6 (2010), pp. 882- 889.
105 C. Gaines, ' N BA Players Have The Highest-Average Salaries in the \,Vo rld But No League Spends More o n Players Tha n th e NFL: Business Insider, November. 14, 2016, http://www.busines.<insider. com/ n fl -m lb -nba-nhl-average-sports-sala rie.<-2016 - 11; h ttps:// www.forbe.,.com/ p rofile/ n -mu rray-edwa rds/ ; J. Feinstei n, "In the NHL Lockout, the Owners Have It All V.,,rong; Washington Post, December 2 5, 2012, http://articles.washingto n post.com/ ; R. Cimini, "Geno Smith's Matu rity Questio ned: ESPN, May 3, 2013, http://espn.go.com/; K. Campbell, "Tha n ks to Do nald Fehr, NH L Negotia ting again.<t ILself .. . a n d Losing, • The Hocke)' News, December 29, 2012, h ttp://spo rts.yah oo.comf; B. Murphy, ' 20 Years of Peace and Prosperity Have Followed MLB's Last Strike,• 1iuin Citie~ July 5, 2014, h ttp://www.twincities.com/ spons/ ci_26095630/ peace-th at-lasts-s ince- 1994-season-ending-strike; a nd E. Seb a, ' O il Refinery Strike Widens to Large.st U.S. Pla nt,• Huffington Post, February 21, 201 5, http://www.h uffi ngto npost.com/ 201 5/02/ 21/ us-refinery-strike-wide_n_6727736.h tml.
106 S. Shellenbarger, ' Clashing over Office Clutter,• Wall Street Journal, March 19 , 2014, h ttp://\\~vw.wsj.com/ articles/SB 10001 42405270230474 7404579447331212245004; S. Shelle n barger, "To Fight o r Not to Fight? Wh en to Pick Workp lace Battles,• Wall Street Journal, December 17, 2014, h ttp://www.wsj.com/ a rticles/ picking-your-workplace-battles- 1418772621; a nd M. J. Gelfan d, J. R. Harri ngton, and L. M. Leslie, ' Con fl ic t Cultures: A New Fro ntier for Con flict Managem ent Resea rch and Practice. " in Handbook of Conflict Management Researcl1, ed. N. M . Ash kan...,)', 0. B. Ayoko, and K. A. Jehn (Ch eltenh a m, UK: Edward Elgar, 2014), pp. 109- 135.
107 Based o n h ttp://www.mcm illan.ca/ Canadian -Unionization-Ra tes- Continu ing· tO· fall; and Fraser Institute, "Comparin g Government a nd Private Sector Compensation in Canada, · Decem ber 8, 2016, https://W\,~v.fraserinstitu te.org/studies/ com paring-government- an d-private -sector-compen sation -in-can ada.
108 These suggestio ns a re based o n J. A. \.Vall Jr. a n d M. \¥. Blum, ' Negotiations: Journal of Management, June 1991, pp. 278 - 282; a n d J. S. Pouliot, ' Eight Steps to Success in Negotiating, • Nation's Business, April 1999, pp. 40- 42.
590 Endnotes
OB on the Edge: Workpla ce Bullying
1 Based o n Y. Brend, "VSB Trustees Discus., Fate of 12 Schools on the
Chopping Block,· CBC News, September JS, 2016, http://W\,~V. cbc.ca/ news/ canada/ british-colum bia/ vancouver-schools.cJosures- education-c u L<·aging-infrastructu re - 1.3763993; and C . Pablo, · independent Report Rips Sacked Vis ion Vancouver Trustees fo r Culture of Fear in School District, • Georgia Strait, March 8, 2017, h ttps://\\~vw.straight.com/ news/ 878886/ indepen dent-report-rip.<· sacked·vision.vancouve.r·trustees-culture· fear·school-district.
2 L M. Anderson and C. M. Pearson, 'Tit for Tat ? The Spiraling Effect of Incivility in the 1A'orkplace, • Academ)' of Management Review 24, no. 3 (1999), pp. 452- 471. For furth e r discussion of this, see R. A. Baron an d J. H. Neuman, ~ 1orkplace Violence and Workplace Aggression : Evidence o n T h eir Relative Frequency and Potential Causes," Aggressive Behavior 22 ( 1996), pp. I 61 - 173; C. C. Chen and VV. Eastm an, .. Towards a Civic Culture fo r Mu lticultura l O rganizations," Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 33 (1997), pp. 454- 470; a nd J. H. Neum an and R. A. Baron, •Aggre.s.,ion in the Workplace," in A,uisodal Behavior i,i Orgm1iu,tio11s, ed. R. A. Giacalo ne a nd J. Greenberg (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, J 997), pp. 37 - 67.
3 L. M. An derson and C. M. Pearson, "Tit fo r Tat? The Spiraling Effect of Incivility in the Workplace," Academy of Manage111e11t Review 24, no. 3 (1999), pp. 452- 4 71.
4 · oefiniti o n of Workplace Bully ing,• Workforce Bull)'ing lllstitute, h ttp:/ / www. wo rkp lace bu I I y i n g.org/ i n d i v i d u a ls/ p roblem / definitio n/.
5 · 2014 WBJ U.S. \.Vorkplace Bullying S urvey," Workplace Bullying
Instit ute, February 2014 , h ttp://www.workplacebu llyi ng .o rg/ wbi res ea rch/ wbi-2014 -us -survey / .
6 C. Porath and C. Pearson, "The Price of Incivility: Lack of Respect H urts Morale and the Bottom Line," Harvard Busitiess Review, January- February 2013, p. 117.
7 M. Houshmand, J. O 'Reilly, S. Robinson, and A. Wolff, "Escaping Bullying: The Simultaneous Impact of Individual and Unit-Level Bul lying on T urnover Intentions, " Human Relations 65, no. 7 (2012), pp. 901- 918.
8 · oefiniti o n of Workplace Bully ing, • Workforce Bull)'ing l11Stitu1e, http://W\vw.workplacebullying,org/individuals/problemfdefinition/ .
9 https://wW\v.worksafebc.com/ en/ health-s.afety/ hazards.exposures/ bullying-harassment.
10 R. A. Ba ron and J. H. Neu m a n, •wo rkp lace Vio lence a nd Workplace Aggression: Evidence on Their Relative Frequency and Potential Causes," Aggressive Behavior 22 ( 1996), pp. 161 - 173; C. MacKinnon, 0111)' Words (New York: Basic Books, 1994 ); J. Marks, "The American Uncivil Wars,• U.S. News & World Report, April 22, 1996, pp. 66- 72; and L. P. Spratlen, · workplace M is treatm ent: Its Relationship to Interpersonal Vio len ce, • Journal of Psycltosocial Nursing 32, no. 12 (1994), pp. 5 - 6.
11 K. MacQueen and C. McKenna, "Workplace Ra m page, • Macletm 's, May 8, 2014 , h ttp://www.madeans.cafnews/canada/ the-sh ootings- at·we.'item · f o r est· i n· nanaimo·point·tO·a·bigger·problem/ .
11 W. M. G lenn, "An Employee's S urvival Guide: An ILO S urvey of Workplaces in 32 Countries Ranked Argentina the Most Violent, Followed by Romania, France and Then, Surpris ingly, Canada, •
Occupational Health & Safety, April- May 2002, p. 28 passim.
13 J. Lindzon, "Workplace Abuse Comes at Steep Cost fo r Nurses, Taxpayers," Globe and Mail, June 28, 2017, https://beta . th e- g lobea nd m a i I. com/ report -o n -business/ careers/ m anagement/ wo rkp I ace· abuse. com es. at ·Steep-cost· for-n urses-taxpayers/ article35461112.
14 J. Lindzon, "Workplace Abuse Comes at Steep Cost fo r Nurses, Taxpayers," Globe and Mail, J une 28, 2017, https://beta. th e - g lobea nd m a i I. com/ report-o n -business/ careers/ m anagement/
workplace-abuse-comes-a t ·Steep-cost· for· nurses-taxpayers/ artide35461112.
15 •catholic School Board Raises Concerns with Report o n 'A'orkplace
Violen ce and Teachera, • CBC News, June 29, 2017, h ttp://W\vw.cbc. ca/ news/ ca nada/ w indsor/ catholic-school-board -ra ises.concerns. with-report-o n-workplace-violen ce-a nd -teachers-1.4184017.
16 K. MacQueen and C. McKenna, · workp lace Rampage, • Maclean's, May 8, 2014, http:/ f,V\,~v.madeans.ca/ news/ canada/ the-shooting;- at-western-fores t-in-nanaimo -point-to-a-bigger-problem/ .
17 E. Ell is, "Today's Jobs Can Be Hard o n Your Head," Va11couver S1111, June 25, 2014, p . D I.
18 J. O'Reilly, S. L. Robinson, J. L. Berdahl, and S. Banki, "Is Negative
Attention Better Tha n No Attention? The Comparat ive Effects of Ostracism and Harassm ent at Work," Organizational Science, April 4, 2014 . Publis hed o nline.
19 E. Ell is, "Today's Jobs Can Be Hard o n Your Head," Va11couver Sun, June 25, 2014, p . DI.
20 A. M. Webber, "Danger: Toxic Compan y,• Fast Compmt)', November 1998, pp. 152- 157.
21 D. Flavelle, •Managers Cited fo r Increase in Work Rage,'" Vancouver Su11, April 11 , 2000, pp.DI, D II; a nd G. Smith, \ol'ork Rage: Identify the Problems, lmplemelll 1/te Solutions (Toronto: Ha rperColl ins Canada, 2000).
22 -Work Rage, • BCBusiness Magazine, January 2001, p. 23.
23 D. Flavelle, •Managers Cited fo r Increase in Work Rage,'" Vancouver Su11, April 11 , 2000, pp. DI, Oil.
24 A. Skogstad, T. Torshei m, S. Einarsen, and L. J. Hauge, "Testing the Work Env iro nment Hypoth esis of Bu llyi ng on a Group Level of Analysis: Psychosocial Factors a< Precursors of Observed \.Vo rkplace Bullying," Applied Psycltology: A11 lntemational Review 60, no. 3 (July 2011 ), pp. 4 75 - 495.
2 5 D. Geddes, and L. T. Stickney, •The T ro uble w it h Sa nctions: O rganizational Respo nses to Deviant Anger Displays a t \<\fo rk, •
Human Relations 64, no. 2 (February 2011 ), pp. 201 - 230.
26 •7 Sign.< You Have a Terrible Boss, • Salary.com, accessed Decem ber 21, 2017, https://wW\v.salary.com / 7 -reasons.terrib le-boss/ .
2 7 S. L. Robinson a n d E. W. Mo rrison, "Th e Developm ent of Psychological Contract Breach and Violation: A Longitudinal Study, · Journal of Organiza1io11al Beltavior 21, no. 5 (2000), pp. 525- 546; a nd S. D. Salamon a nd S. L. Robinson, "Trus t That Binds: The Impact of Coll ective Felt Trust on Organizationa l Performance,· Journal of Applied Psychology 93, no. 3 (2008), pp. 593 - 601.
28 D. C . Thomas, S. R. Fitzsimmons, E. C . Ravli n, K. Au, B. Z. Ekel u nd, and C. Barza ntny, "Psychologica l Co ntracc< across
Cultures," Orga11ization Studies 31, no. 11 (2010), pp. 1437- 1458.
29 S. Montes a nd D. Zweig, "Do Promises Matter? An Exploration of the Role of Promises in Psychological Contract Breach,• Journal of Applied Psyc/1ology 94, no. 5 (2009), pp. 1243- 1260.
30 A. M. Webber, "Danger: Toxic Compan y,· Fast Compmt)', November 1998, pp. 152- 157.
3 1 A. M. Webber, "Danger: Toxic Compan y,• Fast Compmt)', November 1998, pp. 152- 157.
32 Based on A. McKee "Neutralize Your Toxic Boss,• HBR Blog Nen11ork, September 24, 2008, http://blogs.hbr.org/2008/ 09/ neutralize- your-toxic-boss/ ; and "Toxic Bo.,ses: How to Live with the S.0.8., •
BusinessWeek, August 13, 2008, h ttp://wW\v.businessweek.com/ sto ries/ 2008-08-13 / toxic-bosses.h ow-to -I ive-with -the-s.dot-0-dot · b-dot.
33 P. Frost, Toxic Emorio,u at Work (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 2003).
34 • Men More Likely to Be Rude i n \.Vo rkplace, S u rvey S h ows," Va11couver Sun, Augu st I 6, 1999, p. B JO.
35 D. E. G ibson a n d S. G. Barsade, "The Experie nce o f An ger a t Work: Lessons fro m the Chronically Ang ry" (paper presented at the annual meetings of the Academy of Managem ent, C hicago, August 11 , 1999).
36 D. E. G ibson a n d S. G. Barsade, "The Experie nce of An ger a t Work: Lessons fro m the Chronically Ang ry" (paper presented at the annual meetings of the Academy of Managem ent, C h icago, August 11 , 1999).
37 C. Porath a nd C. Pearson, "The Price of Incivility,• Harvard Business Review, Jan uary- February 2017, https://h b r.o rg/2013/ 01/ the-p rice- of-in civility.
38 R. Corelli, "D ishi n g Out Rude n ess: Com p lain ts Abound as Customers Are Ignored, Berated; Maclean',, Ja nuary 11, 1999, p. 44.
3 9 R. Baca!, "Toxic Organ iza tions- Welco me t o t h e Fire of a n Unhealthy Workp lace: Work911.com , 2000, http://work91 J.com/ articles/ toxicorgs.htm.
40 D. Aa rts, "What Bosses Ca n Lea rn Fro m Thei r Codd led Millennia l Employees,· profitguide.com, Decem ber 2, 2016, h ttp://www.profitguide.com/ m a n age-grow / hu ma n-resources/ deborah-aarL<·workplaces-should-adapt-to -coddled-m illennials- 107722.
41 L. Panjvani, "An Overview of Anti-Bullyi ng Legislation and Alternatives in Canada; LawNow, July l , 2013 , http://www. I a wnow .o rg/ a n -o ve rview · Of -a n ti · b u I lyi n g-legi s I a tio n -a nd · alternatives-in-canada.
42 E. Ellis, "Today's Jobs Can Be Ha rd on Your Head,• Vancouver Sun,
June 25, 2014, p. D I.
43 E. Ellis, "Today's Jobs Can Be Ha rd on Your Head,• Vancouver Sun, June 25, 2014, p. D I.
Chapter 10
1 Vignette b ased o n M. Solomon, "To Transform Your Compa ny Culture, Cha nge You r POV: Hyatt CEO's Perspect ive,• Forbes, May II , 2015, http://www.fo rbes.com/ sites/ m icahsolom on/ 2015/ 05/ 11/ transform -your-corporate-cult ure-by-cha ng ing-your- pov-the-hyatt-ceo-interview/; B. \.Vitt, *Hyatt Hotels: Making CSR Work in a Decentralized Global Compa ny,• Hotel Business Review, May, 2015, http://h otelexecutive.com/ b usi n ess_review/ 3098/ hyatt-h otels-making-csr-work-in-a-decentralized-global-company; S. Shankma n, "How Hyatt's CEO Empowers Employees to Drive the Guest Experience: Shift, December 14, 2014, http://s kift. com/ 2014/ 12/ 15/ interview-how-hyatts-ceo-e mpowers-employees- to -drive-th e-guest-experie nce/; *\.Vorld of Hyatt," h ttp://www. hyatttravelagents.com/ cms.cfm ?nPageNo=29694; a n d *Hyatt- Abou t O ur Brands, • h ttp://www.hyattt rave lagen ts.com/ c ms. cfm?nPageNo=29694.
2 "'Organizatio n Man: Henry Mintzbe.rg Has Some Common Sense Observations About the \<\lays \,Ve Run Compan ies,· Financial Post, Novem ber 22/ 24, 1997, pp. 14- 16.
3 See, fo r example, B. Schneider, M. G. Ehrhart, a n d W. H. Macey, *Organizational Climate and Culture, • Ammal Review of Psychology, 2013, pp. 361 - 388.
4 I. Borg, P. J. F. Groenen, K. A. Jehn, W. Bilsky, a nd S . H. Schwartz, ' Embedding the O rganizational Culture Profil e into Schwartz's Th eory of Universals in Values,· Joumal of Personnel Psychology 10 (2011 ) , pp. 1- 12.
5 See, for exa mple, C. Ostroff, A. J. Kinicki, and M. M. Tamkins, ' O rganization al Culture a n d C li ma te,• in Handbook of Psycholog)': Industrial and Organizational Ps)'clwlogy, ed. W.C. Borm an, D. R. llgen, a nd R. J. Klimoski (New Jersey: Wiley, 2003), pp. 565- 593.
6 D. A. Hoffman and L. M. Jones, "Leadersh ip, Co ll ect ive Personality, and Perform ance,· Joumal of Applied Psycholog)' 90, n o. 3 (2005), pp. 509- 522.
7
8
End notes 591
P. Lo k, R. Westwood, a n d J. Crawford, ' Percept io n s of
O rgan isatio nal Subculture an d Their Significance for Organ isatio nal Commitm ent,· Applied Ps)'chology: An /111emational Review 54, no. 4 (2005), pp. 490- 514; and B. E. Ashforth, K. M. Rogers, a nd K. G. Corley, "identity in Organ izations: Exploring Cross-Level Dyna m ics," Organization Sciena 22 (201 1 ), pp. 1144- 1156.
T. Hsieh, ' Zappos's CEO on Going to Extre mes fo r C ustomers,• Harvard Business Review, July/ August 2010, pp. 41 - 45.
9 For discussions of how c ulture can be evaluated as a s hared perception, see D. Chan, ' Mutlilevel a nd Aggregation Issues
in Climate and C ultu re Research; in The Oxford Handbook of Organizational Climate and Culture, ed. B. Schneide r and K. M. Ba rbera (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), pp. 484- 495; a n d J. B. Sore nsen, "Th e Stre ng th of Corporate Culture and the Reliability of Firm Perform ance," Administrative Science Quarterly, March 2002, pp. 70- 91.
10 B. Sch neider, A. N. Salvaggio , a n d M. Subirats, "Climate Strength: A New D irection fo r Cli m ate Research,• Journal of Applied Psychology 87 (2002), pp. 220- 229; L M. Ko trba, M.A. Gillespie, A. M. Schmidt, R. E. Smerek, S. A. Ritch ie, a nd D. R. Denison, "Do Consis tent Corporate Cultures Have Better Business Performance: Exploring th e Interaction Effects," H11ma11 Relations 65 (2012), pp. 241- 262; and M. W. Dickson, C. J. Resick, and P. J. Ha nges, "W h e n O rga n ization al Climate Is Unambigu ous, It Is a lso Strong,· Jo11mal of Applied Psychology 91 (2006), pp. 351- 364.
11 M. Schulte, C. Ostroff, S. Shm ulyian, and A. Kinicki, "Organ izatio nal Climate Configurations: Relatio nships to Collective Attitudes, Customer Satisfaction, a nd Financia l Perform ance, " Jounwl of Applied l's)'cholog)'94, no. 3 (2009), pp. 618- 634.
12 See S. Ma i t lis a n d M. C h r ist ianson , "Sense m aking in Organizatio ns: Taking Stock and Moving Forward,• The Academ)' of Management Annals 8 (2014), pp. 57 - 125; K. \.Veber and M. T. Dacin, "Th e Cultural Construction of O rganizational Life, • OrganiZ1Jtion Sciena 22 (2011), pp. 287- 298.
13 Y. Li n g, Z . Simsek, M . H. Lu batk i n, and J. F. Veiga, "Tra nsformationa l Leadership's Role i n Pro m o t ing Corporate Entrepren e urship: Exam ining the CEO-TMT Interface,· Academy of Management Jo11mal 51, no. 3 (2008), pp. 557- 576; a nd A. Malhotra, A. Majch rzak, a nd B. Rosen, *Leading Virtual Teams,• Academ)' of Ma11agement Perspectives 21 , no. 1 (2007), pp. 60- 70.
14 L. R. James, C. C. Choi, C. E. Ko, P. K. McNeil, M. K. Minton, M. A. 'A'right, and K. Kim, "O rga nizatio nal and Psychological Clima te: A Review of Theory and Resea rch," E11ropea11 Joumal of Work and Orga11i.z1Jtio11al Psychology 17, no. 1 (2008), pp. 5- 32; a nd B. Schn eider and K. M. Barbera, ' Introductio n and Overview,• in The o~ford Handbook of Orga11izational Climate and C11lture, ed. B. Schneider and K. M Barbera (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), pp. 3 - 22.
15 J. Z. Carr, A. M. Schmidt, J. K. Fc,rcl, and R. P. DeShon, "Clima te Pe rceptions Matter. A Meta-a nalytic Path An alyse< Relating Mola r Climate, Cognitive and Affective States, and Individual Level Work Outcomes: Joumal of Appli..t l's)dwlogy 88, no. 4 (2003 ), pp. 605- 619.
16 M. Schulte, C. Ostroff, S. Shm ulyian, and A. Kinicki, "Organ izatio nal Climate Configurations: Relatio nships to Collective Attitudes, Customer Satisfaction, a nd Financia l Perform ance, " Jounwl of Applied l's)'cholog)'94, no. 3 (2009), pp. 618- 634.
17 D.S. Pugh, J. Dietz, A. P. Brief, a n d J. W. Wiley, *Looking In.side a nd O ut The Impact of Employee and Commun ity Demograph ic Composition on Organizatio nal Diversity Climate," Journal of Applied Ps)'chology93 , no. 6 (2008), pp. 1422- 1428; K. H. Ehrhart, L. A. Witt, B. Sch neider, and S. J. Perry, ' Service Employees Give as T hey Get: Internal Service as a Moderator of the Service Climate-Service Outcomes Link; Journal of Applied Psychology 96, no . 2 (2011 ), pp. 423 - 431; and A . Sim ha and J. B. Culle n, "Ethical Clima tes a nd Their Effects on O rganizatio n al Outcomes:
592 En dnotes
Im plicatio ns from t h e Past and Prophecies fo r the Future, · Academy of Management Perspectives, November 2011, pp. 20- 34.
18 J. C. Wallace, P. D. Johnson, K. Mathe, and J. Paul, "Structura l a nd Psychologica l Em powerment Climates, Pe rfo rmance, a n d the Moderating Role of Shared Felt Accountability: A Managerial Perspective, · Journal of Applied Psychology 96, n o. 3 (2011 ) , pp. 840- 850.
19 J. M. Beus, S. C. Payne, M. E. Bergm a n, and V.,,. Arth u r, "Safety C li m ate a nd In juries: An Exam i n atio n of T heo retica l a nd Empirical Relationships; Journal of Applied Ps)'clwlogy 95, no. 4 (2010), pp. 713- 727.
2 0 A. Simha and J. B. Cu llen, "Eth ical Climates and Their Effects on Orga nizational Outcomes: Im p lications fro m th e Pai;t and Proph ecies fo r the Futu re: Academy of Management, Novem ber 2012, pp. 20- 34.
21 Based on "West Jet, a True Example of Custom er-Cen t ric Culture: Knightsbridge Thought Leadership Newsletter, accessed August 15, 2014, http://\\~vw.knigh tsb ridge.com/ sitecore/ content/ Knightsbridge/ home/ ThoughtLeadership/ on PeopleNewsletter/ Articles/ FF.A'f0/o201 _Sept2011 _ \.Vest Je t.
22 A. Simha and J. B. Cu llen, "Eth ical Climates and Their Effects on Orga nizational Outcomes: Im p lications fro m th e Past and Proph ecies fo r the Futu re: Academy of Management, Novem ber 2012, pp. 20- 34.
23 A. Simha and J. B. Cu llen, "Eth ical Climates and Their Effects on Orga nizational Outcomes: Im p lications fro m th e Past and Proph ecies fo r the Future," Academy of Manageme,u, Novem ber 2012, pp. 20- 34.
2 4 A. Arna u d , "Conceptualizing and Measu ring Et h ical \.Vork Cl ima te: Developm e nt a nd Val idation of the Ethica l Climate Index,· Business & Society, June 2010, pp. 345- 458.
25 A. Arnaud and M. Schminke, 'The Ethical Climate and Context of O rganizations: A Comprehen.~ive Model," Organization Science, Novem ber - December 2012, pp. 1767- 1780.
26 J. Howard-Greenville, S. Bertels, a nd B. Lah neman, "Sustainability: How It Sh apes Organizat ional Cu ltu re a nd Cli mate, • in The Oxford Handbook of Organizational Climate and Culture, ed. B. Schneider and K. M. Barbera (New York: Oxford University Pres.,, 2014), pp. 257- 275.
2 7 P. Lacy, T. Cooper, R. Hayward, a nd L. Neuberger, "A New Era of Susta inabil ity: UN Global Compact-Accenture CEO Study 2010, • June 2010, http://www.un csd2012.org/conten t/ documents/ Accen ture_A_New_era_of_Sustainability_CEO_study.pdf.
28 H. R. Dixon-Fowler, D. J. Slater, J. L. Johnson, A. E. Ellstrand, and A. M. Romi, "Beyond ' Does It Pay to Be Green?' A Meta-analysis of Moderators of th e CEP-CFP Rela tionship,• Journal of Business Ethics 11 2 (2013), pp. 353- 366.
29 P. Bansal, "From Issues to Actions: The Importance of Individual Concerns and O rga n izational Values in Responding to Natura l Environmen tal Issues,· Organizntion Science 14 (2003), pp. 510- 527; P. Bansa l, "Evolvi ng Sustai n ab ly: A Longitu di n al Study of Corporate Sustainable Devel opment, " Strategic Managemenl Joumal 26 (2005), pp. 197- 218; a n d J. Howard -Grenville and A. J. Hoffman, "The Importance of Cultural Framing to the Success of Social Initiatives in BLL'iiness." Academy of Manageme,it Executive 17 (2003), pp. 70- 84.
3 0 A. R. Carrico and M. Riem er, "Motivating Energy Conservation in the Workplace: An Evaluation of the Use of Group-Level Feedback and Peer Education,· Jou ma I of Enllironmenllll Psrcliology 31 (201 1 ), pp. 1- 13.
3 1 J. P. Kotter, .. Change Management: Accelerate !" Haroard Busitiess Review, Novem ber 2012, pp. 44- 58.
3 2 R. Walke r, " Behind th e Music," Forwne, October 29, 2012, pp. 57- 58.
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J. B. So rensen, "The Stre n gth of Corpora te C ult u re and t h e Reliability of Firm Performa nce,• Administrative Science Quarterly, March 2002, pp. 70- 91.
See D. L. Stone, E. F. Stone-Romero, a nd K. M. Lukaszewski, "The Impact of Cultural Values o n the Accepta nce and Effectiveness of Human Resource Management Po licie.'i a nd Practice.'\," Huma,1 Resource Management Review 17, no. 2 (2007), pp. 152- 165; D. R. Aveiy, "Support fo r Diversity in O rganizations: A Theoretical Explo ration of Its O rig ins and Offshoots,· Organizational Ps)'chology Review I (2011 ), pp. 239- 256; A. Groggin.< and A. M. Ryan, "Embracing Uniquen es.<: The Underpinnings of a Posit ive Clima te fo r Diversity,• Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 86 (2013), pp. 264- 282.
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R. A. \,Veber a nd C. F. Cam erer, "Cultura l Confl ict and Merger Fa ilure: An Experi mental Approach, · Management Science, April 2003, pp. 400- 412; I. H. Gleibs, A. Mummendey, a nd P. Noack, "'Predictors of Cha nge in Postmerger Identification During a Merger Process: A Longitud inal Study; Jounial of Personality and Social Psychology 95, no. 5 (2008), pp. 1095- 1112; a nd F. Bauer a nd K. Matzler, "An tecedents of M&A Success: The Ro le of Strategic Com plementarity, Cultural Fit, a nd Degree and Speed of Integration,• Strategic Ma11agement Journal 35 (2014 ), pp. 269- 291.
41 K. Voigt, "Mergers Fail More Often Than Marriages; CNN, May 22, 2009, http://edition.cnn.com/ 2009/ BUSINESS/ 05/ 21/ m erger. ma rriage/ .
42 Vignette based on S. Sh ankm an, "How Hyatt's CEO Empowers Em p loyees to Dri ve th e Gu est Experience, " Skift, Decem ber 14, 2014, http://skift.com/ 2014/ 12/ 15/ i n terview-how-hyatts-ceo- ern powers-em p I oyeeS· to·d rive· th e··gue.'\t ·ex-peri ence/ .
43 Y. L. Zhao, 0. H. Erekson, T. \.Vang, and M. Song. "Pioneeri ng Adva n tages and En trepre ne urs' First. Mover Decis io ns : An Em p irical Investigatio n fo r the United States a nd China, • Journal of Product /11novatio11 Manageme11t, December 2012, pp. 190- 210.
44 E. H. Schein, Orga11izntional Culture and Leadership, Vol. 2. (New York: John \.Viley & Sons, 2010).
45 "PCL's Biggest Investment: Its People,· National Post, September 2, 2008, p. FPIO.
46 See, for example, D. E. Bowen and C. Ost roff, "The 'Strength' of the H RM System, O rganizat io n al Climate Formation, and Fi rm Performance: Academy of Manageme11t Review 29 (2004), pp. 203- 221.
47 \,V. Li, Y. \.Vang, P. Taylor, K. Sh i, a nd D. He, "The Influence of Organizational Culture on Work-Related Personality Requirem ent Ra tings: A Multilevel Analysis,· lntemational Joumal of Selection and
Assessment 16, no. 4 (2008), p p. 366 - 384; I. O h , K. S. Kim, a n d C. H. Van lddekinge, 'Taking It to Another Level: Do Pe rso na lity· Based Huma n Capital Resources Matter to Firm Perfonnance?" Journal of Applied Ps)'c/10/ogy 100 (2015 ), pp. 935 - 94 7; a nd A. Bardi, K. E. Buchanan, R. Goodwin, L. Sla bu , a n d M. Robinson, ' Value Stability a nd Ch ange d uri ng Self-C h osen Life T ra n.<itions: Self-Selectio n versus Socia lizatio n Effects,• Journal of Personality and Social PS)'Cholog,, 106 (2014 ) , pp. 131- 14 7.
4 8 ' Building a Beller Workforce: PROFIT, Fe brual)' 16, 2011, h ttp:// www.profitguide.com/ ma n age-grow/ huma n-resources/ building- a -better-workfo rce-30073.
49 ' Buildinga Beller Workforce: PROFIT, Fe brual)' 16, 2011, h ttp:// www.profitguide.com/ ma n age-grow/ huma n-resources/ building- a -better-workfo rce-30073.
50 D. C . Ham b r ic k and P. A. Mason , "Uppe r Echelo n s: T h e O rgan izatio n as a Reflectio n o f Its Top Ma nagers,· Academy of Management Review, April 1984, pp. 193- 206; M.A. Carpenter, M.A. Geletkanycz, a nd V.,,. G. Sanders, "Upper Echelons Research Revisited: Anteceden ts, Ele ment.<, a n d Con sequ e nces of Top Managemen t Team Composition," Journal of Management 30, no. 6 (2004), pp . 749- 778; a nd H. Wang, A. S. Tsui, and KR. Xi n, "CEO Leadership Behaviors, Oigan izational Performa nce. and Employees' Attitudes,• Tiie Leadership Quarter/)' 22, no. 1 (2011 ), pp. 92- 105.
51 D. M. Cable a nd C. K. Parsons, "Socialization Tactics a n d Person. O rgan izatio n Fit,· Personnel Psyc/10/og,1 Spring 2001, pp. 1- 23; and T. N. Ba ue r, T. Bodn er, 8. Erdogan, D. M. Truxillo, a nd J. S. Tucker, "' Newcomer Adjustment during O rganizatio nal Socializatio n: A Meta-ana lytic Review o f Antecedents, Outcomes, and Methods," Joumal of Applied Ps)'chology92, no. 3 (2007) , pp. 707-721.
52 A. M. Saks and J. A. Gru m a n, "O rga n izat io n al Socia lizat ion and Positive O rga nizatio nal Behaviour: Implications fo r Theory, Research, and Practice., " Canadian Jountal of Admi,iistrarive Sciences 28, no. 1 (2011 ), pp. 4 - 16.
5 3 J. lmpoco, "Basic Training, Sanyo Style. · U.S. News & World Report, July 13, 1992, pp. 46- 48.
54 8. Filipczak, 'Tra ined by Staibucks, • Tra ining, Jun e 1995, pp. 73 -79; and S. Gru ner, ' Lasting Impressio ns,· Inc., July 1998, p. 126.
55 D. M. Cable. F. Gino, an d 8. R. Staats, "Breaking T hem In o r Eliciting Their Best? ReframingSocialization around Newcomers' Auth entic Self-Expressio n: Administrative Science Quarterly 58 (2013), pp. 1- 36; a nd M. Tuttle, "A Review and C ritique o f Va n Maanen and Sch e i n's Toward a Theory of Organizatio nal Socialization' a nd Implications fo r Human Resource Development," Human Rescurr:e Development Review I (2002), pp. 66- 90.
56 C. J. Collins, "The Interactive Effects o f Recruitment Practices and Product Awaren ess on Job Seekers' Em p loyer Knowledge a n d Ap pl icatio n Beh a vio rs: Jounial of Applied Psychology 92, no . I (2007), p p. 180- 190.
57 J. D. Ka mmeyer-Mueller and C. R. \.Vanberg, "Unwrapping the O rgan izatio n al Entry Process: Disentangling Multiple Antecedents and T h eir Pathways to Adjus tme nt,• Joumal of Applied Ps)'chology 88 (2003), pp. 779- 794; E. V\I. Morrison, ' Longitudinal Study of the Effects of Info rmation Seek ing on Newcomer Socialization," Journal of Applied Psychology 78 (2003), pp. 173 - 183; a nd M. Wangm, Y. Z han, E. McCune, a nd D. T ruxillo, "U nders tanding Newcome rs' Adaptab ility a n d Work-Re lated O utcomes: Testing th e Mediating Roles o f Pe rceived P-E Fit Variab les, · Personnel Ps)'c/10/og)' 64, n o. 1 (2011 ) , pp. 163- 189.
58 J. Gala ng, ' As \.Va ttpad Celeb rates 10th Birth day CEO Allen Lau S h a res Netfl ix- Like Amb itions,• accesssed Novemb e r 3, 2017, http://betakit.com/ as-wat tpad-celeb rates- JOth-bi rthday-ceo-a llen - l au -sh a re.<· n etfl ix -1 i ke-a m bi Lions/ .
59 Based o n S. Duu o n, "TELUS: A Pervasive Learn i ng C ultu re,· Business 10 Community, August 9, 2014 , h ttp ://www.business2 com mun ity.com/ huma n. resources/ tel U S· pervasive. (earn ing· c ult ure -keeps-e m p loyees-t uned-e ngaged-0967 431 # !bAwMv l ;
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60 E. \.V. Morrison, ' Newcomers' Relationships: The Ro le of Social Network Ties During Socialization, " Academy of Management Joumal 45 (2002), pp. 11 49- 11 60.
61 A. M. Saks a n d J. A. Gruma n, ' Getting Newcomers Engaged: T h e Ro le of Socialization Tactics, • Journal of Managerial Ps)'clwlogy 26 (2011 ), pp. 383- 402.
62 T. N. Bauer, T. Bodner, 8. Erdogan, D. M. Truxillo , a n d J. S. Tucker, "Newcomer Adjustment duri ng O rganizational Socia lization: A Meta-a na l}~ic Review o f Anteceden ts, Outcomes, a n d Methods,• Joumal of Applied Psyc/1olog,, 92, no. 3 (2007), pp. 707-721.
63 W. R. Boswell, A . J. S h ipp, S. C., Payne, and S. S. Culbertson, "Changes in Newcom er Job Satisfaction Over li me : Examining the Pattern of Ho n eymoons a n d Hangovers,· Journal of Applied Psychology 94, no. 4 (2009), pp . 844- 858; a nd W. R. Boswell, J. W. Boudreau, and J. Tichy, "The Rela tionship be tween Employee Job C ha nge a n d Job Satisfaction : The Hon eymoon-Hangover Effect, · Joumal of Applied Psyc/1olog,, 90 (2005), pp. 882- 892.
64 J. D. Ka mmeyer-Mu eller, C. R. Wanberg, A. L. Ru b enstein , a nd Z. Song. "Support, Undermining, and Newcomer Socialization: Fitt ing in duri ng t h e Fi rs t 90 Days,• Academy of Managemelll Joumal 56 (2013), pp. 1104- 1124; a nd M. Jokisaari a n d J. Nurmi, "Change in Newcomers' Supervisor Support and Socialization Outcomes after Organizational Entry," Academy of Management Joumal 52 (2009), pp. 527-544.
6 5 C. Vanden berghe, A. Panaccio , K. Bentei n, K. Mignonac, and P. Ro uS-<el, "AS-<e.ssi ng Lo ng itud ina l Ch a nge o f a nd Dyn a m ic Relatio nsh ips a mo n g Ro le St ressors, Job Allitudes, Turnover Inte ntio n, a n d Well-Being in Neophyte Newcome rs,• Journal of Organizational Behavior 32, no. 4 (2011 ), p p. 652- 671.
6 6 Vignetle based on M. Solo mo n, "To Transform Your Com pany Culture. Cha nge Your POV: Hyatt CEO's Perspective. • Forbes, May JI, 2015, h ttp://www.forbes.com/ s ites/ micahsolo mo n/ 2015/ 05/ 11/ transform -your-corporate-culture-by-changing-your-pov-th e-hyatt· ceo-interview/; and S. S ha nkm a n, "How Hyatt's CEO Empowers Employees to Drive th e Guest Experience: Skift, Decem ber 14, 2014, hup://s ki ft .com/ 2014/ I 2/ 15/ interview-h ow-hyatL<-ceo- ernpowers.ernployees· tO·d ri ve· the~guest·expe.rience/ .
6 7 R. Spence, 'Telling S to ries Makes fo r Happy Endings: National Post (Financial Post) , Ap ril 20, 2009, p . FP4.
68 S. L. Dailey and L. Brow ning, "Retelling Sto ries in O rganizations; Understa n ding the Fu nctio ns of Narrative Re petitio n,• Academ)' of Management Review 39 (2014), pp. 22- 43.
6 9 A. J. Shipp a nd K. J. Jansen, "Reinterpreting Time in Fit Theory: Crafting and Recrafting Narratives of Fit in Medias Res,· Academ)' of Management Review 36, no. I (2011 ), pp. 76 - 101.
70 See G. Isla m and M. J. Zyphur, ' Ri t u a ls i n O rga nizations: A Review and Expan., io n of Current Theol)', • Croup and Organization Management 34, no. I (2009), pp. 11 4- 139.
71 V. Matth ews, "Sta rting Every Day w ith a S h out and a So ng: Financial Times, May 2, 2001 , p. 11 ; and M. Gimein, "Sam \.Valton Made Us a Promise, · Fortune, Ma rch 18, 2002, pp. 121- 130.
72 M. G . Pratt and A. Rafaeli, "Artifacts and Organ izations: U n derst and i n g Our Object ive Reali t y: i n Art ifa cts and Organizations: Be)'ond Mere Symbolism, ed. A. Rafaeli and M. G. Pratt (Mahwah , NJ: Lawre nce Erlba um, 2006), pp . 279- 288.
73 Thanks to an ano ny mo us reviewer fo r adding these.
74 Than ks to a reviewer for this stOI)'.
75 Based on S. Sh ank man, "How Hyatt's CEO Empowers Employees to Drive the Guest Experie nce. " Skift, December 14, 2014, http ://
594 Endnotes
skift.com/ 2014/ l 2/ 15/ i nterview-how-hya tt.<-ceo-empowers- employees-to-drive-the-guest-experience/ .
76 J. P. Kotter, *Leading Changes: \.Vh y Transformation Efforts Fail,• Haroarrl Busi11e,s Review, March- April 1995, pp. 59- 67; andJ. P. Kotter, Lendi11g Cha11ge (Boston: Hatvard Business School Pres.,, 1996).
77 A. Ardichvilli, J. A. Mitchell, and D. Jondle, *Ch aracteristic.< of Ethical Busi ness Cultures,• Journal of Busi11ess Ethics 85, no . 4 (2009), pp. 445-451; and D. M. Mayer, *A Review of the Literature on Eth ica l Cl ima te a nd C ult ure, • in The Oxford Ha11dbook of Orga11izatio11al Climate a11d Culture, ed. B. Schneider and K. M. Barbera (New York: Oxford U niversity Press, 2014), pp. 415- 440.
78 Based on J. P. Mulki, J. F. Jaramillo, a nd \.V. B. Locander, *C ritical Role of Leadership o n Ethical Climate a nd Sale.sperson Behaviors,· Joumal of Business Ethics 86, no. 2 (2009), pp. 125- 141 ; M. Sch minke, M. L. Am brose, and D. 0. Neubaum, "The Effect of Leader Moral Development o n Ethical Climate and Employee Attitudes, " Organiz.al"io,ial Behavior and Huma,i Decision Processes 97, no. 2 (2005), pp. 135- 151; and M. E. Brown, L K. Trevino, and D. A. Harrison, *Ethical Leadership: A Social Learning Perspective fo r Construct Development and Testing, " Organiz.atio,ial Behavior a11d Huma11 Decisio11 Processes 97, no. 2 (2005), pp. 11 7- 134.
79 D. M. Mayer, M. Kuenzi, R. Greenbaum, M. Bardes, an d S. Salvador, *How Low Does Ethica l Leadership Flow? Te.st of a Trickle-Down Model," Organizational Behavior and Human Decisio,i Processes 108, no . I (2009), pp. 1- 13; a nd L. J. C hri stensen, A. Mackey, a nd D. W hetten, "Taki ng Responsib ility fo r Corporate Social Respon., ibility: Th e Ro le of Leaders in C reating. Implementing, Sustaini ng, o r Avoid ing Socially Responsib le Fi rm Behaviors,· Academr of Ma11agemet1t Perspectives 28 (2014 ), pp. 164- 178.
80 B. Sweeney, D. Arnold, and B. Pierce, "Th e Impact of Perceived Ethica l Cu ltu re of t h e Firm a nd Demograph ic Va riables on Auditors' Ethical Evaluation and Intention to Act Decisions," Joumal of Busi11ess Ethics 93, no. 4 (2010), pp. 531 - 551.
81 M. L. Gruys, S. M. Stewan, J. Goodstein, M. N. Bing. and A. C. Wick.,, "Values Enacunent in Organizations: A Mu lti. Leve.I fxa mination,"
Joumal of Managemetlt 34, no. 4 (2008), pp. 806- 843.
82 D. L. Nelson and C. L. Cooper, eds., Positive Orga11izational Behavior (London, UK: Sage, 2007); K. S. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, and R. E. Q uinn, eds., Positive Orga11izational Scholarship: Fo1mdatio11s of a New Discipli11e (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2003); and F. Luthans a nd C. M. Youssef, "Eme rging Positive O rganizational Behavior, · Joumal of Ma11ageme11t, June 2007, pp. 321 - 349.
83 J. Rob ison, *Grea t Leaders h ip under Fi re, • Gallup Leadership Joumal, March 8, 2007, pp. 1- 3.
84 R. Wagner and J. K. Haner, l 2: Tire Elemellts of Great Ma11agi11g (New York: Gallup Press, 2006).
85 S. Finema n, .. On Being Positive: Concerns and Counterpoints," Academy of Ma11ageme11t Review 31, no. 2 (2006), pp. 270- 291.
86 P. Dvorak, *A Firm's Cultu re Can Get Lost in Transla tion." Wall Street Jouma/, April 3, 2006, pp. Bl , 83; K. Kra nhold , "'The lmmelt Era, Five Years Old, Transforms GE,• \.Vall Street Joumal, September II, 2006, pp. Bl , 83; and S. McCartney, "Teach ing Americans How to Beh ave Abroad,• \.Vall Street Jouma/, April II, 2006, pp. D I, 04.
87 D. J. McCanhy a nd S. M. Pu ffe r, ' Interpre ting the Ethica lity of Corporate Governance Decision in Rus.o;ia: Utilizing Integra tive
Social Contracts Theory to Evaluate the Relevance of Agency Theory Norms." AcademrofManagemellt Review 33, no. I (2008), pp. 11- 31.
88 P. Monin, N. Noorderhavin, E. Vaara, and D. Kroon, *G iving Sense to an d Making Sense of Justice in Posunerger Integration.· Academy of Ma11ageme11t Jouma/, February 2013, pp. 256- 284; A. Sim h a and J. B. Cu llen, *Ethical Clima tes and Th eir Effects o n Organizational O utcomes: Impl icatio ns fro m th e Past and Proph ecies fo r the Future, • Academy of Management Perspectives. November 2011, pp. 20- 34; a nd E. Vaara and J. lienari, ' On the Narrative Con.struction of Multinational Corporations: An Antena rrative Ana lysis of
Legitimation and Resi'itance in a C r~ · Border Merger," Organizatio,i Science, March- April 2011, pp. 370- 390.
8 9 Based o n B. Azar, *Po.,itive Psychology Advances, w ith Growing Pains." Mo11itor 011 Psrchologr, April 2011, pp. 32 - 36; A. Grant, "How C usto m ers Can Ral ly Your T roops," Harvard Busi,iess Review, June 2011, http://h b r.o rg/2011/ 06/ how-custom ers-can- rally-you r-troops/ a r/ l ; and J. McCarthy, • 5 Big Problems w ith Po.,it iveThin ki ng (And \.Vh y You Sh ould Do It Anyway),* Positive Psrclwlog)', October 5 , 2010 , http://psych o logyofwellbeing. co m/ 201010/ 5 -big-p rob )ems-with -positive-th inki ng-a nd -wh y- you-should-do-i t-a nyway.htm l.
90 F. G ino, "Ba n king C ultu re Encourages D ish o n esty,· Scie11tific American , December 30, 2014, http://www.scientificame ri· ca n.com/ a rticle/ banki ng-cu ltu re-encourages-dish o n esty/; A. Cohn, E. Feh r, a n d M. A. Ma rech al, *Business C ulture and Dish one.sty in the Banking Industry." Nature, 2014, doi: 10. 1038/ naturel 3977; L. Geggel, "FIFA Scandal: The Complicated Scien ce of Corruption,• Scientific America11, May 31, 2015 , h ttp://\\~VW. scientificamerica n.com/ anicle/ fifa -scanda l-the-com pl icated- science-0f-co rruptionJ; and K. Radnedge, *Culture Change Required If FIFA Is to Elim inate Wrongdoing. • World Soccer, May 29, 2015, h ttp://\\~vw.worldsoccer.com/ columnists/ keir-radnedge/ culture- change-req u ired· if. ft fa . is. to -el i m i na te-w ro ngdo i ng-3 6 2 2 7 8.
91 B. Lanks, "Don't Get Too Cozy,· Bloomberg B11si11essweek, October 30, 2014, h ttp:f f ,vww.busines-sweekme.com/ Bloomberg/ news- mid/ 190/ newsid/ 271; M. Ko nnikova, "The Open-Office Trap." New Yorker, January 7, 2014, h ttp://www.newyorker.com/ business/ curren cy/ the-open -office-trap; and N. Ashkanasy, 0. B. Ayoko, an d K. A. Jeh n, "Understanding the Physica l Enviro nme nt of Work and Employee Behavior: An Affective Events Perspective, • Joumal of Orga11izational Behavior 35 (2014 ). pp. 1169- 1184.
92 J. Murphy, "At Patagonia, Trying New Outdoor Adventures Is a Job Require m ent." Wall Street Joumal, March JO, 2015, http://\\~Vw. wsj.com/ articles/ at· patagonia·trying. new.outdoor.adventures· is-a-job-requirem en t -1425918931; B. Schulte, "A Company That Profits as It Pa m pers Workers, · Washi11gton Post, October 2 5, 2014, http:/ / www. was hi ngtonpost.com/ busi ness/ a-company- that-profits-as-it-pa mpers-workers/ 2014/ 10/ 22/ d33 21b34-4818- ll e4-b 7 2e-d60a9229cc l0 _story. html; a n d D. Baer, ' Patagoni a CEO: There's No Way I Sh o uld Make O n e Decision Based o n Quarterl y Resulu ; • B11si11ess l11Sider, Novem ber 19, 2014, h ttp:// www.bus inessinsider.com/ patagonia·ceo· intetview. 2014· 11.
93 Ideas in this featu re were influen ced by A. L Wilki ns, "Th e Culture Audit: A Tool fo r Understanding O rgan izations." Orga11izntio11al D)•t1amics, Autumn I 983, pp. 24- 38; H. M. Trice a n d J.M. Beyer, The Cultures of Work Orga11izatio11s (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pre nt ice Ha ll, I 993), pp. 35 8- 362; H. Lancaster, "To Avoid a Job Failure, Learn the Culture of a Com pany First,• Wall Street Joumal, July 14, 1998, p. Bl; and M. Belliveau, •4 'A'ays to Read a Company,• Fast Com pan)', October I 998, p. 158.
Chapter 11
1 Vig nette based on http://kellyalovell.com/ about-kellylovell/; J. Schroeder, .. How Volunteerism Can Help Kicks tart Your Career,"
Forbes, April 14, 2016, h ttps://www.forbe.s.com/ s ites/ julesschro- eder / 20 I 6 / 04 / 14 / h ow -vo I u n teerism -can-help-kickstart-you r · career/ #481cbd!3! 883; and M. Anderson, "Young and Restless." IFP, August I , 2013, http://www.lfpress.com/ 2013/ 08/ 01/ young- and· re.'itJess.
2 See T. A. Judge, J. E. Bono, R. ll ies, a n d M. W. Gerhard t, *Person ality a nd Leaders h ip: A Qualitat ive and Quantitative Review,• Joumal of Applied Psrclwlogr, August 2002, pp. 765-780.
3 Based on D. Fost, *Survey Finds Many Workers Mistrust Bosses,• Sa11 Francisco Clrronicle, January 3, 2007, http://www.sfgate.com; and T. Weiss, "The Narcissistic CEO." Forbes, August 29, 2006, http://www.forbes.com .
4 C. C. Eckel, E. Fatas, a n d R. 'Nilson, "Coopera tio n a n d Status in O rgan izations,· Journal of Public Economic Theory 12, no. 4 (2010), pp. 737-762.
5 D. R. Ames a nd F. J. Flyn n , "v\lh at Breaks a Leader: The Curvilinear Relatio n be tween Assertiveness and Leadership," Jounial of Personality and Social Psycltology 92, no. 2 (2007), p p. 307- 324.
6 A. E. Colbert, M. R. Barrick, a nd B. H. Bradley, "Persona lity a n d Leadership Compositio n in Top Managemen t Teams: Implication.< fo r O rganizatio na l Effectivene.<S, • Personnel Psycltology 67 (2014 ) , pp. 351- 387.
7 K.-Y. Ng, S. An g, and K. C h a n , " Pe rsonali ty and Leade r Effectiven ess: A Moderated Media tio n Model of Leadership Self. Efficacy, Job Dem a nds, and Job Autonomy; Jo urnal of Applied Psyc!wlog)' 93, n o. 4 (2008), pp . 733-743.
8 R. B. Kaiser, J. M. LeBret on, and J. Hoga n, ' T h e Dark Side of Persona lity a nd Extreme Leader Behavior,· Applied Psrclwlogy: An International Review 64, no. 1 (2015), pp. 55 - 92.
9 B. H. Gadd is a n d J. L. Fost er, ' Meta-ana lysis of Da rk Side Personal i ty Characte ristics a nd Critica l \+Vo rk Be h av io rs a mo ng Leaders across th e G lo b e: Find ings a n d Im p lications fo r Leadership Developm ent a nd Executive Coaching; Applied Psyc!wlogr: An llllemational Review 64, n o. I (2015), p p. 25- 54.
10 R. H. Hump hrey, J. M. Pollack, a nd T. H. Hawver, "Leading w ith Emotiona l Labor: Journal of Managerial Psycltology 23 (2008), pp. 151- 168.
11 F. Wa lter, M. S. Cole, a n d R. H . H u m p h rey, " Em o t iona l Intelligen ce: Sine Qua Non o f Leadership o r Folderol?" Academy of Management Perspectives, Feb ruary 2011, pp. 45- 59.
ll S. Cote, P. N. Lopez, P. Salovey, a nd C. T. H. Miners, "Em otional In tel ligence and Leade rsh ip Em e rgen ce in Small Crou ps,· Leaders/tip Quarterly 21 (2010), pp. 496- 508.
13 N. En.sari, R. E. Riggio, J. C hris tian, and C. Carslaw, "Who Emerges as a Leader? Meta-analyses o f Ind ividual Differences a< Predictors of Leadership Eme rgence,• Personality and illdividual Differences, September 2011, pp. 532- 536.
14 T his re.search is updated in T. A. Judge, R. F. Piccolo , a nd R. llies, "The Forgotten O nes?The Valid ity of Con.,ideration a nd Initiating St ructure in Leadership Research,• Journal of Applied Psrcltolog)', Februa ry 2004, pp. 36-51.
15 D. Akst, 'Th e Rewards of Recognizing a Job Well Done,• Wall Street Jouma/, January 31 , 2007, p. 0 9.
16 R. Ka h n a n d D. Katz, ' Leaders h ip Pract ices i n Relat ion to Productivity a nd Morale,• in Croup Dynamics: Researclt and Theory, 2 nd ed., ed. D. Cartw right a n d A. Zan der (El msford , NY: Row, Paterson, 1960).
17 T. A. Judge, R. F. Piccolo, a nd R. llies, 'The Forgotten O n es? The Validity of Consideratio n and Initia ting Structure in Leaders hip Research,· Journal of Applied Psycltology, Februa ry 2004, pp. 36- 51.
18 S. Derue, J. Nahrgang, N. Wellman, and S. Hu mphrey. 'Trait a n d Beh avioral Theorie.< of Leadership: An Integrat io n a n d Meta- a nalytic Test of th e ir Re lative Valid ity,· Personnel Psrcl1olog)' 64 (2011), pp. 7-52.
19 F. E. Fiedler, A Theory of Leadersh ip Ef fectiveness (New York : McGraw-Hill, 1967) .
2 0 See, fo r example, C . T h o mpson and R. P. Vecchio, "Situational Leadership Theory: A Test o f Th ree Versions,• Leaders/tip Quarterly 20, n o. 5 (2009), p p 837-848; and R. P. Vecchio, C. R. Bullis, and D. M. Brazil, "The Utility of Situational Leadership Theory- A Replication in a Military Setting, · Small Croup Researclt 37, no. 5 (2006), pp. 407- 424.
21 R. Fe hr, K. C. Yam, a n d C. Dang, ' Moralized Leadersh ip: The Con.<tructio n and Con.sequences of Ethical Leader Perceptions,• Academy of Managemen t Review 40, no. 2 (2015) , pp. 182- 209; and M. Hernandez, C. P. Long, a nd S. B. Sitkin, "Cultivating Follower
Endnotes 595
T rust: Are All Leader Behaviors Equa lly Influen tial!" Organization Studies 35, no. 12 (2014), p p. 1867- 1892.
22 S. J. Per ry, L. A. \<\litt, L. M. Pe n ney, a n d L. Atwater, "Th e Downside of Coal-Focused Leadership: The Ro le of Personality in Subord inate Exh aust io n,· Joumal of Applied Psrcltology 9 5, no. 6 (2010), pp. 1145- 1153.
23 S. H . Ma lik, H. Sika nda r, H. Hassa n, a nd S. Aziz , "Path Coal Theory: A Study of Jo b Satisfaction in Telecom Sector,• in C. Da n (ed.), Management and Service Science 8 (2001), pp. 12 7- 134; a n d R. R. Vecchio, J. E. Justin, a nd C. L. Pearce, "The Ut ility of Transactio nal a nd Transform at ional Leaders h ip fo r Predicting Pe rfor m a nce a n d Sa t isfact io n w it h in a Path -Coa l T h eo ry Framework, • Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psycltology 81 (2008), pp. 71 - 82.
24 Vig n ette based o n J. Schroeder, "How Volunteeris m Can He lp Kick.start Your Career: Forbes, April 14, 2016, h ttps://www.forbes. com/ sit es/ julessch roeder / 2016/ 04 / J 4 / how-vol u n teerism-ca n - h e l p -kick.<tart-you r-career/ # 481 cbd 131883; C. Ip , "Kelly Lovell He lps Youth Discover the ir Voice: Coldlakesun.com, May 27, 2015, h ttp://www.cold la kesun.com/ 201 5/05/ 2 7 / kelly-lovell - h e l ps·youth· discover· the ir·voice; a nd B. Vrbanac, *Waterloo Youth Motiva tor Kelly Lovel l Recogn ized by t h e Queen,• Water/00Cl1ro11icle .ca, Dece m be r 9 , 2015, http s:// www. wa te rlooch ro nicle.ca/ news-s tory/ 6 166021 -waterloo-yout h - mo tivator-ke l ly-lovel J. recognized-by-th e-queen/ .
25 M. Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Orga,iization, trans. A. M. He nderson a n d T. Parsons (New York: The Free Press, 1947).
26 J. A. Conger and R. N. Kanu ngo, ' Beh aviora l Di mensio n s of C h arismatic Leaders h ip ,• in Cliarismalic Leaders/tip, ed. J. A. Conger a n d R. N. Kanungo (Sa n Francisco: Jo.ssey-Bass, 1988), p. 79; and A.-K. Samnani and P. Singh, "\<\lh e n Leaders Victi m ize: The Role of C ha ris ma tic Leaders in Faci litating Croup Pressures,• Leadership Quarter/)' 24, no. 1 (February 2013), pp. 189- 202.
2 7 V. Seyra n ia n a n d M . C. Bl igh , "Pres ident ial C h a ris m atic Leadersh ip: Exp loring the Rhe to ric of Social Change,• Leadership Quarterly 19, no. I (2008), pp. 54- 76.
28 A. Xen ikou, "T h e Cogn it ive a n d Affect ive Com p o n en ts of O rganisation a l Ide nti fi cat io n : The Role of Perceived Support Values and Cha ris m atic Leadership , · Applied PS)"cltology: An llllemational Review 63, n o. 4 (2014), pp. 5 67-588.
29 P. A. Vlachos, N. C . Pa n agop ou los, a n d A. A. Rapp, "Feeling Good by Doing Good: Emp loyee CSR-Induced Attri butions, Job Satisfaction, a nd th e Role of Cha rismatic Leadership,• Journal of Business Et/tics 118, no . 3 (2013), p p. 577- 588.
30 A.H. B. De Hoogh a nd D. N. Den Hartog, "Neuroticis m a nd Locus of Control as Moderato rs o f the Relationships o f Cha ris ma tic and Autocratic Leadership with Bu rno ut: Journal of Applied Psrcltology 94, no. 4 (2009), pp. 1058- 1067 .
31 F. Coh e n , S. Solo m on, M. Maxfield , T. Pyszczynski, a n d J. G reenberg, "Fata l Attraction: The Effects of Morta lity Salience on Eva luations of Ch aris m atic, Task-O riented , a nd Re latio n.,hip- O rie n t ed Leaders, · Psycltological Science, Decem ber 2004, pp. 846- 851; a n d M. C. Eh rhart a nd K. J. Kle in, ' Predicti ng Followers' Preferences for Ch a ris ma tic Leadership: The Influence of Follower Values and Pe rsonality,• Leaders/tip Quarterly, Summer 2001, p p. 153 - 179 .
32 K. Lev i n e , R. Mue n c h en , a n d A . Brooks, ' Measuri n g Tra nsform ational and C h arisma t ic Leadership: W h y Is n ' t Charis ma Measured ?* Commu ,iication Mo,iograplis 77, no . 4 (2010), pp. 576 -591.
33 A. Erez, V. F. Misan gy i, D. E. Johnson , M . A. Le Pine, a n d K. C. Halverson, *Stirring th e Hearts of Fol lowers: Cha ris matic Leadership a< th e Transferal of Affect,• Journal of Applied Psyc!wlogy 93, no. 3 (2008), pp. 602- 615. For reviews on the role of vis io n in leadership, see S. J. Zaccaro, "Visionary a n d Inspi ratio na l Models of Exerutive Leadership: Empirical Review and Eva luation,* i n
596 En dnotes
Tlte Nawre of Executive Leadership: A Conceptual and Empirical A11al)'sis of Success, ed. S. J. Zaccaro (Washington, DC: Am e rican Psychological Associatio n, 2001 ), pp. 259- 2 78; and M. Hauser and R. J. House, "Lead Through Visio n a nd Values,• in Handbook of Pri11ciples of Orga11iza1io11al Behavior, ed. E. A. Locke (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004), pp. 257-273.
34 D. N. Den Hartog, A. H. 8. De Hoogh, a nd A. E. Keegan, "The Interactive Effects of Belo ngingness a nd C h a rism a o n Helping and Complia nce, • Journal of Applied PS)'cltologr 92, no. 4 (2007 ), pp. ll 31- 1139.
35 See, for insta nce, R. Khurana, Searr;/1i11g for a Corporate Savior: Tiie Irrational Quest for Cltarismaric CEOs ( Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002); and J. A. Raelin, "'The Myth of Charismatic Leaders: Trai11i11g & Developmellt, March 2003, pp. 47- 54.
3 6 8 . M. Galvin, D. A. Wa ldman, a nd P. Balt h azard, "Vis ionary Commun ication Qualities as Mediators of th e Relationsh ip between Narcissism and Attributions of Leader Charisma, " Perso1111el Psycl1ologr 63, no. 3 (2010), pp. 509- 53 7.
3 7 See, for i nstance, D. Deichma nn and D. Stam , .. Leveragi ng
Transformational a nd Transactional Leadership to Cultiva te th e Generatio n of Organ iza tion . focused Ideas," Leadership Quarterly 26, no. 2 (2015 ), pp. 204- 219; H.·J. \,Volfra m and L. Gratton, "Gender Role Self-Concept, Categorical Gender, and Transactio na l.Transformational Leadersh ip: Imp lications fo r Perceived Workgroup Perform ance, • Jour11al of Leaders/tip & Orga11izational Swdies 21, no. 4 (2014), pp. 338- 3 53; and T. A. Judge and R. F. Piccolo, "Transform ational and Transactiona l Leadership: A Meta-analytic Test ofTheir Relative Valid ity,· Journal of Applied PS)'cl1olos,•, October 2004, pp. 75 5-768.
3 8 A. E. Colbert, M. R. Barrick, a nd 8. H. Bradley, "Persona lity and Leadership Composition in Top Managemen t Teams: Implications fo r O rganizatio na l Effectiveness,· Perso11nel Ps)'cltology 67 (2014 ), pp. 3 51- 387.
3 9 A. M. Grant, "Lead ing w ith Mean ing: Ben eficiary Contact, Pro.social Impact, and the Performa nce Effects of Transformationa l Leadersh ip, • Academ)' of Management Journal 5 5 (2012), pp. 458- 4 76.
40 D. Deich man n a nd D. Stam, "Leveraging Transformatio nal a nd Tra nsactiona l Leadership to Cu ltivate the Generation of Organ ization -Focused Ideas, • Leaders/tip Quarterly 26, n o . 2 (2015), pp. 204- 219; and H.·J. \.Volfra m and L. Gratto n, "Gender Ro le Self-Co n cept, Ca tego rica l Gender, and Tra n sact iona l. T ransform atio nal Leadersh ip : I m p l ica tions for Pe rceived Workgroup Performance,· Joumal of Leaders/tip & Orga11iZ11tional Studies 21, no. 4 (2014), pp. 338- 353.
41 T. R. H in kin a n d C. A. Sch riescheim, "An Exam ina t io n of 'Non leadersh ip ' : From Laissez-Fai re Leaders h ip to Leader Reward Omission a nd Punishment Omission,• Joumal of Applied Ps)'clwlog)' 93, no. 6 (2008), pp. 1234- 1248.
42 Y. Li ng, Z. S i m sek, M. H. Lubat k in, a n d J. F. Ve iga, "Transform ational Leadersh ip's Role in Promoting Corporate
Entrepreneurship: Examin ing the CEO-TMT Interface: Academy of Ma11agement Journal 51, no. 3 (2008), pp. 557 -576.
43 X. Zha ng a nd K. M. Barto l, "Li nk ing Em powering Leadershi p and Em p loyee Crea t iv ity: T h e Infl u ence of Psych o logical Em powermen t, Intrinsic Motiva tio n, and C reative Process Engagem ent: Academ)' of Ma11agement Joumal 53, no. I (2010), pp. 107- 128.
44 S. A. Eisenbei S and S. Boerner, "A Double-Edged Sword : Transformatio nal Leadership a nd Individual C reativity,· Britislt Joumal of Ma11ageme11t 24 (2013), pp. 54 - 68.
4 5 A. E. Colbert, A. E. Kristof-Brown, 8. H. Bradley, a nd M. R. Barrick, "CEO Transforma tiona l Leadership: Th e Role of Goal Importance Congruence in Top Management Teams," Academy of Management Joumal 51, no. I (2008), pp. 81- 96.
46 D. Z.Oh a r and 0. Tenne-Gazit, "1'ra n.,formational Leadersh ip a nd C roup Interaction as Climate Antecedent.~: A Social Network An a lysis, · Journal of Applied Ps yc /Jolog)' 93 , n o. 4 (2008), pp. 744- 757.
47 R. T. Ke ller, "Transformational Leadership, Initi ating Structure, a n d Substitutes for Leadership: A Long it udina l Study of Research and Developme nt Project Team Pe rform ance,• Joumal of Applied PS)'cltologr 91, no. I (2006), pp. 202- 210.
48 G. Wa n g , I. O h , S. H . Court righ t, a n d A. E. Colbe rt , "Transformationa l Leadership and Performance across Criteria and Levels: A Meta-analytic Review of 25 Years of Research,• Group a11d Organizatio11 Ma11agement 36, no. 2 (20ll ), pp. 223- 270.
4 9 Y. Ling, Z. Simsek, M. H. Lubatkin, a nd J. F. Veiga, 'The Impact of Transformational CEOs on the Performance of Sma ll- to Medium . Sized Firms: Does O rganizational Con text Matter?" Joumal of Applied PS)'cl1ologr 93, no. 4 (2008), pp. 923- 934.
50 X. Wang and J. M. Howell, "Explo ring the Dual-Level Effects of Transform ationa l Leaders hip on Followers,• Journal of Applied PS)'cltologr95, no. 6 (2010), pp. 1134 - 1144.
51 N . Li, D. S. Chiaburu, 8. L. Kirkman, a n d Z. Xie, "Spotlight on the Followers: An Examination of Moderators of Relationships between Tra nsfo rmat iona l Leadersh ip and S ubord i nates' C itizenship and Taking Charge: Personnel PS)'cl1ologr 66 (2013), pp. 225-260.
52 R. J. House, M. Jav idan , P. Ha n ges, a n d P. Dorfman, "Understanding Cu ltures and Implicit Leadership Theories across the Globe: An Int roduction to Project GLOBE; Joumal of World Business, Spring 2002, pp. 3 - 10.
53 D. E. Carl an d M. Javidan, "Universality of Charismatic Leadership: A Multi-Nation Study" (paper p resen ted at the Natio na l Academy of Managemen t Conference, Washington, DC, August 2001 ) , p. 29.
54 J. Schaubroeck, S. S. K. La m, a n d S. E. Cha, "Em bracing Transform a t iona l Leadersh ip: Tea m Values a n d th e Impact of Leader Behavior o n Team Perform a nce, · Journal of Applied PS)'cltologr 92, no. 4 (2007) , pp. 1020- 1030.
55 J. Liu, 0. Siu , a nd K. Shi, "Transform a t io n a l Leadersh ip and Em p loyee Well-Being: The Mediating Role of Trust in the Leader and Self-Efficacy; Applied Ps)'clwlogr: A11 /11ten1ational Review 59, no. 3 (2010), pp. 4 54 - 4 79.
56 S. J. Shin a n d J. Zho u , "Transform at iona l Leade rship, Conservation, and C reativity: Evidence from Korea,,. Academy of Ma11age111ent Jour11al , Dece m be r 2003, pp. 7 03 - 714 ; V. J. Ga rcia-Morales, F. J. Llo re ns-Montes, and A. J. Verdu-Jover, 'The Effects of Transformatio na l Leadersh ip on Organizational r erforma nce th rough Knowledge a nd In nova tio n," British Joumal of Manageme11t 19, n o. 4 (2008), pp. 299- 313; and S. A. Eisen beiS, D. van Knippen berg, and S. Boerner, "Transforma tional Leadership a nd Tea m Innovation: Integrating Team Climate Pri nciples,· Journal of Applied Psychology 93, no. 6 (2008), pp. 1438- 1446.
5 7 F. 0. \.Valum bwa, 8. J. Avolio, and W. Zhu, "How Tran.,formationa l Leadersh ip Weaves Its Influence on Individua l Job Performa n ce: The Ro le of Iden tification and Efficacy Beliefs,• Perso1111el PS)'cltologr 61, no. 4 (2008), pp. 793- 82 5.
5 8 Y. Gong, J. Huang, a nd J. Farh, "Employee Learning O rie ntation, Transformation a l Leadersh ip, and Em ployee C reat iv ity: Th e Mediati ng Ro le of Employee C reative Self-Efficacy,· Academy of Ma11ageme11t Journal 52, no. 4 (2009), pp. 765-778.
5 9 J. E. Bono a nd T. A. Judge, "Self-Concordance a t Work: Toward Understa nd ing th e Motivationa l Effects of Transformational Leade rs,· Academy of Ma11age111e111 Jour11al, October 2003, pp. 55 4 - 5 71; Y. Berson and 8. J. Avol io , "Tra nsform ational Leadersh ip a nd the D issemi natio n of Orga n izationa l Goals: A Case Study of a Telecommunication Firm,• Leaders/tip Quarterly, October 2004, pp. 625- 646; and J. Schaubroeck, S.S. K. Lam, and
S. E. Cha, "Embraci ng Transformationa l Leadership: Team Values and the Impact of Leader Behavio r on Team Perfo rma nce,• Journal of Applied Psycl1olog,• 92, no. 4 (2007), pp. 1020- 1030.
60 S. Auh, B. Mengue, and Y. Ju ng, ·unpacking t h e Rela tionsh ip between Empoweri ng Leaders h i p and Service. O rien ted Citizenship Behavio rs: A Mu lti level Approach,• Jounial of the Academy of Marketing Science 42 (2014), pp. 558- 579.
61 M. Birasnav, "Knowledge Managem ent and O rgan izationa l Performance in the Service Industry: T h e Role ofTransformationa l Leadership Beyond th e Effects of Transactional Leadership,· Journal of Business Research 67, n o. 8 (2014), pp. 1622 - 1629; H. Hetland, G. M. Sa ndal, and T. B. Jo h nsen, •Bu rnout i n the Info rm atio n Tech n o logy Secto r: Does Leadersh ip Matter?" European Journal of Work and Organizational Psrchology 16, no. I (2007), pp. 58- 75; and A. K. Tyssen, A. Wald, a nd S. Heidenreich, •Leadership in the Context of Temporary O rgan izations: A Study o n the Effects of Transactiona l a nd Transformational Leadership o n Followers' Commitment in Projects,• Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies 21, no. 4 (2014), pp. 376- 393.
62 Vignette based on "Startup Canada Podcast: Lovell Corp. CEO on l n.,pi ring Young Entrepreneurs,· Betakit, April II, 2017, http:// beta kit. com/ s tartu p-canad a · pod cast· I ovel I -corp-ceo-0 n · i n.,p i ring· young-e ntrep re neurs/.
63 See B. J. Avolio, ""· L Gardne r, F. 0. Walu m bwa, F. Luthans, and D. R. May, · unlocking the Ma,k: A Look at the Process by Which Auth e ntic Leaders Impact Follower Attitude.< and Behavio rs,· Leadership Quarterly, December 2004, pp. 801 - 823; W. L. Gardner and J. R. Schermerh orn Jr., •performance Gains through Positive Orga nizational Behavio r and Authentic Leadersh ip," Organizntional Dynamics, August 2004, pp. 270- 281; and M. M. Novicevic, M . G. Ha rvey, M. R. Buckley, J. A. Brown-Radford, a nd R. Evans, •Authent ic Leaders hip: A Historical Perspective,· Journal of Leadership and Organizational Behavior 13, no. 1 (2006), pp. 64- 76.
64 • Expect to Make a D i ffe rence, Be an Auth ent ic Leader and Have In tegrity; York Univers ity, October 22, 2014, h ttp://yfile. news. yo rku.ca/2014/ 10/22/expect-to-m ake-a -di fference-be- a n-authentic-leader· have· integrity/.
65 B. P. Owens and D. R. Hekma n , "Model ing How to G row: An l nd uctive Exam i nat ion of Hu m b le Leade r Behaviors, Contingencies, and Outcomes," Academy of Management Jountal 55 (2012), pp. 787- 818.
66 K. M. Hmieleski, M. S. Cole, and R. A. Baron, •shared Authentic Leadership and New Ven ture Performance,• Journal of Managemelll, September 2012, pp. 1476- 1499.
67 R. Hies, F. P. Morgeson, a nd J. D. Nah rgang, •Au thentic Leadership a nd Eudaemonic Wellbeing: Unders tand ing Leader-Follower O utcom es,• Leadership Quarter/)' I 6 (2005), pp. 373 - 394.
68 J. Stouten, M. van Dijke, and D. De C rem er, • Ethical Leadersh ip: An Overview and Future Perspectives," Journal of Perso1rnel Psyc/10/og)' 11 (2012). pp. 1- 6.
69 J. M. Schaubroeck, S. T. Hannah, B. J. Avolio, S. VJ. J. Kozlowski, R. G. Lord, L. K. Trevino, N. Dimotakis, and A. C. Peng, "Embedding Eth ical Leadership with in and across O rganizatio n Levels," Academy of Management Journal 55 (2012), pp. 1053 - 1078.
70 K. M. Kacmar, D. G. Bachrach, K. J. Ha rr is, a nd S. Zivnuska, • Foste ri n g Good Ci t izenship th rough Eth ica l Leadership: Explo ring the Moderating Ro le of Gender and Organizationa l Politics,• Journal of Applied Psychology 96, n o. 3 ( May 2011 ) , pp. 633- 642; and F. 0. Walumbwa a nd J. Schaubroeck, • l eader Persona lity T ra its a nd Employee Voice Behavior: Mediati ng Role.< of Ethical Leadersh ip and \<\fork Gro u p Psychological Safety,· Joumal of Applied Ps)'chology 94, no. 5 (2009), pp. 1275- 1286.
71 D. M. Mayer, K. Aqu ino, R. L. G reenbau m, and M. Kuenzi, ·who Displays Ethical Leadership, and \<\lhy Does It Matter?
Endnotes 597
An Exa mination of Antecedents a nd Consequences of Ethical Leadership," Academy of Managemelll Joumal 55 (2012), pp. I 51- 171.
72 D. van Knippenberg, D. De C re m e r, a nd B. van Knippen berg, •Leadership and Fairnes.<: The State of the Art,• European Joumal of Work and Organizational Psychology 16, no. 2 (2007), pp. 113- 140.
73 M. E. Brown and L. K. T rev iiio, "Socialized C h a rism a t ic Leadership, Value.< Congruen ce, a nd Deviance in Work G ro ups,• Journal of Applied Psycl1olog,• 91, no. 4 (2006), pp. 954- 962.
74 M. E. Brown a n d L. K. T revi iio, "Leader-Fol lower Val u es Congruence: Are Socia lized Cha ris m atic Leaders Better Ab le to Achieve It?' Joumal of Applied Psychology 94, no. 2 (2009), pp. 478- 490.
75 S. A. Eise n be i& and S. R. Giessner, "The Em ergence a n d Maintenance of Ethical Leadership in O rganizations,· Joumal of Personnel Ps)'c/10/ogy 11 (2012), pp. 7- 19.
7 6 D. van Dierendonck. ·s.ivant Leadership : A Review and Syn thesis,•
Joumal of Managemelll 37, no. 4 (2011 ). pp. 1228- 1261.
7 7 S. J. Peterso n, F. M . Ga lv i n, a n d D. Lange, "CEO Serva nt Leadersh ip : Exploring Executive Cha racteristics a nd Fi rm Performance,• Personnel Ps)'c/10/og)' 65 (2012). pp. 565- 596.
78 F. \<\lalumbwa, C. A. Hartnell, and A. Oke, ·servant Leaders hi p, Proced u ral Justice Climate, Service Climate, Employee Attitudes, a nd Organ iza tional C itizenship Behavior: A Cross. Level Investigat ion,• Journal of Applied Psycholog)' 95, n o. 3 (2010), pp. 517- 529.
79 D. De C rem er, D. M. Mayer, M. van Dijke, B. C. Schouten, a nd M. Bardes, "\<\/h en Does Self.Sacrificial Leadership Motivate Prosocial Behavio r? It Depends o n Followers' Prevention Focus," Jountal of Applied Psycl1olog,• 2009, no. 4 (2009), pp. 887- 899.
80 J. Hu and R. C. Liden, "An teceden ts of Team Potency a nd Tea m Effectiven ess: An Examination of Goal a nd Process C larity a nd Serva nt Leadersh ip,· Journal of Applied Psychology, 96, no. 4 (July 2011 ), pp. 851 - 862.
81 M. J. Neubert, K. M. Kacm ar, D. S. Carlson, L. B. Chonko, a nd J. A . Roberts, "Regu latory Focus a< a Mediator of the Influence of Initiating Structure and Servant Leadership on Employee Behav ior,• Journal of Applied Ps)'c/10/ogy 93, no. 6 (2008), pp. 1220- 1233.
82 R. C . Liden, S. J. \<\layne, C. Liao, and J. D. Meu ser, "Serva nt Leadership and Serving Culture: Influen ce o n Individual a nd Unit Performance,· Academ)' of Management Journal 57, no. 5 (2014), pp. 1434- 1452.
83 See, fo r exam p le, L. J. Zachary, The Melllor's Guide: Facilitating Effective Leaming Relationships (San Francisco: Jos.,ey-Bass, 2000); M. Murray, Beyond the Myths and Magic of Mentoring: How 10 Facilitate an Effective Mentoring Process, rev. ed. (New York: Wiley. 2001 ); a nd F. Warner, ' Inside Intel's Mento ring Movem ent,· Fast Onnpany, April 2002, pp. 116- 120.
84 C. R. Wanberg, E. T. Welsh, a nd S. A. Hezlett, 'Mentori ng Research: A Review and Dynamic Process Model," in G. R. Ferris a nd J. J. Martocch io (eds.), Research in Personnel and Human Resources Managemelll, vol. 22 (Greenwich, CT: Elsevier Science, 2003), pp. 39- 124; and T. D. Alle n, "Protege Select ion by Mento rs : Contribut ing Individual a nd Organizational Factors,· Joumal of Vocational Behavior 65, no. 3 (2004), pp. 469- 483.
8 5 See, fo r exam p le, D. B. Turban T. v,,1_ Dougherty, and F. K. Lee, •Gender, Race, and Perceived Similarity Effects in Developmenta l Re la tionships: The Moderating Role of Relationship Du ratio n,• Journal of Vocational Behavior, October 2002, pp. 240- 262.
8 6 J. U. C h un, J. J. Sosik, and N. Y. Yun, •A Long itud inal S tudy of Mentor and Protege O utco m es i n Form a l Mento ring Relationships," Joumal of Organizntional Behavior, November 12, 2012, pp. 35- 49.
598 Endnotes
87 B. R. Ragins a nd J. L. Cotton, ' Mentor Fun ctions and O utcomes: A Com parison of Men and Wom e n in Form al a nd Informa l Mentoring Relationsh ips,• Joun1al of Applied Psychology, August 1999, pp. 529- 550; and C. M. Underhill, "The Effectiveness of Mento ring r rogra ms i n Corporate Setti ngs: A Meta-ana lytical Review of the Literature,• Joumal of Vocational Behavior 68, no . 2 (2006), pp. 292- 307.
8 8 T. D. Allen, E.T. Eby, and E. Lentz, 'The Relatio nsh ip between Formal Mentoring Program O,aracte.ri,;:t ics and Perceived Program Effectiveness: Personnel Psychology 59 (2006) , pp. 125- 153; T. D. Allen, L. T. Eby, and E. Len tz, • Mento rship Behaviors and Mentorship Q ua lity Associated with Formal Mentoring Progra ms: Clo.sing the Gap between Research and Practice.• Joumal of Applied Psychology 91, no. 3 (2006), pp. 567- 578; a nd M. R. Parise and M. L. Forret, • Form al Mentoring Progra ms: The Relationship of Progra m Desig n and Support to Mentors' Perceptio n., of BenefiL< and Costs," Journal of Vocational Behavior 72, no. 2 (2008) , pp. 225- 240.
89 L. T. Eby and A. Lockwood, • proteges' and Mentors' Reactio n., to Participating in Formal Mentori ng Programs: A Qualitative Investigatio n, · Joumal of Vocational Behavior 67, no . 3 (2005), pp. 441 - 458; G. T. Chao, "Formal Mentoring: Lessons Learned fro m Past Practice,· Professional Psychology: lwsean;h and Practice 40, no. 3 (2009), pp. 314 - 320; and C. R. Wanberg, J. D. Ka mmeyer- Mueller, and M. Marchese, • Mento r a nd Protege Predictors and Outcomes of Mentoring in a Formal Mentoring Program," Joun1al of Vocational Behavior 69 (2006), pp. 410- 423.
90 M. K. Feeney and B. Bozeman, "Me ntori n g and Network T ies: H u man Relations 61, n o. 12 (2008), pp. 1651- 1676; N. Bozionelos, "'I ntra-O rganizatio nal Network Resources: H ow Th ey Relate to Career Success and O rganizational Commitment,· Personnel Review 37, no. 3 (2008), pp. 249- 263; and S. A. Hezlett and S. K. G ibson, " Li n k ing Mentoring a n d Socia l Capi ta l: Implication., for Career and Oiganization Development, • Advances in Developing Human Resources 9, no. 3 (2007), pp. 384- 412.
91 Based on B. Ca rmody, " Re th i nki ng Youth Em powerm ent as Generat io n Z Blows You r Mi nd ," Inc., June JO, 2015, https:// www.inc.com/ b i I I-ca rm ody/ reth i nki ng-youth-e mpowerm e n t· as-generat ion-z -blows-you r-m i nd .h tm l; a nd h ttp://www. lovellcorporation.com/ lovell-corp-launches-global-youth-book- p roject-iyd-2017 /.
92 The Jossey-Bass Reader on Educational Leadersh ip, 2nd ed. (San Francisco: \.Viley & Sons, 2007).
93 See, for insta nce. B. Schyns, J. Felfe, and H. Blank, "Is Charisma Hyper. Ro m anticism ? Em pirica l Evidence fro m New Data and a Meta-a nalysis," Applied Ps)'c/10/ogy: An International Review 56, no. 4 (2007), pp. 505- 527.
94 M. J. Mart i n ko, P. Harvey, D. Si kora, a n d S. C. Douglas, • perceptions of Abusive Supervision: Th e Role of Subordina tes' Attri b ution Styles,· Leadership Quarterly, August 2011, pp. 751- 764.
95 M. C. Bligh, J. C. Ko hles, C. L. Pearce J. E. Justin, a nd J. F. Stovall, "'When the Romance Is Over: Follower Perspective.Ii of Avers ive Leadership,• Applied Ps)'clwlogy: An International Review 56, no. 4 (2007), pp. 528- 557.
96 B. R. Agle. N. J. Nagarajan, J. A. Sonnen feld, and D. Srin ivasan, "Does CEO Charism a Matter!" Academy of Management Joumal 49, no. I (2006), pp. I 61- 174.
97 M. C. Bligh, J. C. Ko hles, C. L. Pearce J. E. Justin, a nd J. F. Stovall, "When the Romance Is Over: Follower Perspective.Ii of Avers ive Leadership,• Applied Ps)'chology: An International Review 56, no. 4 (2007), pp. 528- 557.
98 B. Sch yns, J. Fe lfe , and H. Bla n k , · 1s Charis m a Hype r- Romanticism? Empirical Evidence fro m New Data and a Meta· a nalysis," Applied Ps)'chology: An International Review 56, no. 4 (2007), pp. 505- 527.
99 A. S. Ro.sette, G. J. Leonardell i, and K. W. Ph illips, 'The Wh ite Standard: Racial Bias in Leader Categorization,• Joumal of Applied Psychology 93, no. 4 (2008), pp. 758 - 777.
100 A. M. Koenig, A. H. Eagly, A. A. Mitchell, a nd T. Ristikari, •Are Leader Stereotypes Masculine? A Meta-analysis of Three Research Paradigms," Psychological Bulletin 137, n o. 4 (2011), pp. 616- 642.
101 M. Van Vugt a nd B. R. Spisak, •sex Differences in the Emergence of Leadership d uring Competitions within and between Groups,• Psychological Science 19, no. 9 (2008), pp. 854 - 858.
102 M. Van Vugt a nd B. R. Spisak, •5ex Differences in the Emergence of Leadership d uring Competitions within and between Groups, • Psychological Science 19, no. 9 (2008), pp. 854 - 858.
103 R. E. Silverman, "Who's the Boss? There Isn' t O ne,• Wall Street Journal, June 20, 2012, pp. Bl, 88.
104 S. D. Dionne, F. J. Yammarino, L. E. Atwater, and L. R. Ja mes, • Neutralizi ng Subst itutes fo r Leadersh ip Theory: Leadership Effects and Commo n-Source Bias,• Journal of Applied Psychology, 87 (2002), pp. 454- 464; a nd J. R. Vi lla, J. P. Howell, P. \.V. Dorfman, a nd D. L. Dan iel, " Problems with Detect ing Moderat o rs i n Leadersh ip Research Using Moderated Multiple Regression,· Leadership Quarter/)' 14 (2002), pp. 3 - 23.
105 L. A. Hambley, T. A. O'Nei ll, and T. J. B. Kline, "Virtual Team Leadership: The Effects of Leadership Style and Communication Med i u m on Tea m In te racti o n S ty l es and Outco m es, " OrganiZ1Jtional Behavior and Human Decision Processes 103 (2007), pp. 1- 20; and B. J. Avol io and S.S. Kahai, ' Adding the ' E' to E-Leadership: How It May Impact Your Leadership,• Organizational D)•namics 31, no. 4 (2003), pp. 325- 338.
106 S. J. Zaccaro and P. Bader, "E-Leadership and the Challenge.< of Leading E-Tea ms: Minimizing the Bad and Maximizing the Good,• Organizational Dynamics 31, no. 4 (2003), pp. 381 - 385.
107 C. E. Naqu in an d G. D. Paulson, ·onlin e Bargaining and Interpersonal Trust," Joumal of Applied T's)~hology, Februal)' 2003, pp. 113- 120.
108 M. Javida n, P. VI'. Dorfm an, M. S. de Luque, and R. J. House, · in the Eye of the Beholder: Cross C ultura l Lessons i n Leadership fro m Project G LOBE, • Academy of Management Perspectives, February 2006, pp. 67- 90.
109 T. Menon, J. Sim, J. Ho-Ying Fu, C. Chiu, a nd Y. Hong, • Blazing the Trail versus Trailing the Gro up: Culture a nd Perception., of the Leader's Position, " Orgmiizntio,ial Behavior and Human Decision Processes 113, no. I (2010), pp. 51 - 61.
110 Based o n Z. E. Franco, K. Blau, a nd P. G. Zimbardo, • Hero ism: A Conceptual Analysis a nd Differentiation Between Heroic Action and Altru ism," Review of General Psycholog)' 15, no. 2 (2011 ), pp. 99- 11 3; 0 . Dorell, •At Nuke Pl a nt, He roes Emerge," USA Toda)', Ma rch 25 , 2011 , pp. I A, 2A; G. R. Goeth a ls and S. C. All ison, • Making He roes: T h e Co nstruct ion of Courage, Competence, and Virtue.· Advances in Experimemal Psychology 46 (2012), pp. 183 - 235; L. J. Walker, J. A. Frimer, and VI'. L. Dunlop, 'Varieties of Moral Personality: Beyond the Bana lity of He roism,• Joumal of Personality 78, no. 3 (2010), pp. 907- 942; a nd J. Lehre r, •Are Heroes Born, o r Can They Be Made?' Wall Street Journal, Decem ber JI, 2010, p. C12.
ill Justin Ross Hartfield website, http://\\~vw.justinhartfield.m e; B. \.Veiss, 'Thank You for Smoking- Marijuana,• Wall Street Journal, Ma rch 15 - 16, 2014 , All; K. Wagner, "\.Veedmaps CEO Justi n Ha rtfield May Soon Be America's Weed Guy," Maslwble, May 16, 2014, http://\\~vw.mashable.com/ 2014/ 05/ 16/ weedmaps-ceo-jus- tin-hartfield/; and L Phillips, • Drop in IQ Linked to Heavy Teenage Cannabis Use,· Nature, August 28, 2012, h ttps://www.nature.com/ news/ d rop-i n-iq-1inked-to-h eavy-teenage-cannabis-tLse- 1. 11278.
112 Based on B. O' Keefe, J. Birger, a nd D. Burke, " Battle Tested," For111ne, March 22, 2010 , pp. 108 - 118; B. Vl' hitm ore, • H iri ng Mil itary Vetera ns Is Good Busi n ess, · H11nting1on WV Herald· Dispatch, Novem ber 6, 2010, h ttp://w,vw.herald-d ispatch.com;
B. Wansink. C. R. Payne, a nd K. van lttersu m, • profiling the Hero ic Leade r. Empirical Le.s.sons fro m Combat-Decorated Veterans of World War II," Leadership Quarterly 19, no. 5 (2008), p p. 547- 555; and T. E. Ricks, "vl'hat Ever Happen ed to Accountability?" Haroard Bminess Review, Octobe r 2012, pp. 93- 100.
113 Based o n M. Buckingham, • Leadership Development in th e Age o f the Algorithm," Haroard Business Review, June 2012, p p. 86- 9 4; M. D. Watkins, ·How Managers Become Leaders,· Harvard Business Review, June 2012, pp. 64- 72; and J.M. Podolny, •A Conversation w ith James G. March o n Learning About Leadership, · Academ)' of Ma nagement Learning & Education 10 (2011 ), pp. 502- 506.
114 Based o n J. M. Howell and P. J. Frost, •A Laborato ry Study o f Charism atic Leadership," Organizational Behavior and Huma,1 Decision Processes, April 1989, pp. 243 - 269.
US Based on V. H . Vroom, "A New Look at Ma nagerial Decision Making,• Organizational D)'namics, S pring 19 73, p p. 66- 80. \.Yith permission .
Chapter 12
1 Vignette based on E. Johnson, "'I Vslill Do Anything I Can to Make My Goa l': TD Teller Says C us tomers Pay Price fo r 'U nrea listic' Sales Targets,• CBC News, March 6, 2017, http://www.cbc.ca/ news/ can ada/ british-columbia/ td-telle rs-desperate-to -meet-increasing- sales-goals- 1.4006743, and E. Joh nson, •'\.Ye Do It because O u r Jobs Are a t Stake' : TD Bank Employees Admit to Breaking the Law fo r Fear of Being Fired,· CBC News, March 10, 2017, http:/ / www. c b c.ca/ n ews/ business/ td-ba n k-e m pl oyees-adm it· tO· b reaking- law- 1.40 165 69.
2 E. S h afi r and R. A. LeBoeuf, • Ratio n a lity," Annual Review of Psycholog)' 53 (2002), pp. 491- 51 7.
3 For a review o f the rationa l decision.making model, see M. H. Bazerman a nd D. A. Moore, Judgment in Managerial Decision Making, 7th ed. ( Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley, 2008).
4 CIBC, "Donation., and Sponsorsh ip Funding Guidelines,· accessed
Novembe r, 2017, https://\\~vw.cibc.com/ en/ about-cibc/ corporate- responsib ility/ community-a nd-spo nsorship/ fund ing -guidelines. h tml.
5 J. G. March, A Primer on Decision Making (New York: The Free Press, 2009); a nd D. Hardman and C. Harries, "How Rational Are We? " Psychologist, February 2002, pp. 76- 79.
6 Vignette based on E. John.son, "'I Vslill Do Anything I Can to Make My Goa l': TD Teller Says C us tomers Pay Price fo r 'U nrea listic' Sa le., Ta rgets," CBC News, March 6 , 2017, h ttp://"~'~v.cb c.ca/ n ews/ canada/ british-col um b i a/ td-tel I ers-desperate-t O· m eet· increasing-sales-goals-1.4006743, a nd M. King, • How Technology Has Turned Tellers into Sellers," Globe and Mail, Ma rch 14, 201 7, h t t ps:/ / beta. theglobea nd m ai I. com/ report -o n -bus in ess/ rob- com men ta ry / h ow -tech no logy-has-t urn ed· t e l I e rs-in t o -sellers/ article34297345/
7 M. H. Bazerma n and D. A. Moore, Judgment in Managerial Decision Making, 7th ed. (Hoboken , NJ: Wiley, 2008).
8 J. E. Russo, K. A. Carlson, and M. G. Meloy, · c hoosing an Infe rio r Alternative, · Psychological Science 17, no. 10 (2006), pp. 899- 904.
9 See, fo r example, L R. Beach, The Psycholog)' of Decision Making (Thousand O aks, CA: Sage, 199 7).
10 N. Halevy a nd E. Y. Ch ou, • How Decisions Hap pe n : Foca l Po ints and Bli nd S pots in Inte rdependent Decisio n Making, • Joun,al of Personality and Social Psyclwlos,• 106, n o. 3 (2014 ), pp. 398- 41 7; D. Kahnem an, •Maps of Bounded Rationality: Psychology fo r Behavioral Economics," 11,e American Economic Review 93, no. 5 (2003), p p. 1449- 147 5; a nd J. Zh a ng, C. K. Hsee, a nd Z. Xiao, '111e Majo ri ty Ru le in Individ ua l Decision Making,• Orga11izatio11al Behavior and Huma11 Decisio11 l'roa,sses 99 (2006), p p. 102- 111.
End notes 599
11 G. Gigerenzer, "\.Yhy Heuristics Work, · Perspectives 011 Ps)'chological Science 3 , no. 1 (2008), pp. 20- 29; and A. K. Shah and D. M. Oppen h e imer, • Heu ristics Mad e Easy: An Effo rt- Reduction Framework." Psychological Bulleti11 134, no. 2 (2008), pp. 207-222.
12 See A. \¥. Krugla ns ki and G. Gigerenzer, • intuitive a nd Deliberate Judgmen Ls Are Based on Common Principles,• Psrcl1ological Review 118 (2011 ), pp. 97- 109.
13 E. Da ne and M. G. Pratt, "Explori ng Intu it io n and Its Role in Managerial Decision Making," Academ)' of Management Review 32, no. I (2007), p p. 33- 54; a nd J. A. Hicks, D. C. C icero, J. Tre nt, C. M. Burton, a nd LA. King, ' Positive Affect, Intuition, and Feelings of Meaning,• Journal of Personality a11d Social Psycl1olos,• 98 (2010), pp. 967- 979.
14 Based on P. D. Brown, "Some Hunches About Intuition,• New York Times, November 17, 2007, p. 85.
15 Based o n D. Delaney, C. Guild ing, and L. McMa nus, "The Use o f I ntu ition in the Spo nso rsh ip Decisio n Making Process," Omtemporary Ma11agement Research 10, no. 1 (2014), p p. 33- 60 .
16 B. D. Du nn and H . C. Ca lton, " Listeni ng to Yo u r Heart: How lnte.roceptio n Shapes Emotio n Experience and lntuitive Decisio n Maki ng," Psychological Scie11 ce 2 1, n o. 12 (Decembe r 2010), pp. 1835- 1844 .
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29
30
C . Akinci and E. Sad le r-Sm ith, · i ntu ition i n Ma n agemen t Research: A H istorical Review," lntentational Journal of Aifanagement Reviews 14 (2012), p p. 104- 122.
S. r. Robbins, Decide & Conquer: Mak ing Wi,ming Decisions mid Taki11g Co11trol of Your Life (Upper Saddle Ri ver, NJ: Fina n cia l Ti mes/ Prentice Hall, 2004), p. 13.
Based o n P. Coh en, "Sta nd Still: Use Penalty-Kick W isdom to Make Your Decisions," National Post, March 8, 2008, p . ™ '9.
S. Ludwig a nd J. Nafziger, · s e liefs about Overconfidence,• 11ieory and Decision, April 2011 , pp. 475 - 500.
S. Pio us, 71te Psycholog)' of Judgme111 and Decision Maki11g (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993), p. 217 .
C. R. M. McKenz ie, M. J. Liersch, a nd I. Yaniv, "Overconfiden ce in Interval Estimates: Wh at Does Expertise Buy You,· Organizatio11al Behavior a11d Human Decisio11 Processes 107 (2008), pp. 179- 191.
R. P. La rrick, K. A. Burson, and J. B. Soll, · social Compa rison a nd Confidence: When Thinking You' re Better Than Average Predicts Overconfidence (and When It Does Not )," Organizntio11al Behavior and H11ma11 Decision Processes 102 (2007) , pp. 76- 94.
K. M. H m ieleski a nd R. A. Baron, "Entrepre neurs' Optimism and New Ven tu re Perfonnance: A Social Cognitive Perspective, " Academ)' of Ma11agement Joumal 52, no . 3 (2009), pp. 4 73- 488.
R. Frick and A. K. Smith, "Overconfidence Ga m e, · Kipli11ger's Personal Fi11ance 64, no. 3 (2010), p p. 23.
See, fo r ins ta nce, J. P. Simmons, R. A . LeBoeuf, and L. D. Nelson, '111e Effect of Accuracy Motivation on Anchoring a nd Adjustmen t: Do People Ad ju s t from Th e ir Provided Ancho rs?" Journal of Personality a11d Social Ps)'cltolog)' 99 (2010), p p. 917-932.
J. S. Ha mmo nd, R. L Keeney, and H. Raiffa, Smart Clwius (Bo.ston : H BS Press, 1999), p. 191.
C. Janiszewski and D. Uy, "Precision of the Anchor Influences the Am ount o f Adjustment," Psrchological Science 19, no. 2 (2008), pp. 121- 127.
See R. S. Nicke rso n, "Co n firmatio n Bias: A U b iq u itous Phenomen on in Many Gu Lses, • Review of Ge11eral Ps)'cholog)', June 1998, pp. 175 - 220; a nd E. Jonas, S. Schultz.Hard t, D. Frey, and N. Thelen, "Confirrn ation Bias in Sequential lnforrnatio n Search after Preli minaty Decisio ns,• Joumal of Persona/it)' and Social Psycholog)', April 2001, pp. 557-571.
B. Nyha n a nd J. Rei tler, "'A'h e n Corrections Fa il: The Persistence of Political Mispercept io ns," Political Behavior 32, no . 2 (2010), pp. 303- 330.
600 En dnotes
31 T. rachur, R. Hertwig, a n d F. Steinma nn, "How Do r eople Judge Risks: Availability Heuristic, Affect Heuristic, o r Both ?" Journal of Experimental Ps)'clwlogy: Applied 18 (2012), pp. 314- 330.
3 2 See B. M. Staw, "The Escalation of Com mitment to a Cou rse of Act io n: Academy of Management Review, October 1981 , pp. 577- 587; and H. Moon, " Looking Forward and Looking Back: Integrating Completio n a nd Sunk-Cost Effects within a n Escala tion-of-Commitment r rogres., Decision,• Journal of Applied Psyclwlog)', Februa ry 2001, pp. 104- 113.
3 3 T. Schultze, F. r feiffer, and S. Schulz-Ha rdt, "Biased Informa tion Processing in the Escalatio n Paradigm: Inform ation Search and I nfo rm ation Eva luation as Po tential Mediato rs of Escalating Comm itment: Journal of Applied Psyclwlogy97 (2012), pp. 16- 32.
34 D. J. Sleesman, D. E. Conlon, G. McNam ara, a nd J. E. Miles, "Clean ing Up t h e Big Muddy: A Meta-analyt ic Review of the Dete rm ina nts of Escalation of Co m m itme nt, " Academy of Management Journal 55 (2012), pp. 541- 562.
35 D. J. Sleesman, D. E. Conlon, G. McNam ara, a nd J. E. Miles, "Clean ing Up t h e Big Muddy: A Meta-analyt ic Review of the Dete rm ina nts of Escalation of Co m m itme nt, " Academy of Management Journal 55 (2012), pp. 541 - 562.
3 6 H. Drummond, "Escalation of Commitme nt: \,Vh en to Stay th e Course?" Tlte Academy of Management Perspectives 28, no. 4 (2014 ), pp. 430- 446.
3 7 See, fo r exa m ple, A. Ja m es and A. Wells, " Deat h Beliefs, Superstitious Beliefs a nd Health Anxiety,· British Journal of Clinical Psyclwlog)', March 2002, pp. 43- 53.
3 8 S. r . Rob b ins, Decide & Conquer: Making W inning Decisions and Taking Control of Your Life ( Upper Sadd le River, NJ: Fi nancial Tim es/ Pre nt ice Hall, 2004), pp. 164- 168.
39 K. Gillespie, "Canadian Athlete.<' Superstitio us \<\lays,· Toronto S111r, January 24, 2014.
40 See, fo r exa mp le, D. J. Keys and B. Schwartz, "Leaky Rationality: How Research o n Behaviora l Decisio n Making Challe nges Norm a t ive Sta n dards of Ration ality,· Psychological Science 2, no. 2 (2007), pp. 162- 180; a nd U. Simonsohn, "D irect Risk Aversion: Evidence from Ris~-y Pro.,pecL< Valued Below Their Worst O utcom e,• Psychological Science 20, no. 6 (2009), pp. 686- 692.
41 J. K. Maner, M. T. Cailliot, D. A. Butz, and B. M. Peruche, "Power, Risk, and the Status Q uo: Does Power r romote Riskier o r More Conseivative Decision Making," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 33, no. 4 (2007), pp. 451 - 462.
42 A. Ch akraborty, S. Sheikh, a n d N. Subramanian, "Terminatio n Risk a n d Managerial Risk Taking, • Journal of Corporate Finance 13 (2007), pp. 170- 188.
43 r. Bryant a n d R. Dunford, 'The Influen ce of Regulatory Focus o n Ris~-y Decision-Making, • Applied l's)'chology: An International Review 57, no. 2 (2008), pp. 335 - 359.
44 A. J. Po rcelli and M. R. Delgado, "Acute Stress Modula tes Risk Tak ing in Financial Decision Making: Ps)'c/1ological Science 20, n o. 3 (2009), pp. 278- 283.
4 5 R. L. Guilba ult, F. B. Bryant, J. H. Brockway, and E. J. Posavac, "A Meta-a nalysis of Resea rch on H indsight Bias,• Basic and Applied Social Ps)'c/1olog)', Septe mbe r 2004, pp. 103 - 11 7; and L. \.Ve rth, F. Strack, a nd J. Foerster, "Certa inty a nd Un certainty: The Two Faces of the Hindsight Bias: Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, March 2002, pp. 323- 341.
4 6 J. Bell, "The Final Cut ?" Oregon Business 33, no. 5 (2010), p. 27.
47 M. Gladwell, "Connecting the Dots,· New Yorker, March JO, 2003.
48 B. L. Bon n e r, S . D. Sillito, a n d M. R. Bau ma nn, "Collect ive Estimation: Accuracy, Expertise. a nd Extroversion as Sources of Intra.C roup Influence." Organizatio,ial Behavior and Human Decision Processes 103 (2007), pp. 121 - 133.
4 9 See, for exam ple, W. C. Swap and Associa tes, Group Decision Making (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1984).
50 J. S. Chun a nd J. N. C hoi, "Members' Needs, lntragroup Conflict, and Group r erformance." Journal of Applied Ps)"chology 99, no. 3 (2014), p. 437.
51 I. L. Ja nis, Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascoes, 2nd ed. (Bosto n: Ho ughto n Miffl in, 1982).
52 Based on L. Nguyen, "1'arget Corp. Regrets Opening So Ma ny Stores So Quickly in Canada." Canadian Press, August 20, 2014, http ://www.ctvnews.ca/ b usi ness/ target-corp-regrets-open ing- so-ma ny-s to res-so-q u ickl y-i n -ca nada- 1. l 967662; M. Healy, "Sam e-Sto re Sales at Ta rget Canada Tumble II o/o in Second Quarter: CBC News, August 20, 2014, http://www.cbc.ca/ news/ business/ same-s to re .sales-at· target·canada-tum ble- 11 · in-second · quarter- 1.2741617; "Why Was Target Ca nada Such a Disaster?" Abbotsford Today, May 26, 2014, h ttp://www.abbot.<fordtoday. ca/ wh y-was-ta rget-ca nada-such-a-disaster/ ; a nd r. Evans, "1'arget Closes All 133 Stores in Canada, Gel< Credito r Protection." CBC News, January JS, 2015.
53 G. Pa rk and R. r. DeShon, "A Mu ltilevel Model of Minority Opinion Expressio n and Team Decision-Making Effectiven ess, " Journal of Applied Psychology 95, no. 5 (2010), pp. 824- 833.
5 4 R. Be nabou, "Group th i n k: Co ll ec ti ve De lu sions i n O rganizations and Markets," Review of Economic Studies, April 2013,pp. 429- 462.
55 J. A. Goncalo , E. Po lma n, and C. Maslach, "Can Confidence Come Too Soon? Collective Efficacy, Conflict, a nd Group r e rfo rmance over li me," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes ll 3, no. I (2010), pp. 13 - 24.
56 Based o n See N. R. F. Maie r, Principles of Human Relations (New York: Wiley, I 952); N. Richardson Ahl fi nger and J. K. Es.<er, '"resting the Groupthink Model: EffecL< of Pro motio nal Leadership a nd Conform ity Predispositio n,• Social Behavior & Personality 29, no. I (2001) , pp. 31- 41; and S. Schu ltz-Ha rd t, F. C. Brodbeck, A. Mojzisch, R. Kersch reiter, a nd D. Frey, "Group Decisio n Mak ing in Hidden Pro fil e S ituations: D issent as a Facilitato r fo r Decision Q u ality,• Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 91, n o. 6 (2006), pp. 1080- 1093.
5 7 See D. J. Isenberg, "Grou p Po lariza t io n: A C ri t ica l Review and Meta- ana lys is, · Journal of Persona/it)• and Social Psychology, Decemb e r 1986, pp. 1141 - 11 51; J. L. Hale and F. J. Boster, "Comparing Effect Coded Models of Choice Sh ifts,• Communication Research Reports, April 1988, pp. 180- 186; a nd r . W. Paese, M. Bieser, a nd M. E. Tubbs, "Frami ng Effects and C ho ice Shifts in Group Decision Making,• Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, October I 993, pp. 149- 165.
58 M. r. Brady and S. Y. 'A'u, "1'he Aggregat io n of Preferences in G roups: Identi ty, Re.<ponsibil ity, a nd Pola rizatio n, • Journal of Economic Psycholog)' 31, no. 6 (2010), pp. 950- 963.
59 J. Ewing, Faster, Higher, Farther (Norton & Compa ny, 2017).
60 Z. Kriza n and R. S . Ba ro n, "G roup Polarizat io n and Choice- Di lem mas: How Important Is Self-Categorization? " European Journal of Social Ps)'clwlogy 37, n o. I (2007), pp. 191 - 201.
61 See R. r . McG lyn n, D. McGurk, V. S . Effla nd, N. L. Johll, a nd D. J. Ha rding, "Brainstorming and Task Perform ance in Groups Cons trained by Evidence," Orgmiizntional Behavior and Huma,1 Decision Processes, January 2004, pp. 75- 87; and R. C. Litchfi eld, "Brainstormi ng Reconsidered: A Goal-Based Vi ew, · Academy of Management Review 33, no. 3 (2008), pp. 649- 668.
62 N. W. Kohn a nd S. M. Smith, "Collaborative Fixa tion: Effect.< of O thers' Ideas o n Brain.storming, • Applied Cognitive Ps)'chology 25, no. 3 (May/ Jun e 2011 ) , pp. 359- 371.
63 N. L. Ke rr a nd R. S. Ti ndale, "Group r erformance and DecL, ion- Maki ng, • A1111ual Review of Psychology 55 (2004), pp. 623- 655.
64 C. Fa ure, "Beyond Brainsto rmi ng: Effects o f D iffe rent C ro up Procedures o n Selecti on o f Ideas and Satisfactio n w ith the Process,• Journal of Creative Behavior 38 (2004), p p. 13 - 34.
65 T. M. A m a bile, "A Model of Creativi ty and Innovati on i n O rganizatio ns,,. in Research in Organiu,tional Behavior, vol. 10, ed.
B. M. Staw a nd L. L Cummings (Greenwich, CT: JAi Press, 1988), p. 126; a n d J. E. Pe ny-Smith a nd C. E. Sh alley, "The Social Side o f C reativity: A Static and Dyn amic Social Network Pe rspective,· Academy of Management Review, January 2003, pp. 89- 106.
66 B. Brazier, .. Bren da n Brazier o n Ho listic Nutritio n, " Ask Men ,
n .d ., htt p://ca.askmen.com/ spo rts/ foodco urt/ brendan - brazier-o n-h olistic-nutrition.hunl; a nd "Is Your Art Killing You?'
lnvestorldeas.com, May 13, 2013, ht tp://www.investo rideas.com/ n ews/ 2013/ re newable-e ne rgy/ 05134 .asp.
67 M. M. Cielnik, A.-C. Kra mer, B. Kap pel, a nd M. Frese. "Antecedents of Business O pportun ity Ide nt ifica tion a nd I nnova tion : Invest igating t h e Inte rplay of In fo rmation Processi n g a nd In forma tion Acq uisit io n,· Applied Psychology: An International
Review 63, n o. 2 (2014), p p. 344- 381 .
68 C. A nde rson , "Three T ips t o Foster Crea t i vi ty at You r
Sta rtup," ArcticStarwp, May 8, 2013 , h ttp://www.a rcticsta rtu p. com/ 2013/ 05/ 08/ th ree-t i ps-to-f o.ster-creativity-at-your-sta rtup.
69 C. Rey nolds, "Want a Good Idea? Take a Walk, • New York Times, May 6, 2014, p. 0 6.
70 S. Shellenb arger, "The Power of the Doodle: Imp ro ve Your FoCtL< and Memory,• Wall Street Journal, July 30, 2014, pp. DI , 0 3 .
71 E. Milla r, " How Do Fin nish Kids Excel w ithout Rot e Learning
and Standardized Testing?" Globe and Mail, May 9 , 2013, http:// W\\~v.theglobeandmail.com/ report-on-busin es.s/ economy/ canada- competes/ h ow-do-finni sh -kids-excel-w ithout-rote-learning-a nd- standard ized-testi ng/article 11810188/.
72 Z. Harper, "Mark C uban WanL< You to De.sign the New Dallas Mavericks Uniforms,• CBSSports.com, May 13, 2013, http://www.
cbssports.com/ n ba/ eye-on-basket ba 11/ 2 22 3080 I / mark-cu ban- wan ts· yOu· tO·design· th e· new.dal las-mave ricks· uni fo rms.
73 C. K. \¥. De Dreu, B. A. N ij st ad, M. Baas, I. Wols ink, and M. Roskes, "\<\forking Memory Benefi L< C reative Insigh t, Musica l Improvisatio n, a nd O riginal Ideation through Ma intained Task. Focused Atte ntio n," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 38
(2012), pp. 656- 669.
74 C.-H. \<\lu, S. K. Parke r, a nd J. P. J. d e Jong, "Need fo r Cognit ion as an Antecedent of Individual Innovation Behavio r," Journal of
Management 40, no. 6 (2014), pp. 1511 - 1534.
75 S. M. Wechsler, C. Ven dram ini, and T. Oakland, "Thinking and Creative Styles: A Validity Stu dy,• Creativity Research Journal 24 (April 2012), pp. 235- 242.
76 Y. Gong, S. Cheung, M. Vsla n g, a nd J. Huang, "Unfo ld ing the Proactive Proce.o;ses fo r Creativi ty: Integration of the Employee Proactiv ity, In fo rma tion Excha nge, a n d Psych ologica l Sa fe ty Perspectives," Journal of Management 38 (2012), p p. 16 11 - 1633.
77 A. Rego, F. Sousa, C. Marques, and M. P. E. Cu n ha, "Retai l Em ployees' Self-Efficacy a nd Hope Pred icti n g Thei r Positive Affect a n d C reativity,• European Journal of Work and Organizational Psyclwlog)' 21, no. 6 (2012), p p. 923- 945 .
78 H. Zh a ng, H.K. Kwa n, X. Zh ang, a nd L -Z. Wu, " High Core
Self-Evaluators Mai ntain C reativ ity: A Motivatio n al Model o f Abusive Supervisio n," Journal of Management 40, no. 4 (2012), pp. 11 51 - 1174.
79 D. K. Simonton, "The Mad-Genius Paradox: Can C reative People Be More Mentally Hea lthy b ut H igh ly C reative People More Men tally Ill ?" Perspectives on Ps)'clwlogical Scie11ce 9, n o. 5 (2014),
pp. 4 70- 480.
En dnotes 601
80 C. Wang, S. Rodan, M. Fru in, a nd X. Xu, "Knowledge Networks, Collaboration Networks, a nd Exploratory Innovation," Academy of Management Joumal 57, no. 2 (2014), pp. 484- 514.
81 F. G ino and S. S. Wi lte rmuth, " Evil Genius? Dishonesty Can Lead to Greater C reativity, · Ps)'clwlogical Science 25, no. 4 (2014 ), pp. 9 73- 981.
82 S. N. de Jesus, C. L. Rus, v,,1. Lens, and S. l maginario, "lntrin.<ic Motivatio n and Creativity Related to Prod uct: A Meta-ana lysis of the Studies Publ ish ed Be tween 1990- 2010," Creativity Research Journal 25 (2013), pp. 80- 84.
83 A. Somech a n d A. Drach-Zah avy, "Transla ting Team C reativ ity to Innovation Implem entatio n: The Ro le. of Te.a m Composition a n d Climate fo r Innovation, · Joumal of Management 39 (2013), pp. 684- 708.
84 L. Sun, Z. Zhang, J. Qi, a nd Z. X. C h e n, "Empowerment a nd C reativity: A C ross-Level Investigatio n," Leadership Quarter/)' 23 (2012), p p. 55- 65.
85 M. Cem e, C. C. L. Nerstad, A. Dysvik, a n d M. Skerlava j, "Wh at Goes a round Co m es a ro u nd : Knowledge H id ing, Perceived Motivatio nal Climate, and Creativity," Academy of Mmiagement Journal 57, no. I (2014), pp. 17 2- 192.
86 S. Sonne.nsh e. in, "' How O rgan izations Foster th e. Creative Use of Resources," Academy of Management Journal 57, no. 3 (2014), pp. 814- 848.
87 V. Ven kataramani, A. W. Richter, a nd R. Clarke, "Creative Ben efiL< fro m Well-Connected Leaders: Leader Social Network Ties as Faci litators of Employee Rad ical C reativity," Journal of Applied Psychology 99, no. 5 (2014), pp. 966- 975.
88 J. E. Pe ny-Smith, "Social Network Ties beyond Nonredundancy: An Experimen tal Investigation o f the Effect o f Knowledge Content a nd Tie Strength on C reativity,• Journal of Applied Psycltology 99, no. 5 (2014), p p. 831 - 846.
89 D. Liu, H. Liao, and R. Lo i, "The Dark Side of Leadership: A Three- Level Investigation o f the Cascading Effect of Abusive Supervision o n Emp loyee Creat ivity,• Academy of Management Journal 55 (2012), p p. 11 87- 1212.
90 J. B. Avey, F. L Richmo nd , a nd D. R. N ixon, "Leader Posit ivity a nd Follower Creativity: An Experimen tal Analysis,· Journal of Creative Beltavior46 (2012), pp. 99- 118; a nd A. Rego, F. Sousa, C. Marques, a n d M. E. Cunha, "Authe nt ic Leadership Pro mo ting Em p loyees' Psychological Capita l and C reativity,· Joumal of Business Researc/1 65 (2012), pp. 429- 437.
91 I. J. Hoever, D. van Knippenberg, V.,,. P. van Gi nkel, a n d H. C. Ba rkema, "Fostering Team Creativity: Perspective Tak ing as Key to Unlo cking Diversity's Potential," Journal of Applied Psyc/1olog,• 9 7 (2012), pp. 982- 996.
92 S. J. Sh in, T. Kim, J. Lee, a nd L. Bian, ' Cognitive Team Diversity an d Individual Team Member C reativity: A Cross-Level Interaction," Academ)' of Ma11agemen1 Journal 55 (2012), p p. 19 7-212.
93 A. W. Richte r, G. Hirst, D. van Knip penberg, a n d M. Baer, "Creative Self-Efficacy a nd Individua l C reativity in Team Contexts: Cross. Level In teraction.< with Team Informatio nal Resources,• Journal of Applied Psyc/1olog,• 97 (2012), pp. 1282- 1290.
94 X. Huan g, J. J. Hs ie h, a n d v,,1_ He, "Expertise Dissi mila ri ty a nd C rea t ivi ty: The Co ntingen t Roles of Taci t and Expl icit Knowledge Sh ari n g, • Journal of Applied Ps)'cltology 99, n o . 5 (2014 ), p p. 816 - 830.
95 T. B. Harris, N. Li, W. R. Boswell, X.-A. Zhang, and Z. Xie, "Getting \+\!hat's New from Newcome.rs: Empowering Leadersh ip, Creativity, a nd Adjustment in the Socializatio n Context, · Per,;0111,el PsyclwlogJ• 67 (2014), pp. 5 67- 604.
96 A. H. Y. Hon, M. Bloom, and J.M. Gran t, "Overcoming Resistance to Cha nge a nd Enha n ci n g C reative Perform a n ce,• Jounial of Manageme11t 40, no. 3 (2014), p p. 919 - 941.
602 En dnotes
97 J. S. Muelle r, S. Melwa ni, a nd J. A. Gonca lo, "The Bias against C rea t iv ity: Why People Desi re bu t Reject C reative Ideas, · Psychological Scie11ce 23 (2012), pp. 13- 17.
98 T. Montag, C. P. Maertz, and M. Baer, ' A Critical An alysis of the Workp lace C reativity C riterion Space,• Journal of Ma11ageme11t 38 (2012), pp. 1362- 1386.
99 M. Baer, ' Putting C reat iv ity to Work: The Imp lementation of Creative Ideas in O rganizations," Arodem)' of Manageme,u Joun1al 55 (2012), pp. 1102- 1119.
100 Vignette based on E. Johnson, " I Vslill Do Anything I Can to Make My Goal': TD Teller Says C ustomers Pay Price fo r 'U nrea listic' Sales Targets: CBC News, March 6, 2017, http://www.chc.ca/ news/ canada/ b ri t ish-columbia/ td-telle rs-desperate-to -meet-increa,ing- sales-goals- 1.4006743; and E. Joh nson, ' '\'le Do It because Our Jobs Are a t Stake' : TD Bank Employees Admit to Breaking the Law fo r Fear of Being Fired," CBC News, March 10, 201 7, http://www. cbc.ca/ news/ busi nes.s/ td-bank-e m p l oyees-adm it-to -breaking- law- 1.40165 69.
101 K. V. Kortenkamp and C. F. Moore, ' Ethics under Uncertainty: The Morality and Appropriaten ess of Utilitarianism When Outcomes Are Uncertain; America11 Joumal of Ps)'chology 127, no. 3 (2014), pp. 36 7-382.
102 A. Lu kits, ' Hello and Bonjour to Moral Dilemmas: \-Vall Street Journal, May 13, 2014, p. 04.
103 J. Hollings, ' Let the Stoiy Go: The Role of Emotion in the Decision. Making Process of the Reluctant, Vulnerable Witness o r 'Alh istle- Blower: Journal of Busi11ess Ethics 114, no. 3 (2013), pp. 501 - 512.
104 D. E. Rupp, P. M. 'Alright, S. Aiyee, a nd Y. Luo, "Organ izational Justice, Behaviora l Eth ics, and Corporate Socia l Responsibil ity: Finally the T hree Sh all Merge, · Ma11ageme11t and Orga11ization
Review 11 (2015), pp. 15 - 24.
105 P. L. Schuma nn, "A Moral Pri nciples Fra m ework for H uman Resource Ma nagem ent Ethics," Human Resource Manageme,11 Review 11 (Spring- Summer 2001), pp. 93- 111.
106 J. Hazlewood, "ACT Food President Awarded Intern a t iona l Prize by Nobel Lau reates: CBC News, March 29, 2017, h ttp:// www.cbc.ca/ news/ canada/ sa,ka too n/ nobel -busi n ess-p rize-al- katib-i.4045869.
107 Based on R. A. Bernardi, C. A. Banzh off, A. M. Martino, and K. J. Savasta, ' Challenges to Academic Integrity: Identifying the Factors Associated w ith the Ch eating C h ai n; Accou11ti11g Educatio11 21 (2012), pp. 247-263; M. K. Galloway, "Cheating in Advantaged H igh Schools: Prevalence, Justi fi cat ions, and Possibi lit ie., fo r Change, · Ethics & Behavior 22 (2012), pp. 3 78 - 399; and M. H. Bazerman and A. E. Ten b runsel, Blind Spots: Wliy \'le Fail to Do What's Right a11d What to Do abollt It ( Princeton, NJ: Pri nceton University Press, 2012).
108 L. L. Shu and F. Gino, "Sweeping Dish onesty Under the Rug: How Uneth ica l Actions Lead to Forgetting of Moral Ru les,• Journal of Perso11ality and Social Psychology 102 (2012), pp. 1164- 11 77.
109 B. C. Gu nia, L. Wang, L. Hua ng, J. \'lang, a nd J. K. Murnighan, "'Contemplation and Conversation: Subtle I nfluences o n Moral Decision Maki ng; Academy of Ma11ageme111 Journal 55 (2012), pp. 13 - 33.
110 R. F. \'lest, R. J. Meserve, and K. E. Sta n ovich, "Cogn it ive Sophistication Does Not Attenuate the Bia, Blind Spot,· Journal of Perso11alit)' a11d Social Ps)'clwlog)' 103 (2012), pp. 506- 519.
ll1 T. Jackson, ' C ultural Values and Management Ethics: A 10-Nation Study,• Human Rela1io11s, October 2001, pp. 1267- 1302; see also J. B. C u llen, K. P. Pa rboteeah, and M. Hoegl, ' Cross-Natio n al
Differen ces in Managers' Willingn ess to Justify Eth ically Suspect Beh avio rs: A Test of Institutional Anomie Theoiy, • Academy of Ma11ageme11t Joumal, June 2004, pp. 411- 421.
112 This d iscussion is based on G. F. Cavanagh, D. J. Moberg, and M. Valasquez, "The Ethics of O rganizational Po litics,• Academy of Ma11ageme11t Jo11mal, June 1981, pp. 363- 374.
113 J. Q uittner, ' Sh opify Won't Re m ove Breitba rt 's O nline Shop, Claiming Free Speech,• Fort1111e, Februaiy 9, 2017, http://fortune. com/ 201 7 / 02/ 09/ sh opify-wont-re m ove-b reitbarts-onli ne-shop- claiming-free-speech/ .
114 Based on ' Lac Megantic: TSB Finds Com pany Had \'leak Safety C ult ure, • CBC.ca, Aug ust 19, 2014, http://www.cbc.ca/ news/ ca n ada/ m on t rea I/ lac-m •!oC3 •!oA9gan t ic-tsb-fi n ds-compa ny - h ad-weak-safety-culture- 1.2739921; a nd I. Pe ri tz, ' l.ac-Megant ic Death., Were Avoidable, Coroner's Report Says,· Globe a11d Mail, Octobe r 8, 2014, h ttp://www. th eglobeand m ai l.com/ news/ national/ lac· megantic-death.~-were -avoidab le -coroners -report- says/ article20982 7 46/ .
115 T. Rinne, D. G. Steel, a nd J. Fairweathe r, "The Ro le of Hofstede's Individualis m in Natio nal-Level Creativity," Creativity Research Joumal2 5 (2013), pp. 129- 136.
116 X. Yi, 'Al. Hu, H. Scheitha uer, a nd W. Niu, ' Cultural and Bilingual Influences on Artistic Creativ ity Perfo rmances: Comparison of Germ an and C hinese Students,• Creativity Research Joumal 2 5 (2013), pp. 9 7- 108.
117 Transparency International, A111111al Report 2011 (Berlin, Germa ny: Author, 2012), http://W\,~v.transparen cy.org/conten tfdownload/ 61106/ 9 78536.
118 Based on S. Cai n, "Th e Rise of the New Groupthi nk, • New York Times, Januaiy JS, 2012, pp. I , 6 ; and C. Faure, ' Beyond
Brainstorming: Effects of Differen t G roup Procedures on Selection of Ideas and Satisfaction w ith the Process,• Journal of Creative Behavior 38 (2004), pp. 13 - 34.
119 Several of these scenarios are based o n D. R. Altany, "Tom between Halo and Homs; lndustry'A1eek, March 15, 1993, pp. 15- 20.
12 0 Based on J. Mulkerri ns, ' All Spanx to Sara,• Daily Mail, April 6, 2013, http://www.dailym ai l.co.ukfhome/ you/ article-2303499/ Meet-Spanx-creato r-Sarah -Blakely.ht ml; C. O'Connor, "Am erican Booty; Forbes, March 26, 2012, pp. 172 - 178; and R. Tulshyan, ' Spanx's Sara Blakely: Tu rn ing $ 5,000 into $ 1 Billion with Panties," CNN.com, December 5 , 2012 , h ttp:// www.cn n . com/ 2012/ 12/ 04/ b usi nes.s/ sara-b lakely-spanx-underwear/ .
121 Based on J. Calan o and J. Sa lz m an, "Ten \'lays to Fire Up Your C reativ ity," Work i11g Woma11 , July 1989, p. 94; J. V. Anderson, ' Mi n d Mapp ing: A Too l fo r C reative Th i n k i ng; Busi11ess
Horizo11s, Ja nuary- February 1993, pp. 42 - 46; M. Loeb, "Ten Comm andme nts fo r Managing Creative People," Fortune. January 16, 1995, pp. 13 5- 136; and M. Henricks, "Good Th i nk ing." E11trepre11eur, May 1996, pp. 70-73.
OB on the Edge: Spirituality in the Workplace
1 A. Morr ison, " The Good Spirit' Metaphysical Sh op Ready To
Open In Gastown," Scout Va11couver, Apri l 28, 2016 , http:// scoutm agazine.ca/ 2016/ 04/ 28/seen-in -vancouver-575 -the-good- spiri t-metaphysical-shop-ready-to-0pen-in-gastown/; H. A. Miller, "Inaugural Youth Entrepreneur Award Recognizes U nique Retail Effort,• Alberta Sweetgrass 21, no. 3 (2014), http://www.a mmsa. com/ p ublications/ alberta,S\veetgrass/ inaugural-youth-en trepreneur- award -recognizes-un iq ue-retail-effort; and J. P. McGlynn, ' Savannah Olsen an d The Good Spirit,• Castow11, Jun e 7, 2016, h ttp://gastown. o rg/savannah -olsen-and-the-good-spirit/ .
2 Rice Un iversity, "' More Than 20 Percent of Atheist Scientists Are
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3 E. r oole, 'Organisational Spiritua lity: A Literature Review,· Joumal of Business Ethics 84, no. 4 (2009), pp. 577- 588.
4 L. W. Fry a n d J. \¥. Slocum, "Managing the Triple Botto m Line th rough Spiritual Leadersh ip," Organizational Dynamics 37, no. I (2008), pp. 86- 96.
5 B. E. Ashforth and M. G. r rau, "Institut ionalized Sp i ritua lity: An Oxym o ron?" in Handbook of Workplace Spirituality and Organ iz..atio,ial Performance , ed . R. A. G iaca lo ne and C. L. Jurkiewicz (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sh arpe, 2010), pp. 44 - 58; a n d A. M. Saks, "V\lorkp lace Spirituality a n d Emp loyee Engagement,· Journal of Management, Spiri111ality & Religion 8, no. 4 (2011 ) , pp. 317- 340.
6 V. Ligo, "Configuring a C hristia n Spirituality o f Work, • 11ieology Today, 2011, p p. 441- 466.
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8 A. Bea rd, "Mi ndfulness in t he Age of Co m p lexity,· Harvard B11Siness Review, March 2014, p p. 68- 73, h ttps://hbr.org/2014/ 03/ mindfuln ess-in·th e·age.of.complexity.
9 A. Bea rd, "Mi ndfulness in t he Age of Co m p lexity,· Harvard B11Siness Review, March 2014, p p. 68- 73, h ttps://hbr.org/2014/ 03/ mindfuln ess-in·th e·age.of.complexity.
10 A. Bea rd, "Mi ndfulness in t he Age of Co m p lexity,· Harvard B11Siness Review, March 2014, p p. 68- 73, https://hbr.org/2014/ 03/ mindfuln ess-in·th e·age·o f.complexity.
11 W. Immen, ' Meditatio n Fi nds a n O mmm in the Office, " Globe and Ma il, November 27, 2012, h ttp://www.theglo b eand mai l. co m/ repo rt· O n· b us i ness/ s m a 11 · b us i ness/ sb. m a nagi ng/ huma n· resou rces/ meditation· fi nds·a n · Om m m· i n ·the.office/ article5684202/ .
12 L. S. Colzato, A. Szapora, D. Lippelt, a n d B. Hommel, · rrio r Meditation Practice Modul ates Performance and Strategy Use in Convergent· a n d Divergent.Thinking rroblems, • M indfulness, Octo ber 2014.
13 J. D. Creswell, L E. r acilio, E. K. Lin dsay, and K. V\I. Brown, ' Brief Mi n dfu lness Med it atio n Trai ni ng Alt ers rsych ologica l and Neu roendocri ne Responses to Socia l Eva l uat ive Stress," Psyclwneuroendocrinology44 (June 2014), p p. 1- 12.
14 A. C. Hafenbrack, Z. Kinias, and S. G. Barsade, "Deb iasing the Mind th rough Meditation: Mindful ness a n d the Sunk.Cost Bias," Psyclwlogical Science 25, n o. 2 (2013), pp. 369- 3 76.
15 W. Immen, ' Meditatio n Fi nds a n O mmm in the Office,' Globe and Mail, November 27, 2012, http://\\~vw.theglobean d mail.com/ repon.o n -b usines.s/ smaJl.business/ sb. ma naging/hu man·resources/ meditation. finds.an.o mm m -in·the-0ffice/anicle5684202/ .
16 M. Gonzalez, Mindful Leadership: The 9 Ways to Self-Awareness, Transforming Yourself, and lmpiring Others (Mississauga: John Wi ley and Sons, 2012) .
17 W. Immen, ' Meditatio n Fi nds a n O mmm in the Office,' Globe and Mail, November 27, 2012, http://\\~vw.theglobean d mail.com/ repon.o n -b usines.s/ smaJl.business/ sb. ma naging/hu man·resources/ meditation. finds.an.o mm m -in·the-0ffice/anicle5684202/ .
18 S. McG reevey, "Tu rn Down th e Vol ume,• Harvard Gazette, Apri l 22, 2011 , h ttp://news.h arvard.edu/ gazette/ st ory/ 2011 / 04/ o/oE2•/o80•lo98tu rn·down·th e·volumeo/oE2%80%99/ .
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Endnotes 603
E. Kem eny, E. Fe rrer, B. A. Wallace, and C. D. Saro n, ' Self.reported Min dfulness a nd Cortisol during a Shamatha Medita tion Retreat, • Health Psychology 32, no. 10 (October 2013), pp. 1104- 1109.
21 \¥. Duggleby, D. Cooper, a n d K. renz, ' Ho p e, Self. Efficacy, Spiritual \.Veil.Being a nd Job Satisfactio n," Joumal of Advanced Nur>ing 65, no. 11 (Novembe r 2009), p p. 2376- 2385.
22 In fo rmat ion based o n "Abou t Us,· Vancouver Island Health Alllhority, accessed Novembe r 27, 2014, http://\\~vw.viha.ca/ spiri· tual_ca re/ aboutf.
23 'The Bes'! Canadian Companies to 'A1o rk fo r in 2014, • Business Review Ornada, Novembe r 25, 2013, http://www.businessreviewcanada. ca/ leadersh ip/ 10/ T h e· best· Ca n adian ·cO m pan ies· tO· wo rk· for. in·2014.
24 "Can adians Are Impatien t, But Seek Serenity: Trend ran I,• JWT Canada, Feb ruary JO, 2014, h ttps://W\,~v. jwt.com/ en/ canada/ thinking/ canadia nsarei m patientbutseekserenitytre n dpan I/ .
2 5 C. L. Jurkiewicz a n d R. A. Giacalo n e, "A Va lues Framework for Measuring the Impact of Workp lace Spiri tuality o n Organizational r erforma n ce, • Journal of Business Ethics 49, n o . 2 (2004), pp. 129- 142.
26 D. McDon ald, "A Colourful Commitme nt to C raft Leads to UFV Ho norary Degree fo r C harllotte Kwon," UFVToday, Jun e JI, 2014.
2 7 A. Daniels, 'Textile Impo rte r Defen ds Artisans' Rights,• Vancouver Su11, May I, 2000, pp. C8, CJO.
28 "Get to Know Ou r Managem ent Tea m, " Reaume Chev/ Buick/ GMC, accessed Novem be r 27, 2014, h ttp://W\,w.reaumechev.com/ contact· US· OUr· m an agers.
29 R. Joh nson, · rolling Religion in Canada,• National Post, December 21, 2012 (b ased o n a 2012 Forum Research poll, commissioned exclusively for th e National Post).
30 I. I. Mitroff a nd E. A. Denton, A Spiritual Audit of Corporate America: A Hard Look at Spirin,alit)i Religion, and Values in the Workplace (San Francisco: Jossey. Bass, 1999).
31 See, for example, B. S. r awar, "Workplace Spirituality Facilitation: A Com p re h ensive Model, · Journal of Business Ethics 90, n o. 3
(2009), pp. 375- 386; a nd L. Lambert, Spiritualit)• /11c.: Religion i11 the American Workplace (New York: New York University r ress, 2009).
32 M. Oppenheimer, 'The Rise of the Corporate C haplain,· Bloomberg Businessweek, August 23, 2012, p p. 58 - 61.
33 M. Lips· Miersma, K. L. Dean, a n d C. J. Fom aciari, 'Theorizi ng the Dark Side of the Workp lace Spirituality Movem ent," Joumal of Ma11ageme1tt Inquiry 18, no. 4 (2009), pp. 288- 300.
3 4 J. · C. Ca r c i a . Zamo r, " 'A' o rk place Spi r i tua l ity a n d O rgan izat iona l Perfo rmance, " Public Adm i,i istralion Review. May- June 2003, pp. 355- 363; a n d L. 'A'. Fry, S. T. Ha nna h, M. Noel, and F. 0 . Walu mbwa, ' Impact o f Spi ritual Leaders h ip o n U nit Performance, · Leadership Quarterly 22, n o. 2 (2011 ), pp. 259- 270.
35 A. Rego a nd M. ri n a e Cu n ha, ' \'lorkp lace Spir ituality a n d O rgan izational Com mitment : An Em p irica l Study," Jounial of Orga11iza t io11al Change Management 21, n o. I (2008 ) , pp. 53 - 75; R. 'A' . Ko lodi n sky, R. A. G iaca lo n e, a n d C. L. Ju rkiew icz, "Wo rkp lace Val u es a n d Outcom es: Exp lo ring Pe rso na l, O rgan iza tio nal. and I n t e ract ive Wo rkp l ace Sp ir it u a lity," Journal of Business Ethics 81, n o. 2 (2008), pp. 465 - 480; a n d M. Gupt a , V. Ku m ar, and M. Singh, "C reat ing Satisfi ed Emp loyee.< through Workpl ace Spiritual ity: A Study o f the rrivate Ins u ra n ce Sector i n r u n ja b I ndia,• Jounial of Business Ethics 122 (2014 ), pp. 79 - 88.
36 Cited in A. M. Saks, ' Workplace Spiri tua lity a n d Em p loyee Engagement,• Joumal of Managemen t, Spiri111ality & Religion 8, no. 4 (2011 ), pp. 317-340.
604 En dnotes
Chapter 13
1 Vig n ette based on h ttps://www.h o lacracy.o rg/ how-it-works/; and K. \<\lilkinson, "Holacracy Empower.; Employees by Getting Rid of Bosses, · Canadian Business, March 31. 2014, h ttp://www. canadianbusine.ss.com/ busi ness-strategy / hol acracy / .
2 L. Ga ricano a n d Y. W u, " Knowledge, Com municat ion, and O rganizational Capabilities,,. Organization Scie,ice, September- October 2012, pp. 1382- 1397 .
3 See, fo r instance, R. L. Daft, Organizntion Theo,y and Design, 10th ed. (Cinci nna ti, OH: South -Western Pu blishing, 2010) .
4 J. G. Miller, "The Real \<\/o m en's Issue: Ti me,· Wall Street Journal, March 9- 10, 2013, p. C3.
5 T. \<\/. Ma lone, R. J. Laubach e r, and T. Johns, "Th e Age of Hyperspecializatio n, • Harvard Business Review, July- August 201 1, pp. 5 6 - 65 .
6 J. Schra mm, "A Cloud of Workers." HR Magazine, Ma rch 2013 , p. 80.
7 C. Woodyard, "Toyota Brass Shakeup Aims to Give Regions More Cont rol," USA Today, March 6, 2013, h ttp://"~vw.usatoday.com/ story/ money/ cara/ 2013/ 03/ 06/ toyota-shakeup/ 1966489/ .
8 C. Hymowi tz, "Manage.rs Suddenly H ave to Answer to a Crowd of Bo.s.ses, • \,\la/I Street Journal, August 12, 2003, p. BI .
9 "'How H ie rarchy Can Hu rt Strategy Execution/ Haroard Business Review, July- August 2010, pp. 7 4-75 .
10 See, fo r exam ple, J. H. G ittell, "Supervisory Span, Relationa l Coordination, and Fligh t Departure Performance: A Reassessm ent of Postbu reaucracy Theory,· Organizntion Science, July - August 2001 , pp. 468- 483.
11 J. Ch i ld a n d R. G . McG ra t h, "O rga n izatio n s U n fettered: Orga nizatio nal Fonn i n an l nform ation· l ntensive Economy," Academy of Management Journal, December 2001, pp. 1135- 1148.
U F. A. Csascar, "Orga nizational Structu re as a Determ ina nt of Performance: Evidence fro m Mutual Funds," Strategic Management Journal, June 2013, pp. 611 - 632.
13 B. Brown a nd S. D. Antho ny, "How P&G Tripled Its Innovatio n Success Rate." Harvard Business Review, June 2011, pp. 64 - 72.
14 A. Leiponen a n d C. E. Helfat, "Location, Decentralization, and Knowledge Sources fo r In nova tion," Organization Science 22, n o. 3 (2011 ), pp. 641- 6 58 .
15 K. Parks, • HSBC Unit Charged in Argentine Tax Case,• \,\la/I Street Joumal, March 19, 2013, p. C2.
16 G. Morgan, Images of Organizntion (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1986), p. 21.
17 P. He m pel, Z.-X. Zhang, and Y. Han, "Tea m Em powerment and the Organizational Context: Decentral ization and the Contra~ting Effects of Formalization," Journal of Management, March 2012, pp. 475-501.
18 J. E. Perry-Sm i th a n d C. E. Sh a lley, "A Social Co m position View of Team Crea t ivity: Th e Role of Mem ber Natio n al ity- Hete rogeneous 1ies O utside of the Team," Orgm1izntiot1 Science 2 5 (2014), pp. 1434 - 145 2; J. Han, J. Han, and D. J. Brass, • Human Capital Diversity in the Creation of Social Capita l fo r Tea m Creativity,• Journal of Organizntional Behavior 3 5 (2014), pp. 54-71; and N. Sivasubraman iam, S. J. Liebowitz, and C. L. Lackm an, "Dete nninants of New Product Devel opm ent Team Performance: A Meta-analytic Review:," Joun1al of Product Innovation Management 29 (2012), pp. 803- 820.
19 N. J. Foss, K. Lau rsen, and T. Pedersen, "Linking C usto me r In te raction a nd Innovation : T he Media ti ng Ro le of New O rganiza t io n al Practices,· Organization Science 22 (2011 ) , pp. 980- 999; N. J. Foss, J. Ly ngsie, and S. A. Zah ra, "The Role of Exte rn al Kn owledge Source.< and Orga nizatio n al Design in the Process of Opportunity Explo itation," Strategic Manageme,1t
Journal 34 (2013), pp. 145 3 - 1471 ; A. Salte r, P. C risuolo, and A. L J. Ter Wal, "Coping w ith Open Innovation: Respond ing to th e Challenges of Exte rnal Engagement in R&D." California Management Review 56 ('A'inter 2014), pp. 7 7-94.
2 0 T. A. de Vries, F. Wa lter, G. S. Va n der Vegt, and P. J. M. D. £.,;sens, '''An tecedents of Ind iv iduals' lnterteam Coord ina tion: Broad Functional Experiences as a Mixed Blessing, • Academy of Management Journal 5 7 (2014), pp. 1334- 1359 .
21 A. Murray, • Built Not to La.st, · Wall Street Journal, March 18, 2013, p. All .
22 For a quick overview, see J. Davore n, "func tiona l S tructure O rganization Strength and Weakn ess." Small Business Chronicle, accessed Ju n e 2 5, 201 5, http://s m a ll busi n ess.ch ron .com/ functio nal -structure-o rganization-strength -weakness-60111.h trn l.
23 See, fo r in.stan ce, A. Wri ti ng, • Diffe re nt Types of O rgan izational Structure." Small Business Chronicle, accessed June 2 5, 201 5, h ttp://sm a llbusi ness.chro n.co m/ d iffere nt-types-organizational- structure-723.html.
24 Fo r a qu ick overview. see .. Types of Bus iness Organizational Structures,· Pingboard , July 24, 2013 , https://p ingboard.com/ blog/types-business-organizatio nal-structures/ .
25 J. R. Galbraith, Designing Matrix Organizatio11S That Actually \,\fork: How IBM , Procter & Camble, and Others Design for Success (San Francisco: Jo.ssey Bass, 2009); and E. Krell, "Managing th e Matrix, • HR Magazine, April 2011, pp. 69- 71.
2 6 See, for instance, M. Bidwell, • polit ics a nd Finn Boundaries: How O rganizational Structure, Group Interests, and Resources Affect OuLo;ourcing," Organiu,tion Science, November- Decem ber 2012, pp. 1622- 1642.
2 7 See, fo r exam p le, T. Sy a nd L S. D'Annunzio, "Ch allenges a nd Strategies of Matr ix O rgan izations: Top-Level and Mid- Level Ma nagers' Perspectives," Human Resource Plam1ing 28, no. 1 (2005), pp. 39- 48; and T. Sy and S. Cote, "Emotio nal Intelligen ce: A Key Ability to Succeed in the Matrix O rganizatio n." Journal of Management Development 23, no. 5 (2004), pp. 437- 4 55.
28 Based o n I. Tos.sell, •say Goodbye to Hierarchy, Hello to Holacracy, • Globe and Mail, March 2 5, 2017, https://beta.theg)obean d mail.com/ report-on-busine.ss/ rob-m agazine/d i.<ruption-no-boss-needed-in - a-holacracy/ article20J 985 8 7 / ? ref=http://www. theglobeandmai I. com&.
29 N. Ana n d and R. L. Daft, • \<\/hat Is th e Rig h t Orga nizatio n Design?" Organizntional Dynamics 36, no. 4 (2007) , pp. 329- 344.
30 See, fo r example, N. S. Co n tractor, S. Wasserm an, a nd K. Faust, "Testing Multith eoretical, Multilevel Hypoth eses about O rganizationa l Networks: An Ana lytic f ramework and Empirical Exa m ple,· Academ)' of Management Review 31 , n o. 3 (2006), pp. 681-703; and Y. Sh in, "A Peraon-Environment Fit Model fo r Virtual O rga nizations,• Journal of Management, October 2004, pp. 7 25-743.
31 "\<\lh y Do Canadia n Companies Opt for Cooperative Ventures?" Micro: The Micro-Economic Research Bulletin 4, no. 2 ( 1997 ), pp. 3 -5 .
32 J. Schramm, "At Work in a Virtual World,· HR Magazine, June 2010, p. 152.
33 C. B. Gibson and J. L. Gibbs, "Unpacking the Concept ofVirtuality: The Effects of Geographic D ispersion, Electronic Dependence, Dynamic Structure, and National Diversity o n Team Innovation," Administrative Science Quarterly 51, no. 3 (2006), pp. 451- 495; H. M. Latapie and V. N. Tran, "Subculture Formation, Evolu tion, and Confli ct Between Regiona l Teams in Virtual O rganizations," Business Review, Summe r 2007, pp. 189- 193; and S. Davenport a n d U. Daellenbach, "'Belo nging' to a Virtual Research Center. Exploring th e Influence of Social Capital Fonnation Processes on Member Identificatio n in a Virtual O rganization," British Jounial of Management 22, no. I (2011), pp. 5 4-76.
34 A. Poo n and K. Ta lly, "Yoga-Pa nts Su ppl ie r Says Lu lulemon Stretches Truth," \.\la/I Street Joumal, March 20, 2013, p. Bl.
3 5 Based on T. Jo h ns and L. Gratton, "The Third Y..•ave of Vi rtua l Wo rk,• Harvard Busi11ess Review, Jan u ary- Feb ruary 2013 , pp. 66-73; R. E. Silverman, "Step Into the Office-Less Company, •
Wall Street Jouma/, September J 5, 2012, p. 86; and R. E. Silverma n, "Tracki ng Sensors Invade th e Workplace.· \.Vall Street Journal, March 7, 2013, p. BI.
3 6 See, fo r i nstance, E. Deva ney, "The Pros & Cons of 7 Popula r O rga nizational Structures," accessed June 25, 2015, http://b log. hubspot.com/ marketing/team-structure-diagrams.
3 7 J. Scheck, L. Molo n ey, and A. Flynn, " Eni, CNPC Li nk Up in Mozam b iq ue,• H'all Street Joumal, March 15, 2013, p. 83.
3 8 E. Devaney, "Th e Pros & Cons of 7 Popula r O rga n izat iona l Structures," accessed June 25, 2015, http://b log.hubspot.com/ m arke ting/team.structure-diagrams.
3 9 P. Evans, "Sears Canada to Close 5 9 Stores, Lay Off 2, 900 in Re.struc turi ng," CBC News, June 22, 2017, h ttp://www.cbc.ca/ n ews/ b usiness/ sears-canada-ccaa- 1.4172 73 6.
40 S. Brady, "American Express Kicks Off 2013 with Biggest Layoffs in Four Years,· Brand Cha11nel, January JO, 2013, h ttp://\\~Vw. b ra ndchannel.com/ ho me/ post/ Ame rican-Express-Layoffs-011013. aspx.
41 L. Gensler, "America n Express to Slash 4,000 Jobs o n Heels of Stro ng Q uarter,· Forbes, January 21, 2015, http://www.fo rbes.com/ sites/ laurengensler / 2015/ 01 / 21 / a me rican-express-earni ngs-rise- I I -o n-i ncreased-card h older-spen d i ng/.
42 C. Giammona, "Starbucks First.Quarter Profit Su rges 820/c, as Food Sales Gain," Bloomberg Business, Ja nuary 22, 2015 , h ttp://\\~Vw. b loomberg.com/ news/ artides/ 2015-01-22/ starbucks-fi rst-quarte r- p rofit -su rges-82 -as-food -sa Jes.increase.
43 C. D. Zatzick and R. D. Iverson, ' High-Involvement Management a nd Wo rkfo rce Reduct io n : Co m petitive Adva ntage o r Disadvantage?" Academ)' of Ma11agement Joumal 49, no. 5 (2006), pp. 999- 1015; A. Travaglion e and B. C ross, " Dimin ishi ng the Social Network in O rganizations: Does There Need to Be Such a Phenome no n as 'Suivivor Syndrome' After Downsizing?" Strategic Cha11ge 15, no. I (2006), pp. 1- 13; a nd J. D. Ka mmeyer-Mueller, H . Liao, a nd R. D. Arvey. "Downsizi ng a nd O rga nizatio nal Performance: A Review of the Li teratu re fro m a S takeholder Perspect ive," Research in Personnel and Huma,1 Resources Ma11age111e1tt 20 (2001 ), pp. 269- 329.
44 Vign ette based o n K. Wi lkinson, "Holacracy Empowers Emp loyees by Getting Rid of Bosses,· Canadia11 Busi11ess, March 31, 2014, http://\\~vw.canadianbusines.,.com/ business-stra tegy/ h o lacracy/ .
45 K. \.Va l ke r, N. N i, a n d B. Dyck, "Recipes fo r S u ccessfu l S ustai nabil ity: Em pi rical Organ izatio nal Configurations fo r Strong Corporate Environm en ta l Perform ance." Business Strategy a11d the E11viro111nent 24, no. I (2015) , pp. 40-57.
46 See, for insta nce, J. R. Hollenbeck, H. Moon, A. P. J. Ellis, B. J. West, D. R. II gen, L Sheppard , C. 0. L. H. Po rter, and J. A. Wagner Ill, "Structura l Contingency Theory a nd Individual D ifferences: Examinatio n of External and Internal Person.Team Fit." Jounial of Applied Psychology, June 2002, 599- 606; and A. Drach-Zah avy a nd A. Fre u nd, "Tea m Effectiveness Under Stre.s.<: A Structural Contingency Approach,· Jounwl of Organizatio11al Behavior 28, no. 4 (2007 ), pp. 423- 450.
47 K. \.Va lke r, N. N i, a n d B. Dyck, "Recipes fo r S u ccessfu l S ustai nabil ity: Em pi rical Organ izatio nal Configurations fo r Strong Corporate Environm en ta l Perform ance," Business Strategy a11d the E11viro111nent 24, no. I (2015), pp. 40- 57 .
48 See. for instance, S. M. Toh, F. P. Morge.son, and M.A. Campion, "Human Resource Configurations: Investigating Fit w ith the O rgan izational Context, · Joumal of Applied Ps)'clwlogy 93, no. 4 (2008), pp. 864- 882.
4 9
50
51
52
53
54
55
End notes 605
M. Mesco, "MoleskineTestsAppetite fo r IPOs, " Wall Street Journal, March 19, 2013, p. 88.
J. Backaler, "Haier: A C hinese Com pany th a t Innovates, · Forbes, June 17, 2010, http://www.forbes.com/ sites/ china/ 2010/ 06/ 17/ haier·a·chinese:-co mpany. that· innovates/.
See C. Perrow, "A Framework fo r the Com parative Analysis of Organizations, " American Sociological Review, April I 967, pp. 194 - 208; J. Hage and M. Aiken, "Routine Techn o logy, Social Structure. a nd Organ izationa l Coa ls, " Adm inistrative Science Quarterly, Septem ber 1969, pp. 366- 377; C. C. Miller, v,,1. H. Glick, Y. Wang, and G. P. Huber, "Un derstan ding Tech no logy-Structure Relatio nships: Theory Developm ent a nd Meta-analyt ic Theory Testing,• Academ)' of Ma11age111e11t Journal, June J 991, pp. 3 70 - 399; and W. D. Sine, H. Mitsuhashi, and D. A. Kirsch, "Revisiting Bum< and Stalker: Formal S tructure and New Venture Perform ance in Emerging Economic Sectors," Academy of Manageme,1t Jounwl 49, no. I (2006), pp. 121- 132.
See, for instance, J. A. Cogin and I. 0 . Y..'illiamson, "Sta ndard ize or Custo m ize.: The Interactive Effects of H RM and Environment Uncertainty on MNC S ubsidiary Performance," Human Resource Management 5 3, no. 5 (2014), pp. 701 - 721; a n d G. Kim and M.-G. Huh, " Exploration a n d O rga nizational Longevity: The Moderating Role of Strategy a n d Environment," Asia Pacific Joumal of Ma11ageme1tt 32, no. 2 (2015) , pp. 389- 414.
R. Greenwood, C. R. H ini ngs, a nd D. Y,,lhetten, " Re thinking Institutions and Organizations," Jounial of Manageme,u Studies 51 (2014), pp. 1206- 1220; a n d D. C h a n d le r a n d H. Hwang, "Learn ing fro m Learning Theory: A Model of Organizational
Adopt ion Strategies a t th e Microfoundat io ns of Institutional Theory," Journal of Ma11ageme1tt 41 (2015), pp. 1446- 1476.
Vign ette based o n D. Aarts, "The U topia n Dream of a 'Fla t Hierarchy' is Actually a Nigh t m a re,· Canadian Bu,i11ess, May 2, 2016, http://www.ca nadia nbusiness.com/ b logs-and-comment/ the-utopian.dream .of-a-fl at-hierarchy-is-actually-a-nightmare/; and R. D. Hodge, "First, Let's Get Rid of All t h e Bosses," New Republic, October 4, 2015, https://newrepublic.com/ a rtide/ 122965/ can-b i 11 io n-dol la r-co rpo ration· za ppos-be-self-organized.
C. S. Spell and T. J. Arnold, "A Mu l t i -Leve l A n a lys is of O rganizational Justice and Cli mate. St ructure, a n d Em p loyee Menta l Health , • Journal of Management 33, no. 5 (2007 ), pp. 724- 751; and M. L Amb rose and M. Schminke, "Organization Structure as a Moderator of th e Relationship Between Procedural Justice. Jnteractional Justice, Perceived O rgan izational S upport, and Supervisory Trust,• Journal of Applied Psycholog)' 88, no. 2 (2003), pp. 295- 305.
56 See, for instance, C. S. Spell a nd T. J. Arn old, "A Mu lti-Level Analysis of Orga n izationa l Justice Cli ma te. Structure, a nd Employee Menta l Health,· Journal of Ma11agement 33, n o . 5 (2007) , pp. 7 24- 751; J. D. Shaw and N. Gupta, "Job Complexity, Pe rfo rm a nce, and Well-Being: \,Vhen Does Suppli es-Va lues Fit Matter?" Perso1111el Psyc/10/og)' 5 7, no. 4 (2004), pp. 847-8 79; a nd C. An derson and C. E. Brown, '"The Functions and Dysfun ctions of Hiera rchy,· Research in Organizatio11al Behavior 30 (2010), pp. 5 5-89.
5 7 Based on P. Puranam, M. Raveendran, and T. Kn udsen, "Organ izatio n Des ign: T he Ep is tem ic In terdepe nde nce Pe rspective," Academy of Management Review 3 7, n o. 3 (2012), pp. 419- 440; a nd R. E. Silverman an d Q. Fottrell, "The Home Office in th e Spotlight, • \.Vall Street Joumal, February 27, 2013, p. 86.
58 T. Martin, "Ph a rmacies Feel More Heat,• \.\la/I Street Journal, March 16- 17, 2013, p. A3.
59 See. fo r instance. R. E. Ployh art, J. A. Y..1eel<ley, and K. Baughman, "The Structu re and Fu nc tio n of H uman Capital Emergence: A Multilevel Examination of the Attraction.Selection-Attrition Model,• Academy of Ma11ageme11t Joumal 49, n o. 4 (2006), pp. 661 - 677 .
606 Endnotes
60 J. B. Stewart, "A Place to Play fo r Google Staff: New York Times, March 16, 2013, p. BI.
61 P. Dvorak, "Making U.S. Managem ent Ideas Work Elsewhere,• \.Vall Street Joumal, May 22, 2006, p. B3.
62 See, for example, B. K. Park, J. A. C ho i, M. Koo, S. Sul, an d I. Choi, "Culture, Self, and Preference Structure: Transitivity and Context Independen ce Are Vio la ted More by Interdepen dent People,· Social Cognition, February 2013, pp. 106- 118.
63 J. Has.,ard, J. Morris, and L McCann, " My Brilliant Career' ? New O rganizational Forms a nd Changing Managerial Careers in Japan, th e U K, a n d USA; Journal of Management Studies, May 2012, pp. 571 - 599.
64 Based o n A. Brya nt, "Structure? The Flatter the Better,• New York Times, January 17, 2010, p. BU2; "Ho neywell International: From Bitter to Sweet: Economist, April 14, 2012, h ttp://www.economist. com/ node/21552631; A. Efrati an d S. Morrison, "Chief Seeks More Agile Google,· Wall Street Joumal, January 22, 2011, pp. Bl , B4; H. El Nasser, "Wh a t O ffi ce? Laptops Are \.Vo rkspace, • USA Today, Jun e 6, 2012; Fortune 500 rankings, http://m oney.cnn.com/ maga- zines/fortune/ fo rtuneS00/ 2012/ full_list/ ; "Ho neywell I Company Structure Informa tion fro m ICIS, • ICIS.com, accessed November 12, 2014, h ttp:/fw,,~v.icis.com/ v2/ compa nies/ 9t 45292/ honey- well/ structure.h tm l; K. Linebaugh, "Ho neywell's H iring Is Bleak,· Wall Street Journal, March 6, 2013, p. B3; A. Mu rray, "The En d of Management: Vi'a/1 Street Joumal, August 21, 2010, p. V-13; A. R. Sorkin, "Delegato r in Chief,· New York Times, April 24, 2011 , p. B4; a nd S. Tully, "How Dave Cote Got Hon eywell's G roove Back," CNN Mone)', May 14, 2012, http://ma nagemen t.fortune. cnn.com/ 2012/ 05/ 14/ 500-honeywel I-cote/.
65 M. Kaufman, "1ne 'A'isdom of Job In.security,· Forbes, October 3, 2014, http://www.forbe.,.com/ sites/ mich akaufman/ 2014/ 10/ 03/ the-w isdom -of-job-i n.<ecurity-dont -be-lulled-by-fall ing-unem- p loyment/; C. Van Gorder, "A No-Layoffs Po licy Can 'A'ork, Even in an Unpredictable Economy," Harvard Business Review, January 26, 2015, htt p.<://h br.org/2015/ 01 / a-no -layoffs-pol icy-can-work- even-i n -an-u n p redictab I e-econ omy; J. Zumbrun, "Is Your Job 'Routine'? If So, It's Probably Disappea ring; Wall Street Journal, April 8 , 2015, h ttp://blogs.wsj.com/ econom ics/ 2015/ 04/ 08/ is-you r-job-rou t i ne-i f-so-i ts-probab ly -d isappearing/; and U. Kinnunen, A. Miikikangas, S. Mauno , N. De Cuyper, and H. De Witte, .. Development of Perceived Job ln.~ecurity across Two Years: Associations with Antecedents a nd Emp loyee O utcomes," Jounwl of Occupational Health Psychology 19 (2014), pp. 243- 258.
66 Based on C. Maine melis, "Stealing Fire: Creative Deviance in the Evolutio n of New Ideas,• Academr of Management Review 35, no. 4 (2010), pp. 558- 578; and A. Lashinsky, "Inside Apple, • Fortune, May 23, 2011, pp. 125- 134.
67 Based o n P. J. Sauer, "Open- Door Ma n agem e nt, · Inc. , June 2003, p. 44; a n d "Not Just Job-,. Opportunit ies,• TechTarget.com , accessed Novem ber 12, 2014, http://www.techtarget.com/ htrnl/ job_opps.htm.
68 Based on S. P. Robbins and P. L. Hunsaker, Training in Interpersonal Skills, 3 rd ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003), pp. 95- 98.
Chapter 14
1 Vignette based on The Associated Pre.SS, "Ringling Bros. Closing Cu rtai n o n Namesa ke Ci rcus After 146 years: CBC News, January 16, 2017, http:/fW\,~v.cbc.ca/ news/ world/ ringling-b ro.<- circus-endi ng- 1.3936551; a nd R. Marowits, "Cirq u e du Sole il Founde r Sells Compa ny, Refuses to Pass It to H is Ch ildren, • Canadian Business, Apri l 20, 2015, http://W\,~v.ca nadianbusine.s.,. com/ business. news/ n ews a le.rt ·ci rque.du.sol ei J .sel Js . m ajo rity· stake-to -u -s-p ri vate-equity-ft rm/ .
2 A. C howdh iy, "Apple Surpassed Samsung as Global Ph one Market Leader, Says Report, · Forbes, March 3, 2015, http://W\,~v.fo rbes.
com/ sites/ a m i tchowd h ry/ 2015 / 03 / 04/ apple-passe.,-samsu ng/; and h ttps://www.statista.com/ statist ics/ 2634 OJ/ g loba 1-appl e- iphone-sales-si nce-3rd-quarter-2007 /; h ttps:f f,VW\v.digital trends. com/ mobile/ 2016-smartph o ne-sa les/ ; https://\\~VW. fastco m pany. co m/ 305606 9 / sa msung-agai n -easi ly -sel Is-m o re-phones-than· apple-in-q4; a nd https://"~vw.recode.net/ 2017/2/ 26/ 14742598/ b I ackberry-sal es-ma rket -sha re-cha rt.
3 See, fo r exa mple, K. H. Hammonds, "Practical Rad icals, · Fast Om,pany, September 2000, pp. 162- 174; and P. C. Judge, "Change Agents: Fast Company, Novem ber 2000, pp. 216- 226.
4 A. Finder, P. D. Hea ly, a nd K. Zernike, "President of Ha rva rd Resigns, End ing Stormy 5 -Year Tenure, • New York Times, February 22, 2006, pp. A l , Al9.
5 Vignette based on D. Neisser, "How Cirque Du Soleil Contorts to Create C hange," Advertising Age, December 14, 2016, http:// adage.com/ article/ cmo-strategy/ cirque-du-soleil-contorts-create- change/ 307141/ ; and R. Leach, "Major change.< at Cirque's The Beatles Love' are two years in the making. " Las Vegas Swt, February 16, 2016, h ttps://lasvegassun.com/ vegasdeluxe/ 2016/ feb/ ! 6/ major.change.~·cirque.beatles-love· two.years·making/.
6 See, fo r instance, J. Man cheste r, D. L. Cray-Miceli, J. A. Metcalf, C. A. Paol ini, A. H. Napier, C. L. Google, a nd M. G. Owens, "Facilitating l.ewin's Change Model with Collaborative Evaluation in Promoting Evidence-Based Practices of Health Professio nals,• Evaluation and Program Planning, Decem ber 2014, pp. 82- 90.
7 P. G. Audia, E. A. Locke, a nd K. C. S mit h, "The Paradox of Su ccess: An Arch iva l a n d a Laboratory Stu dy of Strategic Persistence Following Radical Environmental Change,• Academy of Management Joumal, October 2000, pp. 83 7-853; and P. C. Audia and S. Brion, "Reluctant to C ha nge: Self-Enha n cing Responses to Divergi ng Performan ce Measures," Orgmiizational Behavior m id
Human Decision Processes 102, n o. 2 (2007), pp. 255- 269.
8 See, for instan ce, J. Kim, "Use of Kotter's Leading Change Model
to Develop and Imp lem e nt a Heart Failure Education Program fo r Certified Nursing As.,istants in a Long-Term Care Facility,• Nursing
Research 64, no. 2 (2015), p. E35; and J. Pollack and R. Po llack, "Us ing Kotter's Eight Stage Process to Manage a n Organisational Change Program: Presentation and Practice, " Systemic Practice and Action Research 28, no. I (2015), pp. 41- 66.
9 See, fo r example, L. S. Lilscher a nd M. 'A'. Lewis, "Organizational C ha nge and Managerial Sensem aking: 'A1orking thro ugh Paradox,•
Academr of Ma11ageme,11 Joumal SJ, no. 2 (2008), pp. 221- 240.
10 See, fo r example, B. Verleysen, F. La mbrechts, a nd F. Van Acker,
"Bu ild ing Psych ologica l Capita l w it h App recia t ive Inq u iry: Investigating the Med iating Ro le of Basic Psychologica l Need Satisfaction,• Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 51, no. l (2015), pp. 10- 35; C. R. Bush e, "How Has Al Lived Up to Promises, \.Vh a t Is IL< Future?" Al Practitioner 18, no. I (2016); and G. R. Bush e, "A Comparative Case Study of Appreciative Inq uiries in O n e O rganization: Implications for Practice, " Review of Research and Social Intervention 29 (2010), pp. 7-24.
11 C. R. Bushe, "A Comparative Case Study of Appreciative Inq uiries in One O rganizatio n: Imp lications for Practice,• Review of Research
and Social Intervention 29 (2010), pp. 7 - 24.
12 C. R. Bushe, "A Comparative Case Study of Appreciative Inq uiries in One O rganization: Imp lications for Practice,• Review of Research and Social lnteroention 29 (2010), pp. 7 - 24.
13 C. R. Bushe, "How Has Al Lived Up to Pro mises, 'A' h a t Is IL< Future?" A/ Practitioner 18, n o. I (2016) .
14 Vign ette based on R. Leach, "Major Ch anges at Cirq ue's The Beatles Love' Are Two Years i n th e Maki ng, • Las Vegas Sun ,
February 16, 2016, h ttps://lasvegassun.com/ vegasdeluxe/ 2016/ feb/ 16/ ma jo r-changes-cirque-beatles-love-two-years-m aking/.
15 P. G. Audia and S. Brio n, "Reluctant to Change: Self-Enh a ncing Responses to Diverging Perform ance Measu res," Organiznlio,ial Behavior and Huma11 Decision Proasses 102 (2007), pp. 255 - 269.
16 M. Fugate, A. J. Ki nicki, and G. E. PruS-<ia, 'Employee Coping with Orga nizational Change: An Exa mi nation of Alternative Theoretical Perspectives and Models; Perso11nel Psrc/10/ogy 61, no. I (2008), pp. 1- 36.
17 R. B. L. Sijbom, 0 . Janssen , and N. Vv. Van Yperen , "How to Get Radical Creative Ideas into a Leader's Mind? Leader's Achievement Goals and Subord inates' Voice of C reative Ideas: European Jou ma/ of Work and OrganiZ1Jtional Psrchology 24 (2015), pp. 279- 296.
18 J. D. Ford, L. v .... Ford, and A. D'Am elio, ' Resista nce to Cha nge: The Rest of the Stoiy, • Academy of Management Review 33, no. 2 (2008), pp. 362- 377.
19 Based on J. P. Kotter and L.A. Schlesinger, 'Choosing Strategies for Change,· Hanx,rd Bminess Review, July- August 2008, pp. 130- 139.
2 0 D. Katz and R. L. Kahn, The Social Psyc/10logy of OrganiZ1Jtio11S, 2nd ed. (New York: \,Viley, 1978), pp. 714- 715.
21 J. P. Kotter and L.A. Schlesinger, 'Choosing Strategies for Change, •
Harvard Busi11ess Review, March - April 1979, pp. 106- 114.
22 P. C. Fis.< and E. J. Zajac, "The Symbolic Managemen t of Strategic Change: Sensegiv ing via Framing and Decoup ling.· Academy of Ma11ageme11t Joumal 49, no. 6 (2006), pp. 1173 - 1193.
23 A. E. Rafferty and S. L. D. Restu bog. "The Impact of Change Proces.'i and Context on Change Reactions a nd Turnover during a Merger," Joumal of Ma11agement 36, no. 5 (2010), pp. 1309- 1338.
2 4 Q. N. Huy, "Emotional Balanci ng of O rgan izational Continuity a nd Radical Cha nge: T he Contribution of Middle Managers,• Administrative Science Quarterly, March 2002, pp. 31 - 69; D. M. He ro ld , D. B. Fedor, and S. D. Caldwell, 'Beyon d Cha nge Management: A Multilevel Investigatio n of Contextual a nd Personal Infl uences on Employees' Commitm e nt to C hange,· Joumal of Applied Psychology 92, no. 4 (2007), pp. 942- 951; and G. B. Cunningham, "The Relation.sh ips a mong Commitm e nt to Change, Coping with Change, and Turnover Intentions,· Europea11 Joumal of Work a11d Organizatio11al Psrchology 15, no. I (2006), pp. 29- 45.
25 R. Peccei, A. G ia n greco, and A. Sebastiano, "The Ro le of Organ izationa l Com mitment in the Analysis of Resistance to Change: Co.p redictor and Moderator Effects," Personnel Review 40, no. 2 (2011), pp. 185- 204.
26 J.P. Kotter, "l eading Change: \','hyTransfonnational Efforts Fail," Harvard Busi11ess Review, January 2007, pp. 96- 103.
27 K. van Dam , S. Oreg. a nd B. Schyns, "Daily Work Context.< a nd Resista nce to O rganisational Change: The Ro le of leader- Member Exchange, Development C limate, a nd Change Proces., Characterist ic:.,: Applied Psrc/10/ogr: A11 lnten1a1io11al Review 57, no. 2 (2008), pp. 313- 334.
28 A. H. Y. Hon, M. Bloom, a nd J.M. C ra nt, 'Overcoming Resistance to Change and Enhancing C reat ive Performance,· Journal of Ma11age111e11t 40 (2014), pp. 919- 941.
29 S. O reg and N. Sverd lik. "Am b ivalence toward Imposed Change: The Confl ict between Dispositio nal Resistance to Change and the O rientation towa rd the Cha nge Agent,· Journal of Applied Psyc/10log)' 96, no. 2 (2011 ), pp. 337- 349.
3 0 D. B. Fedor, S. Caldwell, a n d D. M. Herold, 'The Effects of O rganizational Changes on Emp loyee Commitment: A Multilevel Investigation; Perso1111el Psyc/Jolog)' 59 (2006), pp. 1- 29.
31 S. Oreg. "Personality, C:Ontext, and Resistance to O rganizational Cha nge,• Europea11 Joumal of Work a11d Organizational Psychology 15, no. I (2006), pp. 73- IOI.
32 S. M. El ias, 'Employee Com m itme nt in T imes of Cha n ge: Assessing the Importance of Attitudes toward Orga nizational Change; Joumal ofMa11ageme11t 35, no. I (2009), pp. 37 - 55.
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End notes 607
J. W. B. Lang and P. D. Bliese, "General Mental Ability and Two Types of Adapta t ion to Unfore.<een Ch ange: App ly i ng Discontinuous Growth Models to the Task-Change Paradigm,• Joumal of Applied Psyc/10/og,, 94, no. 2 (2009), pp. 411- 428.
C. 0. L. H. Porter, J. v,,1_ Webb, and C. I. Gogus, "V,,lh e n Goal O rien tations Coll ide: Effects of Lea rning and Perfo rm ance O rientation o n Tea m Adaptab ility in Re.<ponse to Workload Im bala n ce,· Journal of Applied Psrcl10log)' 95, n o. 5 (2010), pp. 935- 943.
Based on o riginal research conducted by Dr. Katherine Breward, Univers ity of W inn ipeg. as yet u npu b lished; and Habitat fo r Hu m an ity, "Hab itat for Hu m an ity Ma n itoba Partners w ith Rockwood Institution to Build a Hom e i n \+Vi nni peg, " news release, Decembe r 18, 2013, h ttp://www.habitat. m b.ca/ P DF/ m ed ia/20 13/H ab i tat0fc,20Rockwood•!o20H ome•/020 Dedicatio n%20Presso/o20RELEASE.PDF.
See. fo r exa mp le, A. Karaevli, "Perform ance Consequences fo r New CEO 'Ou t.< idem ess': Moderating Effect.< of Pre- and Post - Succession Contexts," Strategic Management Jounwl 28, no. 7 (2007), pp. 681 - 706.
Based on R. H. Miles, "Accelerating Corporate Transforma tions (Don't Lose You r Nerve!),· Harvard Busi11ess Review, Ja nuaiy/ Februaiy 2010, pp. 68- 75.
Vignette based on D. Neisser, "How C irque Du Soleil Contorts to Create C hange; Advertising Age, Decem ber 14, 2016, http:// adage.com/article/cm o -strategy/cirque-du-soleil-conto rts-create- change/307141/; and A. Woods, "Circus Meets Extreme Sports in C irque d u Soleil's Volta,• Toronto Star, August 10, 2017, h tt p.<:// www.th estar.co m/e nte rta i nmen t/201 7 /08/ 10/ c i rcus-meets- extre me ·spo rtS· i n -ci rq ue·d u ·SO I ei Is-vo I ta.ht ml.
W. K. Smit h and M. W. Lewis, "Toward a Theory of Paradox: A Dynam ic Equilib riu m Model of O rga n izi n g,• Academr of Management Review 36 (2011), pp. 381- 403.
P. Ja rzabkowski, J. Le, and A. Va n de Ven, ' Respond ing t o Competing Strategic Dema nds: How O rganiz ing. Belonging. and Performing Paradoxe.< Coevolve, • Strategic Organizatio11 II (2013), pp. 245- 280; a nd \.V. K. Smith, 'Dynamic Decision Making: A Model of Senior Leaders Managing Strategic Paradoxes: Academy ofMa11ageme11tJ011mal 57 (2014), pp. 1592 - 1623.
J. Jay, 'Navigati ng Paradox as a Mech an is m of C h ange and Innovation i n Hybrid Organizatio ns," Academ)' of Management Joumal 56 (2013), pp. 137- 159.
Y. Zhang. D. A. \,Vald man, Y. Han, and X. Li, "Paradoxical Leader Behaviors in People Management: Antecedents and C:Onsequences," Academr of Manage111ent Joumal 58 (201 5), pp. 538- 466.
See, fo r example, F. Yua n and R. W. Woodma n, "In novative Behavio r in the \,Vo rkplace: The Role of Perform ance and Image Outcome. Expectations," Academy of lv1anagement Joun1al 53, no. 2 (2010), pp. 323- 342.
See. fo r instance, G. P. Pisano, .. You Need an Innovation Strategy," Harvard Business Review, June 2015, pp. 44- 54.
F. H . W. Vo lberda, F. A. J. Va n den Bosch, and C. V. Heij, "Management Innovatio n: Ma nagement as Fertile Ground fo r Innovation," European Ma,iageme,u Revieu~ Spring 2013, pp. 1- 15.
F. Da manpour, "Organizational Innovation: A Meta-analysis of Effects of Determinants and Moderators,· Acade111y of Ma11ageme11t Joumal, September 1991, pp. 555- 590; and G. Weste rman, F. W. McFarlan, a nd M. lansiti, "Organization Design and Effectiveness over the Innovatio n Life Cycle," Organization Science 17, no . 2 (2006), pp. 230- 238.
See P. Schepers a nd P. T. van den Berg. "Social Factors of Work- Environmen t C reativity,· Joumal of Busi11ess a11d Psrchology 21, no. 3 (2007), pp. 407- 428.
Ba,;ed on https://www.gore.com/ innovation-center; A. Harrington, '\¥h o's Afraid of a New Product?" Fortune, November 10, 2003,
608 En dnotes
pp. 189- 192; C. C. Manz, F. Shipper, and G. L. Stewart, "Evety0ne a Team Leader: Shared lnOuence a t Vv. L. Gore a nd Associa tes,· Organizational Dynamics 38, no . 3 (2009), pp. 239- 244; Gore, "A Team-Based, Flat Lattice O rganization,· accessed July 23, 2015, h ttp://\\~vw.gore.com/ e n_xxfa b outus/ culture/ index.h tml; a nd S. Caulkin, "Gore-Text Gets Made without Managers," 111e Observer, November 1, 2008, http://W\,~v.theguard ia n.com/ business/ 2008/ n ov / 0 2 / gore-tex -texti I es-terri · ke 11 y.
49 S. Chang, L Jia, R. Takeuchi, a nd Y. Cai, "Do H igh-Commitm e nt Work Syste ms Affect C reativity? A Multilevel Comb ina t io n al Approach to Emplo yee C reativity; Journal of Applied Psychology 99 (2014 ), p p. GGS- 680.
5 0 M. E. Mullins, S. W. J. Kozlowski, N. Schmitt, a nd A. W. Howell, "The Role o f the Idea C h amp ion in Innova tion: The Case of th e Internet in the Mid · 1990s," Computers in Human Behavior 24, no. 2 (2008), pp. 451- 467.
51 C. Y. Murn ieks, E. Mosakowski, and M. S. Cardon, " Pa thways o f Passion: Identity Centra lity, r assio n, and Behavior among Entrepreneurs,· Journal of Managemellt 40 (2014), pp. 1583- 1 GOG.
52 S. C. Parke r, "lntrapreneurship o r En trepreneurship?" Journal of Business Venturing, Jan ua ry 2011 , pp. 19 - 34.
5 3 See, fo r exa mple, T. B. Lawre nce, M. K. Ma uws, B. Dyck, a n d R. F. Kleysen, "The Po litics o f Organizatio nal Leam ing: Integrating Power into the 4 1 Framework," Academy of Management Review, January 2005, pp. 180- 191.
54 J. Kim, T. Egan, and H. Tolson, "Examining the Dimensions o f the Leam ing O rganization Q uestionnaire: A Review and C ritique o f Research Utilizi ng the DLOQ; Human Resource Development Review, March 2015, pp. 91- 11 2.
5 5 L. Bergh man, P. Matthyssens, S. Streukens, and K. Vandenbemp t, "' Delibera te Lea rn ing Mecha nisms fo r Stimu lating Strategic Innovation Capacity; Long Range Pla1111i11g, February- April 2013, pp. 39 - 71.
5 6 R. C hiva and J. Hab ib, "A Framework fo r Organizational Leam ing: Zero , Adaptive, and Gene rative Leaming/ Journal of Management & Organization 21, no. 3 (2015), pp. 350- 368; and J. Kim, T. Egan, a nd H. To lson, "Examin ing the Dimensions o f the Learn ing Organizatio n Questionnaire : A Review and Critique o f Research Utiliz ing the D LOQ, " Human Resource Development Review 14 , n o. I (2015), pp. 91 - 11 2.
57 M. Cem e, M. Jaklic, and M. Skerlavaj, "Decoupling Ma nageme nt a nd Tech no logica l Innovat io ns: Resolvin g th e Indiv idualis m- Collectivism Controversy," Journal of l nten1ational Management, June 2013, p p. 103- 117.
5 8 for contrasting v iews on episod ic and continuous change, see K. E. \.Veick and R. E. Quin n, "O rgan ization al Cha n ge a nd Developm ent, • i n Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 50, ed . J. T. Spence, J. M. Darley, a nd D. J. Foss (Palo Alto, CA: Annua l Reviews, 1999) , p p. 3 61- 386 . Cou n te rpoi n t based on R. Thomas, D.S. Leisa, and C. Ha rdy, "Managing O rga n izationa l Cha nge.: Negotiating Meaning and Power· Re.'iistance Relations, " Organization Science 22, no. I (2011 ) , pp. 22- 41; a nd P. B. Vaill, Manag ing as a Performing Art: New Ideas for a World of Cltaolic Cha nge (San Fra ncisco: Jo.s.sey-Bass, 1989) .
5 9 D. Meine rt, "Commun icate Early and Often,• HR Magazine, Novembe r 2012, p. 36; D. Meinert, "Defi ne t h e Goa ls; HR Magazine, November 2012, p p. 32- 33; a nd D. Mei ne rt, "Wings o f Change; HR Magazine, November 2012, pp. 30- 32.
60 Based on C. Edel h art, "\.Veatherm an's Sta nd Against Stoty Co.sts Job; Californian , May 16, 2011, http:ff,VW\v.ba kersfi eldcali fom ian. com/ local/ x1898G79505/ Weatherma n.<-stand-against-stoiy-cosL<· job; a nd K. T. Phan, 'ABC Affi lia te Fires Christia n over Strip Club Segmen t,• Fox News, May 10, 2011 , h ttp://nation.foxnews.com/ fi ring/2011 / 05/ 10/ abc-affi l ia te-fi res-christia n -over-strip-club- segment.
61 S. Halzack, "v\lhy Walma rt Is Ditching IL< Celine Dion Soundtrack and Getting a DJ: Wash ington Post, June 3, 2015, http://\\~Vw. was h i n gtonpost.co m/ n ews/ bus i ness/ wp/ 2015/ 0 G/ 03/ w hy- \.Valmart-is-ditch i n g-its-cel in e-d io n -sou ndtrack-and-getting-a- deejay/ ; B. Rith o ltz, ' Wal ma rt Learns to Live w ithout Everyday Povert y \.Vages, • Bloomberg View, Ju n e 11, 2015, h ttp://"~'~"- bloombergview.com/ articles/ 2015-0G- Jl f\.Va l ma rt-I ives-without- e ve tyd ay-poverty-wages; and B. O' Keefe, "Th e Man \.V h o's Rei nventing \.Val m a rt: Fortune, June 4 , 2015 , http:// fort une. com/ 2015 / OG/ 04/ walma rt-ceo-doug-mcmil Io n/ .
62 Based o n A. Lawson, "Sony Issu es New Profit Wa rn ing H it By Massive Smart p h one Lo.sses, • lndependenl, September 17, 2014; H. Hiyama, "Sony Break-Up Call Shines Light o n Electronic:.< Industry Pro b le ms: Japan Today, Ju n e 7, 2013, h ttp://www.japa ntod ay. com/ category/ opinions/ view/sony-break-up-call-shin es-light-on- electron ic-industry-p roble ms; R. Katz, "How Japa n Blew Its Lead in Electron ics; Wall Street Jo urnal, Ma rch 23, 2012, p. A l S; a nd H. Tabuchi, "How the Parade Passed Sony By; New York Times, April 15, 2012, p p. B 1, 87.
63 Based o n R. Pascale, M. Millem ann, a nd L. Gioja, "C hanging the \.Vay We Change,· Harvard Bminess Review, November- December 199 7, pp. 127 - 139. The actual names of th e points based on the After Action Review a re taken fro m the article, altho u gh the su mma ries a re p ro vided by th e auth o rs of this book. See also "After Action Review,• Knowledge Sharing Tools and Methods Toolkit, accessed November 26, 2014, http://\\~Vw.kstoolkit.org/ After+Action+Review.
Additional Cases
1 Note. that this case is largely based o n actual events occurring at a Can adian compa ny. At th e req uest of the individuals d irectly involved, however, the e mployee names and the company name. h ave been disguised.
2 Th is is a true s tory about a fe m ale e mployee in a Ca nadian compa ny. Th e names o f the people involved h ave been disguised. However, the events are truthful a nd accurate. This case is based on an inte iview with .. Julie" conducted after her re lease fro m jail. The interview took place on December 27, 2011 .
3 Th is case is based o n a real Canadian company. At th e. request of the own ers, the e mplo yee. nam es and the company nam e have been disguised.
4 This case. is based largely o n a n extended fea ture news story written by K. More, "Public Service Ba rgain ing: A Bruising Battle Lies Ahead: Ottawa Citizen, Ju ly 18, 2014, h ttp://ottawacitizen. com/ n ews/ n atio nal/ public-service-bargain ing-a-b ruising-battle- lies-ahead.
5 A. Thomson, "Tony Cle ment, Treasury Board President, Proposes C hanges to Pu blic Serva nts' Sick Leave,• Huffington Post Canada, August 2, 2014, http:/f\\~vw.huffingtonpost.ca/ 2014/ 02/ 08/ tony- clement-sick-leave_n_ 4 752463.html.
6 K. May, "Tony Clement 'A'ants to Cut Pub lic Servants' Sick Days to Five,• Ottawa Citizen, September 11, 2014, http://ottawacitizen. com/ news/ natio n al/ clement-wanL<·tO-cut-p ublic-servants-sick- days-to -five.
7
8
9
T. Ped well, " PBO Sick Leave Report: No ' Incremental' Costs to Taxpayers: Huffing/on Post Canada , Ju ly 16, 2014, h ttp://w,vw. h uffingtonpost.ca/ 2014/ 07 / l 6/ pbo-sick-leave-report_n_5590817. html.
S. Kari, "Ex-constable Must Again Prove RCMP Haras.,ment, • Globe and Mail, December 20, 2011, h ttp://,V\,~v.theglobeandmail.com/ news/ natio nal/ ex-constable-must-again -prove-rcmpharassment/ article I 51366/.
S. Stewart, A. Hoffma n, and P. \.Valdie, "Fem ale Mounties Allege Ha rassme nt Not Investigated to Pro tect RCM P; Canadian Press, December 20, 2011, h ttp://www.theglobea ndmail.com/ news/
na ti o na I/ fe m a le· mounties.al I ege· ha rassme.n t. not.investigated to-
p ro tect-rcm p/ article IOI 6726/ .
10 S. Stewart, A. Hoffm an, a nd P. Waldie, "Fem ale Mount ies Allege Harassment Not Investigated to Protect RCMP." Canad;a,1 Press, December 20, 2011 , http://www.theglobeandmail.com/ news/ nation a I/ fem a le · mounties.a 11 ege· ha rassme.n t. not.investigated to- pro tect-rcm p/ article IOI 6726/ .
11 S. Stewart, A. Hoffm an, a nd P. Waldie, "Fem ale Mount ies Allege Harassment Not Investigated to Protect RCMP; Canadian Press, December 20, 2011 , http://www.theglobeandmail.com/ n ews/ national/ f e ma le · mounties.al I ege· ha rassme.n t · not· investigated to- p ro tect-rcm p/ article IOI 6726/ .
ll "Mo re B.C. Mounties Complain of Harassment,· CBC News, NO\..,mber 8, 2011, http://\V\V\v.cbc.ca/news/canada/britishcolumbia/ story/ 2011 / 1 l / 08/ bc-rcmp-harassment. html.
13 " Lawyer 'Stun ned' RCMP Brass Came i n to Settle Haras.,m ent
Case: CBC News, December 9, 2011 , http://\V\,.,.v.cbc.ca/ news/ canada/ story/ 201 J / 12/ 09 / rcmp-al legations-blundel I. htm I.
14 G. Ma,on, "RCMPTook Two Years to Respond to Officer's Sexual
Harassment Comp laint, • Globe and Mail, December 5, 2011, http:// www. t h eglobea nd m a i I .com/ n ews/ nat i ona 1/ bri t ishcol umb i a/ gary_m ason/ rcmp-took-two-years-to-respond -toofficers-sexual- harassment-complaint/ article2261049/ .
15 G. Mason, "Former Mou ntie rai nts Pictu re. of Near Dai ly Harassment: Globe and Mail, December 8, 2011, http://""'"v. t heglo bea n d ma i I. com/ news/ n a t ion a I/ fo rmer-m o u n t ie- pa i n tsp i ctu re-0 f ·near -da i I y -h a ras.,m en t/ a rti cl e2 2 5 907 2/ .
16 S. Coope r, "A lleged Moun t ie H arass m en t Made RCMP Staffe r Fear fo r Fa m i ly's Lives Cou rt Hea rs,• National Post, November 18, 2011, http://news.nationa lpost.com/ 2011 / 11/ 18/ allegedm ountie-harassment-made-rcmp-staffer-fear-for-fa milys- I i vescourt -hears/ .
17 V. Luk, "RCMP Sexual Harassment Claims Deepen after Second remale Mountie Comes Fo,ward, • National Post, N=ber JO, 2011,
http://news.nationalpost.com/ 2011/ JJ / JO/ rcmp-sexualharas.,ment· claims-deepen-after-second-fema le-mountie-slamsforce/ . Mate rial reprinted with the express pennission of: Postmedia News, a d ivi· s ion of Postmedia Network Inc.
18 V. Luk, "RCMP Sexual Harassment Claims Deepen after Second remale Mountie Comes Forward,· National Post, N=ber 10, 2011, http://news.nationalpost.com/ 2011/ JJ / JO/ rcmp-sexualharas.,ment· claims-deepen-after-second-female-mountie-slamsforce/. Mate rial reprinted with the express pennis.~ion of: rostmedia News, a d ivis ion of rostmedia Network Inc.
19 C. Freeze, 'Top Mountie Delivers Cand id, Scathing View of Force
at the Brink,· Globe and Mail, December 20, 2011 , http://\V\\'\V. theglobeandma il.com/ news/ politir.</ top-mountie-deliverscandid - scathing-view-of-fo rce-at-the-brink/article22 77241 / .
2 0 D. Leblanc, "RCMP Introduce New Code of Cond uct,• Globe and
Mail, April 26, 2014, http://www.th eglobea ndmail.com/ news/ politics/ rcmp-i ntroduce-new-code-of-conduct/ a rticle 1823 71 70/.
21 G. Ma,on, "RCMPTook Two Years to Respond to Officer's Sexual Harassment Comp laint, • Globe and Mail, December 5, 2011, http:// www. t h eglobea n d m ai I .com/ n ews/ nat i ona 1/ bri t i sh col umb ia/ gary_m ason/ rcmp-took-two-years-to-respond -toofficers-sexual- harassment-complaint/ a rticle2261049/ .
22 A. Woo, "Sexual Harassment Claims against RCMP Rear.h 336, •
Globe and Mail, July 18, 2014, http://\\'\VW.theglobeandmail.com/ news/ british.colum bia/ sexual·hara~'iment·claims ·against·rcm p· rear.h-33 6/ article 19669218/.
Endnotes 609
23 I. Bailey, " Lawyers Prepari ng Possib le Class Action Lawsuit against RCMP, • Globe and Mail, Decem ber 21. 2011, http://\V\\'\V. theglobeandmail.com/ news/ national/ lawyers-preparingpossible- class-actio n-suit-agai nst-rcmp/ article22 7881 7 / .
24 Dr. Ka t herine Breward, " D isab ility Accom m odations and Promotion., a t Bunco, • Case Research Journal 30, no. I (2010), pp. 65-72. Repri nted w ith permission.
25 National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse (NDDIC), Digestive Diseases National lmritute of Hen/ti,, p ub lication number 06-3410 (Bethesda, MD: Author, 2006). http://digestive.n iddk.nih. gov/ ddiseases/pubs/ crohns/ #stress.
26 National Digestive Diseases Information Clearingho use (NDDIC), Digestive Diseases National lmtit!lle of Hen/ti,, p ub lication number 06-3410 (Bethesda, MD: Author, 2006). http://dige.,tive.n iddk.nih. gov/ ddisea.ses/pubs/ crohns/ #stress.
2 7 "Cro hn's Disease;" MedicineNet.ccm , accessed December 3. 2014, http://\V\\'\v.medicinen et.com/ crohns_disease/ article.htm.
28 This ca<e was p repared by Nancy La ngton, Sauder Sr.hool of Business. This case is based on an actual set of events, although all names have been r.hanged. C> 2006 by Nancy Langton. Case sources: ·z.oo Mulls Qualities Sought in Next Director,• toledoblade. com, September 9, 2005, http://to ledoblade.com; S. Eder, ·z.oo Task Force Sets JOO-Day Target fo r Submitting Investigation Report,• toledoblade.com, March 25, 2005; S. Eder, "Experience with Animals Lacking fo r Operations Chief: toledoblade.com, March 13, 2005; S. Eder, "Reichard Held in High Esteem by rellO\v Zoo Veterina rians,• toledoblade.com, March 9, 2005; M Green well, "Z.Oo Sees New Job As Way to Fix Problems, • toledoblade.com, June 23, 2005; J. Laidman, "Emp loyee Relations Top Zoo Leaders' List, • toledoblade.com, May 22, 2005; J. Laidm an, "Embattled Zoo Leaders Quit,· toledo· blade.com, May 5, 2005; J. Laidman, "Clash of Philosophies, Loss of An imals Triggered Turmoil; toledoblade.com, Marr.h 13, 2005; J. La idman, "Fired Zoo Veterinarian's File Mostly Positive., w ith a Few Concerns,· toledoblade.com, March 9 , 2005; J. La id m a n, "Toledo Zoo Veterinarian Bla mes Fi ring on His Warni ngs to USDA,· toledoblade.com, Marr.h 8, 2005; J. Laidman, "Reds Probe 2 Animal Death, at Toledo Z.Oo, • toledoblade.com, February 24, 2004; J. La idman a nd T. Vezner, "Staff Offers Criticism, Praise in Z.Oo Survey,• toledoblade.com, May 2 7, 2005; J. Laidm an and T. Vezn er, "Vet's Deal Isn't First to Silence Ex-Official,• toledoblade.com, May 2, 2005; J. Laid m an and T. Vezner, "In te rnal Battles Plu nge Zoo into a Ca ld ron of Disconte nt,• toledoblade.com , March 20, 2005; S. H. Staelin, "Z.Oo Board Tackl es Cha llenges: toledoblade.com, April 16, 2005; T. Vezner, •z.oo Name., Chief Veterinarian, Ignoring Task Force's Proposal,• toledoblade.com, December 17, 2005; T. Vezner, "Consu lta nt Hired to Oversee Zoo Ad mi nistration, " toledoblade.com, July 20, 2005; T. Vezner, "Z.Oo's Ex-Vet on Ha nd for Report: toledoblade.com, Ju ly 9 , 2005; T. Vezner, •z.oo Task Force Report Dem ands Broad Changes,· toledoblade.com, July 7, 2005; T. Vezner a nd J. Laid man, "Flu rry of Changes Leaves Workers Reeling; toledoblade.com, May 6 , 2005; T. Vezner, "Settlement Bars Zoo Vet from Speaking to Panel: toledoblade.com, May I. 2005; T. Vezner, • z.oo Task Force's Questions fo r Den nler Hit Time Li mit, · toledoblade.com, April I, 2005; T. Vezner, "Inquiry in 2004 Disclosed Problems: toledoblade.com, March 27, 2005; Lucas County Commissioners Special Citizens Task Force fo r the Zoo, Fina l Report, July 8 , 2005, http://""'"v.co.l ucas.oh.us/ comm iS-<ioners/ Final_ Report_Z.Oo _ Ta.,k_ Force.pdf; h ttp://,vww. toledozoo.org. accessed January 17, 2006; and http://www. doctortim.o rg. accessed January 17, 2006.
GLOSSARY/SUBJECT INDEX The page on w hich a key term is defined is p rinted in boldface.
A ability, 241 absenteeism, 95, 181
abuse of power, 284-285 accountability, 229-230 achievement-oriented leader, 391
acquisitions, 360 action research. A change process based on the systematic collec-
tion of data and then selection of a change action based on what the analyzed data indicate. 497-498
adjourning. The final stage in group development for temporaiy groups, where attention is directed toward wrapping up activities rather than task performance. 212-21 3 , 215
affect. A broad range of feelings that people experience. 60-61 , 60f affective commitment. An individual's emotional attachment to and
identification with an organization, and a belief in its values. 96
affective component. The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude. 89
affective computing, 68 affec tive events theory (AET). A model that suggests that work-
place events cause emotional reactions on the part of employees, which then influence workplace attitudes and behaviours. 63
aggressiveness, 345 ag reeableness. A personality factor that describes the degree to
which a person is good-natured, cooperative, and trusting. 50, 53-54,385
agreement, 320 all-channel network, 256 alternative work arrangements, 180-184 ambassador, 105
ambiguity, 316 analyst, 105 anchored employee, 131
anc horing bias. A tendency to fixate on initial information, from which one then fails to adequately adjust for subsequent information, 422
anger, 66, 73 anthropology, 11
anti -bullying legislation, 286, 349
apologies, 2961
appreciative inqui ry (Al). An approach to change that seeks to identify the unique qualities and special strengths of an organiza- tion, which can then be built on to improve performance. 498-499 , 4981
apps, 262 arbitrator. A third party to a negotiation who has the authority to dic-
tate an agreement. 334 arousal, 141
assertiveness, 385 attitudes. Positive or negative feelings about objects, people, or
events. 21 , 89
6 1 0
affective component, 89 behavioural component, 89 changing attitudes, 114-11 5
cognitive component, 89 components of, 89-90, 891 employee engagement, 98-99
job involvement, 96-97 job satisfaction, 90-96 organizational commitment, 96
perceived organizational support (POS), 97 attribution theory. The theory that when we observe what seems
like atypical behaviour by an individual, we attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused. 40-42, 4 lf, 69
attribution theory of leadership. A leadership theory that says that leadership is merely an attribution that people make about other individuals. 403
authentic leaders. Leaders who know who they are, know what they believe in and value, and act on these values and beliefs openly and candidly. Their followers could consider them to be ethical people. 399
authoritative command, 319 authority. The rights inherent in a managerial position to give orders
and to expect the orders to be obeyed. 461
delegation of authority, 488-489 autonomy. The degree to which the job provides substantial free-
dom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. 174, 176
availability bias. The tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is readily available to them rather than com- plete data. 423
avoiding, 317, 3 19
B Baby Boomer, 15, 8fr87, 861 bad boss, 347, 385
bargaining. See negotiation bargaining strategies, 323~25 bargaining zone. The zone between each party's resistance point,
assuming that there is overlap in this range. 326
barriers to effective communication. See communication barriers bases of power, 277-280 BATNA. The best alternative to a negotiated agreement; the outcome
an individual faces if negotiations fail. 321~22, 326, 328 behavioural accounting, 9
behavioural change, 320 behavioural component. An intention to behave in a certain way
toward someone or something. 89 behavioural economics, 9
behavioural ethics. Analyzing how people actually behave when confronted with ethical dilemmas. 437
behavioural finance, 9
behavioural theories of leadership. Theories that propose that specific behaviours differentiate leaders from nonleaders, ~ 88
behaviourism. A theory that argues that behaviour follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner. 142
benefits, 131
benevolence, 241, 453
best-practice model, 454 bias
anchoring bias, 422 availability bias, 423 confirmation bias, 423 hindsight bias, 424 overconfidence bias, 422
big data, 7-8 Big Five Personality Model. A personality assessment model that
taps five basic dimensions. 4!H;4, 5 11, 521, 223, 384, 432
biogs, 262 boards of d irectors, and diversity, 104
body movements, 263 bonus. An individual-based incentive plan that rewards employees
for recent performance rather than historical performance. 131, 168-169
books on OB, 28
bookselling industry, 7-8 boss effect, 64 boundary spanning. When individuals form relationships outside
their formally assigned groups. 464-465 bounded rationality. Limitations on a person's ability to interpret,
process, and act on information. 418-420, 419 brainstorming. An idea-generation process that specifically encour-
ages any and all alternatives, while withholding any criticism of those alternatives. 429
broken windows theory, 437-438
bullying in the workplace, 286 bureaucracy. An organizational design with highly routine operating
tasks achieved through specialization, formalized rules and regula- tions, tasks that are grouped into units, centralized authority, nar- row spans of control, and decision making that follows the chain of command. 466-468, 467
burnout, 63 butlers, 98
c Canada
ESOPs in, 170 global competition, 13
harassment, 286-287 job redesign, 177 labour relations dispute, 334
multiculturalism, 88
values in Canadian worl<place, 86-88, 861 capacity, 477 care, 436
caring, 355 cases and case incidents
Active Cultures, 378-379 Apple Goes Global, 31
Barry's Peer Becomes His Boss, 306 Big Data for Dummies, 31-32 Can You Read Emotions from Faces?, 77- 78 Creative Deviance: Bucking the Hierarchy?, 486-487
Delegate Power, or Keep It Close?, 305 Disorderly Conduct, 340-341
Equity and Executive Pay, 159 "I Detest Bureaucracy," 487 "If Two Heads Are Better than One, Are Four Even Better?", 447
Glossary/ Subj ect Index 6 1 1
lntragroup Trust and Survival, 237 Job Crafting, 1 12-1 13
Leadership by Algorithm, 410-41 1 Leadership Mettle Forged in Battle, 410 Motivation for Leisure, 194 Organizational Leveraging o f Social Media, 270-271
Pay Raises Every Day, 194-195 The Place Makes the People, 377-378 The Power of Quiet, 75-76
PowerPoint Purgatory, 271 - 272 Pros and Cons of Collective Bargaining, 341-342 Sprucing Up Walmart, 517
Tall Poppy Syndrome, 76 Tongue-Tide in Teams, 236
Wage Reduction Proposal, 160 Walking the Walk, 113-114
When Companies Fail to Change, 517-518 Youngest Female Self-made Billionaire, 446-447
centralization. The degree to which decision making is concentrated at a single point in the organization. 463
CEO compensation, 193 chain, 255- 256 chain of command. The unbroken line of authority that extends from
upper organizational levels to the lowest level and clarifies who reports to whom. 461 -462
challenge stressors, 118
chameleon, 105
change action research, 497-498 appreciative inquiry (Al), 498-499, 4981 approaches to change management, 494-499 barriers to change, 359 change agents, 494, 497, 500
culture for change, 506-511 culture of innovation, 507-509 fair implementation of change, 503
forces for change, 492-494, 4921 global context, 51 1 Keller's eight-step plan for implementing change, 496-497,
4971 learning organization, 509-511 Lewin's three-step model, 495-496, 4951
limited focus of change, 502 low tolerance for change, 501 opportunities for change, 493-494
in organizational culture, 368-372 organizational culture as barrier to, 359
in paradox situations, 506-507 people who accept change, 504
poinVcounterpoint, 514
politics of change, 505 resistance to change, 500-505 selection of people who accept change, 504
in social psychology, 11
targets for change, 4941 change agents. People who act as catalysts and assume the
responsibility for managing change activities. 494, 497, 500 channel. The medium through which a message travels. 248-251 ,
2481 channel richness. The amount of information that can be transmit -
ted during a communication episode. 2481, 249-250
6 1 2 Glossary/Subject Index
charismatic leadership, 392-393, 3931, 397, 411-413
charismatic leadersh ip theory. A leadership theOf)' that states that followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinaiy leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviours. 392-393
cheating, 437
chess, and intuition, 420
choice, 150, 276
circular structure. An organizational structure in which executives are at the centre, spreading their vision outward in rings grouped by function (managers, then specialists, then worl<ers). 473
co-optation, 503-504
coalitions, 2821
code of ethics, 369
coercion, 504
coercive power. A power base that is dependent on fear of the negative results from failing to comply. 277, 279
cognitive c,omponent. The opinion or belief segment of an attitude. 89
cognitive ca. 104-105 cognitive eval uation theory. Offering extrinsic rewards (for
example, pay) for work effort that was previously rewarding intrinsically will tend to decrease the overall level of a person's motivation. 149
collective socialization, 3651
collective turnover, 94
collectivi sm. A national culture attribute that describes a tight social frameworl< in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them. 83, 334
commitment, 279, 503
common sense opinions, 7
communication
in bad times, 249
and change, 503
channel, 248-251 , 2481
communication barriers. See communication barriers communication process, 24S-251 , 2481
and conflict, 3 15
contextual differences, 264
cultural context, 264, 2641
cultural guide, 264-266
direction of communication, 254-255
downward communication, 254-255
electronic communications, 259-262
global context, 263-264
the grapevine, 256-257
interunit communication, 507
lateral communication, 255
modes of communication, 257-263
nonverbal communication, 262-263
open communication, and conflict, 321
oral communication, 257-258
organizational communication, 254-257
and resistance to change, 503
small-group networks, 255-256, 2561
upward communication, 255
written communication, 25S-262
communic atio n apprehension. Undue tension and anxiety about oral communication, written communication, or both. 248
communication barriers, 251-254, 263-264
emotions, 252
filtering, 251
information overload, 252
language, 252-253
lying, 253-254
nonverbal communication, 262-263
selective perception, 251-252
silence, 253
c,ommunication process. The steps between a source and a receiver that result in the transfer and understanding of meaning. 248-251 , 2481
competence, 150, 2901 competition, 492-493, 510
complexity, 4 77
compliance, 279
compromising, 317, 3 19, 325
computers, and emotions, 68
conceptualizers, 49
c,oncil iator. A trusted third party who provides an informal communication link between the negotiator and the
opponent. 334
conference calling, 258
c,onfirmation b ias. The tendency to seek out information that reaf- firms past choices and to discount information that contradicts past judgments. 423
c,onflict. A process that begins when one party perceives that
another party has negatively affected or is about to negatively affect something that the first party cares about. 312
and communication, 315
constructive conflict, 3 10 , 320-321
dyadic conflict, 314
dysfunctional conflict, 312, 314-315, 320
functional conflict, 312, 314-315, 320
global context, 334-335
intergroup conflict, 3 14
intragroup conflict, 3 14
loci of conflict, 314-315
managed level of conflict, 229
outcomes, 320-321
personal variables, 316
personality conflicts, 320
poinVcounterpoint, 338
process conflict, 312-313
relationship conflict, 229, 312-313
resolution of. See conflict resolution
role conflict, 206-207
sources of conflict, 315-317
structural variables, 316
task conflict, 229, 3 12-313
types of conflict, 312-314
conflict resolution, 3181
and culture, 334-335
dual concern theory, 317-319
individuals and, 318-320
open communication, 321
personality conflicts, 320
c,onformity. Adjusting one's behaviour to align with the norms of the
group. 209, 2961
c,onsci entiousness. A personality factor that describes the degree to which a person is responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement-oriented. 50-51, 385
c,onsensus. A behavioural rule that considers whether everyone faced with a similar situation responds in the same way. 41
c,onsideratio n. The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for employees' ideas, and regard for their feelings. 386
consistency. A behavioural rule that considers whether the individual has been acting in the same way overtime. 6-7, 41
constructive conflict , 312, 320-321
consultation, 2821
context, 39 contingency approach. An approach taken by OB that considers
behaviour wijhin the context in which it occurs. 11-1 2
contingency theories, 388-392
contingent employee, 131 contingent reward leadership, 395
continuance commitment. An individual's calculation to stay with an organization based on the perceived costs of leaving the orga- nization. 96
continuous rei nforcement. A desired behaviour is reinforced each and every time ij is demonstrated. 142-143
contract, 131 contrast effects. The concept that our reaction to one person is
often influenced by other people we have recently encountered. 43-44
cookie experiment, 284 core self-evaluation. Bottom-line conclusions individuals have
about their capabilities, competence, and worth as a person. ~ 7. 91
core values. The primary or dominant values that are accepted throughout the organization. 353
corporate boards, 104
corporate social responsibility (CSR), 437 cost-mi nimization strategy. strategy that emphasizes tight cost
controls, avoidance of unnecessary innovation or marketing expenses, and price cutting. 475-476
counterproductive behaviour, 94-95
counterproductive work behaviour (CWB). Actions that actively damage the organization, including stealing, behaving aggressively toward co-workers, or being late or absent. 94-96
creative environment, 433-434
creative outcomes (Innovation), 434-435
creative potential, 432-433
creativity. The ability to produce novel and useful ideas. 425, 430
causes of creative behaviour, 432-434
creative behaviour, 431-432
creative environment, 433-434
creative outcomes (innovation), 434-435
creative potential, 432-433
creative problem solving, 448-449
in decision making, 43~35
and ethics, 433
and expertise, 432-433 global context, 440
and intelligence, 432
and personality, 432 poinVcounterpoint, 443
three-stage model of creativity, 430, 4311
Criminal Code, 349
critical events, 208
critical feedback, 19
cross-function (or project) team. A group of employees at about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task. 202-203
cross-training, 178
cultural c,ode-switching. The ability to modify behaviour in specific situations to accommodate varying cultural norms. 106
cultural context, 264, 2641
Glossary/ Subj ect Index 6 1 3
cultural differences
see also global context conflict resolution, 334~5
negotiation, 330, 335
organizational structure, 4~81
and positive organizational culture, 371-372
values, 88 cultural i ntelligence (CQ). The ability to understand someone's
unfamiliar and ambiguous gestures in the same way as would people from that person's culture. 103-106, 104, 1051
cultural values, 83-86
GLOBE framework, 86 Hofstede's framework for assessing cultures, 83-86, 851
culture. See cultural differences; global context; organizational culture customer departmentalization, 461
customer satisfaction, 92- 93
customer service, 16
cynicism, 289
D Dark Triad. A group of negative personality traijs consisting of
Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy. 54-56, 385
deafness, 259
decentral ization. The degree to which decision making is distributed to lower-level employees. 463
decision_ The choice made from two or more alternatives. 416
decision making
bounded rationality, 418-420
creativity in, 430-435
and ethics, 435-439, 4391
global context, 440
group decision making, 425-430
individual decision making, 417-424, 425-426
intuitive decision making, 42~21
judgment shortcuts, 421-424
rational decision-making process, 416-417, 4161
decoding, 248 deep acting. Trying to modify one's true inner feelings to match what
is expected. 63, 330
deep-level diversity. Differences in values, personality, and work preferences that become progressively more important for deter- mining similarity as people get to know one another better. 100
defensive behaviours, 2951
delegation. Assignment of authority to another person to carry out specific duties, allowing the employee to make some of the deci- sions. 461 , 488-489
departmentalization. The basis on which jobs are grouped together. 459-461
dependence. B's relationship to A when A possesses something that B requires. 276, 280-282, 316
design, 498
destiny, 498
destructive conflict, 3 12
developmental assignments, 329 deviant workplace behaviour. Voluntary behaviour that violates sig-
nificant organizational norms and, in so doing, threatens the well- being of the organization or its members. Also called anusocial behaviour or workplace incivffity. 94, 210-211, 210!
direction, 126
direction of communication, 254-255
directive leader, 390-391
disability, 259
discovery, 498
6 14 Glossary/ Subj ect Index
displayed emotions. Emotions that are organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given job. 62
dissatisfaction, 130f
dissatisfiers, 130f
distinctiveness. A behavioural rule that considers whether an indi· vidual acts similarly across a variety of situations. 41
distributive bargai ning. Negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources; a win-lose solution. 323-324, 323f
distributive justice. Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. 146-147
distrust, 244- 245
diversity
see also workforce diversity
barriers to diversity, 359
on boards of directors, 1 04
deep·level diversity, 100 of goals, and conflict, 316
group diversity, 224-225 organizational culture as barrier to, 359
surfaoe· level diversity, 100 of team members, 224-225, 230-231
divestiture socialization, 3651
division of labour, 458-459
divisional structure. An organizational structure that groups employees into units by product, service, customer, or geographi· cal market area. 468
dominant culture. A system of shared meaning that expresses the core values shared by a majority of the organization's members. 353
double-loop learning. A process of correcting errors by modifying the organization's objectives, policies, and standard routines. 510
downsizing, 473-474, 481
downward communication, 254- 255
dramatic crisis, 369
dreaming, 498
driving forces. Forces that d irect behaviour away from the status quo.495
dual concern theory, 317-319 dyadic c,onflict. Conflict that occurs between two people. 314
dysfunctional confl ict. Conflict that hinders group performance. 312,314-315, 320
dysfunctions, 359-360
E economic pressures, responses to, 12-13
economic problems, 119
economics psychology, 9 effective listening, 272-273
effective teams, 216-217, 216f, 217f
see also team
abilities of members, 221-222, 222f
accountability, 229-230 adequacy of resources, 218
building the perfect team, 222
common plan and purpose, 226-227
composition, 221-226
contextual factors, 218-221
cultural differences, 225 diversity of members, 224- 225
leadership and structure, 218-219
managed level of conflict, 229
members' preference for teamwork, 225- 226
mental models, 228-229
performance evaluation and rewards, 220-221
personality of members, 223 process variables, 226-230, 226f
roles, 223-224, 2241
size of the team, 225
and social loafing, 229-230
specific goals, 227
team cohesion, 228
team efficacy, 227- 228
team identity, 228 trust, 219-220
effectiveness. The degree to which an organization meets the needs of its clientele or customers. 24, 425-426
efficiency. The degree to which an organization can achieve its ends at a low cost. 24, 425-426
effort·performance relationship, 134
electronic communications, 259-262
email, 259-261
emotion regulation, 66-68
Emotional Competence Inventory (EC1·2), 65
emotional CO, 105
emotional intelligence (El). The ability to detect and to manage emotional cues and information. 64-65, 64f, 386
emotional labour. When an employee expresses organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal interactions. 62~3
emotional stability. A personality dimension that characteriizes someone as calm, self·confident, and secure (positive) vs. ner· vous, depressed, and insecure (negative). 50, 51-52, 385
emotions. Intense feelings that are d irected at someone or some· thing. ~ 1. 60f
affective events theory, 63
choosing emotions, 62~ as communication barrier, 252
and computers, 68
displayed emotions, 62
emotion regulation, 66-68
emotional intelligence (El), ~5. 641 emotional labour, 62~
fake emotions, 63 felt emotions, 62
global differences, 69, 70f
importance of, in workplace, 63~
moral emotions, 61~2
negative workplace emotions, 66
and negotiation, 329-330, 335
reading emotions, 77- 78
role of, 60
empathy, 328
employed, 13f employee engagement. An individual's involvement with, satisfac·
tion with, and enthusiasm for the work he or she does. 98-99
employee invol vement and participati on (EIP). Participative processes that use the input of employees and are intended to increase employee commitment to an organization's success. 122, 152, 184-186, 185, 188, 503
employee-oriented leader. A leader who emphasizes interpersonal relations. 386-387
employee recognition programs, 171-172
employee stock ownership plan (ESOPJ. A company-established benefit plan in which employees acquire stock as part of their benefits. 170
employees
culture, and structure p references, 481 employee expression, 453
employee withdrawal, 22, 94 see also withdrawal behaviour
empowerment. See empowerment
experience, 132
floating employee, 131 o rganizational designs and, 4 78--480
strengths, 370 tardiness, 40 termination, 23, 499 well-being, 17-18
Employment Equity Act, 102 employment interviews, 46
employment options, 131
empowerment
characteristics of empowered people, 290f definition of, 289-291 employee empowerment, 18, 288-291 g lobal context, 300
psychological empowerment , 97 teams, 234
enactive mastery, 140 encoding, 248 enc,ounter stage. The stage in the socialization process in which a
new employee sees what the o rganization is really like and con- fronts the possibility that expectations and reality may diverge. 364
engagement. See employee engagement
enhancement, 2961 enterprise social software, 261 ENTPs, 49 entrepreneur, 131 environment. Those institutions or forces outside the organization
that potentially affect the organization's performance. 477-478, 4781
epistemic interdependence, 4 79 equity theory. A theory that asserts that individuals compare their
job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities. 144, 144-148, 1451, 153
comparison with others, 144-145 inequitable pay, 145
inequitable treatment, 145 escalation of commitment. An increased commitment to a previ-
ous decision despite negative information. 423
esteem needs, 128 ESTJs, 49
ethical climate index (ECQ, 355-357 ethical climate theory (ECl), 355-357 ethical dilemmas and ethical choices. Situations in which indi-
viduals are required to define right and wrong conduct. 19 ethical leadership , 399-400 ethical organizational culture, 369-370 ethical work c l imate (EWC). The shared concept of right and
wrong behaviour in the workplace that reflects the true values of the organization and shapes the ethical decision-making of its members. 355-357
ethics. The study of moral values or principles that guide our behav- io ur and inform us whether actions are right or wrong. 19, 83, 435
behavioural ethics, 437 bonuses, 168-169 bring-your-own-device (BYOD), 269-270
CEO compensation, 193 cheating, 437
code of ethics, 369 and creativity, 433
culture of deceit, 377 of culture of shortcuts, 439
Glossary/ Subj ect Index 6 15
and decision making, 435-439, 4391 deference to those in power, 304-305 emotional intelligence tests, 65 ethical decision criteria, 435-437
in global context, 440-441 grade inflation, 158-159 happiness coaches, 74- 75
job security, 486 and leadership, 399-400
marijuana, 409-410 and motivation, 152
national culture vs. corporate culture, 371-372
and negotiation, 328 and organizational culture, 355-357, 369-370 of political behavio ur, 298 romantic relationships at work, 289 shirl<ers, 235-236 tell-all websites, 112
training, 369 virtual teams, 205
European Union (EU), 14, 231 evidence-based management (EBM). The basing of managerial
decisions on the best available scientific evidence. 7
evolutionary organization, 454
exchange, 2821 excuses, 2961 exemplification, 2961 exit. Dissatisfaction expressed by actively attempting to leave the
organization. 93-94 exit-voice-loyalty-neglect frameworl<, 93- 94, 941 expansion of resources, 319
expatriate, 131 expectancy. The belief that effort is related to performance. 134 expectancy theory. The theory that individuals act based on their
evaluation of whether their effort will lead to good performance, whether good performance will be followed by a given outcome, and whether that outcome is attractive. 134-137, 1341, 1361
expert power. Influence based on special skills or knowledge. 278 expertise, 432-433, 502 external equity, 164-165 extinction, 142
extraversion. A personality factor that describes the degree to which a person is sociable, talkative, and assertive. 50, 52, 384
extraverts, 49 extrinsic motivation, 154
extrinsic motivators. Motivation that comes from outside the per- son and includes such things as pay, bonuses, and other tangib le rewards. 126
extrinsic rewards, 149
F "face-time," 191
facial expressions, 263 fair process and treatment , 146-148, 153 fake emotions, 63
6 1 6 Glossary/ Subj ect Index
"fake proof" personality test, 50
family, 119 favours, 2961
feedback. The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance. 174, 248
critical feedback, 19 effective feedback, 137 importance of, 136-137 and motivation, 152
negative feedback, 19 self-generated feedback, 136-137
feeling types, 49 felt emotions. An individual's actual emotions, 62 femininity. A national culture attribute that sees little differentiation
between male and female roles; women are treated as the equals of men in all respects. 84
Fi edler contingency model. A leadership theory that proposes that effective group performance depends on the proper match between the leader's style and the degree to which the situation gives the leader control. 388-389, 3891
filtering. A sender's manipulation of information so that it will be seen more favourably by the receiver. 251
finance, and organizational behaviour, 9 financial crisis, 168-169, 493 first impressions, 58
five-stage model, 211- 213, 2121 fixed-interval schedule. The reward is given at fixed time intervals.
143
fixed pie. The belief that there is only a set amount of goods or ser- vices to be divided up between the parties. 323
fixed-ratio schedul e. The reward is given at fixed amounts of out- put. 143
fixed socialization, 3651
flattery, 2961 flexible benefits. A benefits plan that allows each employee to put
together a benefits package individually tailored to his or her own needs and situation, 170-171, 187
flexible employee, 131 flexpatriate, 131
flexti me. An arrangement where employees work during a com- mon core period each day but can form their total workday from a flexib le set of hours outside the core; flexib le work hours. 131, 180-181 , 1801, 183
floating employee, 131
forcing, 3 17, 319 formal channels. Communication channels established by an orga-
nization to transmit messages related to the professional activities of members. 248
formal c,ommunication networks. Task-related communications that follow the authority chain. 255
formal power, 277- 278 formal socialization, 3651
formalization. The degree to which jobs within the organization are standardized. 354, 464
formalized norms, 208
forming. The first stage in group development, characterized by much uncertainty. 211 , 215
fragmentation, 510 "frenemies,' 295
full range of leadership model. A model that depicts seven manage- ment styles on a continuum: laissez-faire, management by excep- tion, contingent reward leadership, individualized consideration,
intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation, and idealized influ- ence. 395, 3961
full-time, 131
fun ctional conflict. Conflict that supports the goals of the group and improves its performance. 312, 314-315, 320
functional departmentalization, 459 functional structure. An organizational structure that groups
employees by their similar specialties, roles, or tasks. 467-468 fundamental attribution error. The tendency to underestimate
the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behaviour of others. 42
fundamental consistencies, 6-7 furloughed, 131
G gay employees, 1 O 1
gender, and negotiation, 330-332
general dependency postulate, 280-281 Generation X, 15, 86-87, 861 Generation Z, 88
generational differences, 15, 86-88 geographical departmentalization, 460 global context
attributions, 69
change, 51 1 communication, 263-264 communication barriers, 263-264 conflict, 33~5
creativity, 440 cultural context, 264, 2641
decision making, 440 emotions, 69-70, 701 employee involvement , 188
empowerment, 300 equity theory, 153 ethics, 440-441 fairness, 153
flexible benefits, 187 goal setting, 153 influence tactics, 300
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, 154 job characteristics and job enrichment, 187- 188 job satisfaction, 106-107
justice, 153-1 54 leadership, 405-406 motivation, 186-188 motivation theories, 154
multicultural teams, and trust, 220 needs theories, 152- 153 organizational commitment, 107 organizational culture, 372-373
organizational structure, 480-481
perception, 68-69 personality, 69
politics, 300 power, 300 teams, 230- 231
telecommuting, 188 variable-pay programs, 187 workforce diversity, 107
globalization, 13-14
GLOBE framework, 86, 397, 405 goal. What an individual is trying toaccomplish. 137- 138, 152, 157,
316,317
goal-setting theory. A theory that says that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance. 137- 140, 1391, 153
grade inflation, 158-1 59
grapevine. The organization's most common informal network. 256- 257
group. Two or more people with a common relationship. 200
see also team cohesiveness, 229,231
development stages, 21 1-215, 2121
five-stage model, 211 - 213, 2121
inertia, 502
interacting groups, 429 leadership behaviours, effects of, 387
punctuated-equilibrium model, 213- 215, 2141
structural variables, and conflict , 3 16
group-based incentives, 169-1 70
group cohesi on. The extent to which members of a group support and validate one another while at work. 23-24
group decision making, 425-430
brainstorming, 429
effectiveness, 425-426
efficiency, 425-426
evaluation of group effectiveness, 430!
group polarization, 428-429
groupshift, 428-429 groupthink, 426-428
vs. individual decision making, 425-426 interacting groups, 429 nominal group technique, 429-430, 430f
strengths of, 425 techniques, 429-430
weaknesses of, 425
group d iversity. The presence of a heterogeneous mix of individuals within a group. 224-225
group functioning. The quantity and quality of a work group's output. 24
group polarization, 428-429
groupshift. A phenomenon in which the initial positions of individual group members become exaggerated because of the interactions of the group. 428-429
groupthink- A phenomenon in which group pressures for conformity prevent the group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views. 426-428
growth, 371 , 451
gut feelings, 7
gym attendance, and weight loss, 173-17 4
H halo effect Drawing a general impression of an individual on the
basis of a single characteristic. 43
"hangovers," 365
harassment in the workplace, 285-288
harmony, 451
heredity, 48 heuristics. Judgment shortcuts in decision making. 44
hierarchy o f needs theory. A hierarchy of five needs- physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization-in which, as each
Glossary/ Subj ect Index 6 17
need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. 128, 164
high-context cultures. Cultures that rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues in communication. 264, 2641
high job characteristics, 1751
high performing period, 215 higher-order needs. Needs that are satisfied internally, such as
social (belonging), self-esteem, and sett-actualization needs. 128
hindrance stressors, 118
hindsight bias. The tendency to believe falsely, after an outcome of an event is actually known, that one could have accurately pre- dicted that outcome. 424
Hodgson's general moral principles, 83 Hofstede's framework for assessing cultures, 83-86, 851
holism, 451
"honeymoons,• 365
horizontal communication, 255
hourly, 131
humanistic work practices, 453
hygiene fact ors. Factors- such as company policy and administra- tion, supervision, and salary- that, when adequate in a job, pla- cate employees. When these factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied. 130
I idea champions. Individuals who actively and enthusiastically pro-
mote an idea, build support for it, overcome resistance to it , and ensure that the idea is implemented. 509
idea evaluation. The process of creative behaviour involving the evaluation o f potential solutions to problems to identify the best one.431 -432
idea generation. The process of creative behaviour that involves developing possible solutions to a problem from relevant informa- tion and knowledge. 431
ident if ic ation-based trust. Trust based on a mutual understanding of each o ther's intentions and appreciation of each other's wants and desires. 404-405
imitation strategy. A strategy of moving into new products or new markets only after their viability has already been proven. 476
impact, sense of, 290!
importance, 281 impression management The process by which individuals attempt
to control the impression others form of them. 294-298, 2961
incentive pay, 166-169
incentives, 172
incivility in the workplace, 346-347, 348-349
independence, 355, 357
independent contractor, 131
Indian Act , 361
Indigenous peoples, 15, 361 individual-based incentives, 166-169
individual decision making, 417-424, 425-426
individual differences, 6, 121, 152, 327-332
individual resistance to change, 500-501 , 501 f
individual socialization, 3651
indivi dualism. A national culture attribute that describes the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as mem- bers of groups. 83, 334
indulgence. A national culture attribute that emphasizes the gratifica- tion of basic needs and the desire to enjoy life. 84
inequitable pay, 145 infl uence tactics. Ways in which individuals translate power bases
into specific actions. 282- 284, 2821, 2831, 300
6 1 8 Glossary/ Subj ect Index
i nformal channel s. Communication channels that are created spontaneously and that emerge as responses to individual choices. 248
i nf ormal communication network. Communications that flow along social and relational lines. 256-257
informal socialization, 3651
i nformation g at hering The stage of creative behaviour when pos- sible solutions to a problem incubate in an individual's mind. 431
i nformation overload. A condition in which information inflow exceeds an individual's processing capacity. 252
i nformational j ustice. The degree to which employees are provided truthful explanations for decisions. 14 7
ingratiation, 2821, 297
i nitiating structure. The extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and the roles of employees in order to attain goals. 386
i nnovation. A new idea applied to initiating or improving a product, process, or service. 355, 35~59, 434-435, 507-509
i nnovation strat egy. A strategy that emphasizes the introduction of major new products and services. 475
i nput. Variables that lead to processes. 20
inspirational appeals, 2821
inspirational leadership, 392-398
instant messaging (IM), 261 i nstitutional ization. A condition that occurs when an organiza-
tion takes on a l~e of its own, apart from any of its members, and acquires immortality. 359
i nstitutions. Cultural factors that lead many organizations to have similar structures, especially those factors that might not lead to adaptive consequences. 478
i nst rumental values. Preferable ways of behaving. 82, 355
i nst rumentality. The belief that performance is related to rewards. 135
i nteg rative bargaini ng . Negotiation that seeks one or more settle- ments that can c reate a win-win solution. 3231, 324-325, 328
integrity, 241 intelligence, and creativity, 432
intensity, 126
i nteracting group. Typical groups in which members interact with one another face to face. 429
i ntergroup conflict. Conflict between different groups or teams. 314
i ntermittent reinforcement. A desired behaviour is reinforced often enough to make the behaviour worth repeating, but not every time it is demonstrated. 143
intern, 131
internal equity, 164 international business traveller, 131
interpersonal demands, 1 19
i nterpersonal j ustice. The degree to which employees are treated with dignity and respect. 14 7-148
interpersonal skills, 16
see also skills development
development of, 32-35 importance of, 4-5
interunit communication, 507
interviews, employment, 46
INTJs, 49
intonations, 263
i ntragroup conflict. Conflict that occurs within a group or team. 314
intrinsic motivation, 149-150, 150f, 154
i ntrinsic motivators. A person's internal desire to do something, due to such things as interest, challenge, and personal satisfac- tion. 126
intrinsic rewards, 149, 171-172
introverts, 49
i ntuition. A gut feeling not necessarily supported by research. 7, 420-421
i ntuitive decisi on making. An unconscious process created out of a person's many experiences. 42(µ121
intuitive types, 49
investiture socialization, 3651
J job c haracteristics model (JCM). A model that proposes that any
job can be described in terms of five core job dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task sign~icance, autonomy, and feedback. 174-177, 1751, 187-1 88
job desig n. The way the elements in a job are organized. 174
see also job redesign job engagement. The investment of an employee's physical, cogni-
tive, and emotional energies into job performance. 151 -152
job enrichment, 187-188, 195-196
job evaluation, 164
job experience, and stress, 120 job improvement, 418
job interview, 298 job i nvolvement. The degree to which a person identifies with a job,
actively participates in it, and considers performance important to self-worth. 96-97
job redesign alternative work arrangements, 180-184
in Canadian context, 177
flextime, 180-181, 180f
job characteristics model (JCM), 174-1 77, 1751, 176
job enrichment , 195-196
job rotation, 1 78
job sharing, 181-182
motivating potential score (MPS), 177
and motivation, 17 4-1 84
relational job design, 178-1 79 and stress, 1 22
telecommuting, 182-184
unions, role of, 177
ways toredesignjobs, 177-178 job rotation. The periodic shifting of an employee from one task to
another. 178
job satisfaction. A positive feeling about a job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics. 90-96
and absenteeism and turnover, 95-96
and average pay, 911
causes of, 90-92 counterproductive work behaviour (CWB), 94- 96
and customer satisfaction, 92-93
expression of dissatisfaction, 93- 94, 941
leadership behaviours, effects of, 387
and management , 95
in North America, 106
and organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB), 92
and productivity, 92 in Western cultures, 108-107
and work specialization, 4 79-480
worst jobs for, 90f
job security, 486 job seeking, 131
job share, 13f
job sharing. The practice of having two or more people split a 40-hour-a-weekjob.181 - 182
jobless, 131
judging types, 49 judgment , 46
see also perception judgment shortcuts, 44, 421-424
justice, 146-148, 153-154, 436, 474
K Kotter's eight-step plan for implementing change, 496-497, 4971
L laid off, 131
laissez-faire, 395
language,252- 253,367-368 lateness, 40
lateral communication, 255
law and code, 355, 357 leader-member relations, 388, 389
leadership. The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals. 384
achievement -oriented leader, 391
as an attribution, 403
authentic leadership, 399 behavioural theories of leadership, 386-388
challenges to understanding leadership, 403-406
charismatic leadership, 392-393, 3931, 397, 41 1-413
contingency theories, 388-392 and creativity, 434
and Dark Triad personality traits, 385
directive leader, 390-391
and diverse teams, 225 and effective teams, 21 S-219
employee-oriented leaders, 386-387
ethical leadership, 399-400
Fiedler contingency model, 388-389
full range of leadership model, 395, 3961
gender, and team performance, 219
global context, 405-406
heroic qualities, 408
inspirational leadership, 392-398
learning to lead, 371
mentoring, 401-402
Michigan Studies, 386-387 moral foundation of, 399-400
neutralizers, 404, 4041
Ohio State Studies, 386
online leadership, 404-405
participative leader, 391
path-goal theory, 390-392, 3911 production-oriented leader, 386-387
relationship -oriented leaders, 388-389
responsible leadership, 398-402
servant leadership, 400-401
Situational Leadership® (SL), 389-390, 390f socialized charismatic leadership, 400
style, and conflict, 3 16
substitutes for, 404, 4041
Glossary/ Subj ect Index 6 1 9
as supervision, 384-392
supportive leader, 391
task-oriented leaders, 388-389
and teams, 216-219, 225
trait theories of leadership, 384-386, 387-388
transactional leaders, 394-398, 3951
transformational leadership, 394-397, 3951
and trust , 242
turnover, 369
leaner organization, 4 73-4 7 4
learning, 320-321
learning organization. An organization that has developed the con- tinuous capacity to adapt and change. 509-511, 5091, 51 Of
least-preferred co-worker (LPCJ questionnaire. An instrument that purports to measure whether a person is task or relationship oriented. 388
legitimacy, 2821 legitimate power. Power that a person receives as a result of his or
her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization. 277
letters, 258 Lewin's three-step model, 495-496, 4951
local employee, 131
long-term orientation. A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and tradition. 84
lose-lose situation, 317
low-context cultures. Cultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in communication. 264, 2641
low job characteristics, 1751
low performing period, 215
lower-order needs. Needs that are satisfied externally, such as physiological and safety needs. 128
loyalty. Dissatisfaction expressed by passively waiting for conditions to improve. 94
lying, 244, 253-254
M Machiavellianism. The degree to which an individual is pragmatic,
maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means. 54
"Magnificent Seven" principles, 83
malicious deviant behaviours, 66
management end of management, 484
and job satisfaction, 95
of learning, 510-511
participative management, 185
tenure, and innovation, 507
top management, and organizational culture, 362
management by exception, 395
management by objectives (MBOJ. An approach to goal setting in which specific measurable goals are jointly set by managers and employees; progress on goals is periodically reviewed, and rewards are allocated on the basis of this progress. 138
manipulation, 503- 504
masculi nity. A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which the culture favours traditional masculine work roles of achievement, power, and control. Societal values are characterized by assertiveness and materialism. 83-84
Maslow's hierarchy of needs, 128, 1291, 164
material symbol s. What conveys to employees who is important, the degree of egalitarianism top management desires, and the kinds of behaviour that are appropriate. 367
620 Glossary/ Subj ect Index
matrix struct ure. An organizational design that combines functional and product departmentalization; rr has a dual chain of command. 468-469, 4691
Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT), 65
M cClelland's theory of needs. Achievement, power, and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation. 130-131
meaning, sense of, 2901 meaningfulness, 150
mechanistic model. A structure characterized by high specializa- tion, rigid departmentalization, a clear chain of command, narrow spans of oontrol, a limited information network, and centralization. 474, 4751
mediator. A neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning, persuasion, and suggestions for alternatives. 333-334
meetings, 257- 258 mental illness, 43
mental models. Team members' knowledge and beliefs about how the work gets done by the team. 228-229
mentor. A senior employee who sponsors and supports a less- experienced employee. 401 -402
mentoring, 401-402
mergers, 360 merit-based pay pl ans. An individual-based incentive plan based
on performance appraisal ratings. 167-1 68
message, 248 metamorphosis stage. The stage in the socialization process in
which a new employee adjusts to the values and norms of the job, work group, and organization. 364-366
Michigan Studies, 386-387
Milgram's obedience experiment, 278
Millennials, 15, 86-S7, 861, 87, 110, 486
mimic, 105
mindfulness, 452
m i ndfulness. Objectively and deliberately evaluating the emotional situation in the moment. 63
misunderstanding, 501 model. An abstraction of reality. A simplified representation of some
real-world phenomenon. 20
see also OB model modular organization, 4701
modular structure, 470-471
money, and motivation, 164-165
see also reward system; rewards moods. Feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that
lack a contextual stimulus. 60-61 , 601, 329-330 moral blind spots, 438
moral emotions. Emotions that have moral implications. 6 1-62
motivating potential score (MPS). A predictive index suggesting the motivation potential in a job. 177
motivation_ The intensity, direction, and persistence of effort a per- son shows in reaching a goal, 126-127
see also motivation theories
benefits of, 152
cross-cultural consistencies, 154
effective reward systems, 164-1 7 4
and emotional drives, 186, 1871
employee involvement and participation, 184-186
extrinsic motivation, 154
global context, 154, 186-188
intrinsic motivation, 154
intrinsic motivation, increasing, 149-150, 1501
job engagement, 1 5 1-1 52
by job redesign, 17 4-184
money, role of, 164-1 65
se~-motivation, 127
motivation-hygiene theory, 128-1 30
motivation theories
cognrrive evaluation theory, 149 equity theory, 144-148, 1451
expectancy theory, 134-1 37, 1341
fair process and treatment, 146-1 48
goal-setting theory, 137-140, 1391
Maslow's hierarchy of needs, 128, 1291
McClelland's theory of needs, 130-131
motivation-hygiene theory, 128-130 needs theories, 127-133
process theories, 127, 133-143
reinforcement theory, 141-143
reward system, responses to, 143-150
se~-determination theory, 148-149
se~-efficacy theory, 140-141, 1401
motivational CQ, 105
moving. Efforts to get employees involved in the change process. 495
multi-tasking, 181
multiteam system. A collection of two or more interdependent teams that share a superordinate goal; a team of teams. 204
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). A personalfy test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personalfy types. 49
N narcissism. The tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of
self-importance, require excessive admiration, and have a sense of entrrlement. 54-55, 551
national culture. See cultural cfrfferences; global context
natural, 105 need for achievement (nAch). The drive to excel, to achieve in rela-
tion to a set of standards, and to strive to succeed. 130
need for affiliation (nAfl). The desire for friendly and close interper- sonal relationships, 131
need for power (nPow). The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. 130
needs theories, 127-133
expectancy theory, 1361
global context, 152-153 Maslow's hierarchy of needs, 128, 1291
McClelland's theory of needs, 130-131
motivation-hygiene theory, 128-130
relationship of various needs theories, 1321
summary of, 131-133, 1331
negative feedback, 19 negative reinforcement, 142
negative workplace emotions, 66 neglect. Dissatisfaction expressed by passively allowing condrrions
to worsen. 94 negotiation. A process in which two or more parties exchange goods
or services and try to agree on the exchange rate for them. 322
bargaining and problem solving, 327
bargaining strategies, 321-327
clarifications and justifications, 327
closure and implementation, 327
distributive bargaining, 323-324, 3231
and empathy, 328
gender differences, 330-332
ground rules, defining, 326
individual differences, 327-332
integrative bargaining, 3231, 324-325, 328
moods and emotions, 329-330
negotiation process model, 325-327, 3251
online negotiations, 405
and personality traits, 327-329
relationships, and repeated negotiations, 333
reputation, 332-333
in social context, 332-333
strategy development, 325-327
third party negotiations, 333-334
network organization, 4 701 network structure, 4 7~ 71
networked organizations, 16-17
neuroticism, 50
neutralizers. Attributes that make it impossible for leader behaviour to make any difference to follower outcomes. 404, 4041
noise, 248
nomi nal group technique. A group decision-making method in which individual members meet face to face to pool their judg- ments in a systematic but independent fashion. 429-430, 4301
non-union employee, 131
nonsubstitutability, 282
n onverbal c,ommunication. Messages conveyed through body movements, facial expressions, and the physical distance between the sender and receiver. 262-263
n ormative commitment. The obligation an individual feels to stay with an organization. 96
n orm i ng . The third stage in group development, characterized by close relationships and cohesiveness. 212, 215
n orms. Acceptable standards of behaviour within a group that are shared by the group's members. 207-21 1
North America, 1 06
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 14
0 OB. See organizational behaviour
OB model, 19-25, 201 attitudes, 21
group cohesion, 23-24
group functioning, 24
inputs, 20
organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB), 21-22
organizational survival, 24-25
outcomes, 21
overview, 20
processes, 20
productivity, 24
stress, 21
task perfonnance, 21
withdrawal behaviour, 22-23
obedience experiment, 278
observer ratings, 48
Ohio State Studies, 386
online auctions, 324
online leadership, 404-405
openness to experience. A personality factor that describes the degree to which a person is imaginative, artistically sensitive, and
curious. 50,53,385,432
operant oonditioning theory, 141
oral communication, 257-258
Glossary/ Subj e ct Index 621
organic model. A structure that is flat, uses cross-functional and cross-hierarchical teams, possesses a comprehensive infonnation network, has wide spans of control, and has low formalization. 474, 4751
organic structures, 507
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 441
organization. A consciously coordinated social unit , composed of a group of people, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals. >El
leaner organization, 473-474
learning organization, 509-511 , 5101
networked organizations, 16-17
small organization, 369
spiritual organization, 453-454
young organization, 369
organization downsizing, 473-474, 481
organizational-based incentives, 169- 170
organizational behaviour. A field of study that investigates the impact of individuals, groups, and structure on behaviour within
organizations; its purpose is to apply such knowledge toward improving an organization's effectiveness. 5
behavioural science, contributions of, 9-11 , 1 Of
beyond oommon sense, 6-9
and big data, 7-8
building b locks of, 9-11
consistencies, 6-7
contingency approach, 11- 12
economic p ressures, responses to, 12-13
for everyone, 6
few absolutes, 1 1- 12
and finance, 9
OB model, 19-25
positive organizational scholarship, 18-19
rigour of, 1 1
organizational change. See change organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB). Discretionary behav-
iour that is not part of an employee's formal job requirements, but that nevertheless promotes the effective functioning of the organi- zation. 21 -22, 92
organizational c l imate. The shared perceptions organizational members have about their organization and work environment.
355 organizational c,ommitment The degree to which an employee
identifies with a particular organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. 96, 107
organizational communication, 254-257
direction of communication, 254-255
electronic communications, 259-262
the grapevine, 256-257
small-group networks, 255-256, 2561
organizational culture. A system of shared meaning held by mem- bers that distinguishes the organization from other organizations. 352
change, barrier to, 359
change, culture fo r, 506-511
changing organizational culture, 368-372
climate, creation of, 355
contrasting organizational cultures, 3531
creating and sustaining, 360-366
as descriptive tenn, 352-353
622 Glossary/ Subj ect Index
diversity, barrier to, 359
dominant culture, 353 encounter stage, 364 ethical dimension of, 355-35 7 ethical organizational culture, 369-370 vs. formalization, 354 formation of, 360-366, 360f functions of, 354-355
global context, 372-373 and innovation, 358-359
keeping alive, 361-366 language, 367-368 learning culture, 366-368 as a liability, 359-360
material symbols, 367 mergers and acquisitions, barrier to, 360 merging cultures, strategies for, 360
metamorphosis stage, 364-366 and organizational climate, 355 positive organizational culture, 370-372
prearrival stage, 362-364 reading an organization's culture, 379-381
rituals, 367 selection process, 361 shortcuts, culture of, 439
socialization, 362-366, 3621, 3651 stories, 367 strong vs. weak cultures, 354 and sustainability, 357-358
top management, 362 uniform cultures, 353-354
organizational demography. The degree to which members of a work unit share a common demographic attribute, such as age, gender, race, educational level, or length of service in an organiza- tion, and the impact of this attribute on turnover. 224
organizational design
see also organizational structure
alternate design options, 469-4 7 4
bureaucracy, 466-468 circular structure, 4 73 divisional structure, 468 and employee behaviour, 4 78-480 functional structure, 467-468 matrix structure, 468-469, 4691 mechanistic model, 474-475, 4751
organic model, 474-475, 4751 organization downsizing, 473-474 simple structure, 466 team structure, 4 71-4 73 virtual structure, 470-471 , 470f
organizational j ustice. An overall perception of what is fair in the workplace, composed of distributive, procedural, informational, and interpersonal justice. 146, 1461
organizational resistance to change, 501-502, 5021 organizational size, 4 76 organizational strategy, 475-476, 4761 organizational structure. How job tasks are formally divided,
grouped, and coordinated. 458-465
see also organizational design boundary spanning, 464-465 centralization, 463-464
chain of command, 461-462 decentralization, 463-464 departmentalization, 459-461
designing the proper structure, 4581 determinants and outcomes, 4811 environment, 477-478, 4781 formalization, 464
global context, 480-481 institutions, 478 organizational size, 4 76
organizational strategy, 475-476, 4761 reasons for differences in, 474-478 small business, 4 72 span of control, 462-463, 4621 technology, 476-477 work specialization, 458-459
organizational survival. The degree to which an organization is able to exist and grow over the long term. 24
organizers, 49 other-inside comparison, 144 other-outside comparison, 144
outcome orientation, 352 outcomes. Key factors that are affected by some other variables. 21
outsourcing, 14 overconfidence bias. Error in judgment that arises from being far
too optimistic about one's own perlormance. 422
overtime, 131
p paradox theory. The theory that the key paradox in management is
that there is no final optimal status for an organization. S(MH;()7
part-time, 131 participation, 503
participative leader, 391 participative management. A process in which subordinates share
a significant degree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors. 185
path-goal theory. A leadership theory that says it is the leader's job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide the necessary direction and/ or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization. 390-392, 391 f
pay for perlormance, 165-166 penalty kicks, 421-422
people orientation, 352 people skills. See interpersonal skills
perceived organizational support (POSJ. The degree to which employees believe an organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being. 97
perceiver, 38-39
perceiving types, 49 perception. The process by which individuals organize and interpret
their impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. 38
attribution theory, 38-43, 411
global differences, 68-69 importance of, 46
influencing factors, 38-39, 381 the perceiver, 38-39
perceptual errors, 38-46 and relation conflicts, 61 selective perception, 251-252
the situation, 39
and stress, 120
the target, 39 perceptual errors, 42-46
performance evaluations, 46
teams, 220- 221
performance expectations, 46
performance feedback. See feedback
performance reviews. See performance evaluations
performance-rewards relationship, 135
performing. The fourth stage in group development , when the group is fully functional. 212
persistence, 126 personal appeals, 284
personal power, 278-279
personality. The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others. 47
Big Five Personality Model, 49-54, 51f, 52f, 223, 384, 432
change over l~etime, 48 core self-evaluation, 56-57
creative personality, 432
and creativity, 432
Dark Triad, 54-56
determinants of, 48
in effective teams, 223
"fake proof" personality test , 50
global differences, 69 impact of, 47
measurement of, 4 7
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), 49 and negotiation, 327--329
personality traits, 48-54, 327--329
proactive personality, 58
self-monitoring, 57-58
situation strength theory, 59-60
and stress, 120-121
personality conflicts, 320
personality traits. Enduring characteristics that describe an indi- vidual's behaviour. 48-54, 5 lf, 521
perspective-taking, 328, 434
Peter Principle, 385
physical activity, 121
physical CO, 104-105
physical distance, 263
physical sciences, 11
physiological needs, 128 piece-rat e pay plan. An individual-based incentive plan in which
employees are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production com- pleted. 166- 167
political behaviour. Those activities that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization, 291 , 298-299
political skill. The ability to influence others in such a way as to enhance one's objectives. 283
politicking, 294, 306-307
politics
ofchange,505 ethics of behaving politically, 298- 299
"frenemies," 295
global context, 300
impression management, 294- 298
Glossary/ Subj ect Index 623
political behaviour, 291 - 292, 293, 298- 299
politicking, 294, 306--307 reality of politics, 292- 294
in your workplace, 2921 position power, 388, 389
positive organizational behaviour, 18-19
posit ive organizational culture. A culture that emphasizes building on employee strengths, rewards more than punishes, and empha- sizes individual vitality and growth. 370--372
posit ive organizational scholarship. An area of OB research that concerns how organizations develop human strength, foster vitality and resilience, and unlock potential. 18-19
positive reinforcement , 142
positive relationships, 503
positive work environment , 18-19
power. A capacity that A has to influence the behaviour of B, so that B acts in accordance with Pis wishes. 276
abuse of power, 284-285
bases of power, 277- 280
coercive power, 277, 279
continuum of responses to, 280f
and control, 276
deference to those in power, 304--305
and dependence, 276, 280-282
desire for power, 303
effective bases of power, 279
effects on people, 284-288
empowerment , 288-291
expert power, 278 formal power, 277- 278
global context, 300 influence tactics, 282- 284
legitimate power, 277- 278 personal power, 278-279
and politics. See political behaviour; politics
power variables, 285 referent power, 278
reward power, 277
threat to established power relationships, 502
power di stance. A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. 83
PowerPoint, 259
prearrival stage. The period of learning in the socialization pro- cess that occurs before a new employee joins the organization. 362--364
pressure, 2821
prevention focus. A self-regulation strategy that involves striving for goals by fulfilling duties and obligations. 139
private information, 9
pro sports strikes, 338
proactive personality. A person who identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and perseveres until meaningful change occurs. 58
problem formulation. The stage of creative behaviour that involves identifying a problem or an opportunity that requires a solution as yet unknown. 431
problem solving, 3 17, 318, 320, 327
problem-solv i ng (or process-improvement) team. A group of 5 to 12 employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment. 201
624 Glossary/ Subj ect Index
procedural justice. The perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. 147
process c,onflict. Conflict over how work gets done. 312-313
process departmentalization, 460
process theories, 127
equity theory, 144-1 48, 1451
expectancy theory, 134-137, 134f, 136f
fair process and treatment, 146-148
goal-setting theory, 137-1 40, 1391
reinforcement theory, 141-143
reward system, responses to, 143-150
self-determination theory, 148-149
self-efficacy theory, 140-141, 140f
processes. Actions that individuals, groups, and organizations engage in as a result of inputs and that lead to certain outcomes. 20
product departmentalization, 460
production-oriented leader. A leader who emphasizes the techni- cal or task aspects of the job. 386-387
productivity. The combination of the effectiveness and efficiency of an organization. 24, 92, 176, 479-480
profit-shari ng plan. An organization-wide incentive plan in which the employer shares profits with employees based on a predetermined formula. 169
progress, 150
project team, 202-203
promotion foc us. A self-regulation strategy that involves striving for goals through advancement and accomplishment. 139
protected groups. The four groups designated by the Employment Equity Act as the beneficiaries of employment equity (women, peo- ple with disabilities, Aboriginal people, and visible minorities). 102
provincial, 105
proxemics. The study of physical space in interpersonal relation- ships. 263
psychological contract, 347
psychologi cal empowerment. Employees' belief in the degree to which they affect their work environment, their competence, the meaningfulness of their job, and their perceived autonomy in their work. 97
psychology, 10 psychopathy. The tendency for a lack of concern for others and a
lack of guilt or remorse when one's actions cause harm. 56
punctuated-equi libri um model. A set of phases that temporary groups go through that involves transitions between inertia and activity. 2 13-215, 214f
punishment, 142
purpose, 453 Pygmalion effect, 46, 141
R random socialization, 365f
randomness error. The tendency of individuals to believe that they can predict the outcome of random events. 423-424
rational. Refers to choices that are consistent and value-maximizing within spec~ied constraints. 416
rational decision-making model . A six-step decision-making model that describes how individuals should behave in order to maximize some outcome. 41 ~ 17, 4161
rational persuasion, 282f
re-employment, 13f
receiver, 248
recession, 12-1 3
recovering organization, 454
reduced hours, 13f
referent power. Influence based on possession by an individual of desirable resources or personal traits. 278
reflected best-self, 19
reflexiv ity. A team characteristic of reflecting on and adjusting the master plan when necessary. 227
refreezing. Stabilizing a change intervention by balancing driving and restraining forces. 495
reinforcement theory. A theory that says that behaviour is a func- tion of its consequences. 141 -143, 142f
relation conflicts, 6 1
relational job design. Constructing jobs so employees see the posi- tive difference they can make in the lives of others directly through their work. 17S-179
relationship conflict. Conflict based on interpersonal relationships. 312-313
relationship conflicts, 229
relationship-oriented leaders, 388-389
relationship strength, 320
relaxation techniques, 121
religion-based organization, 454
representative partici pation. A system in which employees par- ticipate in organizational decision making through a small group of representative employees. 185-186
resistance, 279
resistance to change, 500-505
individual resistance, 500-501 , 5011
organizational resistance, 501-502, 502f
overcoming, 502-505 resource allocation, 502
respect, 453
responsible leadership, 398-402
restraining forces. Forces that hinder movement away from the status quo. 495
restraint. A national culture attribute that emphasizes the importance of controlling the gratification of needs. 84
retired, 13f reward power. Power that achieves compliance based on the ability
to distribute rewards that others view as valuable. 277
reward system
bonus, 168-169
and conflict, 316
effective reward systems, 164-17 4
employee recognition programs, 171-1 72
employee stock ownership plan (ESOP), 170
flexible benefits, 170-1 71 , 187
group-based incentives, 169-170
individual-based incentives, 166-1 69
intrinsic rewards, 171-1 72
management reward follies, 172-174, 173f
merit-based pay plans, 167-168
organizational-based incentives, 169-170
pay structure, establishment of, 164-1 65
piece-rate pay plan, 166-167
profit-sharing plan, 169
responses to, 143-1 50
teams, 220-221 variable-pay programs, 165-170, 187
rewards
extrinsic rewards, 149
intrinsic rewards, 149, 171-172
and organizational cutture, 370-371
rewards-personal goals relationship , 135-136
risk aversion. The tendency to prefer a sure gain o f a moderate amount over a riskier outcome, even if the riskier outcome m ight have a higher expected payoff. 424
risk preference, 424 risk-taking , 352 rituals. Repetitive sequences of activities that express and reinforce
the key values of the organization; what goals are most important; and which people are important and which are expendable. 367
Rokeach Value Survey (RVS), 82 role. A set of expected behaviours of a person in a given position in a
social unit. 206, 223- 224, 2241 role ambiguity. A person is unclear about his or her role. 207 role confli c t . A situation in which an individ ual finds that complying
w ith one role requirement may make it more difficult to comply with another. 206-207
role demands, 119 role expectations. How others believe a person should act in a
given situation, 206 role overload. Too much is expected of someone. 207 role stress, 122
role underload. Too little is expected of someone, and that person feels that he or she is not contributing to the group. 207
romantic relationships in the workplace, 289
rules, 357 rumours, 256-257
s safety needs, 128 salary, 131 satisfaction, 130f satisficing. To provide a solution that is both satisfactory and suf -
ficient. 419 satisfiers, 130f
scarcity, 281 schedules of reinforcement, 142-1 43, 1431 selection process, 361 selective perception. People's selective interpretation of what they
see based on their interests, background, experience, and atti- tudes. 42-43, 251-252
self-actualization. The drive to become what a person is capable of becoming. 128
self-conc,ordance. The degree to which a person's reasons for pursuing a goal are consistent with the person's interests and core
values. 149
self-determination theory. A theory of motivation that is concerned w ith the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation. 148-1 49, 2901
sett-d irected team, 201 - 202 sett-efficacy, 122 self-efficacy theory. Individuals' beliefs in their abilrry to perform a
task influence their behaviour. 140-141, 1401
self-fulfilling prophecy. A concept that p roposes a person will behave in ways consistent with how he or she is perceived by oth - ers. 46, 141
sett-generated feedback, 136-137 sett-inside comparison, 144 sett-interest , 500
self-managed (o r self-directed) team. A group of 10 to 15 employees who take on many of the responsibilities of their former managers. 201- 202
self-monitoring. A personality trait that measures an individual's abil- ity to adjust behaviour to external, situational factors. 57- 58
sett -motivation, 127 sett-outside comparison, 144
sett-promotion, 2961, 297 sett -report measures, 4 7 -48
Glossary/ Subj ect Index 625
self-serving b ias. The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors. 42, 69
sender, 248
sensing types, 49 serial socialization, 3651 servant leader ship. A leadership style marked by going beyond the
leader's own self-interest and instead focusing on opportunities to help followers grow and develop. ~ 01
service employees, 16 service o rganizations, and effectiveness, 24
sexual harassment. Unwelcome behaviour of a sexual nature in the workplace that negatively affects the work environment or leads to adverse job-related consequences for the employee. 286-288
shirkers, 235-236 short-term assignee, 131 short-term orientation. A national culture attribute that emphasizes
the here and now and accepts change more readily. 84 silence, 253 silos, 459 simple structure. An organizational design characterized by a low
degree of departmentalization, wide spans of control, authority centralized in a single person, and little formalization. 466
single-loop learning. A process of correcting errors using past rou- tines and present policies. 51 O
situation, 39 situation strength theory. A theory indicating that the way person-
ality translates into behaviour depends on the strength of the situ-
ation. 59-60
Situational Judgment Test of Emotional Intelligence (SJT of El}, 65 Situational Leadership® (SL). A leadership theory that focuses on
the readiness o f followers. 389-<390, 390f skill variety. The degree to which the job requires a variety of d iffer-
ent activities. 174
skills development
changing attitudes, 114- 115 charisma, 411-413 creative problem solving, 448-449
delegation of authorrry, 488-489 development of, 32-35 effective listening, 272- 273
enriched jobs, designing, 195-196 goal setting, 160-161 negotiation, 342-343 organizational change, 518-519
politicking, 306-307 reading an organization's culture, 379-381 reading emotions, 77- 78
team meeting, 238-239 small-group networks, 255-256, 2561 small organization, 369
SMART goals, 138
smiles, 64
smoothing, 319 social cognitive theory, 140- 141 social learning theory, 140-141
social loafing, 225, 229-230 social media websites, 261 - 262, 268
626 Glossary/ Subj ect Index
social needs, 1 28
social psychology, 10-11 social support, and stress, 120, 121
social trends, 493
social ization. The process that adapts new employees to an organi- zation's culture. 362-<366, 3621, 3651
social ized charismatic leadership. A leadership concept that states that leaders convey values that are other-centred vs. se~- centred and who model ethical conduct. 400
socially responsible organization, 454
sociology, 11
span of cont rol. The number of employees who report to a manager. 462-463, 4621
spiritual organization, 453-454
spirituality. See wO!l<place spirituality
stability, 352 stereotypin g . Judging someone on the basis of one's perception of
the group to which that person belongs. 44-45
stock analyst recommendations, 136
stories, 367
storm i ng. The second stage in group development, characterized by intragroup conflict. 212, 215
stress. An unpleasant psychological process that occurs in response to environmental pressures. 21 , 116-123, 1171
behavioural symptoms, 120
causes of, 118-1 19
consequences of, 119-120
environmental factors, 118
individual differences, 120-121
individual stress management , 121
and job experience, 120
jobs and stress levels, 117, 11 Bf management of, 121-1 23 meaning of, 117-120
organizational factors, 118-119
organizational stress management, 12 1-1 23
and perception, 120
personal factors, 11 9
and personality, 120-121
physical activity, 121
physiological symptoms, 120
psychological symptoms, 120 relaxation techniques, 12 1
role stress, 122
and social support, 120, 121
time-management techniques, 121
strong culture. A culture in which the core values are intensely held and widely shared. 354
structural inertia, 502
structural variables, 316, 320, 507
subcultures. M ini-cultures within an organization, typically defined by department designations and geographical separation. 353-354
substit utes. Attributes, such as experience and training, that can replace the need for a leader's support or ability to create structure. 404, 4041
support,503 supportive leader, 391
surface acti ng. Hiding one's inner feelings to display what is expected. 63, 330
surface-level diversity. Differences in easily perceived characteris- tics, such as gender, race, ethnicity, age, or d isability, that do not
necessarily reflect the ways people think or feel but that may acti- vate certain stereotypes. 100
surveys, 10f sustainabi lity. Organization practices that can be sustained over a
long period of time because the tools or structures that support them are not damaged by the processes. 357-358
systematic study. Looking at relationships, attempting to attribute causes and effects, and drawing conclusions based on scientific evidence. 6-9
T tardiness, 40 target (of perception), 39
task conflict. Conflict over content and goals of the work 229, 312-313
task demands, 119
task identity. The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. 174
task-oriented leaders, 388-389
task performance. The combination of effectiveness and efficiency at doing your core job tasks. 2 1
task significance. The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people. 17 4
task structure, 388, 389
team. A group whose individual efforts result in performance that is greater than the sum of the individual inputs. 200
see also group
competitive teams, and cooperation, 222 conformity, 209
cross-function (or project) team, 202-203
development stages, 211-215, 2121
effective teams. See effective teams
efficacy, 227-228
empowerment, 234 five-stage model, 2 11-213, 2121
global context, 230-231 from individual to team member, 204-211
leadership, 2 18-219, 225
multiteam systems, 204
negative norms, and group outcomes, 210-211
norms, 207- 209 popularity of, 200
positive norms, and group outcomes, 209-21 O
pressure, 215 problem-solving team, 201
punctuated-equilibrium model, 213-215, 2141
roles, 206-207
se~-managed (or self-directed) team, 201-202
size, 225
and social loafing, 225
team charter, 208
turning around a losing team, 206
types of teams, 200-204, 2011
virtualteam,203-204 when inappropriate, 230
team cohesion. A situation when team members are emotionally attached to one another and motivated toward the team because of their attachment. 228, 231
team efficacy. A team's collective belief that they can succeed at their tasks. 227-228
team i dentity. A team member's affinity for and sense of belonging- ness to his or her team. 228
team orientation, 352
team structure. An organizational structure that replaces depart- ments with empowered teams, and that eliminates horizon- tal boundaries and external barriers between customers and suppliers. 471 -473
teamwork skills, 221-222, 2221 technological change, 118 technology. The way in which an organization transfers its inputs
into outputs. 476-477
telecommuting. Working from home at least two days a week on a computer that is linked to the employer's office. 182-1 84, 188
telephone, 258 teleworking, 182-1 84
temporary employee, 131 terminal values. Goals that individuals would like to achieve during
their lifetime. 82 termination, 23, 499
text messaging, 261 Theory X. The assumption that employees dislike work, will attempt
to avoid it, and must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve goals. 126, 164
Theory Y. The assumption that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility, and will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives. 126
"thin slices," 58
thinking types, 49 third party negotiations, 333-334
threat to expertise, 502 three-stag e model o f creativity. The proposition that creativity
involves three stages: causes (creative potential and creative envi- ronment), creative behaviour, and creative outcomes (innovation). 430, 4311
time-management techniques, 121
time off, 131 toxic boss, 34 7 toxic organization, 347-348 toxic workplaces, 345 trading blocs, 14
Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire, 65 trait theories of leadership. Theories that consider personal quali-
ties and characteristics that differentiate leaders from nonleaders. 384-386, 387-388
transactional leaders. Leaders who guide or motivate their follow- ers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements. 394, 3951
transcendence of self, 451 transf ormational leadership. Leaders who inspire followers to
transcend their own self-interests and who are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on followers. 394-397, 3951
trust, 240-245 consequences of, 242
determinants of, 241 identification-based trust, 404-405 lack of, 501 and leaders, 242 lying, prevention of, 244 principles of, 241-242 and teams, 219-220, 242-244
and workplace spirituality, 453 turnover, 22, 94, 95-96 two-factor theory. A theory that relates intrinsic factors to job sat-
isfaction and associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction. Also called the motivation-hygiene theory. 128-130
Glossary/ Subj ect Index 627
u uncertainty avoidance. A national culture attribute that describes
the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them. 84
underemployed, 131
underutilized, 131
unemployed, 131 unfreezi ng. Change efforts to overcome the pressures of both indi-
vidual resistance and group conformity. 495, 4961
unions collective bargaining, 341-342
and job redesign, 177 labour relations dispute, 334
union employee, 131 United States, 168-169
unity of command. The idea that a subordinate should have only one superior to whom he or she is directly responsible. 461
upward appeals, 2821 utilitarianism. A decision focused on outcomes or consequences
that emphasizes the greatest good for the greatest number. 435
v valence. The value or importance an individual places on a reward.
135-136 value system. A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual's
values in terms of their intensity. 82 values. Basic convictions that a spec~ic mode of conduct or end-
state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. 82-83
in Canadian workplace, 86-88, 861
core values, 353 cultural values, assessment of, 83-86
generational differences, 86-88
Hodgson's general moral principles, 83
instrumental values, 82 Rokeach Value Survey (RVS), 82 terminal values, 82
values-based organization, 454 variable-i nterval schedule. The reward is given at variable time
intervals. 143
variable-pay prog ram. A pay plan that bases a portion of an employee's pay on some individual and/ or organizational measure of performance. 165-170, 187
variable-ratio schedule. The reward is given at variable amounts of output. 143
variable socialization, 3651 verbal persuasion, 14 1 vicarious modelling, 140
videoconferencing, 258 violence in the workplace, 345-346 virtual employee, 131
virtual office, 182 virtual structure. A small core organization that outsources its major
business functions. 47o-471
virtual team. A team that uses computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal. 203-204
visa employee, 131 vision. A long-term strategy for attaining a goal or goals. 393
vision statement. A formal articulation of an organization's vision or mission. 393
visionaries, 49
628 Glossary/ Subject Index
v~ality, 371
voice. Dissatisfaction expressed by actively and constructively attempting to improve conditions. 94
volatility, 477
w weak culture, 354, 369
wheel, 256 w histle-blowers. Individuals who report unethical practices by their
employer to outsiders. 19, 435 win-lose situation, 317, 323
win-win situation, 3 17, 325
withdrawal behaviour. The set of actions employees take to sepa- rate themselves from the organization. 22
work environment, 1 S-19
work from home, 131, 479
work specialization. The degree to which tasks in the organization are subdivided into separate jobs. 458-459, 479-480
workaholism, 120-121
workforce diversity. The mix of people in organizations in terms of gender, race, ethnicity, disability, sexual orientation, age, and demographic characteristics such as education and socio- economic status. 14-15, 99-106
see also diversity
concerns about, 101-1 02
cultural code-switching, 106
cultural intelligence (CO), 103-106, 1051
diversity activities, 103f
effective diversity programs, 100-1 03
management of, across cultures, 107
workplace a=mmodation, 259 workplace affairs, 287, 289
workplace bullying, 286, 344-349
workplace diversity. See workforce diversity workplace harassment, 285-288
workplace spirituality. The recognition that people have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by meaningful wor1< that takes place in the context of community. 450-455, 451
benevolence, 453
criticisms of spir~uality, 455
growing interest in, 451
humanistic wor1< practices, 453
mindfulness, 452 organizational models, 454
purpose, sense of, 453
spiritual organization, 453-454
toleration of employee expression, 453
trust and respect, 453
workplace violence, 345-346
wood politics, 493
written communication, 258--262
y yelling, 73 yielding, 317, 3 19
young organization, 369
z zero acquaintance approach, 58
zero-sum situation, 317, 323
NAME AND INDEX
ORGANIZATION
A Aboriginal Peoples Television Network, 4
Abosch, Ken, 167
AccessNow, 1021
Achor, Shawn, 7 5
Acken, Steve, 240
Addison, Kevin Douglas, 346
Admiral, 371-372
Adobe Systems, 122, 375, 506
Agnico Eagle M ines, 1931
Agrium Inc., 4, 1031
AGT Food and Ingredients Inc., 4361
AIG, 168
Air Canada, 6, 931, 372
AirAsia, 372
AI-Katib, Murad, 4361
Alcoholics Anonymous, 454
Alderman, L., 183n
Alibaba Group, 2261
Altman, Rick, 27 1
Amazon, 7-8, 23n, 225,303, 459
Amazon.ca, 470
American Express, 7 4, 122, 375, 473
Anderson, Cameron, 303
Anderson, J. R., 13n
AOL-nme Warner, 360
Aon Hewitt, 167
Appelbaum, S. H., 210n
Apple Computer, 13, 3 1, 101, 443, 475, 484, 486, 487, 517- 518
Argonauta Strategic Alliances Consulting, 452
Ariely, Dan, 132, 132n Arizona State University, 451
Asch, Solomon, 427
Ashforth, Blake, 451
Asianera, 3991
Aspinwall, Lisa, 375
Assured Logistics, 4 70
Auglaize Provico, 370
Automattic Inc., 471
Azar, Ofer H., 421-422
B Baidu, 3681
Bain & Company, 360 Bandura, Albert, 140, 141
Bank of America, 168
Bank of America Merrill Lynch, 101
Bank of Montreal (BMO), 1791, 182, 367
Barnes & Noble, 44 7
Barnum & Bailey Circus, 491
Barra, Mary, 332
Barrick, M. R ., 398n
Bass, B . M., 395n
BC Human Rights Tribunal, 43
BC Medical Association, 131 f Bean North Cafe, 451 Beaton, Bev, 415
Beersma, B., 3 18n
Bell, Brendan, 1931
Bell, Don, 356
Benioff, Marc, 97
Berdahl, Jennifer, 219, 346
Bergman, J. Z., 55n
Bergman, S. M., 55n
Berkshire Hathaway, 484
Bernard, T. S., 183n Best Buy, 138, 182
Bezos, Jeff, 225
Bhave, Devasheesh, 176
Bhawuk, P S. , 292n
Bialosiewicz, S., 41 Bn Birtel, M. D., 101n
Black, J. Stewart, 280n
BlackBerry, 8 1
Blakely, Sara, 432 , 446-447
Blue Man Productions, 506
BMO Financial Group , 452
BMW, 13, 4651, 468
Bock, Laszlo, 11 3
Bodie, Graham, 257
Boeing, 468
Boekhoff, lain, 288
Belina, M. C ., 13n, 296n
Bombardier, 14f, 458
Borel, Kathryn, 284
Borre, Karen, 73
Bostrom, Nick, 68
Boswell, W . R., 371n
Bouchard, Eugenie, 278
Boudreau, Alain, 170-171
Boyd, Sean, 1931
Bradley, B. H. , 398n
Branson, Richard, 262, 361, 394, 408
Braverman, Amy, 31-32, 32
Brazier, Brendan, 431
Breitbart News, 4381
Brenninkmeijer, V., 329n British Columbia's Motor Vehicle Branch 333
' BroadbandTY, 4331
Brooke, Beth, 101
Broomfield, J., 101n
Brotheridge, Celeste, 286
Brower, H. H., 215n
629
630 Name and Organization Index
Brown, Susan, 367
Brunello Cucinelli, 476
Buber, Martin, 454
Buckingham, Marcus, 4 1 1
Buffett, Warren, 484
Burger King, 13
Bushe, Gervase, 498
Bushman, Brad, 55
Butterfield, Stewart, 247, 251, 254, 257
Buytopia.ca, 37, 4 7
c Cain, Susan, 75-76
Calgary Stampede, 361
Cameco Corp., 1 031
Cameron, Kim, 32, 33n
Campbell Soup, 399
CANA Construction, 250, 250f
Canada Post, 470
Canada Summer Jobs, 199
Canada's Wonderland, 216
Canadian Board Diversity Council, 104
Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business (CCAB), 2661, 450
Canadian Federation of Nurse Unions (CFNU), 346
Canadian Heart & Stroke Foundation, 123
Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce {CIBC), 417
Canadian Initiative on Wor1<place Violence, 346
Canadian Mental Health Association, 123
Canadian Union of Public Employees (CUPE), 160
Capelli, P. , 472n Cappelli, Peter, 110
Caravaggio, Phil, 457, 469, 474, 478
CareerCast.com, 1 18
Carinelli, Fabrizio, 250f
Carleton University, 288
Carnegie Mellon University, 331
Carr, Evan, 64
Casino W indsor, 126
Casmir, Fred, 264- 265
Caterpillar, 99, 4 76
Cavens, Darrell, 194
CBC, 275, 277, 280, 417, 435
CBC News, 99 CBRE, 1 16
CCL Industries, 1931
Century Mining Corporation, 34
CGI, 12 1
Champagne, Dominic, 494, 500
Chen, G. , 222n
Chen, Y.-P. , 13n Chenault, Ken, 473 Chia, Lawrence, 360
Chui, M ., 260n CIBC, 1031
Cikara, M., 215n
Cirque du Soleil, 491 , 494, 500, 506
Cisco, 271
Clark, Ed, 4021
Clearpath Robotics, 99
Clearwater Beach Hilton, 447
Clearwater Seafoods, 4
Clegg, Brent, 170
Clifton, J ., 70n
Coca-Cola, 1 12, 472
Coca-Cola Canada, 278
Cocalis, Luke, 270
Cohen, N. A., 371n
Cohen, Roy L., 418
Cohen-Farnell, lulu, 92f
Colbert, A. E., 398n College of Business and Economics (University of Guelph), 452
Colquitt, J . A. , 293n
Conchie, Barry, 370
Concordia University, 100
Conference Board of Canada, 98, 171, 452
Conger, J . A ., 393n
Conley, C., 129n
Conner, C., 293n
Cook, Tim, 101
Cooper, L. , 101 n
Cooperrider, D. L. , 498n
Cornell, Brian, 427
Cornell University, 271
Corrin, Matthew, 2271
Corus Entertainment, 100
Costco, 165
Costco Canada, 165
Cote, David, 484
Cuban, Mark, 432
Cuddy, A. J.C., 245n Cybertech Automation, 170
D Daft, R. L., 249n
Dalhousie University, 305
Dallas Mavericks, 432
Dalton, Jared, 183
Daly, A ., 371n
Daly, J. P., 55n David Aplin Recruiting, 241
DaVinci, Leonardo, 443
Davy, Thomas, 260
De Dreu, C. K. W., 318n Dell Canada, 14
Deloitte Consulting, 360
DeNA, 4191
DePaul University, 47
Derricks, Alma, 506
DesRosiers, Dennis, 322
DeSteno, D., 245n
Deutsche Bank, 367
Devon Energy, 121
Dewhurst, M., 13n
Dhar, Ravi, 132
Dias, Jerry, 311 , 3 17, 332
Dion, Celine, 506
DIRTI (Doing It Right This Time) Environmental Solutions, 392 Dominion Diamond, 1931
Donahue, L. M ., 222n
Dragons' Den, 37
Drake, 278
DreamWorks Animation, 122
Dropbox, 251 Drucker, Peter, 370
Duarte, Nancy, 271
Dubner, Stephen, 28 Dutta, Soumitra, 271
Dutton, Robert, 871
Duxbury, Linda, 117, 181
Dyal, Dalisha, 415
Dyer, Wayne, 447
E Eagle, Dave, 271-272
Earley, Christopher, 104, 105, 105n
Easton, Jason, 165
eBay, 8, 324 The Echo Nest, 358
Eckfeldt , 8., 371 n
Ekman, Paul, 77n
Elizabeth II, Queen of England, 392
EllisDon, 6 Ellsworth, D., 13n
Encana,498
Enron, 83, 394
Ensilon, 194
Enterprise Rent-A-Car, 4631
Enthistle, Darren, 1931
Entourage Technology Solutions, 160
Environics Communications, 240, 241
Equilar, 193
Ericsson,367
Ernst & Young, 32, 101, 104, 183 European Court of Justice, 194
Evans, Martin, 390
Evers, A., 318n
F Facebook,8, 17, 110, 126, 159, 251 , 261, 268, 271 , 2791, 484
Faculty of Medicine (University of British Columbia), 349
Fannie Mae, 168
Farnell, David, 92f
Fast Company, 4331 FedEx,375
Fehr, Donald, 338
Feld, Kenneth, 491
Feld Entertainment, 491
Fernandez-Araoz, C., 472n
Ferris, G . R. , 292n Fibres of Life, 451
Fidas, Deena, 101
Fiedler, Fred, 388-389, 3891, 394
FIFA ( Federation Internationale de Football Association), 377
Financial Post, 104
Financial Post Magazine, 193 Finkelstein, Harley, 50f
Finnigan, K. , 371 n
Fisher, R., 327
Fitzgerald, Steven, 18 Flickr, 247, 262
Forbes, 225, 359 Ford Canada, 98
Ford Motor Company, 13
Fortune , 97, 268 Fosun,491
Fraser Institute, 341
Frauenheim, E., 13n, 499n Freddie Mac, 168
French, Glenn, 346
FreshBooks, 5081
Freshii, 2271
Frink, D. D., 292n
Frost, Peter, 348
Fuji Heavy Industries, 3221
Fufford-Roy, Lisa, 116
Furnham, Adrian, 443
Name and Organization Index 6 3 1
Future of Humanity Institute (University of Oxford), 68
FWSGroup, 170
G G Adventures, 163, 164, 184
Gagne, Marylene, 176, 300
Galbraith, John Kenneth, 238
Gallup, 22, 98, 126, 151 , 370, 41 1
Gannicott, Robert, 1931
Gardner, W. L. , 404n General Electric, 7, 138
General M ills, 122
Gerson Lehrman Group, 377
Ghomeshi, J ian, 275, 277, 280, 284
Ghost Group, 409
Gichuru, Peter Mokua, 43
Gilead Sciences, 2811 Gilmore, D. C., 292n
Gilstrap, J. 8 ., 296n
Ginsberg, David, 32 Giovinazzo, Gemma, 98
Git Hub, 404
Gladwell, Malcolm, 424
Glassdoor, 112
Gl~ch, 247
GLOBE Program, 86, 397, 405 GM Canada, 165, 3 11, 317, 321-322, 332
Goldberg, Alan, 132
Goldman Sachs, 168 Gonzalez, Maria, 452
The Good Spirit , 450
Google, 8, 88, 100, 112, 113-114, 126, 159, 221 , 222, 367, 410,478, 484
Google+, 262 GoPro, 3941
G6rska-Kolodziejczyk, Elzbieta, 370-371
Government of Canada, 83 Government of Northwest Territories, 1031
Gowdy, Peter, 143
Graduate School of Business (Stanford University), 346
Grant MacEwan College, 368
Great Little Box Company (GLBC), 2911
Great-West Life, 170
Greene, John, 97
632 Name and Organization Index
Greenhill, Alexandra, 13 lf Griffin, R. W., 210n
Groupon, 4 7, 484
Groupon Snap, 4 7
Groysberg, B., 187n
Gruman, Jamie, 364, 452
H Habaiiero Consulting Group, 18
Habitat for Humanity, 179, 504-505
Hackman, J. Richard, 174, 175n, 195n, 2 18
Haier, 476
Halluci Nation, 441
Hammond, Larry, 370
Hanoock, B., 13n Harley-Davidson Motor Company, 2021
Harpo Productions, 44 7
Harris, T. B., 371n Hartcher, Peter, 76
Hartfield, Justin, 40~10
Harvard Business Review, 375 Harvard Business School, 169, 196, 369
Harvard University, 114, 158-159, 174, 186, 218, 452
Hastings, Reed, 4931 Hawking, Stephen, 432
Hay Group, 360
Hays Canada, 90 HealthSouth, 394
Hekkert-Koning, M., 329n
Herzberg, Frederick, 127, 128-130, 129n, 154, 164, 186
Hewlett-Packard, 359, 453, 476, 486-487
Higgins, Chris, 117
Hill, Daria, 435
Hill, Vernon, 1371
Hitler, Adolf, 394, 399 H&M, 476 Hoa's Tool Shop, 431
Hodgson, Kent , 82, 83, 108 Hofstede, Geert, 83-84, 84-85, 851, 85n, 86, 108, 153
Hofstede, Gert Jan, 85n
Hogan, J., 398n
Holland College, 98
Hollinger International, 83
Holmes, Dave, 184
Holmes, Ryan, 22- 23 Home Depot, 14, 179, 410
Honda, 13, 268 Honeywell International, 473, 484
Hootsuite, 22, 81
Hoplamazian, Mark, 351 , 360, 366, 368
House,Robert,390,392
Housenbold, Jeffrey, 194
Howard, Joy, 378 Hsieh, Tony,478-479
Hubba, 99
Hudson's Bay, 463 Human Resources and Skills Development Canada, 504- 505
Hunsaker, Johanna S., 235n
Hunsaker, Phillip L., 235n Hunt, J. G., 494n
Hurst, A ., 418n
Husky Injection Molding Systems, 367
Hyatt Hotels Corporation, 351 , 360, 366, 368
Hydro One, 452
Hydro-Quebec, 460f
I I Love Rewards, 170
laooni, G . D., 21 On
IBM, 83, 3 151, 367, 375, 438, 468
Ibrahim, Wadood, 2181
Indigo, 41
Indigo-Chapters, 8 lnesi, Ena, 276
Ingersoll, Joel, 271 Institute for Ethical Business Worldwide, 40
Intel, 122
International Labour Organization {ILO), 346
International Paper, 370
lpsos Reid, 260
iQmetrix Software Development , 288
Irvin, Michael, 270
Irving Oil, 4
Iwata, Satoru, 4191
J Janssen, Ryan, 112 Jazz Aviation, 1031
Jean, Michaella, 392
Jeffery, Pamela, 104
Jermyn, D., 103n
Ji, Y. H. , 371n
Jive, 262 Jobs, Steve, 31 , 432, 443,486
John Molson School of Business (Concordia University), 176, 300
Johns, G., 175n
Joly, Hubert, 138 Jonason, P. K., 349n Jones, G., 23n
Jones, Jason, 271 - 272
K Kacmar, K. M., 296n Kaiser, R. B ., 398n
Kakao Talk, 262
Kalanick, Travis, 89
Kalypso LP, 4 71
Kant, Immanuel, 454
Kanungo, R. N., 393n Karlgaard, Rich, 225 Kaufman, Micha, 486
Keller, J . R., 472n
Kelman, Glenn, 194
Kensing, K., 90n
Kent, Peggy, 34 Kerr, S., 173n
Kiefer, T., 329n
Kielburger, Craig, 392, 4011
Kim, Johnny, 506
King, Martin Luther Jr., 4 12
Kingsbury, Mikael, 423-424
Kitagawa, Hidekazu, 3221
Klein, K., 371n Klimoski, R. J., 222n Kluwer, E. S., 3 18n Knebl, Chuck, 23
Knightsbridge Human Capital Solutions, 356
Koei Tecmo, 372
Koeppen, N., 13n Kohut, M ., 245n
Konnikova, Maria, 378
Korsgaard, M. A , 215n Kotter, John P., 369, 495, 49~97, 4971, 497n, 501n
Kovalenko, Maria, 2811
KPMG, 74, 104, 375
Kraimer, M . L., 13n Kray, Laura, 33 1-332 Kuntz Electroplating, 287
Kwon, Charllotte, 453
L Ladies Learning Code, 8 1, 83, 99
Lamarre, Daniel, 506
Langer, Ellen J., 452
Langton, Nancy, 220-221 Laninga, Niklas, 431
Lansing, 13-1 4
LaPierre, Louis, 298
Latham, Gary P., 137-1 38, 139n, 140n, 157
Lau, Alan, 3631 Lavoie, A., 293n
Lavoie, Luc, 160
Law Society of British Columbia, 43
Lawless, Gary, 206
LeBreton, J. M ., 398n Lee, Dennis, 194
Lee, L.-E. , 187n Lee, Leonard, 124, 125, 127, 133, 143
Lee, Robin, 127
Lee Valley Tools, 124, 125, 127, 133, 143
Lehman Brothers, 168
Leipold, Craig, 338 Lengel, R. H., 249n
Lester, S. W., 2 15n
Levitt, Steven, 28
Lewicki, R. J ., 325n Lewin, Kurt, 495-496, 4951, 497, 514
Leyen, Jennifer, 349
Lhoest, Louis, 378 Li, N., 371n
Liao, C ., 329n
Liew, Sook-Lei, 64 Line, 262
Lingnan University, 320
Linkedln, 126, 25 1, 261, 262, 270-271
Liu, Grace, 3991 Locke, Edwin A , 137-1 38, 1391, 139n, 140n, 157 London Business School, 276
London School o f Business, 104
L'Orea1, 278 Lorsch, Jay, 169
Lorton Data, 271
Name and Organization Index 633
Lovell, Kelly, 383, 392, 398, 403 Lovell Corporation, 383
Lowe, K. B., 404n
Lowery, David, 94n
Lowe's. 14, 47, 1791, 4 10 lululemon Athletica, 6, 31
Lutke, Tobias, 501, 4381
M Ma, Pony, 1671
MacEwan, Grant , 368
Machiavelli, Niccolo, 54
Maclellan, Bruce, 240
MacPherson, Charles "the Butler," 98
Magna International, 361 , 392
Maitlis, Sally, 235n Maiwa Handprints, 451 , 453
Major League Baseball (MLB), 338
Makosinski, Ann, 88 Manitoba Hydro, 1031
Manitoba Teachers' Society, 121
Marcario, Rose, 378
Marketplace Chaplains USA, 454
Marsick, V. J., 509n
Martin, Geoffrey, 1931 Martin, Giles, 494, 500
Martin Ginis, Kathleen, 46
Mary Kay Cosmetics, 1351
Maslow, Abraham, 127, 128, 1291, 130, 131 , 152, 154, 155, 164, 453
Masrani, Bharat, 4021
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Mil) Media Lab, 68
Matousek, A. , 21 On
Mayer, Marissa, 182, 183, 184 McClelland, David, 127, 130-131, 154, 155, 303
McDerment , Mike, 5081
McDonald, Robert, 138
McDonald's, 13, 47, 165, 178, 304, 458, 464, 472, 475
McDonnell, S. R., 499n
McGill University, 352
McGregor, Douglas, 126 McMaster University, 46
McMillon, Doug, 5 17
McMorris, Don, 15
Mediate BC, 334
Medtronic, 178
Meehan, Erin, 450
Meister, J., 23n
Memo, 112
Mennonite Savings and Credit Union, 361
Mercedes, 13
Merkle, C ., 42n
Merrill Lynch, 168 Metro Bank, 1371
Meyer, John, 96 MGM, 470
Michaelson, Christopher, 151
634 Name and Organization Index
Michigan State University, 221
Microsoft, 122, 271 , 347, 367, 461
Milgram, Stanley, 278, 304
Miller, C. C., 183n
Miller, George, 225 Minkov, Michael, 85n
Minnesota Wild, 338
Mintzberg, Henry, 352
MIT Sloan School of Management , 207
Molinaro, Vince, 356
Molson CoOIS, 99
Montes, Samantha, 347
Montreal, Maine and Atlantic Railway (MMA), 439
Moore, C., 40n
Morgan Stanley, 168
Mori, lkuo, 3221 Moriyasu, Isac, 4191
Morningstar, 122
Morrison, Denise, 399 Mosakowski, Elaine, 104, 105, 105n
MotionSavvy, 259
MTS Systems, 73
Mueller-Hanson, R. A ., 499n
Mulligan, John, 427
Murnighan, J . K., 430n
Murphy, Robert, 236 Murphy, Yasmin, 170-171
myBestHelper, 1311
Mycoskie, Blake, 571
N Nanaimo Regional General Hospital, 453
NASA, 31, 431 , 443
Nash, John Forbes, 432
Natale, Joe, 1931
National Association of the Deaf, 259
National Basketball Association (NBA), 167- 168, 2071
National Hockey League (NHL), 146-147, 314, 338
Nauta, A., 3 18n
Naval Postgraduate School, 149
NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association), 243
Neffinger, J ., 245n Neiman Marcus, 447
Netflix, 8, 32, 1 12, 4931
New Brunswick Energy Institute, 298 New York Jets, 157
New York University, 151
The New Yorker, 7 Newman's Own, 470
Newton, Isaac, 443
Nichia, 487
Niebuhr, Reinhold, 454
Nielsen Holdings, 8
Ning, Li, 97F Nintendo, 4191
Nissan Motor Company, 971, 507
Noble, Marilyn, 286
Noe, R. A. , 249n
Nohria, N., 187n
Nokia, 492
Nokia Canada, 498
Nooyi, Indra, 3871
Nordea Bank AB, 372-373
Nordstrom, 354
Novell, 367
Nystrom, P. C., 215n
0 Obama, Barack, 3 1
O'Brien, Ken, 157
O .C. Tanner Canada, 169
Odean, Terrance, 422 Old Faithful, 450
Old Faithful Shop, 2661
Oldham, Greg R., 174, 175n O'Leary-Kelly, Anne, 209, 21 On
Olsen, Savannah, 2661, 450
1-800-GOT-JUNK?, 171
O'Neil, J . A., 509n
O'Neill, Ashley, 116
Ontario English Catholic Teachers' Association, 346
Ontario Ministry of Citizenship & Immigration, 383 Ontario Public Service (OPS), 1031
Orchestras Canada, 498
O'Reagan, Kelly, 194
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 441
Osborn, R. N., 494n O'Shea, Mike, 206 Oticon A/S, 472
OVO, 278
p Page. Larry, 159 Parise, Zach, 338
Parker, G . M., 216n Parkinson Society Canada, 498
Partyka, J., 349n
Patagonia, 378-379
Paul Ekman Group, LLC, 77n
PCL, 361
PepsiCo, 3871, 4 77 Peter B . Gustavson School of Business (University of Victoria), 3641
Peters, Linda, 504
Peterson, Jordan, 50
Petraeus, David, 410
PetSmart, 96 Pettigrew, T. F., 418n Pew research, 268
Pfeffer, Jeffrey, 346, 347, 348
Picard, Rosalind, 68
Picasso, Pablo, 432, 443
Pinterest, 262 Pippin, G . M., 418n
Plowman, Shannon, 504
Pontefract , Dan, 363
Poole, Ernest, 361 Poon Tip, Bruce, 163, 164, 184
Poston, Bill, 471
PowerPoint , 271- 272
Pratt, Michael, 451
Precision Nutrition, 457, 469, 474, 478
Prezi, 259
PricewaterhouseCooper, 367
Priem, R. L. , 215n Procter & Gamble, 138, 460, 464, 468 Protegra, 2181
Pruitt, D. G ., 318n
Public Safety, 504-505
Pulakos, E. D., 499n Pure Art, 451
Q 0 , 284 Queenan, J., 132n
Queen's School of Business (Queen's University), 2031
Queen's University, 37
Quinn, Robert E., 32-33, 33n, 34n, 2901, 290n
R R. J . Reynolds Tobacco, 454 Rafati, Shahrzad, 4331
Rao, Srikumar, 7 4-75
Raspanti, J., 101n
Real Food for Real Kids, 921
Reaume, Steve, 453
Reaume Chevrolet Buick GMC, 453
Reddy, S., 132n
Redlin, 194
Reichard, Bryan, 287
Reisman, Heather, 41
Research in Motion (RIM), 492
Restaurant Brands, 3641
Revelstoke, 13-14
Revy, 13-14
Richard Ivey School of Business (University of Western Ontario), 117, 122
Ries, Eric, 359
Ringling Bros. Circus, 491
RL Solutions, 172
Robertson, Brian,457
Robertson, Roy,346
Robinson, Sandra, 209, 346, 347, 348
Rockwood Institution, 504- 505
Rodell, J . B., 293n
Rofcanin, Y., 329n Rogers, Ted, 361
Rogers Communications, 361
Rokeach, Milton, 82, 108
Romanow, Michele, 37, 47
Rona, 13-14, 871
Rosenberg, Jonathan, 113
Rotman School of Management (University of Toronto), 347, 364
Rousseau, D. M., 329n
Royal Bank of Canada (ABC), 4, 399
Rozovsky, Julia, 222
Rubin, J., 318n
Rumens, N., 101n
Rusbult, Caryl, 94n
Rusnak,Andy,32
Rutgers University, 1 10
Ryan, A . M., 101n
s Saccon, Gloria, 2031
Safeway, 102-1 03
Sakito, Yoshiaki, 518
Saks, Alan, 364
salesforce.com, 97
Salvatore Ferragamo, 476
Sampson, Jenna, 181
Name and Organization Index 6 3 5
Samsung Electronics, 13, 3581, 492
Sanofi, 2991
Sanyo, 362
SAS, 3 67
SaskTel, 4, 15
Sauder School of Business (University of British Columbia), 219,346, 347,348
Sauza tequila, 278
Scala, Domenico, 377
Schein, Edgar H., 207, 365n
Schermerhorn, J. R., Jr., 494n Schiller, Michael, 252
Schilling, J ., 349n
Schlesinger, L. A., 501 n Schmidt, Eric, 1 13
Schneider, Andre, 270-271
School of Hospitality and Tourism Management (University of Guelph), 364
School of Management (Ben-Gurion University), 421
Schulz, N., 23n
Schwan. John, 194, 195
Schwarzkopf, Norman, 410
Schweitzer, Linda, 332
Schweitzer, Maurice E., 157 Schyns, B., 349n
Scripps Health, 486
Scudamore, Brian, 171 - 172
Sears Canada, 37, 473
Segal Graduate School of Business (Simon Fraser U niversity), 498
Senge, PM., 510n
Sentis, 255
Shaffer, M. A., 13n
Shakespeare, William, 206
Sharpe, Mackenzie, 116
Shaw, Bradley, 1931
Shaw Communications, 1931
Shell Canada, 410, 453
Shopify, 531, 8 1, 4381
Shutterfly, Inc., 194
Silverman, R. E., 418n
Simpson, Luke, 250
Singapore Airlines, 178
Singh, Lilly, 1391
Skinner, B . F., 141 - 142 Slack, 247, 251, 254, 257
SlimCut Media, 260
Slomski, S., 349n
Smed, Mogens, 392
Smith, Gerry, 346
636 Name and Organizati on Index
Smith, H. J ., 418n
Smith, Jim, 75
SnapSaves, 47
Social Cast, 262
Socialtext , 262
Society of Human Resource Management, 289
Sodexo Canada, 1031
Sokol, David, 484
Solstice Mobile, 194
Sony, 517-518 Spanx,432,446-447
SPARK, 506
Sparks & Honey, 88 Spears, Britney, 506
Spotify, 358
Spreitzer, Gretchen M., 290f, 290n Sprott School of Business (Carleton University), 117, 181, 332
Stanford University, 73
Staples, 289 Starbucks, 8, 119,202,362,368,473-474
Statistics Canada, 117, 230
Steam Whistle Brewing, 290f
Steers, Richard M., 280n
Stefani, Gwen, 278
Stephanz, Mark, 1 O 1 Stevens, G. W., 4 72n
Strakosch, Greg, 487
Strauss, K, 329n Stronach, Frank, 361, 392
Subaru, 3221
Summerlunch+, 199, 204, 211, 216
Sun Life Financial, 122
Supreme Court of Canada, 286
Survey Research Center (University of Michigan), 386
Suter, Ryan, 338
Suttle, J . L., 195n
Swinbourne, C., 259n SYPartners communications, 271
T Taco Bell, 30, 304
Tarantino, Quentin, 432
Target, 3, 5, 12, 427
Target Canada, 5, 9 , 12
Taylor, Greg, 290f
Taylor, Kathleen, 399 TD Bank, 4021, 415, 417, 435
The Tea Room, 37
TechTarget, 487
TEDx, 383
TELUS, 103f, 1821, 1931, 362, 363, 498
Tenbrunsel, Ann E., 40, 40n
Tencent Holdings, 1671
20th Century Fox, 470
Thomas, KennethW., 149- 150, 150n, 3 18n
Thomson, Anthony, 1371
3G Capital, 3641
3M, 475, 487
3M Canada, 453
Tim Hortons, 8, 3641
Timberlake, Justin, 278
Tjosvold, Dean, 320
TMBC, 41 1
Tokyo University, 971 Tolle, Eckhart, 455
TOMS Shoes, 5 7f Toon Boom, 100
Toronto District School Board, 199
Toronto Western Hospital, 498
Toyoda, Akio, 460
Toyota Motor Corporation, 2651, 460
Tracey, J . B., 282n Transparency International, 441
Transportation Safety Board of Canada, 439
Tremblay, Chantal, 494
A Tribe Called Red, 44f
Trudeau, J ustin, 8 1
Trudeau, Pierre, 392
Trump, Donald, 81, 262, 285, 399, 4381, 493 Trump, lvanka, 4381
Tugend, A., 418n Tunnacliffe, Matt, 284
Turnley, W. H., 296n
Twenge, Jean M., 11 0 Twitter, 8, 17, 18f, 251, 261 , 262, 268, 271 , 484
Tyco, 394 Tyson Foods, 454
Tzu, Sun, 410
u Uber, 8, 81 , 89 Ubisoft, 3561
UBS, 375
Unifor, 311, 3 17, 321-322, 332 Universite du Quebec a Montreal, 166, 286 University of British Columbia, 209
University of California, 332
University of Colorado, 104
University of Guelph, 47
University of Illinois, 17 4, 451
University of Maine, 298
University of Moncion, 298 University of Montreal, 100
University of PEI, 47
University of Toronto, 50, 137, 181 , 390
University of Toronto Scarborough, 102
University of Western Ontario, 96
Ury, W., 327 US Bureau of Labor Statistics, 73
US Department o f Defense, 221
v Valve Corporation, 404
Van Savel, J . J ., 215n
Van Gogh, Vincent, 432 Van Maanen, J ., 365n
Vancouver Canucks, 6
Vancouver Community College, 103f
Vancouver Island Health Authority, 453
Vancouver School Board (VSB), 344
Vector Poll, 346
Vega, 431
Veran, Damien, 260
Verizon, 159 V!deotron, 160
Virgin Fuels, 408 Virgin Galactic, 408
Virgin Group, 262, 361 , 394, 408
Vista Projects, 98
Vogelesang, Joan, 100-101 Volkswagen, 13 , 4281
Vroom, Victor, 134
w W. L. Gore, 404, 507, 508 Walden University, 298
Walker, R., 259n, 398n Wall & Associates, 14 Walmart, 165, 289, 367, 4 10 , 47~76, 517
Walt Disney, 165 Walton, Sam, 367
Warner Brothers, 470
Warrior, Padmasree, 27 1
Watkins, K. E ., 509n Wattpad, 3631
Wayne, S. J ., 329n WE Charity (formerly Free the Children), 392, 4011
Wealthsimple, 99
Weber, L., 90n Weber, M ., 42n
Weber, Max, 392, 467
WeChat, 262
Weedmaps.com, 409
Welch, Jack, 7 Wessel, J . L., 10 1n
West Fraser Timber, 4
Westerman, J. W., 55n Western Forest Products, 346
Western University, 47, 288, 383
WestJet Airlines, 119, 170, 355, 356, 453, 455, 477
Westover, J . H., 106n
Wharton School of Business (University of Pennsylvania), 1 10, 390
WhatsApp, 262 Whisper, 112
Name and Organization Index 637
Whitmore, Jacqueline, 260- 261
Whitney, D. , 498n
Whole Foods Market, 161
Wikis, 262
Willy, Drew, 206 Windsor Family Credit Union, 361
Winfrey, Oprah, 447 Winnipeg Blue Bombers, 206
Women in Mining and the Mining Human Resource Council, 1031
Woodman, Nick, 3941
The Workplace Bullying Institute, 345
WorkSafeBC, 344, 345, 349
World Climate Ltd., 270
WorldCom, 83, 394 Wozniak, Steve, 443
Wright, Susan, 199, 204-205, 216
x Xerox, 47, 289
Xiaomi, 492
Xie, Z ., 371n
y Yahool, 182, 183, 184, 247
Yale University, 132, 278
Yamashita, Keith, 271
York University, 4 7
Young, William Paul, 455
YouTube, 1391, 262, 4331
Yuhoon, Ki, 3581 Yuki, G., 282n
z Zak, P. J ., 245n Zappos, 93, 3531, 354, 457
Zellers, 3
Zhang, X., 37 1n Zhou, J., 292n Zimbardo, Philip, 408
Ziv, Maayan, 1021
Zuckerberg, Mark, 159, 169, 2791
Zukin, Cliff, 110
Zulily, Inc., 194
Zweig, David, 347
LIST OF CANADIAN COMPANIES
Alberta Agrium Inc., 4, 103f
Calgary Stampede, 361 CANA Construction, 250, 2501
Cybertech Automation, 170
David Aplin Recruiting, 241
Devon Energy, 12 1
DIRTT (Doing It Right This Time) Environmental Solutions, 392
Encana,498
Grant MacEwan College, 368 Shaw Communications, 193f
Shell Canada, 410, 453
Vista Projects, 98
WestJetAirlines, 119, 170, 355, 356, 453, 455, 477
British Columbia BC Human Rights Tribunal, 43
BC Medical Association, 1311
British Columbia's Motor Vehicle Branch, 333
BroadbandTV, 4331
CBRE, 1 16
Faculty of Medicine (University of British Columbia), 349
Fraser Institute, 341
G litch, 247
The Good Spirit, 450
Great Little Box Company (GLBC), 291 f
Habaiiero Consulting Group, 18
Hootsuite, 22, 81
iQmetrix Software Development, 288 Law Society of British Columbia, 43
Lululemon Athletica, 6, 31, 471
Maiwa Handprints, 451 , 453
Mediate BC, 334
myBestHelper, 1311 Nanaimo Regional General Hospital, 453
Old Faithful, 450
Old Faithful Shop, 2661
1-800-GOT-JUNK?, 171
Peter B. Gustavson School of Business (University of Victoria), 3641
Revelstoke, 13-14
Revy, 13-14
Sauder School of Business (University of British Columbia), 219, 235n, 346,347, 348
Segal Graduate School of Business (Simon Fraser University), 498
Sentis, 255 Slack, 247, 251 , 254, 257
TELUS, 103f, 1821, 1931, 362, 363, 498
University of British Columbia, 209
Vancouver Canucks, 6
Vancouver Community College, 1031
Vancouver Island Health Authority, 453
638
Vancouver School Board (VSB), 344
Vega,431
West Fraser Timber, 4
Western Forest Products, 346
WOfkSafeBC, 344, 345, 349
Manitoba Aboriginal Peoples Television Network, 4
FWS Group, 170
Great-West Life, 170
lpsos Reid, 260
Manitoba Hydro, 1031
Manitoba Teachers' Society, 121
Protegra, 2181
Rockwood Institution, 504-505
Winnipeg Blue Bombers, 206
New Brunswick Irving Oil, 4
New Brunswick Energy Institute, 298
University of Moncion, 298
Northwest Territories Government of Northwest Territories, 1031
Nova Scotia Clearwater Seafoods, 4
Dalhousie University, 305
Fibres of Life, 451
Jazz Aviation, 1031
Ontario AccessNow, 1021
Agnico Eagle Mines, 1931 Amazon.ca, 470
Argonauta Strategic Alliances Consulting, 452 Assured Logistics, 470
Bank of Montreal (BMO), 1791, 182, 367
BlackBerry, 8 1 BMO Financial Group, 452
Buytopia.ca, 37, 47 Canada Post, 4 70
Canada Summer Jobs, 199
Canada's Wonderland, 216
Canadian Board Diversity Council, 104
Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business (CCAB), 2661, 450
Canadian Federation of Nurse Unions (CFNU), 346
Canadian Heart & Stroke Foundation, 123 Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce (CIBC), 1031, 417
Canadian Initiative on Workplace VIOience, 346
Canadian Mental Health Association, 123
Canadian Union of Public Employees (CUPE), 160
Carleton University, 288 Casino Windsor, 126
CBC, 275, 277, 280, 417, 435
CBC News, 99 CCL Industries, 193f
Clearpath Robotics, 99
Coca-Cola Canada, 278
College of Business and Economics (University of Guelph), 452
Conference Board of Canada, 98, 171, 452
Con.is Entertainment , 100
Costco Canada, 165
Dell Canada, 14
Deloitte Consulting, 360
Dominion Diamond, 1931
Dragons' Den, 37 EllisDon, 6 Entourage Technology Solutions, 160
Environics Communications, 240, 241
Ernst & Young, 32, 101, 104, 183
Finandal Post, 104
Ford Canada, 98
Freshbooks, 508f
Freshii, 2271
G Adventures, 163, 164, 184
Globe and Mail, 103n GM Canada, 165, 311, 3 17, 321-322, 332
Government of Canada, 83
Halluci Nation, 44f
Hays Canada, 90 H&M, 476
Hubba, 99
Hudson's Bay, 463 Human Resources and Skills Development Canada, 504- 505
Husky Injection Molding Systems, 367
Hydro One, 452 I Love Rewards, 170
Indigo, 4f
Knightsbridge Human Capital Solutions, 356
Kuntz Electroplating, 287
Ladies Learning Code, 8 1, 83, 99
Lansing, 13-1 4
Lee Valley Tools, 124, 125, 127, 133, 143
Lovell Corporation, 383 Magna International, 361, 392
McMaster University, 46
Mennonite Savings and Credit Union, 361
Molson Coors, 99
Nokia Canada, 498
O .C. Tanner Canada, 169
Ontario English Catholic Teachers' Association, 346
Ontario Ministry of Citizenship & Immigration, 383
Ontario Public Service (OPS), 103f
Orchestras Canada, 498
ovo. 278 Parkinson Society Canada, 498
PCL, 361
Precision Nutrition, 457, 469, 474, 478
Public Safety, 504-505
List of Canadi an Companies 639
Q, 284
Queen's School of Business (Queen's University), 203f
Queen's University, 37 Real Food for Real Kids, 92f
Reaume Chevrolet Buick GMC, 453
Research in Motion (RIM), 492
Restaurant Brands, 364f
Richard Ivey School of Business (University of Western Ontario), 117, 122
RL Solutions, 172
Rogers Communications, 361
Rotman School of Management (University of Toronto), 347, 364
Royal Bank of Canada (RBC), 4, 399 School of Hospitality and Tourism Management
(University of Guelph), 364
Sears Canada, 37, 473
Shopify, 53f, 8 1, 438f
SlimCut Media, 260 SnapSaves, 4 7
Sodexo Canada, 103f
Sprott School of Business (Carleton University), 117, 181, 332
Staples, 289 Statistics Canada, 117, 230
Steam Whistle Brewing, 290f
Summerlunch+, 199, 204, 21 1, 216 Supreme Court of Canada, 286
Target Canada, 5, 9, 12 TD Bank, 402f, 415, 417, 435
The Tea Room, 37
3M Canada, 453
Tim Hortons, 8, 364f
Toronto District School Board, 199
Toronto Western Hospital, 498
A Tribe Called Red, 44f
Unifor, 311 , 3 17, 321-322, 332
University of Guelph, 47
University of Toronto, 50, 137, 181 , 390
University of Toronto Scarborough, 102
University of Western Ontario, 96
Vector Poll, 346
Wall & Associates, 14
Wattpad, 363f WE Charity (formerly Free the Children), 392, 401f
Wealthsirnple, 99
Western University, 47, 288, 383
Whole Foods Market, 16f
Windsor Family Credit Union, 361
York University, 4 7
Zellers, 3
Prince Edward Island Holland College, 98
University of PEI, 47
Quebec Air Canada, 6, 93f, 372 Blue Man Productions, 506
Bombardier, 14f, 458
CGI, 121 Cirque du Soleil, 491, 494, 500, 506
640 List of Canadian Companies
Concordia University, 100
Hydro-Quebec, 460f
John Molson School o f Business (Concordia University), 176, 300
McGill University, 352 Pure Art, 451 Rona, 13-14, 871 SPARK, 506 Toon Boom, 100
Transportation Safety Board of Canada, 439
Universite du Quebec a Montreal, 166, 286 University of Montreal, 100
Videotron, 160
Saskatchewan AGT Food and Ingredients Inc., 4361
Cameco Corp., 1031
SaskTel, 4, 15
Women in Mining and the Mining Human Resource Council, 1031
Yukon Bean North Cafe, 451
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