please follow the request and write 1-3pages paper, and fill out questions.

Modern Problems Annotated Bibliography

Student’s Name

Institute Affiliation

Modern Problems Annotated Bibliography

Vedal,S., Han,B.,Xu,J.,Szpiro,A., & Bai,Z.(2017). Design of an Air Pollution Monitoring Campaign in Bejing for Application to Cohort Health Studies .Initernational journal of environmental research and public health,14(12),1580

Air pollution has been a modern problem affecting various countries around the world. This problem is majorly caused by burning of fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas, coal and gasoline which in other ways helps to provide us power with helps to move machines for example vehicles. Air pollution has various effects which can be categorized in short term and long term effects. The short term effects include headache, nausea and allergic reactions while the long term effects include chronic respiratory diseases such as lung cancer, heart diseases and also damages related to nerves, kidney and liver.

According to Vedal et al. , the estimation of air pollution exposure is technical and logistically challenging because those who are investigating on air pollution are experiencing uncertainties regarding the effects of exposure measurement error on study of health. There has also been tools which are used to estimate the air pollution exposure.

There are various air monitoring considerations which must always be put into practice before any decision is made in respect to their relative effects. These considerations include the following; geographic scale which determines the level at which exposure should to be measured and estimated. The measurement error is also a monitoring consideration that should be put into account before any decision is made in respect to the relative effects. The measurement errors on health effects is one of the major issue since errors tend to cause negative estimates which can further lead to incorrect entries. Measurements error can be classified into classical measurement errors and Berkson error. Classical measurements produces a downward bias in the estimates while the Berkson error which reduces the precision of estimates in an error. Spatial Misalignment and Incompatibility is also another consideration. Spatial misalignment refers to air pollutant concentrations being observed at monitor locations that are different from locations of the population in particular. Spatial incompatibility can result in biased health effect estimates caused by air pollution. Existing vs. Study-Specific Monitoring; this is seen where there are existing and specific monitoring considerations in air pollution.

According to this article, the concentration and exposure also affects the decision since the various concentration of air pollutants should be known. The extent of exposure of the air pollutant helps in the decision making since the higher the exposure the higher the effects of the pollution. Finally, other considerations include among the following; source and pollutants, exposure time window, evaluation of prediction and cohort related considerations which involve Geographic Scale of Cohort Data, Health Endpoints in Cohort Studies, and Beijing Cohorts.

Neas,L.M.(2000). Fine particulate matter and cardiovascular disease .Fuel Processing Technology ,65, 55-67

The article outlines various exposure that are used in estimating exposures, which include the following ; fixed and existing administrative which readily available and inexpensive. It may exhibit spatial misalignment/ and incompatibility with study cohort. Fixed and study specific which has the potential to be well-aligned with cohort and is expensive in nature. Others are mobile, satellite, chemical transport models, dispersion models, saturation micro-sensor which also have various advantages and disadvantages.

Neas (2000) also state that air quality can improve exposure measures used in various studies such as epidemiological studies. We investigated this practice of modelling the air quality by estimating the location of specific areas and aggregation of country level. These exposure estimates can be addressed using data from quality monitors. It is also stated that many areas such as the urban areas have developed monitoring networks with historical and available data.

References

Vedal,S., Han,B.,Xu,J.,Szpiro,A., & Bai,Z.(2017). Design of an Air Pollution Monitoring Campaign in Bejing for Application to Cohort Health Studies .Initernational journal of environmental research and public health,14(12),1580

Neas,L.M.(2000). Fine particulate matter and cardiovascular disease .Fuel Processing Technology ,65, 55-67