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Politics of the Middle East and North Africa

Name

Institution

1. We have identified numerous stereotypes about the Middle East and North Africa through the readings and classroom discussions. Identify and discuss three of these stereotypes. Explain how these stereotypes may hamper our ability to understand human rights challenges in the region.

The word stereotype means a mistaken idea that people may have about someone or something. There are numerous stereotypes about the Middle East and North Africa that the media have mostly generated over a long period. According to Hobbs et al. (2010), the men and women from the Middle East and Northern Africa are either stereotyped as villains or weak. The image of Arab males is that of villains, terrorists, oil sheiks, and kidnappers (Hobbs et al., 2010). This is usually due to Western media's influence that has depicted the people from these regions in a negative way. The movies always portray the Arabs from these regions as the villains who are both brutal and ruthless. In the Western world, children are raised knowing that these regions' men are bad and should be avoided. The women are seen as naïve, passive, and weak, with their faces always covered by hijab (Hobbs et al., 2010). This misconception shows that the Middle East and North Africa people are not ordinary people with families.

The other stereotype is that all the people from the Middle East and North Africa are Muslims. However, this is far from the truth as the Middle East, North Africa, and the Islamic world is not the same (Ridouani, 2011). Arabs inhabit the two regions, and not all are Arabs are Muslims. The Islamic religion may have started in the Middle East, but it spread to other parts of the world. This shows that most Arabs are not Muslims, and most Muslims are found outside the Middle East. The nation with the largest Muslim population in the world is Indonesia.

The image of the whole of the Middle East and North Africa being one big dessert where the majority of the people are nomads is wrong. The two regions are urbanized, with very few people living as nomads. Most of the Middle East population lives in large cities like Damascus, Cairo, Istanbul, and Dubai. The cities in North Africa and the Middle East are some of the world's oldest towns, like Cairo and Damascus.

These stereotypes may hamper our ability to understand human rights challenges in the region. Like all parts of the world, the area experiences human rights challenges that need to be addressed. However, stereotypes will always hamper equal access to justice. The misconception about Islam and the region is one of the most significant challenges in understanding human rights challenges in the areas. The misconceptions about Islam and how Muslims are violent are continuously being linked to the region. This misconception shows that the part is full of conflict, whereas most people in the area live in peace and stability. Ascertaining the human rights issues in the region is a problem due to the violent perception. The misconception of the people, way of life, and the culture hamper the ability to understand the people's challenges daily. However, an understanding of the culture and the people from the region may help solve some of the area's human rights challenges.

References

Renee Hobbs., Aghigh Ebrahimi., Nuala Cabral., Jiwon Yoon, and Rawia Al-Humaidan. (2010). Combating Middle East Stereotypes through Media Literacy Education in Elementary School

Ridouani Driss. (2011). The Representation of Arabs and Muslims in Western Media

2. In Resurrecting Empire, Rashid Khalidi argues that in the post-9/11 climate, much of the discussion about MENA has taken place in a "historical vacuum" and is based on "denigrating stereotypes." Identify and discuss two cases from MENA where this has been an issue.

One of the negative stereotyping of Arabs that emerged post-9/11 was that Arabs are religious fanatics who do not value human life. Stereotyping of Arabs had been around even before 9/11, with the most common description of Arabs being violent, aggressive, hostile, and radical Muslims (Najm, 2019). For decades, this stereotyping has been happening, with even Hollywood movies portraying them as bad and evil terrorists. This belittling stereotyping of Arabs was used to explain Iraq and Afghanistan (Khalidi, 2005). During the invasion, various references were made to the word terrorists where the Bush administration suggested that Iraq would give weapons of mass destruction to terrorist groups like Al-Qaida. This belittling stereotyping meant that MENA supported terrorism and was in league with the United States' attacks.

The negative stereotyping was one of the NEMA cases that led to the invasion of both Iraq and Afghanistan. Due to this portrayed image of Arabs, the Bush administration was able to receive support to attack Iraq. A study by Pew research (2006) was able to show how Westerners and Muslims view each other. The study showed how the public viewed Arabs, with most of them believing that they carried out the 9/11 attacks. The increased negative stereotyping has negatively affected the NEMA region with persistent attacks from the Western allies. All these attacks have been blamed on the war on terror. In his book, Khalidi (2005) further explained that the threat posed by NEMA, specifically Iraq, could not substantiate a war.

The perception that Arabs and Muslims refer to the same people has been an issue in the NEMA region. The NEMA region is the birthplace of Islam. However, Indonesia holds the largest population of Muslims in the world. This perception also arises from the fact that Arabic is the primary language of the Islamic religion. All the hostile acts of radical Muslims are therefore linked to the NEMA region. This also includes the misconceptions of the Islamic faith.

Tunisia was the first nation from the NEMA region to lead a revolt against the government in 2010. This was in protest of bad governance, including issues of corruption. Egypt and Jordan followed suit as they received support from the Western government. These cases were based on “denigrating stereotypes.” The Western public believes that Muslims are held back by poor governance, corruption, lack of education, and Islamic fundamentalism. This can be both true and false, especially in education. The level of education has been based on the region where those in urban centers. The education also varies from country to country, where some of the nations in the region have well-set education policies that the citizens enjoy. The attacks on Libya by NATO forces were made to implement a United Nations Security Council resolution 1973. This was in response to the Libyan civil war that had erupted in Libya against Muammar Gaddafi's regime. There were casualties in the war as the loss of more than 1,000 Libyan lives and an economy that has never recovered.

References

Khalidi, Rashid (2005). Resurrecting Empire. Western footprints and America’s Perilous Path in the Middle East.

Najm Najm (2019) Negative Stereotypes of Arabs-Published 2019. The Indian journal of social work 80(1):87–114

Pew Research. (2006). The Great Divide: How Westerners and Muslims View Each Other. Europe's Muslims More Moderate

3. In the post-Cold War international system, the prospects for democratization in areas ruled by authoritarian regimes became a popular topic among scholars and policymakers alike. In your view, what are at least two challenges to democratization in the MENA region in this period?

After the Cold War, the United States celebrated together with its allies as they saw the fall of the Soviet Union. Small nations were forced into democratization as the process was tied to grants that these countries would receive from the West. The 90s saw an overwhelming number of countries adopting democratic policies, especially in Africa, where countries like the Democratic Republic of Congo, Benin, and Kenya adopted multi-party democracy. However, the Middle East and Northern African (MENA) states failed to join the bandwagon as they could not be tied to the West's conditional grants. There were various challenges that limited the democratization of the MENA region. The countries in the MENA region share a lot of similarities like neo-patrimonial cultures and dictatorship.

According to Tar (2010), Islam's influence in some of the MENA region nations is enormous. This is affecting the democratization of the MENA region. Halbert (2012) suggested that democracy and the Muslim religion are incompatible. Halbert (2012) stated that “out of the 47 countries in the world with an Islamic majority, only 23% of them have democratically elected governments." Mali is considered the only free nation in the Islamic world, yet it is not in the MENA region. The only explanation for this is the conservative teachings of the Islamic religion that lead to more conservative individual notions. There are some Islamic traditions that lead to the people accepting authoritarian rule. The Islamic religion can therefore be considered as a barrier to democracy.

However, most of the MENA region is full of Arabs who are not Muslims but still accept authoritarian rule. Tar (2010) explained the influence of culture and traditions in the NEMA region. As other nations followed their colonial masters after independence adapting their culture and practices like democracy, most of the NEMA region countries revolted and stuck to their traditions, including language. The influence of culture and traditions is so significant that a majority of the nations would instead stick with authoritarian rule than become democratic. These people in these nations are used to being influenced by tribalism. The tribal lords, who are also the community leaders, have been the spokesmen of the people and influence all the decisions the people make. There are monarchy states like Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates that have been around for centuries ruling over the people. A shift from the monarchy system seems impossible as it is entranced in their culture.

The 80s saw some of the nations in the region adopt a multi-party system. Countries like Tunisia, Jordan, and Egypt were the first countries from the area to try and democratize after the Cold war. However, these efforts did not last as the countries reverted to old practices (Tar, 2010). The past two decades saw a shift from the influence of religion and culture as some of these nations revolted. Tunisia was the first nation to revolt and fought against oppression and corruption. Other countries like Yemen, Egypt, and Jordan also followed suit as the citizens fought for change, showing that they were no longer being influenced by culture and religion.

References

Halbert Robyn. (2012). Prospects and Challenges for the Development of Middle Eastern Democracy

Tar Usman. (2010). The challenges of democracy and democratization in Africa and the Middle East. Information, Society and Justice, Volume 3 No. 2, July 2010: pp 81-94 ISSN 1756-107

4. Reflect on the interplay between Islam and human rights. In your view, can a case be made that Islam is compatible with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights? Please explain both sides of the argument before explaining where you stand on the issue.

Scholars and theologians have over the decades debated if Islam and human rights are compatible. A case can be made both for and against Islam when it comes to human rights. There are certain aspects that confirm Islam is consistent with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. A look at Islamic laws shows that there is nothing in the laws that would prevent human rights. A British Imam once declared that the misinterpretation of Islamic laws had led skeptics to think that Islam and human rights are not compatible. The depiction of the Islamic woman by the Western media has also fueled the debate on this compatibility. This depiction has created an image globally about the Muslim woman.

Islamic law permits the woman to work outside her home, with the only condition being that she holds herself to the highest esteem. The woman is also required not to work in areas that are against Islamic Law. The same laws apply to men who are not supposed to work in places that violate Islamic law. Indonesia, which has the highest population of Muslims in the world, has set up organizations like the Indonesian organization Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) that promote women's rights. This is done by showing how Islamic law should be interpreted without disobeying Islamic law's religious authority.

The case against Islam is based on the traditionalists’ interpretation of Islam laws. Dorraj (2011) pointed out that factors that should be considered when looking at compatibility include interpreting the Islamic laws, in what historical and social context, and the purpose for the interpretation. These questions are essential when trying to look at the compatibility. The Middle East and North Africa regions have been shown as the regions with the grossest violations of human rights. The linking factor has been on Islamic culture and religion. Women's rights have been highlighted as all the scenarios show that the rights of the weaker gender are violated. Then there are the advocates for incompatibility who state the shari’a laws are the only legitimate laws (Dorraj, 2011).

I believe that Islam is not compatible with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The shari'a laws are regarded as the way of life for Muslims and act as ethical guides of conduct. These laws cannot be amended, and most Muslim clerics have gone as far as stating that these laws are not legal rules that can be amended to suit some people. According to Dorraj (2011), the United Arab Emirates did not vote on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights ratification. The absentia was based on articles 16 and 18 that established freedom of thought. This shows that the gap between Islam and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights will keep widening. The fight on the interpretation of Islamic laws has been left between the traditionalists and the modernists. They both have a different understanding of the law. However, the traditionalists remain dominant as they claim their interpretation of the various Islamic laws is based on the Islamic religion.

Reference

Dorraj M. (2011) Islam and Human Rights: Ideas and Practices. In: Monshipouri M. (eds) Human Rights in the Middle East. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137001986_3

5. The authors reviewed in class differentiate between "endogenous" and "exogenous" factors in explaining the Middle East's human rights situation. Explain how each element sheds light on the human rights condition in the region. In your view, what is the most useful way to conceptualize the relative utility of each in explicating the potential for change in the region?

Explaining the human rights situation is a complicated procedure that has over the decades puzzled even scholars. However, most scholars are in agreement with both the external and internal factors that would explain the human rights situation in the Middle East. Differentiating between the endogenous and exogenous factors is the only way to describe the human rights situation in the Middle East. Borhani (2018) explained that most of the blame lies in the Middle East in the treatment of human rights norms.

Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East. It is also one of the endogenous factors that would explain the human rights situation in the Middle East. Scholars, especially from the western world, have linked the sharia laws to the Middle East's human rights situation. The application of these Islamic laws, which act as the way of life for Muslims, ethical guides of conduct has been lined to cruel and inhuman punishments. However, the subject of the interpretation of Islamic laws is a debate between traditionalists and modernists.

The presence of oil in the Middle East is another endogenous factor. Borhani (2018) stated that oil is the primary source of wealth in the Middle East and can influence many things, including those related to human rights. The region boasts of having more than half of the world's oil reserves. The presence of this oil in the Middle East has made it possible for Western interference in the region's affairs. Internal interference by internal powers like monarchies and governments has been made possible with the availability of oil. Governments are interfering with the human rights situation in a different way, like imposing their own values on the people.

The Arab-Israeli conflict is an endogenous factor that would explain the Middle East's human rights situation (Castellino & Kathleen, 2013). Israel is the primary problem in Islamic Western relations. Because of Israel, there was an imposed colonization, Palestine been wiped off the map, and Israel was able to take its place in Arab territory. This has ensured that an Islamic-Western relationship will be hard to establish. The collapse of the Soviet Union saw the Islamic world being referred to as the new threat to the West (Borhani, 2018). This saw an escalation of human rights abuses, with the West targeting various Middle East countries in the war on terror. There was a significant loss of lives in the attack on Iraq and Afghanistan. This has had a significant negative impact on Islam-western relations as well as being one of the external factors that would explain the human rights situation in the Middle East.

The common factor in both the endogenous and exogenous factors is Islam-Western relations. The domination of Western nations on MENA has had significant consequences on human rights issues in the region. Ending the domination might create the potential for change in the region. The end of the reign and interference may have a positive effect on the human rights issues in the region.

References

Borhani Seyed Hadi (2013). The Regional Context of Human Rights in the Middle East. Journal of World Sociopolitical Studies Vol. 2 No. 1 pp. 127-159

Castellino Joshua & Kathleen A. Cavanaugh. (2013). Minority Rights in the Middle East. Oxford University Press.

6. What are the main narratives regarding human rights in the Middle East? What are the main challenges we face in deciding between these narratives? In your view, is it justifiable to accept restrictions on freedom of speech to protect the human rights of ethnic or religious minorities? Explain your position with reference to concrete examples.

A report by Amnesty International (2019) showed an increase in the number of protests in the MENA region in the year 2019. This increased number of demonstrations also came with human rights abuses like death, torture, detention, arbitrary mass arrests and prosecutions, and the use of excessive force. Protests in countries like Israel, Iraq, Iran, Lebanon, and Algeria saw an increase in the number of citizens' deaths while protesting for their rights. The use of force in these countries to quell protests lead to the death of over 500 people in Iraq and 300 in Iran (Amnesty International, 2019).

The main narratives regarding human rights in the Middle East include oppression from authoritarian regimes. The last decade has seen an increase in the number of protests in the region, with the citizens fighting for change. This has not been easy as the human rights abuses like death, torture, detention, arbitrary mass arrests and prosecutions, and the use of excessive force shows that the regimes will not relinquish power easily. These mass protests have seen an increase in the number of both individual human rights and collective human rights abuses. Castellino & Kathleen (2013) pointed out Syria as one of the nations that minorities have experienced individual human rights abuses.

There are various challenges that are experienced when deciding between human rights narratives in the Middle East. State sovereignty refers to a nation that has one central government and is in charge of its geographical borders. This is a challenge to human rights because all the human rights enforcement mechanisms come from the state, and the state can decide what to enforce and what to ignore. This is common in the Middle East, where the nations will usually determine what is considered as a human right and what can be ignored. Monshipouri (2011) stated that it is challenging to apply human rights standards across all the nations due to the challenges. Chase (2017) pointed out post-colonial authoritarianism. The authoritarianism has shown that there is no other option but a brutal system of power that is able to eliminate any form of protest.

The debate on minority rights can be changed to ensure the minorities benefit from the limiting of various freedoms. It is justifiable to limit freedom of speech, mostly when it is done to protect the minorities. This limitation can be made to show the state’s protection of minority religion as it fights defamation. According to Monshipouri (2011), limiting freedom of speech may be done in order to regulate hate speech. This can be done by the state as it fights religious defamation. A case example is given where limiting freedom of speech can be done to satisfy the needs of Muslim extremists needs in MENA and minority religions. This is because by regulating hate speech, minority religions are protected from defamation and will also enjoy the freedom of religion, including political participation. This will protect the minority religions and ensuring the Muslims and liberal democracies come closer.

References

Amnesty International. (2019). Human Rights in the Middle East and North Africa. Review of 2019

Castellino Joshua & Kathleen A. Cavanaugh. (2013). Minority Rights in the Middle East. Oxford University Press.

Chase Anthony Tirado. (2017). Routledge Handbook on Human Rights and the Middle East and North Africa

Monshipouri M. (2011) Human Rights in the Middle East. Palgrave Macmillan, New York.

7. In your view, is it justifiable to accept restrictions on freedom of speech to protect the human rights of ethnic or religious minorities? Explain your position with reference to concrete examples.

It is not justifiable to accept restrictions on freedom of speech to protect ethnic or religious minorities' human rights. The restriction of speech to protect religious minorities is usually done to protect them from hate speech. However, other ways can be used in protecting them from hate speech. There are other freedoms that can be implemented, including restrictions on religious defamation. The United Nations in 2009 passed a resolution condemning religious defamation (MacInnis, 2009). This resolution was in light of the intolerance, discrimination, and acts of violence received by Muslim minorities after 9/11. There is a difference between freedom of speech and respect for religions.

The two should be separated as they are two separate entities. Freedom of expression should be protected at all costs. This is because limiting freedom of expression will be a gateway to limit other liberties that are gained through the freedom of speech. Chase (2017) explained that there would not be religious tolerance and human progress without freedom of speech. This is because freedom of speech leads to the exchange of ideas, which ensures people can share knowledge. These knowledge and ideas are primary to the economic prosperity of the regions. Freedom of speech is one of the freedoms that have to be protected as it will lead to the person's development.

Minority groups require the freedom of speech in order to be empowered. Kayaoglu (2011) explained that minority groups need freedom of speech in order to voice their demands without any fear o retribution. This will allow them to speak of any discrimination they receive and allow them to achieve and enjoy other rights. Freedom of speech is empowerment freedom that will allow the minorities to enjoy the other freedoms that are there, including the freedom of religion. Minorities will be at a more significant disadvantage without the freedom of speech compared to when the freedom is limited. The minorities also have to know the burden that comes with freedom of speech. This is because the freedom will come with an increase in hate speech and other abuses, including religious discrimination.

Accepting restrictions on the freedom of speech will be a gateway to restrictions on other freedoms that are connected to expression. Case examples are the various countries in the NEMA region where after a guarantee of freedom of speech, the government went ahead and limited the same freedom (Chase, 2017). Countries like Egypt, Algeria, Turkey, and Tunisia have laws that guarantee freedom of speech. However, within the same rules, there are other laws that find ways to limit the same freedom. The state usually uses these laws to limit freedom of speech. A study carried out in Egypt showed that 75% of the young men would value the protection of freedom of speech (Chase, 2017). This shows a change in generation voicing out the importance of freedom of speech. A generation once thought to have been raised in Islamic radicalization and hatred for the West is able to show the importance of freedom of speech.

References

Chase Anthony Tirado. (2017). Routledge Handbook on Human Rights and the Middle East and North Africa

Kayaoglu, T. (2011) Islamophobia, Defamation of Religions, and International Human Rights. In: Monshipouri M. (eds) Human Rights in the Middle East. Palgrave Macmillan, New York.

MacInnis Laura. (2009) U.N. Adopts Resolution on Religious Defamation. Reuters. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-religion-defamation-idUSTRE52P60220090326

8. According to course readings, what role does “freedom of speech” play in the increasing tensions between religious minorities and governments in the Middle East?

Freedom of speech is used selectively in the Middle East, mainly to target religious minorities. There are reports that in countries like Saudi Arabia of bias in the application of the freedom of speech laws. Hate speech is propagated by Saudi officials under the banner of "Freedom of Speech," where these officials act on instructions of the government to demonize religious minorities. The government allows government-affiliated clerics and textbooks to increase the discrimination against religious minorities like the Shia. The bias is extended in the criminal justice system and education where other religions like Judaism, Christianity, and Sufi Islam end up suffering from hate speech. An example is the use of the word “rafidha” when describing the Shia. The word means rejectionists and is discriminatory to the practices and beliefs of the Shia.

The Shia are part of the religious minorities in the region, and such discriminatory words have made them targets to Islamic organizations like ISIS and Al-Qaida. These radical organizations have been on the rise in the Middle East (Brown et al., 2006). They use the hate speech that is propagated towards the religious minorities to justify some of their heinous acts, like the beheading of individuals. A human rights watchdog reported attacks on Shia mosques and the killing of more than 40 people since 2015. These are some of the consequences of the use of derogatory words like "rafidha" in educational textbooks and other reading material.

The Saudi Arabia government has been accused of inciting discrimination against both the Shia and Sufi nationals. This discrimination of the Shia and Sufi, as well as other religions in the nation, has been possible by the reforms provided of freedom of speech. The Ministry of Education, in its curriculum on religious education, uses disguised language to defame the other spiritual practices. This is contained in some of the textbooks of the curriculum that use the "freedom of speech "narratives to defame the various methods and traditions of the Shia and the Sufi.

In most nations in the Middle East and Northern Africa, religious minorities are taken as a threat to the nation. The use of freedom of speech is used to either silence the treat or create better ways that will be used in limiting their rights. In countries like Pakistan and Iran, blasphemy laws have been enacted, which affect the freedom of speech (Kayaoglu, 2011). Such laws have been used selectively by the governments to target minority religions. According to Kayaoglu (2011), the blasphemy laws are used by the government to justify the state's discrimination against religious minorities. The use of blasphemy laws to discriminate against religious minorities was countered by a group of NGOs that formed a group that would be used in protecting free speech. These organizations called for a motion on religious defamation with the aim of protecting religious minorities from such laws as the blasphemy laws. However, the complexity of the issue has also led to a split among the NGOs, with some against the motion and a majority supporting it.

References

Brown, N., Hamzawy, A., & Ottaway, M. (2006). (Rep.). Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Retrieved February 4, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep12883

Human Rights Report. (2017). They are not Our Brothers. Hate Speech by Saudi officials.

Kayaoglu, T. (2011) Islamophobia, Defamation of Religions, and International Human Rights. In: Monshipouri M. (eds) Human Rights in the Middle East. Palgrave Macmillan, New York.

9. Explain the main barriers to progress in the area of human rights. In your view, does the Middle East pose unique challenges here?

Over the years, progress has been made in the area of human rights. Such progress has enabled changes in various aspects of human lives, with the gains being celebrated globally. However, the Middle East region still poses different unique challenges and problems that act as barriers to the progress made. One of the significant challenges posed by the Middle East and Northern Africa is the belief that human rights were drafted based on Western ideologies. The drafting is not in line with their religious beliefs and culture. This is a common belief in all the countries in the MENA region and a significant and unique challenge to the progress in the area of human rights. The logic suggests that the government’s first responsibility is the protection of the sharia laws and not the will of the people. The defenders of human rights live in fear due to the ramifications of criticizing the nation. However, it should be noted that Muslim scholars and some clerics have said that wrong interpretation of Islamic laws has led to the notion that Islam and human rights are not compatible. The Middle East poses unique challenges, especially in the understanding of Islamic law.

State sovereignty is a challenge where the enforcement mechanisms come from the state and have to decide what is to be enforced and what can be ignored. This challenge is not only applicable in the MENA region but to other parts of the world. In Africa, where authoritarian rule still exists in some of the nations, the use of state sovereignty is used to hide human rights abuses. Post-colonial authoritarianism is the rejection of pluralism and is one of the significant barriers to progress in the area of human rights (Chase, 2017). Dictatorship uses a central power to eliminate any form of protest, and the brutality of the system works effectively in ensuring there are fewer complaints.

Humans are considered the major obstacle to progress in the area of human rights (Serfontein, 2019). The human factor is ever-present in all the aspects of human rights, and considering human behavior is usually influenced by social, ethical, and legal factors. The human element can be looked at as individuals or the role humans play while in the government as they try to protect and preserve the rights of others. Humans are by nature selfish and will always seek independence at the expense of others. This is a factor that is difficult to control as human behavior, whether as individuals or in government, is difficult to regulate. The other aspect of human behavior that poses a challenge is knowledge about human rights. This is the main factor I the MENA region where people are not fully aware of their rights as individuals. They have to follow the interpretations given by Muslim clerics whether the interpretations are correct or wrong. However, the past decade has seen a surge in the uprising with citizens in most of the countries in the MENA regions fighting for their rights. This shows that the citizens have gained the necessary knowledge about their rights.

References

Chase Anthony Tirado. (2017). Routledge Handbook on Human Rights and the Middle East and North Africa

Serfontein, E. (2019). Humans: The Biggest Barrier to Realizing Human Rights- A South African Perspective.

10. In your view, what imprints have violent conflicts left on the political landscape of the Middle East region? What are the ramifications of these imprints for human rights in the area?

The Middle East is a highly volatile region with decades of conflict in some of the nations. These violent conflicts have shaped the region into what it is today. The violent conflict is also partially responsible for the numerous stereotypes about the Middle East and North Africa. Years of conflict between Israel and Palestine, Iran and Iraq, Iraq and Kuwait, and other disputes have ensured the countries in the region have fewer allies. However, even with fewer partners, the perception of the West still remains the same among all the countries in the area.

The years of violent conflicts in the Middle East have led to an increase in turbulence in the Middle East (Angrist, 2019). This is bad for a region that once enjoyed political stability, especially after the colonization by European powers. The authoritarian governments enjoyed political stability before the revolts started. Orhan (2019) explained that the path to political unrest depends on local and regional factors and is more likely to intersect with global politics. The influence of the international community, especially the West would explain the intersection. The continued violence has led some of the countries to a standstill with the citizens running to either neighboring countries or the West. Syria being a case study, has become a shell of the country it used to be.

There are other positive factors from the violence experienced from 2010 in the region. Countries like Egypt, Tunisia, Libya, and Jordan have had violent political unrests that have either changed the nations for the better, like Tunisia or become worse for countries like Libya. The citizens in these countries were fighting against authoritarian rule, and most of them won in the fight. The thought of being democratic in these countries drove the citizens to change and shifting from authoritarian leadership that had been in place for decades. This has changed the political landscape of these countries as the shift towards multi-partisan becomes a reality.

The rise of Islamist movements has been on the rise due to the continued insurgency in the region (Brown et al., 2006). These movements control most of the aspects of the nations, including Islamic law, the use of violence, political pluralism, civil and political rights, religious minorities, and the rights of women. Some of the Islamic movements that came about from the violence include; ISIS, Hezbollah, Muslim Brotherhood, al-Wefaq, and Islamic Action Front. Some of these movements have been violent, and their violence has escalated globally. ISIS, Al-Qaida, and Hezbollah are examples of organizations that have been too violent, changing the politics of the region.

This has had a significant impact on human rights in the region. An example is the formation of violent Islamic organizations that have continued to commit human rights abuses. The laws that are passed by these organizations have led to the deaths of thousands of individuals. These laws support violence in the region and are the leading cause of human rights abuses in the area. The continued violence in the region is also affecting the minorities, including the women and religious minorities who continue to experience various abuses. Religious minorities continue to be discriminated against with the continued support of the authoritarian rule.

References

Angrist Michele Penner. (2019). Politics and Society in the Contemporary Middle East. Lynne Rienner Publishers website

Brown, N., Hamzawy, A., & Ottaway, M. (2006). (Rep.). Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Retrieved February 4, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep12883

Orhan, M. (2019). Political violence and insurgencies in the Middle East: Social movements, diffusion of armed conflicts, and proxy wars. Irish Journal of Sociology, 27(3), 251–272. https://doi.org/10.1177/0791603519835430