Visit a virtual gallery or museum and choose a work of art to critique(5-7pages)

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Islamic Art: Background on Islam

Islam began in the 7th century CE.

According to Islamic belief, God (Allah) had already spoken through prophets such as Abraham, Jesus, and Moses.

Then, through the angel Gabriel, He revealed His word to the Prophet Muhammad, who began to preach what he had heard.

His revelations were collected after his death and were recorded in the Qur’an – the Islamic holy book.

In 622, the Prophet Muhammad emigrated from Mecca to Medina – this was called the hijra – and marks year 1 on the Islamic calendar (the beginning of a new era).

In Medina, the Prophet Muhammad became both a spiritual and political leader. Most of the Arabian Peninsula was converted and after his death in 632, his successors claimed victory in places such as Morocco, Spain, and India. By the 8th century Islam had changed the Arabian Peninsula from a collection of warring tribes into a group of people united by faith. In these new Islamic lands, there was a need for places for worship and palaces for rulers.

One of the first necessary structures in a new Islamic land was a mosque (Arabic: “masjid” meaning “place for bowing down”). The inspiration for early mosques was descriptions of the Prophet’s house in Medina. A standard Arabian house, it was constructed of sun-dried brick and centered around a central courtyard. On one wall was a porch, made of palm tree trunks supporting a roof of palm fronds. This provided shade and shelter from the heat. It also provided a space for the Prophet to preach. Large scale structures were based on this simple prototype.

The Islamic Mosque

Congregational Mosque, Kairouan, Tunisia, 836 and later; this mosque shows how the inspiration of the Prophet’s home was translated into a large space for congregation. Please watch the video for this week to understand Kairouan.

We see the courtyard, which is framed on all sides by arcades (rows of arches). To the back (under two domes), we see a large prayer hall (an enlarged version of the Prophet’s porch). At the entrance to the courtyard is a large tower, called a minaret. A minaret is found in many Islamic structures, especially mosques. It serves a functional purpose: from the top of the minaret, a ‘crier’ calls out the time to pray. Five times a day, this person calls all worshippers to prayer.

Great Mosque, Córdoba , c. 965, mosaic. Interior. This is the quibla wall inside a mosque in Spain. The quibla wall is pointed in the direction of Mecca. On this wall is a mihrab (a niche in the wall). This niche points the worshipper in the direction of Mecca for prayer (the Prophet told his followers to worship in the direction of Mecca). No matter where one is in the world, a mosque will have a quibla wall to direct followers to Mecca. For example, in the US, the quibla wall in a mosque would face the east; in China, a quibla wall in a mosque would face the west.

Mihrab

Friday Mosque, Isfahan, 1611-66, Iran, this is the entry portal to a beautifully decorated mosque in Isfahan, Iran. The design element we see here is called an iwan. An iwan is comprised of the rectangular shape surrounding the pointed arch inside the rectangle. This is very much influenced by Persian architecture. In pre-Islamic Persian architecture, the iwan would have marked the entrance to a royal reception hall in a palace. Here, in an Islamic context, it decorates a beautiful mosque.

If we compare a mosque and a Catholic church, for example, a mosque is decorated differently. In many Christian churches, a viewer would see many images of saints, Jesus, the Virgin Mary, and other figures associated with the Bible. In the Qur’an, there is a warning not to worship false idols. This led to a doctrine that forbids the making of images of animate beings in religious contexts (such as mosques or the Qur’an, for example). Therefore, Islamic architects and artists had to come up with other types of decorations for their holy spaces. This led them to excel at complicated geometric, calligraphic, and floral design patterns. We see these on this entry portal and also on the interior of this structure. Note: some Christian and Jewish worshippers also heed this warning, following the Commandment – “Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image”; during the Protestant Reformation, many churches were whitewashed of their images, with Christians destroying religious icons.

This is the interior space of the mosque. Inlay of multi-colored stone and tiles creates an ornate array of floral patterns and geometric designs. We call the designs arabesque designs or interlace. The blue and yellow are lovely complementary colors. Turquoise-colored tiles frame pointed arches. The dome is decorated with a brilliant sunburst of yellow and blue. The blue glazed tiles were a specialty of Persian artists. Note the designs running along the Persian pointed arches, we will discuss them in the next slide.

Along the exterior walls, and on the interior as well, the viewer can see mosaics in the shape of calligraphy. The calligraphy is holy text from the Qur’an, appropriate for a mosque. The blue background allows the white calligraphy to stand out magnificently.

This is the breathtaking sunburst design in the dome.

Ahmad Lahori, Taj Mahal, India, 1630 – 1648, The Taj Mahal is a monument commissioned by the Mughal ruler, Shah Jahan, for his wife, Mumtaz. It was built to hold her remains.

Many Persian influences can be seen in this Islamic ruler’s work of art for his wife. The entire structure, which is found in India, is clad in a white marble veneer. Over many of the surfaces, we can see inlay of polychrome stones that create a lacy appearance (see details on next slides). Despite its monumentality, the structure appears to float. This is because of the inlay designs, the cut-out arches in the façade (see the Persian arches on both levels and the cut corners), and the lovely onion dome.

Iwan

Minaret

onion dome

finial

The building is perfectly symmetrical, adding to its harmonious appearance. Framing it are four decorative minarets. A metal finial tops the onion dome. The entrance is a massive iwan with graceful inlay in the spandrel – the area between the arch and rectangle area.

Inlay

This is an example of the beautiful inlay stonework from the iwan and spandrels. It is called pietra dura. It is an inlay technique; stones are cut like a mosaic or puzzle and fit together to create a delicate appearance.

Ardabil carpet, silk and wool, 1539, Another celebrated art form in the Islamic tradition is textiles, especially carpets and rugs. These are important elements of Islamic culture, as they are used for prayer and for decorating interiors. This is one of the most famous rugs. It was bought by a museum and is now in London.

The process for creating this carpet was time-consuming and highly detailed. There are over twelve million knots in this one design of tufts of wool. There is a central sunburst with 16 radiating pendants.

Two mosque lamps are shown, one at each end. The blue acts as a background for densely packed floral designs – as if we are in a garden (Paradise, after death, is said to be like a garden).

Ahmad al-Surhawardi, calligrapher. Page from the Quran. Baghdad, 1307, ink, colors, gold on paper, 20 3/16 x 14 ½”; Writing out the Qur’an is considered an act of prayer. Therefore, if one practices calligraphy, one is praying. It makes sense that calligraphy is one of the highest art forms in Islamic culture. Because no animate beings can be represented, floral designs and the actual calligraphy itself become central to the design scheme. The top and bottom bands of this manuscript are ornamented with gold and interlace of plant designs. Baghdad was a bustling center for book production and scholarship in the 14th century.

Arts of Africa

Ornament from the tomb of Queen Amanishakheto, Kush, 50-1 BCE, gold with glass inlay, height: 2 ½”; this ornament comes from the Kingdom of Kush. A very old civilization, it rose to prominence around 2,000 BCE and was known by the Egyptians and the Romans; it is referenced in the Bible. It was a peaceful nation with prosperous and vibrant trade industries. Women played a key role in governance. A ram’s head is shown in the center of the ornament, in front of a disk which represents the sun god. Behind the sun disk is a model of the entrance to a Kushan temple.

The Kingdom of Kush was also a civilization reliant on the Nile River. It was centered in the northern region of Nubia, present-day Sudan. Please watch the video in this module for more information. South of the Sahara Desert, the populations on the continent get even more diverse and grow in terms of number of civilizations. There are literally hundreds of different cultures, with different languages, kingdoms, and artistic traditions. Keep in mind that the sampling of works of art in the following slides come from very diverse cultures. One of the difficulties in learning about ancient African art is that many cultures created art out of materials that easily perished (such as wood).

Head, fragment of a larger figure, Nok culture, 500 BCE -200 CE, terra cotta, height 14 3/16”; an old fragment from art south of the Sahara desert, this work of art has survived because of the durability of terra cotta. The figure originally had a body, but it has been lost. This is from the Nok culture, in present-day Nigeria. Works of art that represent the human head (like this one) tend to be smooth, have exaggerated features, and elaborate hairstyles. The eyes are generally stylized upside-down D shapes. The eyebrows are highly arched, the nostrils flare, and the hair creates a crown around the head. Some of the complete figures that have been found show that lavish jewelry and other ornaments would have decorated the figure. Most of the art created in this culture was made between 500 BCE – 200 CE (around the time of the Greeks and the Romans).

Head of a King, from Ife, Yoruba people, c. 13th century, brass, 13 7/1”; This is from the kingdom of Ife (in present-day Nigeria). The face is rendered in a naturalistic manner and was intended to commemorate the ruler. It would have been displayed on an altar to honor the royal ancestors. This beautiful head represents the outer, physical reality that we can perceive with our senses – sight, for example (unlike the inner, abstract perception of the soul, which has no form). The face is naturalistic and the crown (once painted) is demonstrative of his power. The sculpture was created with the lost wax technique. The entire face is decorated with striations (possibly scarification) on the face and holes around the mouth and jawline (possibly for more removable ornamentation).

Seated Couple, Dogon culture, Mali, c. 16th-19th century, wood and metal, height: 29”; mothers are seen as especially important, for their life-giving ability. Here, the complementary gender roles of the Dogon people are represented in visual art. The woman (on the left in the photograph) is represented with elongated breasts from nourishment provided for her child. Her lip is pierced with a long ornament that is almost symmetrical in size with the male’s beard. Both of the figures are elongated with long, exaggerated torsos, heads, and limbs. Their facial features are abstracted. Their legs are evenly spaced. They nearly look like mirror images of one another.

The male rests his arm around the female in a protective gesture. On the back of each figure, we can visually see the role of female and male in the Dogon society. On the woman’s back is a small child. The woman takes care of the family and children. On the male’s back we see a quiver – he is the protector, hunter, and warrior. These do not represent specific people, but rather, ideas about the ideal partnership in this culture.

Hunter Figure Democratic Republic of Congo Early 20th Century Wood, iron, nails; A nail or blade was driven into this figure each time a spirit was called upon. The people of Congo used these figures to solve problems in their society. For example, if a member of the community committed a crime, a nail would be driven into the figure until the criminal made amends. Therefore, these works of art were helpful way of dealing with social strife, administering justice, and asking the spirits to take care of the community. Political and health issues were also dealt with using these figures in the same way – a nail was driven into the figure (or small ornaments or figurines were draped around the neck – not shown here) until the issue was resolved, with the help of the spirits.

Not all figures share the ferocious look of the previous figure. Here, a figure looks much more benign and is draped with figurines. Sadly, in the 19th and 20th centuries, European colonizers stole many of these works of art from communities and, seeing them as pagan influence, destroyed them. If they were not destroyed, they were brought back to museums, to be displayed.

Willie Bester, Homage to Steve Biko, Mixed Media, 1992; This work of art memorializes an anti-apartheid activist and scholar (Steve Biko) who was killed in police custody. It shows Biko in chains after being arrested at a road block (for being an activist for equality). Willie Bester is a contemporary artist who grew up in South Africa during apartheid. His family was separated from one another under the harsh rules, and they were segregated from the larger society due to their race. Apartheid was created to oppress black South Africans so the white population could remain in control. His artwork fights against apartheid (which ended in 1994), racial inequality, and cruelty.

Authorities claimed Steve Biko had died of a hunger strike, but an autopsy revealed the multiple wounds and head trauma he received during interrogation about his activism (the trauma ultimately led to a coma and death; the cause of death was a brain hemorrhage from blows to his head by clubs). All of the symbolism in the work of art reflects this story (chains, ambulance, blue skulls representing death, a toe tag to the left – even the road to Pretoria is spelled out). Biko was taken in an ambulance (naked and chained to the vehicle) to a hospital in Pretoria.

Arts of Asia: India, China, Korea, and Japan

India

The historical territories of India are so large it is sometimes referred to as a subcontinent.

It is also called South Asia.

The Himalaya Mountains (the tallest mountain range in the world) border India in the north.

The Indus River flows through India and present-day Pakistan in the West.

India’s culture is diverse. It is home to the oldest living religion (Hinduism) and is also home to the origins of Buddhism. The Indus River served the purpose of transportation and vital water source in ancient India. Cities began to emerge around it c. 2,600 BCE. The Indus River Valley Civilization was the oldest civilization in India and in present-day Pakistan. This civilization was based on sophisticated architecture, urban planning, and drainage systems.

Nude Male Torso, from Indus River Valley Civilization, ca. 2000-1900 BCE, red sandstone, 3 ¾”; This small sculpture demonstrates the soft, sensuous body type we will see in other, later Asian art. Its gently curved contours are very unlike the hard muscles of ancient Egyptian sculpture. Scholars have interpreted the relaxed, somewhat bulging stomach as a reflection of breathing techniques of yoga (when one practices yoga, he or she focuses on the breath, allowing the abdomen to completely relax and protrude during meditation). This type of meditation is still with us today!

After the decline of the advanced Indus River Valley Civilization, around 1900 BCE, peoples from Central Asia arrived in India. They are called the Aryans.

Around 800 BCE, cities began to reemerge in Northern India.

The Aryans had a complex religion that also eschewed a complex social order, with brahmins (priests who practiced sacrificial rituals) holding the highest power. The rigid class system was derived from the Vedas (the Aryans’ sacred text – the source of the ideas for Hinduism). We will discuss come back to this after we discuss Buddhism.

Buddhism

Philosophers and sages who did not want to follow the rigid guidelines and social caste system set down in the Vedas sought a different path – they preached social equality and a personal route to spiritual salvation.

One of these sages was named Siddhartha Gautama (later known as the Buddha).

The Buddha (563?-483? BCE) was born into the highest caste – he was the son of a brahmin – and he lived in Northern India.

As a wealthy prince in his palace compound, he was secluded from the rest of the world. One day, he went out into the outside world and saw suffering for the first time. He saw horrible things such as: greed, death, pain, hunger, and sickness.

He realized these are all our fates and desired to find a path to salvation.

He renounced his princely lifestyle, spent years spiritually searching, and deeply meditating, until he became the Buddha (the “awakened” one).

Buddhism Continued

The Buddha realized that the path to peace is through nonattachment. If we become too attached to anything in this world (food, people, objects, material wealth), we suffer constantly because we are always desiring more of these things. We are never satisfied.

The Buddha taught a simple lifestyle. If we do not desire material wealth, we do not suffer if we do not have it. If we do not desire food for comfort (and only eat to sustain ourselves), we are not suffering if we do not have comfort food.

The Buddha attracted followers (rich and poor, men and women) and he taught the eightfold path, a way to salvation that is based on moral and ethical behaviors. If one follows the eightfold path, one can, like the Buddha, achieve Nirvana – a release from the endless cycle of life, death, and rebirth (Buddhists believe in reincarnation – if you were good in a previous life, good things will happen in your next; the opposite is true if you do bad things in a previous life; this is called karma). Karma is the idea of cause and effect: good, kind, and helpful actions will result in happiness for you and those around you; evil, unkind, selfish, and unhelpful acts cause suffering to both you and those around you. It’s quite simple.

The Eightfold Path 1. Right View 2. Right Intention 3. Right Speech 4. Right action 5.Right livelihood 6. Right effort 7. Right mindfulness 8. Right concentration Above all, harm no one.

The Great Stupa, at Sanchi, India, 3rd century BCE to 1st century CE, earthen mound faced with stone; in the third century, an Indian king named Ashoka converted to Buddhism.

Ashoka had the cremated remains of the Buddha spread around his empire in what are known as stupas. The stupa holds the relics (remains) of the Buddha deep inside. A stupa is an earthen mound. The one seen here is faced with stone and circled with two fences. On the top of the mound is an antenna (called a chattra), which connects the stupa with the cosmic world. One does not enter the stupa (it is a solid mound without doors or windows). Instead, worshippers walk around the stupa in circles, meditating on the teachings of the Buddha.

There are four gateways leading to the mound. They are embellished with relief sculptures hinting at the life of Buddha, but never representing him in human form. For example, footprints represent the path of the Buddha in his life; an umbrella represents the space he occupied. The Buddha stressed that he was not a god or deity, but instead, an individual who found personal salvation, so in the first couple of hundred years after his death, it was seen as inappropriate to show him in human form.

Buddha from Gandhara, mid-2nd century CE, schist; eventually, the followers of Buddhism desired an image of the man who had attained enlightenment. Some of the earliest images depict the Buddha, not as an Indian sage, but as a Graeco-Roman inspired figure. This is because many sculptors had traveled to India with the Greek conqueror, Alexander the Great (during the 4th century BCE).

Modeled on the gods (such as Apollo) and shown as eternally youthful and idealized, early Buddhist figures wear Graeco-Roman togas, rather than the Indian monastic robe (a softer, more delicate garment). The robes here are clearly emphasized. Another addition to Buddhist iconography is the sun disk (inherited from cultural exchanges with Persian artists) behind the Buddha’s head. This disk represents his holiness or enlightenment. The other iconographical elements we will see become part of the vocabulary of Buddhist imagery are: the ushnisha (the topknot on his head, which symbolizes his supernatural mind), the urna (the dot between the eyes, which represents a third eye into the spiritual realm), and elongated earlobes (a reminder of the jewelry he once wore before he renounced his worldly possessions).

Seated Buddha preaching first sermon, from Sarnath, c. 465 -85 CE, sandstone, height 5’3”; this type of image of the Buddha has become the standard for beauty for Indian Buddhist imagery. Created during a powerful dynasty called the Gupta, the figure is shown seated in a deer park (note the profile of two deer, with other followers, below the Buddha’s seat). He is shown with the mudra (hand gesture) of preaching the first sermon. His body is more in line with the Indian aesthetic of smooth, sensuous, rounded edges.

His robe is so delicate, it almost looks as if he is nude. The only indication of it is at his wrists, neckline, ankles, and a fanned-out display of the garment on his seat near his feet. The halo has been highly decorated and includes two celestial beings. The Buddha lowers his eyes in meditation, with a peaceful smile on his face. Again, he has elongated earlobes and an ushnisha.

Hinduism

Hinduism is the oldest living religion.

Buddhism slowly traveled to the East (China, Korea, Japan, and onward), leaving Hinduism the predominant religion in India.

The beliefs of the Hindu faith grew out of the Vedas (early religious writings), Brahmanism (priests), and ritual sacrifice.

The core belief revolves around the concepts of cyclic nature of time – of the creation, destruction, and rebirth of the universe (and our own brief cycles while we exist in the universe, such as our own reincarnation).

Liberation of our souls is granted by a god in return for our devotion.

While there are many, many gods in Hinduism, the principal gods are: Vishnu, Shiva, Durga, and Brahma.

Vishnu Dreaming the Universe, from Dashavatara Vishnu Temple, Gupta period, early 6th century CE, this sculpture is carved on a temple dedicated to Vishnu. Note that it comes from the Gupta period and has stylistic similarities with the Gupta Buddha (soft bodies and garments, and an emphasis on curvilinear lines).

The god Vishnu is shown reclining on the serpent of infinity. As he sleeps, Vishnu dreams the universe into existence. Lakshmi, his wife, massages his feet and ankles. The god, Brahma, seated on a lotus flower hovering above Vishnu and connected to his navel, is created during the dream. Vishnu wears a high crown and many jewels on his body, showing the conventions established in Gupta style art. He also has the smooth, sensuous contours we have seen in the Sarnath Buddha and the Male Torso from the Indus River Valley.

Kandariya Mahadeva temple, Khajuraho, India, c. 1000 CE; this temple is in northern India. It is dedicated to Shiva, whose deity form is held in what is known as the womb chamber. Worshippers enter the temple individually, giving offerings, such as food, incense, or flowers, to a brahmin (priest), who then places them with the deity form in the womb chamber. The womb chamber is a small, intimate room, directly under the highest point of the temple. The highest point or tower is called the shikhara; it is created to look like the tall mountains in northern India. Leading up to the shikhara are smaller “mountains” called mandapas. The entire temple is elevated from the mundane world with a massive stone platform, to separate the sacred space from the everyday world.

Womb chamber

Shikhara

Mandapas

Here, we see a plan with the entrance and mandapas at right, and the womb chamber at left. On the inside and outside of the temple, we see “loving couples” which represent love, fecundity, and protection

Womb chamber

Loving couples protect and bring good fortune to the temple

Mughal India 16th -19th centuries: With the arrival of powerful Muslim rulers, a new culture also arrived in India. These rulers were great patrons of the arts and architecture. They were greatly influenced by Persian culture. This is very apparent in Mughal architecture in the form of the iwan, onion-shaped dome, and dome interiors (as was seen in the Taj Mahal). Please refer back to the Arts of Islam lecture for more on Islamic architecture during the Mughal Dynasty in India (such as the Taj Mahal).

China

While India has the protective mountains to its north, China is vast and was vulnerable to many invasions over its long history.

However, peaceful cross-cultural exchange between China, India, Central Asia, and Persia produced diverse styles and interests.

There are three main rivers in China: the Yangtze and the Xi in the South and the Yellow River (which is considered the cradle of civilization for ancient China).

Written records in China begin during the Shang Dynasty (1500 BCE-1050 BCE). A succession of kings ruled from capitals near the Yellow River.

Many works of art from this early period were found in the tombs of the Shang elite.

Terracotta Army, c. 210 BCE, These sculptures were found in the tomb of the first emperor in China (during the Qin Dynasty): Shihuangdi. He consolidated the territory of China into roughly what it is today, and governed over this enormous territory with a huge bureaucratic system. He was the ruler of the Qin Dynasty – pronounced Chin – from which the name China is derived.

The sculptures are all life-size. They are rendered as individual soldiers, in formation to protect the emperor in his afterlife. There are over 8,000 men and over 500 life-size terracotta horses and many chariots (although the entire site has not been unearthed, and there are no doubt, many more sculptures).

Each man carried a real metal weapon. The soldiers would have been painted. Each has an individualized face – it is believed that Shihuangdi’s actual army modeled for the statues. The emperor, a ruler of vast lands, had many enemies in life, and he wanted protection in the afterlife.

Buddhism

Buddhism spread to China during the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), as missionaries traveled along the Silk Route. During the Tang dynasty (618-906 CE) nearly everyone in China had converted.

Remember the woodblock print, the Diamond Sutra Frontispiece? This helped with the dissemination of Buddhism.

Carved wooden figure of the bodhisattva Guanyin, c. 1200, wood, layer of glue and paint with gold; In China, one of the most beloved figures in the Buddhist belief system is the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara (Guanyin in China). It was believed that this figure lived on a mountain. Here, he is shown seated on the mountaintop in the royal ease pose, with his right knee up and right arm gently placed on the knee. The weight of his upper body rests on the left hand placed behind him. The garment he wears has very soft, curvilinear, fluid-like lines. We know this is a bodhisattva because he wears a crown, jewelry, and luxurious garments. You may want to refer to your earlier lecture on the difference between a Buddha and a bodhisattva.

Confucianism

Confucius (551–479 BCE) was a scholar and philosopher. He developed the belief system of Confucianism.

The basic goal of Confucianism is social order and harmony.

It is based on practicality and a social hierarchy.

The hierarchy is as follows: the ancestors are especially venerated. The ruler is obeyed by the subjects. Younger siblings obey older siblings. Children obey their parents. Wives obey their husbands.

The premise is that if the hierarchy is followed, life will be peaceful for all. The Han dynasty adopted Confucianism as its official state philosophy.

Daoism (also called Taoism)

The Daoist belief system is less about practicality and the mundane, human realm, and more about spirituality and what exists beyond our human existence.

Dao means “the way” or “the path” – a way to put humans and nature in harmony.

Daoists seek to understand the universe and live in harmony with it. It is advocated to seek refuge in nature. Immortality is the goal of Daoists.

One of the founders of Daoism was named Laozi and he lived sometime around the 6th century BCE.

Two Popular East Asian Painting formats

Handscrolls – a long, horizontal roll, usually made of silk or paper, on which an artist paints a scene. The work of art is rolled up and slowly unrolled, as the viewer observes each section of the work of art. This creates a different experience with a painting than the viewer would expect if he or she could view the scene all at once.

Hanging scroll – a long, vertical work of art, usually made of paper or silk. A hanging scroll is usually hung on a wall and can be viewed in its entirety all at once.

An unrolled handscroll

Gu Kaizhi, Lady Feng and the Bear, a section from a larger handscroll scene called The Admonitions of the Instructress to the Court Ladies, late fourth century, handscroll, ink and color on silk, 9 3/5” x 135 3/10”; this entire work of art is slowly unrolled, showing different scenes of the “proper” behavior of women at the royal court in the fourth century. Based on Confucian standards, a wife should be subservient and serve her husband. The ruler should be obeyed and protected by all. We see this ideology represented here.

The dutiful wife of the emperor flings her body between the figure of the emperor (seated to the viewer’s right) and a ferocious bear. Other female attendants look on in terror. Two guards also protect their ruler. No one comes to any harm. This image visually reinforces Confucian beliefs – the good wife and the good servants risk their lives for their superior: the emperor.

This is a popular painting style of the fourth century: the lines of the garments are fluid, flowing, and delicate (similar to the garments on the sculpted mass of the Guanyin sculpture). The background is blank. There is little color – emphasis is placed on the lines of the contours, rather than on the colors of the figures. The stamps you see on the image indicate the artist’s stamp, and also stamps of the individuals who have owned this work over the years. For example, if you acquired the handscroll, you would stamp it to show that it was in your collection.

Fan Kuan, Travelers Among Mountains and Streams, Song Dynasty, early 11th century, ink and slight colors on a silk hanging scroll, 6¾ ft x 2½ ft; this is called a monumental landscape because it shows a scene of massive mountains in the background. The landscape is awe-inspiring. The emphasis is not on human involvement in the land (there are only a few buildings and they are dwarfed by the large mountains). The humans are tiny in scale to the looming mountains. We can see their tiny specks in the lower right hand corner – a small train of people and animals traveling along.

The foreground, middle ground, and background are separated from one another by contrasts in value – the craggy rocks contrast with the pure silk that represents a path. A rough outcropping of rocks and trees is in the middle ground, just before another area of pure silk, which represents mist between the outcropping and the monumental mountains. The vastness of the landscape and the insignificance of the humans reflects the ideals of Daoism. There is literally a path, or “way” into nature. Nature is the most important place in the scene, reflecting the Daoist belief in the power of nature and the need to be in harmony with nature.

Tiny humans

Jar, 1426-1435, Porcelain painted in underglaze blue; height: 19”; Chinese ceramicists were (and are) gifted in creating beautiful works of porcelain. Cobalt blue was painted on the body of this jar before it was fired, creating a lovely blue and white palette with a dragon, monster, and cloud motif.

Korea

Korea is the peninsula off of mainland China. The Chinese controlled the peninsula until the 4th century CE, when it was broken into three kingdoms. Between the 4th century and 800 CE Korea became a unified nation with control of its culture, government, and politics.

Influence continued to spread from China. Confucianism strongly influenced politics, government, and everyday life. Buddhism was first transmitted to Korea in the 4th century CE and was adopted as the state religion in the 6th century.

Crown from Tomb 98, Hwangnamdong, 5th-6th century CE, gold and jade In the early period of Korean history, rulers and aristocrats demonstrated their wealth with opulent jewelry, often made of gold and jade. They would be buried with their treasures. This crown is purely decorative. It was buried with a royal member of society.

The design reflects an appreciation of nature: the central, vertical component looks like a tree and other vertical elements look like antlers. The green jade pieces look like leaves on a tree. Delicate gold pieces dangle from this crown and show influence from jewelry design from the Mediterranean. This shows that there was trade between the two regions as long ago as the 5th and 6th centuries.

Pensive Bodhisattva, mid-7th century Gilt bronze; height: 8 7/8” many pensive-looking bodhisattvas were produced from India to Japan. In Korea, this type of bodhisattva emerged as an important icon in the sixth and seventh centuries. The iconography and style of this sculpture were influenced by similar sculptures in China and India, but the pensive bodhisattva was particularly popular in Korea.

We can tell this is a “pensive” bodhisattva due to its unique pose. The figure sits with his right leg crossing the left, his head and torso lean forward, and fingers of his right hand gently touch his cheek. Because the posture is complex, sculptures of the pensive bodhisattva sometimes have somewhat strange proportions (for example, a very long torso and arm). This work of art, however, looks very graceful and fluid. His stylized hair flows over his shoulders and his garments cascade over the seat in front of him. The sculpture was cast in bronze and gold was applied over the bronze.

Japan

Japan is comprised of a cluster of islands (with four main islands) to the east of the Korean peninsula.

Around the first century CE, important burial mounds were created in Japan.

The indigenous belief system in Japan is Shinto. Shinto involves a reverence for nature and followers believe that nature gods and goddesses are present in objects such as rocks and trees. Only the imperial family and priests may enter shrines.

Since Japan is separated from the mainland by the Sea of Japan, it has retained a very unique visual culture. However, Japan has been influenced by China and Korea. One of the greatest influences was the introduction of Buddhism in the 7th century.

Bust of a warrior, c. 5th–6th century, Earthenware with painted and incised decoration; haniwa are modeled clay figures that were used on burial tombs to guard the dead or to assist them in the after life. They come in many forms (from warriors to farmers to dancers to birds to boats). They also range in size from a few inches to a few feet in height.

They would have been placed around a tomb, to protect the deceased and to prevent cross-contamination of the spirit world with the mundane world. Many haniwa would be placed on top of one tomb – one of the emperors had a massive tomb erected (it stretched over 400 acres) with over 20,000 haniwa! The figures are simple and benevolent-looking, with simple ovals for eyes and mouth. They were painted to add vitality.

The Ise Jingu Shrine, 4th century, this is a temple used in the Shinto religion.

White pebbles contrast with beautiful unpainted wood. The architecture is simple and based on designs for granaries, with the ground floor elevated. The concept of purification is integral to Shinto belief. Every 20 years, this shrine is demolished and rebuilt. The new construction is an exact replica of the old building. The interior of the space is very dark – aside from the door, there are few light sources. The interior is meant to be a warm and quiet space; it holds objects associated with the religion. Shinto emphasizes a calm and harmonious relationship with nature and silence helps one commune with the universe. Natural materials are used to create the structure – cypress trees from the expansive forest around the complex were used to build the structure. The design emphasis is on simplicity and harmony with nature.

Zen Buddhism Zen Buddhism spread to Japan around the 13th century. It was introduced from China (where it is called Chán Buddhism). Zen Buddhism focuses on intense focus and meditation. Teachings are transmitted from a venerable teacher to the student. In Zen Buddhism, it is believed that very intense meditation can lead to spontaneous and instantaneous enlightenment. Many samurai practiced Zen Buddhism because they were already accustomed to a highly disciplined lifestyle.

Sesshu Toyo, Landscape (in the haboku technique), 1495, hanging scroll, ink on paper, width: 12 7/8”; this work of art reflects the concepts of Zen Buddhism. It is a depiction of a mountain above a body of water. A small building rests to the viewer’s right. Further right, one can make out a boat in the water. Diluted ink wash painted very quickly in rapid strokes create the entire illusion. It appears as if this scene could have been rendered in a moment. It is also very sensitive – the artist must be very aware of the natural world around him to represent a scene with such abbreviated lines and forms.

It relates to Zen Buddhism in that it is spontaneous, just as enlightenment can be spontaneous after much meditation and practice. Enlightenment with Zen Buddhism is sudden clarity or understanding, making sense suddenly of the chaos of the world. Haboku means “splashed ink”. One must be a master to complete an image such as this: most endeavors by an untrained hand will end in a mess of ink. The artist was not only a painter, but also a Zen monk.

Bibliography

DeWitte, Debra J, Ralph M., Larmann and M. Kathryn. Shields, Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2015.

Sayre, Henry M, A World of Art. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2010.

Getlein, Mark, Living with Art. New York: McGraw Hill, 2013.