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hours, job tasks, etc. are the most important feature in relation to recruitment. However, due consideration should be given to ensure that websites are attractive and easy to use (Rynes and Cable, 2003). Researchers from the disciplines of psychology and computers and human behaviour have explored the attractiveness and usability of company websites in detail. Work by Gregory et al. (2013) offers a concise review of the growth in online recruitment practices, stating that researchers have been investigating how website features affect a potential job applicant’s decision to apply for a position in the organisation. They state that much work in this area focuses on the usability and aesthetics of the websites themselves (Williamson et al., 2003) using techniques such as content analysis to measure applicants reaction to websites (Cober et al., 2004), experiment stimulations to examine website effects (Brady et al., 2003) and the effects on recruitment of employee testimonials on websites (Walker et al., 2011). The relationship between information, organisational brand and attitudes towards website attraction for applicants is argued to be an important area to explore (Allen et al., 2007).

Broadly, due to the role Web 1.0 plays in recruitment, it is crucial to understand the best content to include and features to use on a recruitment website to attract job applicants (Gregory et al., 2013). Results from their own research and others (Allen et al., 2007; Selden and Orenstein, 2011) indicate that the website usability, aesthetics, accuracy of job information and amount of organisational information all impact viewers’ attitudes towards organisational recruitment websites. Furthermore, it was found that there is a relationship between attitudes towards the recruitment website and attitudes towards the organisation. In other words, a poorly designed website with insufficient and inaccurate information or a lack of information was found to have a negative impact on the company profile. Companies should make sure websites are properly planned, as it could be detrimental to brand image (Gibson and Swift, 2011). This has important implications for the subsequent formation of organisational attraction (Gregory et al., 2013).

Web 2.0 environment – social media sites. SNSs for recruitment can be in the form of an organisation creating its own social network that encourages user-generated content and discussion, or by being associated with other sites as in the case of LinkedIn.

Madera (2012) and Madera and Chang (2011) identify an emerging trend which is for hospitality organisations to encourage applicants to join their SNSs. This creates an ongoing conversation and engagement between labour suppliers and buyers and brand development through business to employee (B2E) and employee to business (E2B) environments. Ongoing conversations are important in the development of lasting relationships between employers, existing and potential employees and others.

Hospitality organisations are frequently in competition for the best people with the recruitment of talented individuals high on the human resource management agenda, in particular graduates from leading hotel schools and universities. Organisations can engage with prospective employees (B2E) through dialogue on SNSs to discuss career opportunities and encourage applications. Also prospective employees can engage in conversation on better preparing themselves to ensure best fit with the organisation (E2B). Many international brands also create social media sites for their existing staff where they can share information and achievements, which help to facilitate brand buy-in. In addition, employees may create their own groups on separate platforms for networking and sharing photographs with fellow employees that are not controlled by

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the organisation. Sites also exist to post views on employers, for example, Glassdoor and Rate my employer (Laird, 2014).

Social media sites – selection and screening considerations. Beyond the hospitality field, research indicates there is increasing recognition by human resource managers that using SNSs to screen job applicants is increasing and is an acceptable practice (Clark and Roberts, 2010). This trend is identified in hospitality in the USA where there is a trend for employers to use SNSs to screen job applicants (Madera, 2012).

To date, few organisations have tackled the question of under what circumstances or how managers or recruitment professionals should use SNSs as a means of selecting job applicants or monitoring current employees (Smith and Kidder, 2010). There is considerable debate in the industry around whether employers should do this (HR Editorial, 2013). These selection procedures have been widely researched and are summarised well by Caers and Castelyns (2011). They state that theoretically, employers should only take into account work-related factors in the selection process. However, there is plenty of evidence to suggest that other factors may be influential, including age (Lahey, 2008), gender (Riach and Rich, 2003), race (Pager, 2003), sexual orientation (Drydakis, 2009), obesity (Swami et al., 2008) and facial attractiveness (Tews et al., 2009). As individuals broadcast information about themselves on SNSs, this information is available to organisations to which they might potentially apply. As a result, SNSs run the risk of introducing biases into the selection process even before an interview is held (Caers and Castelyns, 2011). Instances have occurred, whereby the screening of SNSs results in reducing the chances of employment based on inappropriate photographs and profiles (Newcombe, 2013).

In terms of screening job applicants, it can be argued that employers’ decision to explore all information available regarding a job applicant prior to selection has a logical business interest (Pate, 2012). For example, a study by Kluemper et al. (2012) finds a link between job performance and Facebook profiles. Taking this a stage further, an employer may be legally obliged to search all information so as not to be undertaking negligent hiring (Pate, 2012). It is widely known that the social network designed for the Professional sphere is LinkedIn, which many organisations consult. Using LinkedIn gives employers the easiest way into more targeted recruitment as aspects such as qualifications and career histories can be identified. However, more and more organisations are turning to Facebook for recruiting even though this is not the primary aim of this social networking site (Smith and Kidder, 2010). Screening of Facebook, Twitter and Instagram sites is often used to better understand the prospective employees’ character, personality and fit for the organisation. Employers can access “private” pages if requested to be “friends” by the job applicant (Zeidner et al., 2008). Taking this a stage further, there is evidence that some employers are demanding applicant’s passwords to social networking sites as conditions of employment (Pate, 2012).

At the heart of this issue is essentially what information could be seen as being related to a persons working life, as opposed to their personal life. Although both SNSs, the primary difference between Facebook and LinkedIn is that Facebook is about sharing information and connecting to friends, LinkedIn allows professionals to connect, market their skills and share job information and knowledge and for career development. As such, Facebook arguably belongs to an individuals personal sphere, and LinkedIn to the professional sphere (Caers and Castelyns, 2011). Put another way,

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LinkedIn is factual, function and “hygienic”, whereas Facebook is personable, social and often shows people “off guard”. One suggestion is for employers to only use information that is found on LinkedIn in the professional context. However, monitoring and enforcing this is impossible. Alternatively, if prospective employees do not want to have their information publicly available and be used by recruiters, they can use different privacy settings and adjustment. In this view, the onus is placed on the individual to protect what they consider “personal” or “private”.

The screening of SNSs and online profiles may also lead to unlawful discrimination, intentional or not. Amongst the many things potentially that an employer is likely to find out about an applicant through social media sites are colour, age, religion, sexual orientation, gender, disability and race (Pate, 2012). This information permits the employer to explore areas beyond legitimate and legal applicant recruitment and selection (Pate, 2012). Because this type of searching effectively takes place without the knowledge of the applicant, the employer is free to discriminate without the applicant’s knowledge. Whether this is taking place or not, using SNSs for selection also raises issues of perceived fairness, as discussed earlier.

The reliability of SNSs information used for selection is also of concern as information might be misleading or untrue. Evidence from psychological research indicates that online community norms tend to lean towards self-promotion (Buffardi and Campbell, 2008) and may be inaccurate or exaggerated (Epstein, 2008). Facebook has received much scholarly attention with regard to how it fosters strategic and selective self-presentation behaviours that promote the self in an exclusively positive light (Lee-Won et al., 2014). Caution for employers is urged (HR Editorial, 2012). Elsewhere, evidence suggests that online identities reflect offline identities with some accuracy (Back et al., 2010; Gosling et al., 2011). From an employers’ perspective, traditional recruitment practices such as interviews and references are still required to validate claims. Employers also have a responsibility to ensure accuracy on their own websites, as potential applicants may question if the information on the company website is credible. Van Hoye and Lievens (2007) found that information available about a company on an independent website has greater validity, the suggestion being that in searching for organisation information, seek information given by other websites not affiliated with an employer.

Social media sites – hostility considerations. While the Internet may offer an efficient, fast and cost-effective method for employers hoping to find suitable staff, it has an element of risk. Research suggests that employees have influence through the user-generated content of SNSs in reporting unscrupulous employers (Janta and Ladkin, 2013). The term “flaming” refers to hostile, abusive or insulting comments posted online. Employees may use social media sites to warn potential employees (E2E) about discriminatory and unethical practices, which may or may not be verified. More generally, many organisations may come under attack by ex-employees who set out to damage their reputation online.

Furthermore, social media is also increasingly playing a role in employer and employee relations. For example, Schoneboon (2011) analysed a case of firing a workblogger (“the Waterstone’s incident”) that drew mainstream media attention, highlighting that an individually operated blog can be helpful in pressuring the employer during an employee– employer dispute. Related to this, research by Richards and Kosmala (2013) reveals expressions of employee cynicism through blogging.

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Photographs and videos appearing on social media may also be part of the whistle-blowing campaign. As employees are at liberty to use social networks to express opinions and views on work colleagues, policies that guard against this should be included in contracts. Furthermore, employees can use professional groups to discuss issues such as salaries and job conditions to open public dialogue that can influence the reputation of the business.

Considerations for prospective employees Opportunities afforded by social media. From the perspective of the prospective employee, social media has given job applicants a tremendous opportunity for job seeking (Janta and Ladkin, 2013). Individuals can use social media to boost their job-searching techniques for greater effectiveness, for example, using professional networking groups such as LinkedIn, or sites that host online CV and other job-related content that is shared by recruiters, such as VirtualCV (Maul and Wallins, 2010). Employees can also search for current jobs posted on Twitter as well as using social networks to announce their availability, and seeking information from their professional and peer groups concerning potential employers (E2B). The positive side to using social media and opportunities that individuals have to promote themselves has previously been summarized well by Kwok (2011). Job applicants have a wealth of online and social network opportunities available to them to promote their CVs and profile globally and at low cost. This can only be a positive development due to improved access to global vacancies.

Online identity and impression management. As discussed earlier, evidence suggests that employers may view an applicant’s personal profile on SNSs, and rightly or wrongly, impressions are formed in this way. As recruiters and employers may “Google” perspective employees, Facebook and other SNSs may reveal a private persona that if not protected by privacy settings may give a very different picture from the professional one. Applicants need to be aware of the effects their social network profiles may have to their application success, in a positive or negative way (Caers and Castelyns, 2011). The fundamental issue is that the public/private spheres have become blurred; therefore, the invisible lines and relationships between online and offline identity have become an issue for concern (Asmaak Shafie et al., 2012).

The online identity of a potential employee is clearly important, and how these identities are constructed and maintained is an important area of research (Lee-Won et al., 2014). How to influence the perceptions that others have based on identities involves the use of impression management, a process by which individuals control the impressions that others form of them (Leary and Kowalski, 1990). This is the subject of much research, for example, in the case of individual Facebook users (Walther et al., 2009) and in the context of organisations (Tong et al., 2008; Lillqvist and Louhiala-Salminen, 2013).

Managing and forming impressions online present opportunities and challenges for both the actor and the perceiver. The opportunity for the actor is to create favourable impressions, and the challenge for the perceiver is to determine if the information accurately reflects the profile owners actual offline personality (Hall et al., 2014). Establishing the trustworthiness or verification between the online and offline self is also problematic (Walther and Parks, 2002). Online identity and impression

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management has an impact in the context of recruitment for potential employees, as the first impression created by online profiles may have an immediate effect on selection.

Online- and social media-empowered hospitality recruitment. Driven by technological developments, the popularity of online and social media recruitment has resulted in the boundaries of the relationship between the employer and the potential employee stretching beyond the workplace and working hours (Pate, 2012). The discussion surrounding the possibilities and challenges afforded by Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 technology for both employers and employees are summarised in Figure 1. The framework presents the dual perspectives of employer and employee in relation to issues raised from previous research in hospitality and other fields.

The new technologies have altered the relationship between employers and potential employees and have afforded opportunities for new recruitment practices. The interaction and emergent practices between employers and potential employees is shown in Figure 2, which is a proposed model to demonstrate online and social media-empowered hospitality recruitment. One the one side, employers use their Web 1.0 and 2.0 environments to advertise vacancies, provide company information and facilitate recruitment, both directly and through agencies (B2E). On the other side, potential employees have their personal online presence though websites, blogs, twitter, YouTube and Instagram. Professional groups may also be used to promote themselves to employers (E2B). Whilst it is evident that in hospitality, B2E and E2B communication and engagement is becoming commonplace. There is also evidence of E2E communication, whereby employees engage in dialogue with each other. A key feature of online- and social media-empowered recruitment is that it is highly visible. Therefore organisations need to reengineer their policies to ensure their online presence improves their recruitment efficiency, employment relationships and online reputation. Equally, potential and existing employees have to manage their employment relationships and online reputation.

Implications Returning to the question “are we ready for job seeking on social media?” posed by Kwok (2011), the hospitality sector can draw on debates from other disciplines along with demonstrating emerging recruitment practices. These possibilities and challenges for recruitment afforded by online and social media have implications for both hospitality employers and prospective employees in five main ways.

The first is the changing nature of the relationship between employers and potential employees, as demonstrated in Figure 2. Both now have an online presence. It allows both organisations and individuals to provide information to a global audience, can easily be updated, and can be used in a beneficial way in the case of an organisation to attract potential applicants and for individuals to promote opportunities and skills. How an organisation and an individual develops their identity on the Web is currently uncertain and a matter for further research. Social identity theory that studies how identities are shaped (Ashforth et al., 2008) may be a way forward. Despite these unknowns, what is clear is that the Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 result in both employers and employees being highly visible leading to benefits and concerns for both. The relationship is changed by the ease of access to information without temporal or geographical boundaries.

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Employers/Organisations Features Employees/Individuals Spatial Range

Web 1.0

Web 2.0 Facebook LinkedIn Twitter Own sites Boundary Blurring

Web Presence

Identity Formation

Global Global

Digital Divide Branding Reputation Identity Management

To attract employees Brand awareness To promote skills and competencies Low Cost Advertising Company Websites · Brand Image · Design Features of site External Job Boards · Number of applications · Wider exposure

Low Cost Responding Company Websites · Attractiveness & clarity of information External Job Boards · One stop shop

Choice of methods/sites Used to screen candidates? Policy relating to use? Time/cost effectiveness Perception by applicants Engaging Applicants Relationship Building Which sites? Engage with organisation to assess !it

What to access? Perceived fairness by applicants What to post? Personal details become public

Professional & personal identity Identity Management Not reaching all Inequality to access

Figure 1. Framework of employers and prospective employee perspectives

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The relationship is also changed by the multiple direction of communication and inclusion of others. Social networks afford opportunities for the long-term engagement of past, current and future employees in the development and sustainability of the organisation and its reputation. Relationships with all of the categories of employees can be facilitated through social media, recognising that at different times each may play the role of promoter, recruiter, customer or ambassador. Websites, Facebook, Blogs and Twitter can build a social and professional community that is a continuous loop which outlasts one particular role or place in time. The role of the human resources department in facilitating this loop is crucial and an important area for consideration. It may also require new skills related to information technology, and for online media communication strategies to be included as part of human resource management activities.

The relationship between employers and potential employees is further changed by emergent practices. There is evidence to suggest that in addition to external recruitment agencies, employers are using existing employees to recruit potential applicants. Some are questioning the need now for external agencies (Raemy, 2011). For example, Web technologies have made the process of recruiting migrant workers easier for both sides resulting in employees themselves being part of the recruitment of new workers (Janta and Ladkin, 2013). Marriott has developed a scheme, whereby existing staff are used to recruit new employees by viewing photographs of staff working on Marriott’s website (Peltier, 2014). As discussed by Janta and Ladkin (2013), recent studies (Andrzejewska and Rye, 2012; Findlay and McCollum, 2013) show that employers delegate responsibility for selecting “good” workers to migrants themselves, thereby companies use their own employees as recruitment agents (Moriarty et al., 2012). Employees may be

Figure 2. Online and social

media empowered hospitality

recruitment

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asked to post messages online in selected social networks in their first language, and to engage in raising the awareness of a company in a particular community for potential recruitment. However, while hiring migrant workers via social networks is widely practiced, McGovern (2007, p. 227) says of online recruitment that:

An unintended consequence of this practice is that information about jobs may become restricted to the ethnic groups that already have a foothold within the firm. In this way, hiring through social networks can become an exclusionary practice that gives the firm a nepotistic cast.

This can result in an ethnic concentration within particular job categories, as confirmed by other research in the hotel sector (McDowell et al., 2007).

The second implication for employers and potential employees afforded by online and social media is the digital divide (Minghetti and Buhalis, 2010). It should be remembered that the opportunities to develop an online presence and engagement in SNSs is currently not available to all. Access to technology and the Web may be limited by factors such as low educational ability, cultural norms, low technology adoption, cost of services and geographical location. As identified by Caers and Castelyns (2011), the impact of SNSs is not uniform across the globe due to Internet availability and literacy rates, cultural norms and SNS adoption (Hargittai, 2007). The opportunities are not the same for all.

The third implication is ethical, caused by a blurring of boundaries which resonates with both employers and employees. For employers, it is to be mindful of the information that can be regarded as job related as opposed to information that is not. Previous research indicates that applicants have a favourable disposition towards selection tools that are perceived to be job related (Rynes and Cable, 2003). Much information on SNSs is not specifically job related, but personal, for example, photographs, favourite music and books (Withiam, 2011). Where to draw the line is problematic, as the boundaries are unclear. The issue for job applicants is they often have multiple online identities for different aspects of their lives (Smith and Kidder, 2010). For applicants, there is a need to realise that their multiple identities are all at least partly visible, and the boundary between what is personal and what is private again is blurred. Maintaining both personal and professional spheres is an on going challenge.

Related to the above, the fourth implication is legal. As previously discussed, potential legal issues could arise from using social networks for recruitment. From an employee perspective, this could, for example, relate to discriminatory hiring practices, neglectful hiring and issues of privacy invasion. For employees, it could relate to practices that damage a company’s image or reputation. Online and social media recruitment has resulted in a plethora of legal concerns that are yet to be fully realised. Social media practices, tools and abuses create additional challenges in the workplace. It is not the nature of employees rights, conduct or expectation but the medium, reach, speed and permanency of actions that are altered (Jacobson and Howle Tufts, 2012).

The fifth implication points towards the critical role of the human resources function in hotel organisations. Their role is multifunctional, but in the case of online and social media recruitment a company’s social media policies will become increasingly important. Guidelines as a minimum or contracts on acceptable practice for arriving, current and past employees are required. This is crucial for reputation management and

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fostering employee relations. A strategy for social media recruitment is clearly vital (Clements, 2012).

Given that many of the issues raised are not fully understood, perhaps the way forward in the short term is for human resource teams to develop a best practice surrounding online and social media recruitment. As a starting point, this could be the development of guidelines governing the procedures and practices that are used by the organisation for hiring, including exploring areas that have legal implications. It may also be necessary for human resource practitioners to work more closely with other departments in the organisation. For example, marketing and communications for online communication strategies and information technology for website design and usability. New skills may also need to be included in human resource teams, for example, in relation to the ability to contribute to a range of media including SNSs, Blogs, Wikis and using Twitter. A further challenge is the speed of response and need for continuous feeds as part of social network engagement. To keep information up-to-date and to add new content is a time consuming activity that possibly requires a dedicated team to manage it. Given the importance of brand image and the need for continuous recruitment, it is worth hospitality organisations investing the time to consider best practice in relation to online and social media recruitment. There is currently a split between human resource functions that embrace social media recruitment and those who actively ignore it (Roberts, 2014). The suggestion is that it is not a threat for human resource practitioners, but it is a reality and is highly beneficial (ACAS, 2013).

Conclusion This paper argues that the use of online and social media for recruitment purposes and the wider implications of the activity including its benefits and challenges are just beginning to be understood. The labour markets of the hospitality sector give the issue a specific relevance. The paper advocates the importance of considering a dual perspective of the issues due to the erosion of traditional boundaries in the context of online and social media recruitment. An online- and social media-empowered recruitment model demonstrates the dynamic multi-way dialogue between employers, current employees and prospective employees. What is clear is that the possibilities and challenges for recruitment afforded by online and social media are facilitating change, whether these are legal, social and operational or many more. The consequences of online and social media recruitment will be most keenly felt by human resource managers, who will need to be at the forefront of responding to the issues raised by these emerging practices.

Directions for future research To date, the waters are largely unchartered on this type of hospitality recruitment, and this paper consolidates debates and practices as a starting point. Broadly, future research could different perspectives to explore the issues raised. For example, taking a human resource management perspective to explore the practical implications of this type of recruitment such as how to manage ongoing dialogue with current and prospective employees would be one aspect. Alternatively, researchers could focus on the technology aspects that facilitate and mediate social media recruitment, such as website design and usability. The emergent practices of social media recruitment have

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both practical and theoretical implications which represent further opportunities for research. Recruitment practices and legal issues are practical areas that could be explored in hospitality organisations, and the sector could also be used for theoretical research into boundary blurring, online identities and the reliability of online information. The characteristics of the hospitality workforce afford opportunities to explore the emergent issues in online and social media recruitment and other sectors could learn from hospitality. Migrant workers in terms of their mobility and networks and a young workforce who have a specific engagement with Web 2.0 make for a valuable setting for exploring these issues. Hospitality research is well positioned to be at the forefront of emerging issues and debates.

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Corresponding author Adele Ladkin can be contacted at: [email protected]

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