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The School of Business at Southern New Hampshire University’s School of Business earned its accreditation by the Accreditation Council for Business Schools and Programs (ACBSP) in 1994.

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SCHOOL OF BUSINESS COURSE SYLLABUS

Dr. Burt Reynolds | [email protected]

603-289-8998

OL-500-13330– Human Behavior In Organization

| Tue 11:00am-1:45pm | HO 301 | FA 2019

Brightspace Workspace Login

OFFICE HOURS:

Tuesday-2:00pm-4:00pm

Wednesday-8:00am-10:00am (By Appointment)

Thursday- 1:00pm-3:00pm

SNHU University Catalog, Policies, and Procedures

Graduate Attendance Policy

Class Cancellation Policy

Standardized Syllabi Statements

Campus Accessibility Center Services

Library Resource Statements

Copyright Policy

Academic Honesty Policy

Inclusivity & Non-Discrimination Policy

Brightspace

COURSE DESCRIPTION

This course is a study of individuals and groups and their interaction. Students examine theories of motivation, communication, leadership, power, and change with practical relation to contemporary issues. They also study organizations for key design variables and reward systems aimed at improved performance and organizational efficiency through employee motivational programs, participative management, and cooperative decision making.

Required Textbook(s) and Supplemental Materials

Organizational Behavior: Human Behavior at Work McGraw-Hill/ Create 14th Edition ISBN 978-0-07-811282-9

COURSE PREREQUISITES

None

COURSE OUTCOMES:

Students leave the course with the ability to:

· Appraise human behavior theories and concepts as multiple root causes of organizational issues for effectively leading an organization

· Analyze human behavior problems within an organization for informing properly targeted solutions that improve human behavior

· Develop logical solutions that directly address relevant organizational issues for improving organizational effectiveness and strategically leading organizations

· Apply human behavior theories and concepts to current and past places of employment for improving morale and communication within a workplace

Assignments and grading scale

Assignment

Number of

Graded Items

Percentage Value

Per Item

Total Percentage

Peer Evaluation

1

15%

15%

Career Paper

1

15%

15%

Group Diagnosis Paper

1

20%

20%

Customer Feedback

1

10%

10%

Team Paper

1

15%

15%

Team Presentation

1

25%

25%

Total Course Percentage Possible

100%

Note: I do not accept late work unless there are extenuating circumstances outside of your control.

UC-GLOBAL Grading Scales

UC-COCE Undergraduate Grading Scale

UC-COCE Graduate Grading Scale

Grade

Numerical Equivalent

Grade Points

Grade

Numerical Equivalent

Grade Points

A

93-100

4.0

A

93-100

4.0

A-

90-92

3.67

A-

90-92

3.67

B+

87-89

3.33

B+

87-89

3.33

B

83-86

3.00

B

83-86

3.00

B-

80-82

2.67

B-

80-82

2.67

C+

77-79

2.33

C+

77-79

2.33

C

73-76

2.00

C

73-76

2.00

C-

70-72

1.67

F

0-72

0.00

D+

67-69

1.33

D

60-66

1.00

F

0-59

0.00

Course Calendar

Date or Module

Topics

Exercises/Assignments/Participation

9/3

Orientation and Introductions

Review Syllabi

9/10

The Dynamics of People and Organizations

The Dynamics of People and their Position Within the Organization- Chapters 1 & 2

9/17

Organizational Behavior Insights

The Impact of Social Systems in the Workplace- Chapter 3 & 4

9/24

Motivation and Rewarding Employee Performance

Motivating and Rewarding Employee Performance- Chapters 5 & 6

10/1

Leadership and Empowerment

Creating an Agile Organization- Chapters 7 & 8 Career Paper (Due 11:00am)

10/8

Employee Attitudes and Their Effects on Organizations and Individuals

The “Fit Between the Individual & The Organization”-Chapters 9 & 10

10/15

Conflict, Power, and Organizational Politics

Group Dynamics Chapters 11 & 12

10/22

Teams and Managing Change

Transition into Higher Order Complexity-Chapters 13 & 14

10/29

Organization Behavior Across Cultures

4Th Industrial Revolution- Chapters 15 & 16

11/5

Transformational Maps

Global Forum Group Diagnosis Paper (Due 11:00am)

11/12

Teams and Team Building

Team building exercise – TBD

11/19

Foresight

Guest Speaker-TBD

11/26

Team Building for Final Presentation

Group Work

12/3

Final Group paper and presentations

Team Presentation & Group Paper

12/10

Final Group paper and presentations

Team Presentation & Group Paper

NOTE: Course calendar is subject to change at the discretion of your instructor.

ATTENDANCE POLICY

I expect you to attend all classes and be on time. Being in class each day is an important factor in learning the concepts that are presented. You may be withdrawn from class if you exceed three absences. Half-letter grade reduction will be assessed from your course grade for each day's absence over three. I distribute a sign-in sheet at the beginning of each class. If you are late to sign in, you will be marked absent. The use of computers, smartphones, etc. should be used for class work. Although material missed during an absence is your responsibility, please advise me if you anticipate an absence. You are expected to find out what was covered from your team.

Late work will have 10% deducted per day late, up to 5 days. Work submitted more than 5 days late will receive a 0%. Note: I do utilize Turnitin and all work will be submitted to assigned links in Brightspace.

Plagiarism in excess of 30% on any written submissions for first offensive results in a zero for that work. Second offense results in possible failing grade for the course.

NOTE: Course calendar is subject to change at the discretion of your instructor.*

Syllabus | 3

Newstrom14e_PPT_Ch07 (1).ppt.pptx

Chapter Seven Leadership

Organizational

Behavior

John W. Newstrom

Human Behavior at

Work

14e

Learning Objectives

The nature of leadership and followership

The difference between traits and behaviors

Different leadership styles

Early approaches to leadership

Contingency approaches to leadership

Substitutes for leadership

Coaching as a leadership role

Leadership

Influencing and supporting others to work enthusiastically toward achieving objectives

Transforms potential into reality

Helps

Identify goals of individuals and groups

Motivate and assist people to achieve the goal

Elements - Influence or support, voluntary effort, and goal achievement

Nature of Leadership

Tested by the degree to which it identifies, develops, channels, and enriches an organization’s potential

Approaches

Descriptive - Ways in which the actions of leaders differ

Contingency - Analyzes and selects a style that best fits the situation

Managers versus Leaders

Managers

Hold formal positions

Achieve results by directing the activities of others

Weak leaders can still be effective managers

Excellent managers are expected to have leadership skills too

Leaders

Anyone with informal influence

Create a vision and inspire others to achieve it

Strong leaders can be weak managers

Leadership ability can be acquired and improved

Leadership Traits

Traits: Physical, intellectual, or personality characteristics

Possessing leadership traits does not guarantee successful leadership

Negative traits

Narcissism: Leaders who are filled with their own importance

Exaggerate their achievements, want special favors, and exploit others for personal gain

Leadership Traits

Alpha dogs: Leaders who are intensely aggressive, egocentric, domineering, and controlling

Use personal characteristics, skills, or positions to:

Intimidate others

Maintain personal control

Figure 7.1 - Positive Leadership Traits

Leadership Behavior

Successful leadership depends more on behavior, skills, and actions than on traits

Traits provide basic potential

Behaviors release and express traits

Leadership Behavior

Types of leadership skills

Technical: Person’s knowledge of, and ability in, any type of process or technique

Human: Ability to work effectively with people and to build teamwork

Conceptual: Ability to think in terms of models, frameworks, and broad relationships

Figure 7.2 - Variations in the Use of Leadership Skills at Different Organizational Levels

Situational Flexibility

Elements that affect each other in determining appropriate leadership behavior

Leader

Followers

Situation

Leader should recognize different situations and adapt to them on a conscious basis

Positive Followership

Being loyal and supportive

Becoming actively engaged

Raising penetrating questions

Confronting the leader’s ideas, ethical values, and actions

Anticipating problems and actively preventing them

Negative Followership

Competition

Uncritical

Rebellion

Passivity

Leadership Style

Total pattern of explicit and implicit leaders’ actions as seen by employees

Positive leadership - Emphasizes rewards and a supportive approach

Uses a conversational approach in communication

Leadership Style

Negative leadership - Emphasizes threats, fear, harshness, intimidation, and penalties

Workplace bullies: Intimidate, ridicule, insult, blame, harass, and make unreasonable demands

Style is related to one’s model of organizational behavior

Styles and the Use of Power

Centralize power and decision making in themselves

Employ negative leadership

Autocratic leaders

Ask for employee input before making a decision

Use or ignore the information received

Consultative leaders

Decentralize authority and use employees’ input and participation

Leader and group act as a social unit

Consistent with the supportive, collegial, and systems models of organizational behavior

Participative leaders

Leader Use of Consideration and Structure

Consideration: Concern about the human needs of the employees

Known as employee orientation

Considerate leaders - Try to build teamwork, provide psychological support, and help employees with personal problems

Leader Use of Consideration and Structure

Structure: Task orientation, characterized by the belief that results can be obtained by keeping people constantly busy and closely monitoring employee actions

Ignoring employees’ personal issues and emotions

Urging employees to produce at ever-higher levels

Successful managers combine relatively high consideration and structure

With more emphasis on consideration

Glass Ceiling

Invisible barrier that prevents many women from reaching important positions

Perceptions

Women exhibit more consideration-oriented qualities

Men exhibit more structure-oriented characteristics

Contingency Approaches

Most appropriate style of leadership depends on an analysis of the nature of the situation facing the leader

Types

Fiedler’s contingency model

Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership model

Path-goal model

Vroom’s decision-making model

Fiedler’s Contingency Model

Appropriate leadership style depends on the stage of favorability to the leader

Situational variables

Leader-member relations: Determined by the manner in which leader is accepted by the group

Task structure: Degree to which one specific way is required to do the job

Leader position power: Organizational power that goes with the position the leader occupies

Figure 7.3 - Research Results as Applied to Fiedler’s Contingency Model of Leadership

Fiedler’s Contingency Model’s Guidelines for Managers

Use analytical skills to examine the situation

Use research-based knowledge to see the relationship between situation and style effectiveness

Be flexible in the use of various skills within an overall style and modify elements of situations to obtain a better match with the preferred style

Examine a subordinate’s preferred style before placing him or her in a supervisory role

Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model

Most important factor affecting the selection of a leader’s style is the development level of a subordinate

Development level: Task-specific combination of an employee’s task competence and commitment

Addresses an individual employee’s capabilities on a specific task

Ignores several critical elements that determine leadership style

Figure 7.4 - Situational Leadership Model Recommendations for Appropriate Leadership Styles to Be Used for Each of Four Combinations of Employee Ability and Employee Willingness

Path-Goal Model of Leadership

Leaders use structure, support, and rewards to help employees reach the organization’s goals

Create a goal orientation

Improve the path toward the goals

Path-Goal Model of Leadership

Leaders provide a balance of task and psychological support for employees

Task-support: Assemble the resources, budgets, power, and other essential elements to get the job done

Psychological support: Stimulate people to want to do the job and attend to their emotional needs

Figure 7.5 - Path-Goal Leadership Process

Path-Goal Model of Leadership

Styles

Directive - Focuses on clear task assignments, standards of successful performance, and work schedules

Supportive - Demonstrates concern for employees’ well-being and needs

Achievement-oriented - Sets high expectations for employees

Communicates confidence in their ability to achieve goals

Path-Goal Model of Leadership

Participative - Invites employees to provide input to decisions

Contingency factors

General work environment

Assessing employee variables

Path-Goal Model of Leadership

Locus of control: Alternative beliefs about whether an employee’s achievements are the:

Product of his or her own effort

Result of outside forces

Willingness to accept the influence of others

Self-perceived task ability

Vroom’s Decision-Making Model

Selecting from various degrees of leadership styles by evaluating problem-solving situations

Problem attributes - Assessing a current decision situation along a five-point scale

Decision-quality and employee-acceptance dimensions

Leadership options - Autocratic I or II, consultative I or II, and group II

Assumptions in Vroom’s Decision-Making Model

Managers can accurately classify problems according to the criteria offered

Managers are willing and able to adapt their leadership style to fit the situation

Managers are willing to use a complex model

Employees will accept the legitimacy of different styles being used for different problems

Employees will accept the leader’s classification of the situation

Figure 7.6 - Guiding Questions in the Vroom Decision-Making Model

Figure 7.7 - Similarities across Leadership Models

Neutralizers, Substitutes and Enhancers for Leadership

Unhealthy dependency on leaders hinders the growth and autonomy of subordinates

Neutralizers: Attributes of subordinates, tasks, and organizations that interfere with or diminish the leader’s attempts to influence the employees

Neutralizers, Substitutes and Enhancers for Leadership

Substitutes for leadership: Factors that make leadership roles unnecessary by replacing them with other sources

Enhancers for leadership: Elements that amplify a leader’s impact on the employees

Figure 7.8 - Potential Neutralizers, Substitutes, and Enhancers for Leadership

Coaching

Coach: Sports metaphor for leaders who recognize they are on the sidelines and not on the field

Prepares, guides, and directs a player

Sensemaking: Finding order in complex or ambiguous situations requiring:

Coaching

Situational awareness

Data gathering from multiple sources

Two-way act of fitting data into a mental model and/or a mental framework

Checking with others on an ongoing basis to gain from their perspectives

Coaching

Managers need it to:

Improve interaction style

Deal more effectively with change

Develop listening and speaking skills

Prerequisites to successful coaching

Willingness to change

Capability to change

Opportunity to practice new behaviors

Taxonomy of Leadership Behaviors

Newstrom14e_PPT_Ch06 (1).ppt.pptx

Chapter Six Appraising and Rewarding Performance

Organizational

Behavior

John W. Newstrom

Human Behavior at

Work

14e

Learning Objectives

Total reward systems

Money as an economic and social medium of exchange

Role of money in motivational models

Behavioral considerations in performance appraisal

Learning Objectives

The characteristics of good feedback programs

Process of attribution

How and why to link pay with performance

Uses of profit-sharing, gain-sharing, and skill-based pay programs

Incentives

Build a complete reward system that encourages motivation

Combined with other parts of wage and salary administration

Indirect incentive - Produced through economic rewards operated through the attitudes of workers in the social system

Figure 6.1 - The Reward Pyramid: The Makeup of a Complete Pay Program

Money as a Means of Rewarding Employees

Economic value - Medium of exchange for allocation of economic resources

Social value - Status value when received and spent

Represents employers' evaluation of employees

Indicates one employee’s status relative to that of other employees

Money and the Motivational Models

Drives

Measure of accomplishment - Employees monitor their pay and compare it with that of others

Supports affiliation needs

Gives the power to influence others

Needs

Herzberg model - Hygiene factor

Maslow’s model - Physiological and security needs

Alderfer’s model - Existence needs

Money and the Motivational Models

Expectancy

Money has high valence

Not easily influenced by management

Employees respond to money as a reward

Instrumentality - Area where management can build trust and take positive action

Behavior modification - High instrumentality is desired

Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality = Motivation

Figure 6.2 - Desirable and Undesirable Instrumentality Conditions

Money and the Motivational Models

Equity

Cost-reward comparison: Employee identifies and compares personal costs and rewards to determine the point at which they are equal

Break-even point - Point at which costs and rewards are equal for a certain level of expected performance

Figure 6.3 - Cost of Performance in Relation to Reward for an Employee

Additional Money Considerations

Money is an extrinsic reward rather than an intrinsic one

Problems while integrating extrinsic and intrinsic rewards

Amount of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards desired by each employee differs

Payment of an extrinsic reward decreases the intrinsic satisfaction received

Administering intrinsic rewards on a systematic basis is difficult

Additional Money Considerations

Compliance with the law

Equal Pay Act of 1963: Demands that people doing the same work receive equal pay regardless of their sex

Comparable worth: Seeks to guarantee equal pay for equal work

Other factors that confuse the compensation process are equality, secrecy, control, and flexibility

Organizational Behavior

Firms use results-oriented planning and control systems to achieve high performance

Management by objectives: Cyclical process aimed at attaining desired performance

Objective setting

Action planning

Periodic reviews

Annual evaluation

Performance Appraisal

Evaluating employee performance, sharing that information with them, and searching for ways to improve their performance

Necessary to:

Allocate resources in a dynamic environment

Motivate and reward employees, give employees feedback about their work, and maintain fair relationships within groups

Coach and develop employees and comply with regulations

Figure 6.4 - Necessary Criteria to Ensure Equal Employment Opportunity in Performance Appraisal

Hallmarks of Modern Appraisal Philosophy

Performance orientation

Focus on goals or objectives

Mutual goal setting between supervisor and employee

Clarification of behavioral expectations

Extensive feedback systems

Appraisal Interview

Session in which the supervisor:

Provides feedback to the employee on past performance

Discusses problems that have arisen

Invites a response

Platform for setting future objectives and increasing motivation

Successful when the appraiser:

Understands the employee’s job

Appraisal Interview

Has previously set measurable performance standards and has specific evidence about performance

Seeks and uses inputs from other observers and limits criticism to a few major issues

Supports, accepts, and praises tasks done well

Listens to the employee’s input and reactions

Shares responsibility for outcomes and offers future assistance and allows participation in the discussion

Self-Appraisal

Opportunity for employees to be introspective

Potential drawbacks

Attributing one’s poor performance to situational factors

Rating oneself too leniently

Benefits

Candid self-assessment

Less threatening to one’s self-esteem

6-20

Performance Feedback

Leads to improved performance and attitudes

Contemporary approach to appraisals - Electronic monitoring of performance with electronic feedback

Reasons for failure to provide regular feedback

Lack of time and assumption that employees already know their performance level

Reluctance to share bad news and lack of valid information to create a substantive conclusion

Figure 6.5 - Guidelines for Effective Performance Feedback

360-Degree Feedback

Systematically gathering data on a person’s skills, abilities, and behaviors from a variety of sources

To determine where problem exists

6-23

360-Degree Feedback

Advantages

Can be compared across time

Rich feedback

Aids in performance improvement

Disadvantages

Time-consuming

Intimidating to the recipients

Expensive

Praise

Approval or admiration for an employee’s positive qualities or worthwhile achievements

Timely, meaningful, and personalized praise:

Communicates a strong message to both the recipient and the entire organization

Adds to feelings of self-esteem and self-efficacy

Builds stronger employee commitment

Appraisal Problems

Each party tries to convince the other that her or his view is more accurate

Confrontational

Manager’s role calls for a critical perspective, while employee’s desire to save face leads to defensiveness

Emotional

Manager evaluates the employee, thereby placing him/her in a subordinate position

Judgmental

Requires job understanding, careful observation of performance, and sensitivity to the needs of employees

Complex

Appraisal Problems

Management’s limitations

Lack of vital skills

Failure to gather data systematically

Reluctance to address difficult/sensitive topics

Failure to involve employees in assessment process and discussion

Cynical that any changes will occur

Not taking appraisals seriously

Intentional distortion of feedback and ratings

Attribution

Process by which people interpret and assign causes for their own and others’ behavior

Nature

Self-serving bias: Claiming undue credit for one’s success and minimizing one’s responsibility for problems

Fundamental attribution bias: Attributing others’ achievements to good luck or easy tasks, and assuming that people lack ability if they failed

Attribution

Perceptual set: People perceive what they expect to perceive

Self-fulfilling prophecy: Manager’s expectations for an employee leads him/her to respond in a way that confirms those expectations

Positive contagion: Behavioral phenomenon closely related to self-fulfilling prophecy

Figure 6.6 - The Process of Making and Using Attributions

6-30

Applications of Attribution

Galatea effect: High expectations by employees themselves lead to high performance

Stems from employee perceptions of self-efficacy on the task and general self-confidence

Perceptual distortions: Inaccurate mental records or interpretations of events that detrimentally affects the validity of an appraisal process

Applications of Attribution

Halo effect - Overall assessment affects the rating of specific performance factors

Central tendency - Avoiding the use of very high or very low ratings

Leniency effect - Distortion or skewing of most ratings toward the high end of the scale

Harshness effect - Distortion of ratings toward the low end of the scale

Applications of Attribution

Recency effect - Recent events have greater impact than earlier factors

First impression - Initial likes or dislikes have greater value than the actuals

Managerial effects

Analytical and constructive thinking about their employees

Identifying each employee’s abilities, interests, and motivation

Applications of Attribution

Managers sometimes avoid giving appraisals as:

They do not want to disrupt the relationship with the employee

Low-performing employees are difficult to deal with

There are no organizational rewards to be gained from it

Economic Incentive Systems

Inducing a high level of individual, group, or organizational performance

By making an employee’s pay contingent on one or more of those dimensions

Performance management: Believes that employee performance can be managed and improved

Uses various rewards and incentives to encourage better productivity

Figure 6.8 - Major Incentive Measures to Link Pay with Performance

Piece Rate

Provides a simple, direct connection between performance and reward

Workers who produce more are rewarded more

Pay is determined by a combination quantity–quality measure

Ensures that a high quality of product or service is maintained

Figure 6.9 - Advantages and Disadvantages of Incentives Linking Pay with Performance

Wage Incentives

Form of merit pay - More pay for more output

Referred to as pay for performance

Increases production and decreases labor costs per unit of production

Criteria for successful incentive systems

Must be simple

Must be understood by participants

Difficulties in Wage Incentives

Disruptions in the social system

Rate setting: Determining the standard output for each job, which is the fair day’s work for the individual

Increased complexity of supervisor’s job

Difficulties in Wage Incentives

Loose rates: Employees are able to reach standard output with less than reasonable levels of effort

Disharmony between incentive and hourly workers

Output restrictions: Workers limit their production, defeating the purpose of the incentive

Profit Sharing

System that distributes some share of profits to employees

Merits

Tax benefits

Recognizes mutual interests

Works better for fast-growing, profitable organizations

Works better under good economic conditions

Profit Sharing

Is well received and understood by managers and high-level professionals

Less initial appeal for operating workers

Demerits

Profits are not directly related to an employee’s effort on the job

Delay in receiving rewards

Lack of predictability

Union skepticism

Gain Sharing

Establishes a historical base period of organizational performance

Measures improvements

Shares the gains with employees on some formula basis

Pinpoint areas controllable by employees

Give employees incentives for identifying and implementing cost-saving ideas

Gain Sharing

Behavioral basis

Encourages employee suggestions

Provides incentive for coordination and teamwork

Promotes improved communication

Improves union-management relations

Improves attitudes toward technological change

Gives employees broader view of the system

Gain Sharing

Contingency factors

Size of the unit and sufficient history to allow creation of standards

Existence of controllable cost areas, stability of business, and management’s degree of receptivity to employee participation

Organization’s willingness to share profits and union cooperation

Managers’ receptivity to employee ideas and criticism

Skill-Based Pay

Rewards individuals for what they know how to do

Referred to as knowledge-based pay or multiskill pay

Employees are paid for the range, depth, and types of skills they demonstrate

Work starts at flat hourly rate and increases after developing skills

Skill-Based Pay

Substantial amounts of training is required for system to work

Methods for pricing jobs and certifying employee skills must be established

Skill-Based Pay

Advantages

Provides strong motivation for employees to develop work-related skills

Reinforces employee’s sense of self-esteem

Provides organization with flexible workforce

Reduces boredom

Relatively high pay satisfaction

Disadvantages

Most employees will voluntarily learn higher-level jobs to get greater hourly rate

Substantial investment in employee training

Places pressure on employees to move up the skill ladder causing dissatisfaction

Employees qualify themselves for skill areas that they will not use

Successful Implementation of Skill-Based Pay

Ensure the organizational culture is supportive and trusting

System needs to be understood by all employees

Employees should have realistic expectations

Employee pay should be linked with the potential for increased performance

Newstrom14e_PPT_Ch08 (1).ppt.pptx

Chapter Eight Empowerment and Participation

Organizational

Behavior

John W. Newstrom

Human Behavior at

Work

14e

Learning Objectives

The nature of empowerment and its prerequisites

The participative process

Benefits of participation

Types of participative programs

Limitations of participation

Servant leadership

Empowerment

Provides greater autonomy to employees through:

Sharing of relevant information

Provision of control over factors affecting job performance

Removes conditions that lead to powerlessness

Powerlessness causes low self-efficacy

Low self-efficay - Conviction among people that they cannot successfully perform their jobs or make meaningful contributions

Empowerment

Impostor phenomenon: Individuals fail to properly acknowledge their own expertise and accomplishments

Erroneously attribute their success to luck, charm, personal contacts, or timing

Behavioral tools to overcome powerlessness

Mutual goal setting and job feedback

Modeling and contingent reward systems

Participative management

Figure 8.1 - The Process of Empowerment Requires a Two-pronged Attack

Participation

Mental and emotional involvement of people in group situations

Encourages contribution to and shared responsibility of group goals

Elements

Involvement

Pseudoparticipation: Empty managerial actions

Motivation to contribute

Acceptance of responsibility

Figure 8.2 - Forces Affecting the Greater Use of Participation

Figure 8.3 - The Participative Process Outcomes

Impact on Managerial Power

Leader-member exchange model: Reciprocal relationship between leaders and their followers

For each employee, leader selectively:

Delegates, informs and consults, and mentors

Praises and rewards

To the manager, each subordinate contributes various degrees of:

Task performance

Loyalty and respect

Figure 8.4 - Two Views of Power and Influence

Figure 8.5 - Prerequisites for Participation

Figure 8.6 - Participation Exists Along a Continuum

Source: Adapted from Robert Tannenbaum and Warren H. Schmidt, “How to Choose a Leadership Pattern,” Harvard Business Review, March–April 1958, p. 96.

Contingency Factors

Emotional intelligence: Combination of:

Personal abilities - Self-awareness and self-management

Social competencies - Social awareness and relationship management

Contingency Factors

Differing employee needs for participation

Underparticipation: Occurs when employees want more participation than they have and feel deprived

Overparticipation: Occurs when employees have more participation than they want and feel saturated

Figure 8.7 - Products of the Relationship between an Employee’s Desired Participation and a Manager’s Use of It

Contingency Factors

Responsibilities of employees	Responsibilities of managers
Be responsible for their actions and their consequences	Identify the issues to be addressed
Operate within the relevant organizational policies	Specify the level of involvement desired
Be contributing team members	Provide relevant information and training
Respect and use the perspectives of others	Allocate fair rewards
Be dependable and ethical in their empowered actions
Demonstrate responsible self-leadership

Figure 8.8 - Selected Types of Participative Programs

Programs for Participation

Participative management: Developing a substantial sense of empowerment among employees by using:

Significant approach with widespread application

Sufficient number of programs

Suggestion programs: Formal plans to invite individual employees to recommend work improvements

Quality Circles

Voluntary groups that receive training in process improvements and problem-solving skills

Meet to produce ideas for improving productivity and working conditions

Help employees feel they have some influence on their organization

Guidelines for Successful Quality Circles

Use for measurable, short-term problems

Obtain continuous support from management

Apply group’s skills to problems within the circle’s work area

Train supervisors in facilitation skills

View them as a starting point for other more participative approaches

Total Quality Management (TQM)

Formal program with direct participation of all employees

Employees are trained in:

Problem solving

Group decision making

Statistical methods

Rapid-cycle Decision Making

Participative process that is time-efficient, inclusive, genuine, transparent, and yields definitive outcomes

Involves

Creation of a project steering committee

Identification of possibly affected employees

Rapid-cycle Decision Making

Framing of key issues and presentation

Distribution by email

Willingness to support the collective decision

Final judgments made by the steering committee where consensus could not be achieved

Self-Managing Teams

Natural work groups with large degree of decision-making autonomy

Expected to control their own behavior and results

Formal version of the group-decision approach

Known as semi-autonomous work groups or sociotechnical teams

Key feature - Diminished role for managers

Employee Ownership

Employees provide the capital to purchase control of an existing operation

Stimulus - Threatened closings of marginally profitable plants, with little hope of other employment in a suffering local economy

Has been tried in diverse industries

Flexible Work Arrangements

Grant employees more flexibility in determining how, when, and where work gets done

Primary forms

Telecommuting

Compressed workweeks

Job sharing

Flexible schedules

Part-time work

Time away from work

Flexible Work Arrangements

Benefits for:

Employees - Higher levels of job satisfaction and reduced job stress

Employers - Aids in recruiting and retaining valuable workers and reduces costly space needs

Face time: Frequent opportunities to interact personally with one’s manager

Possible through the use of apps, email and instant messaging

Benefits of Participation

Brings higher and better quality of output

Improves motivation, self-esteem, job satisfaction, and cooperation with management

Reduces conflict and stress

Creates more commitment to goals

Establishes better acceptance of change

Reduces turnover and absenteeism

Implements organizational changes rapidly

Establishes better communication

Figure 8.9 - Forces Affecting the Lesser Use of Participation

New Role for Managers

Stewards: Caretakers, guardians, and developers of a broad range of human and technical resources

Servant leadership: Helping others attain relevant goals while developing their skills and abilities

Listening actively and empathetically

Engaging in introspection

Treating others with respect

New Role for Managers

Admitting mistakes and confessing one’s own vulnerability

Asking for help from others and engaging in dialogue and paraphrasing to ensure understanding

Affirming the worth and contributions of each participant and building trust by articulating their values and acting consistently with them

Placing great emphasis on helping other people succeed

Newstrom14e_PPT_Ch10 (1).pptx

Chapter Ten Issues Between Organizations and Individuals

Organizational

Behavior

John W. Newstrom

Human Behavior at

Work

14e

Learning Objectives

A model of legitimacy of organizational influence

How rights to privacy are interpreted

Bases for discrimination at work

Using discipline to change behaviors

Quality of work life (QWL)

Job enrichment: pros and cons

Mutual individual-organization responsibilities

Whistle-blowing as a prosocial behavior

Legitimate Organizational Influence

Every organization develops policies and requirements for performance

Conflict occurs if the organization’s and an individual’s boundaries of legitimate influence differ

Areas of organizational influence

High legitimacy - Job conduct

Low legitimacy - Personal activities off the job

Figure 10.1 - Model of Legitimacy of Organizational Influence on Employees

Off-the-Job Conduct

The more job-related one’s conduct is when off the job, the more support there is for organizational influence on the employee

Current issues

Surveillance

Substance abuse

Genetic screening

Office romances

Assessments of ethical values

Rights of Privacy

Keeping certain information about an individual confidential

Areas that employees, customers, and others believe should be off limits

Religious, political, and social beliefs

Personal acts and conversations

Non-business locations and personal-use locations

Figure 10.2 - Business Activities that May Involve Employee Rights of Privacy

Policy Guidelines Relating to Privacy

Relevance

Recency

Notice

Fiduciary duty

Confidentiality

Due process

Protection of the psyche

Surveillance Devices

Equipment and procedures for monitoring employee actions

Electronic sensor badges - Microcomputers in clip-on ID cards

Electronic monitoring: Observing/recording individuals using electronic methods or devices

Impact on employees - Higher levels of physiological and emotional distress

Surveillance Devices

Keys to employee acceptance

Advance notification and explanation

Using information to improve performance

Using employee input to set up a fair system

Surveillance Devices

Cyberloafers or cyberslackers - Employees who use work time and work computers for personal interest.

Social screening: Information gleaned from e-mails, Facebook, Twitter, Blogs, and LinkedIn

Aids management in screening prospective employees

Honesty Tests

Attempt to get the respondents to disclose information about their previous or prospective honesty

Referred to as integrity tests

Two forms

Overt tests - Inquire about attitudes toward theft

Personality-based tests - Indirectly identify dishonest people by relating scores on selected personality-test items to a theft criterion

Health Issues and Privacy

Alcoholism

Costs employers in absenteeism, poor work, lost productivity, and increased health care costs

Successful programs:

Treat alcoholism as an illness

Focus on job behavior

Provide medical and psychological help

Provide a non-threatening atmosphere

Health Issues and Privacy

Drug abuse

Consequences for organizations

Employee theft and lost productivity

Rise in employee absentee rates and additional health costs

Drug-Free Workplace Act (1988) - Requires some employers to create and distribute policies prohibiting drug abuse at work

Health Issues and Privacy

Drug testing

Objections

False positives/negatives and its impact

Revelation of medical conditions that an employee may prefer to keep private

Being watched while providing test samples

Presumed right to consume whatever one desires

Health Issues and Privacy

Solution to the problems with drug testing is impairment testing

Impairment testing: Brief motor-skills test performed on a computer

Genetic testing: Using medical tests to predict whether an individual may be genetically susceptible to one or more types of illnesses or harmful substances

Health Issues and Privacy

Genetic monitoring: Identifies harmful substances in the workplace, examines their effects on the genetic makeup of employees, and provides the basis for corrective action

Positive uses

Moving susceptible employees to safer areas, providing health warnings, and enabling development of protective measures

Negative aspects

Discrimination based on results and impacts individual privacy and opportunity

Figure 10.3 - EEOC Definition of Sexual Harassment

Source: Employment Opportunity Commission’s Guidelines on Discrimination Because of Sex, 1604.11 (Sexual Harassment)., Nov. 10, 1980.

Health Issues and Privacy

Sexual harassment

Preventive practices

Developing policies to address the issue and educate employees about it

Identifying actions that constitute harassment and communicating possible liabilities and negative effects

Employers are liable for:

Reinstatement of the victims if they were unfairly discharged and paying back wages, punitive damages, and awards for psychological suffering and pain

Health Issues and Privacy

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)

Deadly virus affecting the human immune system

Contagious, incurable and often fatal

Legal status of infected employees is unclear

Related work issues

Protection of medical privacy and educating co-workers

Effect on teamwork and group participation

Preventing harassment or social isolation

Employee AIDs testing

Discipline

Action taken to enforce standards

Preventive discipline: Encourage individuals to follow rules to avoid infractions

Corrective discipline: Follows infraction of a rule

Objectives of disciplinary action

To reform the offender

To deter others from similar actions

To maintain consistent, effective group standards

Discipline

Progressive discipline: Stronger penalties for repeated offenses

Purpose is to provide an opportunity for self-correction

Figure 10.4 - A Progressive Discipline System

Quality of Work Life (QWL)

Favorableness or unfavorableness of a total job environment for people

Help organizations recognize their responsibility to develop jobs and working conditions for people and the organization's economic health

Elements

Open communications and equitable reward systems

Concern for employee job security and careers

Caring supervisor and participation in decision making

Quality of Work Life (QWL)

Helps:

Develop employee skills

Reduce occupational stress

Build more cooperative labor-management relations

Rationale for redesigning jobs and organizations for a better QWL

Classical job design gave inadequate attention to human needs

Needs and aspirations of workers have changed

Job Enlargement and Job Enrichment

Consists of job breadth and depth

Job breadth: Number of different tasks an individual is directly responsible for

Job depth: Level of control, responsibility, and discretion workers have over their job

Job scope

Giving employees with narrow job breadth a wider variety of duties to reduce their monotony

Job enlargement

Periodic assignment of an employee to completely different sets of job activities

Job rotation

Adding additional motivators to a job to make it more rewarding

Job enrichment

Figure 10.5 - Difference between Job Enrichment and Job Enlargement

Figure 10.6 - Benefits of Job Enrichment Emerge in Three Areas

Applying Job Enrichment

Employees decide on what enriches their jobs

If maintenance factors decline during an enrichment program, employees will be less responsive to the program

Not all employees will choose enriched jobs, given the option

Contingency relationship exists in terms of different job needs

Figure 10.7 - How Core Job Characteristics Affect Work Outcomes through Three Psychological States

Enrichment Increases Motivation

Enriched jobs increase motivation provided that employees:

Have adequate job knowledge and skills

Desire to learn, grow, and develop

Are satisfied with their work environment

Most enrichment attempts have been conducted in manufacturing operations

Social Cues Affect Perceptions

Social cues: Subtle bits of positive or negative information workers receive from their social surroundings

Social information processing: Using social cues to arrive at one’s own perceptions peers:

Suggest which job characteristics really count

Offer relative weighting of each core dimension

Provide clues about their own judgments of the dimensions

Figure 10.8 - Social Cues Affect Employee Reactions to Tasks

Contingency Factors Affecting Enrichment

Very high costs in relation to rewards

Some workers will not want an enriched job

Affects pay relationships

Expensive equipment that are inadaptable

Production system becomes unbalanced

Reduced supervisory or staff roles

Union opposition

Organizational Citizenship

Organizational citizens: Employees who go beyond their job descriptions and engage in positive social acts that benefit others

Newstrom14e_PPT_Ch15 (1).ppt.pptx

Chapter Fifteen Stress and Counseling

Organizational

Behavior

John W. Newstrom

Human Behavior at

Work

14e

Learning Objectives

The role of stress in employee health

Extreme forms of stress reactions

Causes and symptoms of stress

Organizational effects of stress

Actions that may prevent or reduce stress

Different counseling functions

Three types of counseling and their usefulness

Employee Stress

Stress: Pressures people feel in life due to:

Poor working conditions

Sustained conflicts with supervisors

Traumatic events

Intentional harassment

If liability is established:

Benefits can be claimed under workers’ compensation laws

Organization can be sued for financial damages

Figure 15.1 - Typical Negative Symptoms of Unmanaged Stress

Products of Stress

Resilience: Capacity to handle short-term tensions and bounce back from difficulties

Phases of stress - Alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

Burnout: Employees are emotionally exhausted, develop cynicism about their work, and feel unable to accomplish their professional goals

Loss of interest in work

Detachment from clients

Products of Stress

Deterioration in work output

Physical and mental problems

Workaholics: Addicted to work and internally driven to work for long hours

Suggestions for coping with stress at work

Realistic about career expectations

Periodic short breaks and exercise program

Hobby and volunteer work

Trauma

Occurs following a major threat to one’s security

Workplace trauma: Disintegration of employees’ self-concepts and beliefs in their capabilities

Harassment at work and discrimination

Employee’s perceived incapacity

Sudden job loss

Layoff survivor’s sickness: Simultaneous relief and guilt experienced by the survivors of mass downsizings

Trauma

Workplace violence: Dramatic and harmful physical action against co-workers, managers, or company property

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Suffered by any person who:

Witnesses violence

Receives injury from violence

Lives under fear of future violence

Figure 15.2 - A Model of Causes, Types, and Consequences of Stress

Source: Parts of the model are adapted from Randall S. Schuler, “An Integrative Transactional Process Model of Stress in Organizations,” Journal of Occupational Behavior, January 1982, pp. 5–19.

Figure 15.3 - Typical Causes of Stress on the Job

Nonwork Stressors

Arises away from work, and have spillover effects on work performance

Relationship breakdowns, personal illnesses

Parenting issues and transportation challenges

Caregiving roles and responsibilities

Financial difficulties and psychological problems

Stress audit: Survey, administered anonymously to employees, that solicits their responses to a variety of questions related to working conditions

Frustration

Result of a motivation being blocked to prevent one from reaching a desired goal

Defense mechanisms: Reactions that defend one from the psychological effects of a blocked goal

Types of reactions

Aggression, apathy, and physical disorder

Withdrawal, regression, and fixation

Sources - Co-workers, hassles, and abusive supervisors

Figure 15.4 - A Stress-Performance Model Depicting Two Stress Thresholds

Stress Vulnerability

Level of stressors that a person can tolerate before negative feelings of stress occur and adversely affect performance

Stress threshold

Employees’ perception of the amount of control they have over their work and working conditions

Perceived control

Aggressive, competitive, and set high standards

Impatient with themselves and others

Thrive under constant time pressures

Prone to stress-related ailments

Type A people

Relaxed and easygoing

Accept situations and work within them

Less prone to stress-related problems

Type B people

Approaches to Stress Management

Improve managerial communication and empower employees

Redesign jobs or implement organization development programs

Employees can:

Request for job transfers

Approaches to Stress Management

Find alternative employment or opt for early retirement

Develop assertive skills and confront the stressor

Cope - Cooperative efforts among employees and management

Figure 15.5 - Common Personal Strategies for Managing Stress

Types of Support for Stress Management

Network of activities, interactions, and relationships that provides an employee with the satisfaction of important needs

Types of support in a total network - Instrumental, informational, evaluative, and emotional

Social support

Involves quiet concentrated inner thought to rest the body physically and emotionally

Relaxation response

Paid or unpaid time off to temporarily remove oneself from a stressful work environment

Sabbatical leaves

Preventive approach for reducing the causes of stress

Personal wellness

Counseling

Discussion with an employee of a stressful problem that has emotional content, to help the employee cope better

Goals

Improve employee mental health and well-being

Help employee meet organizational expectations

Counseling

Key features

Confidential

Concerned with work and personal problems

Helps control untamed emotions that could result in harmful consequences

Figure 15.6 - Functions of Counseling

Figure 15.7 - Types of Counseling According to Amount of Direction that Counselors Provide

Types of Counseling

Directive counseling: Listening to an employee’s problem and deciding with the employee what should be done

Telling and motivating the employee to do it

Reorientation is seldom achieved

Types of Counseling

Nondirective (client-centered) counseling: Skillfully listening to and encouraging an employee to explain his/her problems

Understanding them and determining appropriate solutions

Employee-centered

Types of Counseling

Advantages

Results in employee’s reorientation

Follows an iceberg model of counseling

Iceberg model of counseling: Recognizes that more feelings may be hidden under the surface of a counselee’s communication than are revealed

Disadvantages

Time-consuming and expensive

Depends on employee’s willingness

Some employees may use it to avoid work responsibilities

Figure 15.8 - Major Differences between Nondirective and Directive Counseling

Figure 15.9 - Iceberg Model of Counseling

Participative Counseling

Mutual relationship that establishes a cooperative exchange of ideas to help solve an employee’s problems

Integrates the ideas of both participants in a counseling relationship

Starts by using the listening techniques of nondirective counseling

As the interview progresses, participative counselors may play a more active role than nondirective counselors

Contingency View of Counseling

Directive approach - To be used for problems involving facts and requiring a timely logical solution

Nondirective approach - To be used for problems involving personal feelings and emotions

Other considerations

Manager’s willingness

Recipients’ expectations

Newstrom14e_PPT_Ch14 (1).pptx

Chapter Fourteen Managing Change

Organizational

Behavior

John W. Newstrom

Human Behavior at

Work

14e

Learning Objectives

The nature of change

Cost and benefits of change

Resistance to change

Basic frameworks for interpreting change

Role of transformational leadership in change

Practices to build support for change

Meaning and characteristics of OD

Nature of Change at Work

Change: Any alteration occurring at work or in the work environment that affects the ways in which employees must act

Widespread effect on the whole organization

Human and technical problem

Disrupts equilibrium

Established when people develop a stable set of relations with their environment

Role of Managers with Regard to Change

Anticipating events, initiating change, and taking control of the organization’s destiny

Proactive

Responding to events, adapting to change, and tempering the consequences of change

Reactive

Responses to Change

How people feel about a change determines how they will respond to it

Caused by:

Personal history

Work environment

Hawthorne effect: Group’s perception of being observed and one’s interpretation of its significance tends to change the group

Responses to Change

Group response - People show their attachment to the group by responding uniformly to a change

Homeostasis: People act to establish a steady state of need fulfillment and to protect themselves from disturbance of that balance

Groups return to their perceived best way of life when any change occurs

Figure 14.1 - Unified Social Response to Change

Costs and Benefits

Intentional change: Occurs when individuals weigh the positive and negative aspects of a change

Psychic costs: Psychological costs that affect a person’s inner self

Repetitive change syndrome: Sustained series of small or moderate changes over a period of time

Costs and Benefits

Produces cumulative effects that overload a person’s system

Management should consider each change

Help individuals understand it and experience a net gain from it

Resistance to Change

Any employee behaviors designed to discredit, delay, or prevent a work change

Causes of resistance

Organizational cultures that overvalue criticism of new ideas

Undercutting of changes behind the scenes

Indecisive managers, suffering analysis paralysis

Emphasis on flashy proposals, no follow-through, and bunker mentality

Nature and Effects

Perceived threats

Real or imagined

Intended or unintended

Direct or indirect

Large or small

Nature and Effects

Success of a change depends on how skillfully it is managed

Chain-reaction effect: Occurs when a change that directly affects one or more persons leads to a direct or indirect reaction from people sharing a mutual interest

Reasons for Resistance

Nature of the change itself

Method by which change is introduced

Personal factors

Reluctance to exchange certainty for uncertainty

Threats to job security

Reasons for Resistance

Lack of trust in management

Low tolerance for change

High degree of parochial self-interest

Perceived lack of a demonstrated problem

Someone else appears to gain the benefits

Figure 14.2 - Parallel Stages of Reactions to Terminal Illness and Organizational Change

Figure 14.3 - Types of Resistance to Change among Employees

Suggestions to Tackle Resistance

Acknowledge employee feelings

Encourage employees to let go of the past and to embrace what is new

Insist on an outstanding effort to make the change

Break tasks down into manageable steps

Possible Benefits of Resistance

Encourages reexamination of change proposals

Modifications are made to the process to ensure they are appropriate

Identifies problem areas where difficulties may occur

Helps take corrective action before they develop

Encourages better communication, leading to acceptance

Transformational Leaders

Initiate bold strategic changes to position an organization for its future

Create vision

Communicate charisma

Important tool that charismatic leaders use involves the art of storytelling

Transformational Leaders

Stimulate learning

Double-loop learning: Capacity to learn from the experience of change

Prepare participants to manage future changes effectively

Stages of Change

Unfreezing: Old ideas and practices need to be cast aside so new ones can be learned

Changing: New ideas, new methods, and new technologies are learned

Refreezing: What has been learned is integrated into actual practice

Figure 14.4 - A Model of the Equilibrium State and Change Process

Methods to Introduce Change

Adding supporting forces and making recipients aware of them

Removing restraining forces

Increasing the actual strength of a supporting force

Communicating that rewards or coercive power will be used to induce change

Methods to Introduce Change

Persistently using supporting forces until the change is completed

Decreasing the strength of a restraining force

Converting a restraining force into a supporting force

Building Support for Change

Use group forces

Provide a rationale for change

Give importance to expectations

Encourage participation

Offer economic and psychic rewards

Building Support for Change

Ensure employee security

Communicate and educate

Stimulate employee readiness

Work with the total system

Organization Development (OD)

Systematic application of behavior science knowledge at various organizational levels to bring about planned change

Recognizes organizations as systems with dynamic interpersonal relationships, holding individuals together

Organization Development (OD)

Objective is to make organizations more:

Humanly responsive

Effective

Capable of continuous organizational learning and self-renewal

Foundations of Organization Development

Systems orientation

Interplay of structure, technology, and people

Behavior of employees in different groups, departments, and locations

Emphasis is on the manner in which the parts relate

Understanding causality - Causal variables, intervening variables, and end-result variables

Figure 14.6 - Variables in the Organization Development Approach

Figure 14.7 - Common Organization Development Assumptions

Characteristics of Organizational Development

Humanistic values: Positive beliefs about the potential and desire for growth among employees

Change agent: Spark change within the system while remaining partially independent of it

Problem solving

Action research: Cyclical process of using research to guide action

Generates new data as the basis for new actions

Interventions

Structured activities designed to help individuals or groups improve their work effectiveness

Classified by their emphasis on individuals or groups

Appreciative inquiry: Turns employee attention away from a negative focus on problems, missteps, deficiencies, shortcomings, and blaming

Figure 14.8 - Typical Stages in Organization Development

Newstrom14e_PPT_Ch13 (1).ppt.pptx

Chapter Thirteen Teams and Team Building

Organizational

Behavior

John W. Newstrom

Human Behavior at

Work

14e

Teamwork

Exhibited when members of a task team:

Know their objectives

Contribute responsibly and enthusiastically

Support one another

Task team: Cooperative small group in regular contact, engaged in coordinated action

Figure 13.1 - Some Key Differences between Groups and Teams

Stages of Team Development

Forming	Sharing of personal information Aura of courtesy prevails and interactions are cautious
Storming	Members compete for status and control Arguments take place about the direction for the group External pressures interfere
Norming	Group begins moving in a cooperative fashion Tentative balance among competing forces occur Norms emerge and guide behavior
Performing	Group matures and learns to handle complex challenges Functional roles are performed and exchanged fluidly Tasks are accomplished efficiently
Adjourning	Social relations are dissolved Members return to permanent assignments or move on to other jobs

Potential Team Problems

Changing composition - Teams must learn to manage their internal turnover by:

Anticipating and accepting it

Developing a plan for it

Deciding how to best integrate new members

Social loafing: Occurs when there is a:

Perception of unfair division of labor

Low achievement motivation

Belief that coworkers are lazy

Potential Team Problems

Perception of a meaningless task

Feeling that one cannot be singled out for blame

Sucker effect: Member believes others intend to withhold their efforts and thus he or she would be foolish not to do the same

Potential Team Problems

Impediments to the creation of cohesive teams

Inattentiveness to team results

Failure to hold individuals accountable

Lack of commitment to group effort

Reluctance to engage in debate and conflict

Lack of trust

Ingredients of Effective Teams

Supportive environment, skills and role clarity

Superordinate goal: Higher goal that integrates the efforts of two or more persons

Shared mental model: Teams should have a common understanding of the nature of their work and what it will take to accomplish the task

Ingredients of Effective Teams

Trust, team rewards, and empowerment

Positive norms

Dissent: Members find it acceptable to agree to disagree

Figure 13.6 - Common Outcomes of Effective Teams

Self-Managing Teams

Advantages

Improved flexibility of staff

More efficient operations through reduced number of job classifications

Lower absenteeism and turnover rates

Higher levels of organizational commitment and job satisfaction

Disadvantages

Extended time required to implement them

High training investment

Early inefficiencies due to job rotation

Inability of some employees to adapt to a team structure

Figure 13.7 - Contrasting Supervisory Roles Under Two Structures

Virtual Teams

Groups of individuals from around the globe that meet through the use of technological aids

Members are not present in the same location

Potential problems

Individualistic behavior

Feelings of isolation

Lack of trust

Extra coordination

Virtual Teams

Substitutions for face-to-face interaction

Clarified goal and definition of major issues

Short, face-to-face meetings

Temporary on-location projects

Explicit definition of role expectations

Identification of potential problems

Frequent use of e-mail and video-conferencing

Newstrom14e_PPT_Ch12 (1).pptx

Chapter Twelve Informal and Formal Groups

Organizational

Behavior

John W. Newstrom

Human Behavior at

Work

14e

Learning Objectives

Group dynamics

The nature and effects of informal groups

Informal leaders

Differences between task and social leadership roles

Brainstorming, nominal, Delphi, and dialectic techniques

Weaknesses of group meetings

Group Dynamics

Social process by which people interact face-to-face in small groups

Study of forces operating within a group

Groups have properties of their own

Differ from the properties of the individuals who make up the group

No two people can be understood without examining their relationship

Types of Groups

Established by the organization and which have a public identity and goal to achieve

Formal groups

Emerge on the basis of common interests, proximity, and friendships

Informal groups

Figure 12.1 - Differences between Informal and Formal Organizations

Figure 12.2 - Formal and Informal Organizations and Their Effects

Informal Leaders

Employee with the largest amount of status in the informal organization

Socialize new members into the organization

Perform complex tasks

Model and explain key norms

Build and sustain group cohesiveness

Use the high esteem of their position to balance the additional responsibilities

Informal Leaders

Informal groups overlap

A group can have multiple informal leaders

One primary leader has more influence than others

Leaders can be identified by their distinctive behaviors

Drawback - Are not always the best formal manager

Figure 12.3 - Potential Benefits and Problems Associated with the Informal Organization

Cohesiveness

Indicated by how strongly the employees stick together, rely on each other, and desire to remain members of the group

Factors that increase cohesiveness

Creating competitions against other groups

Having frequent interactions among members

Cohesiveness

Selecting members with similar attitudes, backgrounds, and values

Identifying a challenging group goal

Recognizing a major threat or common enemy to the group

Problems Associated with Informal Organizations

Resistance to change

Cause of employee conformity

Encouraged by societal norms

Reference groups: Group whose norms a person accepts

Nonconformers may be pressured and harassed until they capitulate or leave

Role conflict

Not subject to management’s direct control

Monitoring Informal Organizations

Network charts: Focus on either interpersonal feelings expressed among individuals or actual behaviors exhibited

Determines who trusts whom and selects an individual to negotiate a satisfactory compromise on an issue

Reveals:

Central individuals and isolated persons

Differences between what outsiders think is happening

Guidelines for Influencing Informal Organizations

Accept and understand them

Identify various levels of attitudes and behaviors within them

Consider possible effects on informal systems when taking any kind of action

Integrate the interests of informal groups with those of the formal organization

Keep formal activities from unnecessarily threatening them

Formal Groups

Time spent in formal groups is criticized as being:

Unproductive

Source of confusion and misinformation

An excuse for indecision on the part of an individual decision maker

Formal Groups

Prevalence of negative attitudes is attributed to:

Lack of trust and missing or incomplete information

Belief that meetings are not part of work

Poorly-run meetings and a view that meetings are the end-result, not the means to an end

Committees

Group in which members who have the authority to handle a problem meet to address and resolve it

Group’s authority is expressed in terms of one vote for each member

Limitation - People are unable to make adjustments from their normal work roles and relationships

Figure 12.5 - Systems View of Effective Committees

Agendas

Surface agenda: Official task of the group

Hidden agendas: Members’ private emotions and motives

Criteria for effective surface agendas

Distribute well in advance, specifying the date, time, place, and primary purpose of the meeting

Agendas

List presenters, time allotted to them, and time available for discussion

Focus on decisions and accommodate new items, address items in priority order

Identify date, time, and place of the next meeting

Figure 12.6 - Task and Social Leadership Roles

Facilitating Effective Meetings

Consider who should and who should not be present

Select a good site for the meeting

Use technology to competently handle the meeting

Give appropriate credit to those who participate

Facilitating Effective Meetings

Use open questions and directed questions

Reject superficial excuses

Inspire members to overcome obstacles

Balance serious discussions with time for fun

Summarize progress and identify unresolved issues

Make assignments for the future

Structured Approaches

Brainstorming

Nominal group technique

Delphi decision making

Dialectic decision methods

Group decision support system

Brainstorming

Encourages creative thinking in groups

Electronic brainstorming: Using computer technology

Guidelines for participants

Generate as many ideas with creativity

Build upon, extend, or combine earlier ideas and withhold criticism of others’ ideas

Brainstorming

Underlying principles

Deferred judgment: All ideas are encouraged without criticism or evaluation

Quantity valued most as it breeds quality

Brainstorming

Advantages

Group members are enthusiastic

Participation is broader than normal

Group maintains a strong task orientation

Ideas are built upon and extended

Members feel that the final product is a team solution

Disadvantages

Fear that one’s creative thoughts will be looked down upon

Independent thought and criticism of one’s ideas do not contribute to group cohesion

Failure to set and follow ground rules

Organizational history of not taking action to implement ideas

Only one person can speak at a time

Nominal Group Technique

Nominal group: Members have minimal interaction prior to producing a decision

Members are brought together and given a problem

Solutions are developed independently and ideas are shared in a structured format

Brief time is allotted for clarifying queries

Members individually designate their preferences by secret ballot and group decision is announced

Nominal Group Technique

Advantages

Opportunity for equal participation by all members

Prevention of dominance of discussion by any one member

Tight control of time that the process allows

Disadvantages

Members are frustrated by the rigidity of the procedure

Members gain no feelings of cohesiveness

Members do not get their social needs satisfied

Members do not benefit from cross-fertilization of ideas

Delphi Decision Making

Delphi decision groups: Panel of relevant people chosen to address an issue

Series of questionnaires are sequentially distributed to the respondents

Panelists are asked to:

Identify future problems

Project market trends

Predict a future state of affairs

Delphi Decision Making

Explanations of their conclusions can be shared

Written responses are summarized and fed back to members

Participants make another decision based on the new information

Process is repeated until responses converge and a final report is prepared

Delphi Decision Making

Advantages

Elimination of interpersonal problems

Efficient use of experts’ time

Adequate time for reflection and analysis by respondents

Diversity and quantity of ideas generated

Accuracy of predictions and forecasts made

Figure 12.8 - Steps in Dialectic Decision Making

Dialectic Decision Method (DDM)

Offers a way to overcome problems of incomplete evaluation of options in decision-making groups

Benefits

Better understanding of proposals, underlying premises, and pros and cons

Members feel more confident about the choice they made

Dialectic Decision Method (DDM)

Limitations

Propensity to forge a weak compromise to avoid choosing sides

Focusing more on who were the better debaters

Crowdsourcing

Contemporary method for obtaining inputs from a wide variety of individuals

Involves outsourcing a large-scale task to a group of self-selected persons who then work together to produce a single solution

Crowdsourcing can either draw from internal or external resources

Potential Outcomes of Formal Group Processes

Support for decisions

Quality of decisions and problem solving improves

Individual development

Social facilitation: Members try harder to contribute on a task just because other people are around

Conformity: Members are alert to the perceived expectations and norms of the majority

Consensus

Group engages in widespread input gathering, which results in a shared level of understanding

Consensus-oriented members can and will support the decision made

Ideas for reaching consensus

Conduct periodic and nonbinding straw polls

Suggest a supermajority vote

Consensus

Ask members to withdraw controversial proposals or stand aside to let the group proceed

Create a subgroup and empower it to make a decision

Distill the concerns into major groups to pinpoint patterns of problems

Consensus

Expedite closing of discussion by letting:

Each member speak for a limited time

Representatives of major positions speak for all others

Facilitation: Helping a group:

Attain resounding success

Maximize its efficient use of time

Feel satisfied with its efforts

Role of Effective Facilitators

Encourage a group to separate idea-getting from idea-evaluation

Generate multiple solutions to evaluate

Avoid personal attacks

Attain balanced contributions from its members

Add on others’ ideas

Role of Effective Facilitators

Identify criteria for judging potential solutions

Processing: Setting aside time at the end of a meeting to examine:

What went well and what went poorly

How the group’s behavior could be improved

Weaknesses of Committees

Slowness and expensiveness

Groupthink: Tendency of a tightly knit group to bring individual thinking in line with the group’s thinking

Symptoms

Self-censorship of critical thoughts

Rationalizing their actions

Weaknesses of Committees

Illusion of invulnerability, unanimity, and morality

Reliance on self-appointed mind-guards

Stereotyping others outside the group

Pressure on dissidents to conform to the group

Reduced by a devil’s advocate or by red teaming

Devil’s advocate: Guardians of clear and moral thinking who provide constructive criticism

Weaknesses of Committees

Red teaming: Subset of a group:

Challenges underlying assumptions

Takes an adversary’s viewpoint

Proposes scenarios that have not been considered

Polarization: Individuals bring to the group their strong predispositions toward a topic

Risky shift: Willingness to take chances with organizational resources as a group than they would as individuals

Weaknesses of Committees

Escalating commitment: Persevering in advocating a course of action despite rational evidence that it will result in failure

Selective perception results in confirmation bias

Ego needs of the decision makers affect decisions

Admiration of leaders who are risk takers

Group decisions dilute and thin out responsibility

Weaknesses of Committees

Social loafers: Individual members who shirk responsibility with justifications

Newstrom14e_PPT_Ch09 (1).ppt.pptx

Chapter Nine Employee Attitudes and Their Effects

Organizational

Behavior

John W. Newstrom

Human Behavior at

Work

14e

Learning Objectives

The nature of attitudes and job satisfaction

The relationship between performance and satisfaction

Job involvement and organizational commitment

Some positive and negative effects of employee attitudes

Learning Objectives

Organizational citizenship behaviors

Benefits of studying employee attitudes

Design and use of job satisfaction surveys

Employee Attitudes

Negative attitude

Symptom of underlying problems

Contributing cause of forthcoming difficulties

Positive attitude

Results in employee satisfaction

Enhances productivity

Entitlement: Employees’ belief that they deserve things because their employer owes it to them

Nature of Employee Attitudes

Attitudes: Feelings and beliefs determining how employees:

Perceive their environment

Commit themselves to intended actions

Behave

Nature of Employee Attitudes

Employee predispositions

Positive affectivity: Found in people who are optimistic, upbeat, cheerful, and courteous

Negative affectivity: Found in people who are pessimistic, downbeat, irritable, and abrasive

Job Satisfaction

Set of favorable or unfavorable feelings and emotions with which employees view their work

Differs from:

Objective thought - Employee’s belief about the nature of his or her work

Behavioral intentions: Employee’s plan of action regarding his or her work

Individual focus - Attitude of an individual employee

Job Satisfaction

Viewed as:

Overall attitude - May fail to bring hidden exceptions to the forefront

Multidimensional study - Ensure employee’s high satisfaction on one element does not offset high dissatisfaction on another

Job content - Nature of the job

Job context - Supervisor, co-workers, and organization

Job Satisfaction

Dynamic factor - Declines more quickly than it develops

Environmental impact - Environment off the job indirectly influences feelings on the job and vice versa, causing a spillover effect

Spillover effect: Occurs in both directions between job and life satisfaction

Importance - Knowledge of organizational behavior to be used to build better organizations

Levels of Job Satisfaction

Influencing variables - Age, occupational level, and size of the organization

Satisfaction is higher:

Among people in high-level positions

In smaller organizations

Job Involvement

Degree to which employees:

Are immersed in their jobs

Invest time and energy in their jobs

Consider work a central part of their lives

Job-involved employees:

Believe in the work ethic

Exhibit high growth needs

Enjoy participating in decision making

Job Involvement

Are seldom tardy or absent

Are willing to work long hours

Strive to be high performers

Similar to organizational identification

Organizational identification: Employees blend in well and fit the organization’s ethics and expectations

Organizational Commitment

Degree to which an employee identifies with the organization and wants to continue actively participating in it

Strong among employees who:

Are long-term members of the organization

Have experienced success in the organization

Have passed difficult hurdles to successful entry

Work within a committed employee group

Organizational Commitment

Forms

Affective - Positive emotional state in which employees want to exert effort and choose to remain with the organization

Normative - Employees stay because strong because of strong cultural or familial ethics

Continuance - Employees stay owing to:

Their high investments in the organization

The economic and social losses incurred if they leave

Figure 9.2 - Factors that Inhibit and that Stimulate Employee Commitment

Source: Adam M. Grant, Jane E. Dutton, and Brent D. Rosso, “Giving Commitment: Employee Support Programs and the Prosocial Sensemaking Process,” Academy of Management Journal, 2008, vol. 51, no. 5, pp. 898–918.

Work Moods

Employees’ variable attitudes toward their jobs

Range from positive to negative and weak to strong and intense

Positive moods result in:

Better customer service

Decreased absenteeism

More creativity and interpersonal cooperation

Gets affected by managerial actions and co-workers’ moods

Employee Engagement

Occurs when employees:

Are concerned for and share a bond with the organization and its success

Volunteer in many ways to help the organization perform well

Identify with and get intrinsic satisfaction from the work in the organization

Work passionately toward team goals

Have better safety records

Employee Engagement

Managers stimulate and reinforce it through:

Effective communication

Clear job expectations

Inspirational leadership

Positive relationships with their supervisors

Regular feedback and recognition

FIGURE 9.3 - Degrees of Employee Engagement

Source: Amy J. Zuckerman, “Live from Training 2007,” Training, April 2007, p. 26.

Effects of Employee Attitudes

Dissatisfied employees engage in:

Psychological withdrawal

Physical withdrawal

Aggression

Satisfied employees

Provide more than what is required of them

Have good work records

Pursue excellence in all areas of the job

Figure 9.4 - Possible Employee Responses to Dissatisfaction

Figure 9.5 - The Performance–Satisfaction–Effort Loop

Turnover

Proportion of employees leaving an organization during a given time period

Negative effects

Separation costs

Training costs

Vacancy and replacement costs

Morale effects

Functional effects

More opportunities for internal promotion

Removal of disruptive employees

Infusion of expertise from new employees

Figure 9.6 - Four Products of Employee-Organization Attitudes

Achieving Lower Turnover

Clarify job expectations

Socialize employees about norms for their behavior

Look for early signs of dissatisfaction

Provide employees with opportunities to excel and use their talents

Offer recognition and praise on a regular basis

Ensure that employees feel valued as individuals

Absences and Tardiness

Absences: Employees’ not being present at work due to various reasons

Voluntary absences

Prevalent among dissatisfied employees

Happen on Mondays or Fridays

Involuntary absences

Caused by legitimate medical or personal reasons

Can be reduced through preemployment physical exams and work-history record checks

Absences and Tardiness

Paid leave bank - Employee’s entire accrued time off

Lets employee decide when to take days off

Provides employer with greater predictability of absences

Tardiness: Short-period absenteeism ranging from a few minutes to several hours for each event

Absences and Tardiness

Physical withdrawal from active involvement in the organization

Impedes timely completion of work

Disrupts productive relationships with co-workers

Presenteeism: Employees come to work despite troublesome physical and emotional health conditions that substantially affect their work performance

Theft

Unauthorized use or removal of company resources

Reasons

Feeling exploited, overworked, or frustrated by how their organization treats them

Reestablishing a perception of lost equity and revenge for ill treatment

Rule-bending: Employees intentionally twist organizational policies to obtain personal gain

Figure 9.7 - Forces for and against Unethical Rule-Bending

Violence

Various forms of verbal or physical aggression at work

Sources

Co-workers

Customers

Strangers

Work stress is a cause and a consequence of it

Organizational Citizenship Behaviors

Discretionary and helpful actions above and beyond the call of duty

Called prosocial behavior

Promote the organization’s success

Features

Spontaneity

Voluntary nature

Constructive impact on results

Unexpected cooperativeness to others

Organizational Citizenship Behaviors

Displayed by employees who:

Possess personality traits that dispose them to do so

Hope to receive special recognition

Are attempting image-enhancement

Emotional Contagion

Automatic and unconscious spread of attitudes and feelings from one person to another

Negative attitudes are more influential than positive ones

Strongly expressed attitudes are more contagious than others

Managers stress on emotional labor to fortify customer satisfaction

Emotional labor: Effort that employees expend to project positive emotions

Studying Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction survey: Employees report their feelings toward their jobs and work environment

Determines general levels and specific areas of satisfaction or dissatisfaction

Improves flow of communication and identifies training needs

Avenue for emotional release of employees’ feelings

Plans and monitors new programs

Use of Existing Job Satisfaction Information

Information can be obtained through daily contacts and existing data approaches

Direct behavioral indicators

Turnover and absenteeism

Tardiness and grievances

Indirect indicators

Medical and training records

Exit interviews and reports

Level of employee activity in suggestion programs

Critical Components of Job Satisfaction Surveys

Capacity of a survey instrument to produce consistent results, regardless of:

Who administers it

When someone responded to it

Reliability

Capacity to measure what is claimed to be measured

Validity

Using Survey Information

Communicate the results to employees

Use comparative data to improve job satisfaction among departments

Set up a committee to review and follow-up on surveys

Provide feedback to employees

Be prepared to take action on the results

Company Intranet

In-house versions of the Internet, accessible only by employees of an organization

Transmits attitude surveys and results and enables quick implementation of proposed changes

Improves response rates

Handles multiple problems

Provides comments to open-end questions

Drawback - Abbreviated language used by Gen Y respondents in providing written inputs

Changing Employee Attitudes

Tie rewards to performance

Set challenging goals and define role expectations

Refrain from attacking an employee’s attitude

Provide frequent feedback on performance

Show concern for employee feelings and encourage participation in decision making

Changing Employee Attitudes

Encourage people to be happier by modeling the attitude and reinforcing it in others

Appreciate citizenship behavior

Provide new data to counter any misinformation and forums for employee discussions

Newstrom14e_PPT_Ch11 (1).ppt.pptx

Chapter Eleven Conflict, Power, and Organizational Politics

Organizational

Behavior

John W. Newstrom

Human Behavior at

Work

14e

Learning Objectives

The nature and types of conflict

Conflict outcomes and resolution strategies

Different personality types

Assertive behavior and trust building

Interpersonal facilitation and stroking

Types of power

Organizational politics and influence

Conflict

Interpersonal process that arises from:

Disagreements over the goals to attain

Methods to be used to accomplish goals

Tone of voice used

Task interdependence

Conflict

Ambiguity of roles, policies, and rules

Personality differences, ineffective communications, and personal stress

Competition over scarce resources

Differences in attitudes, beliefs, and experiences

Levels of Conflict

Emerges from within an individual, as a result of competing roles taken

Intrapersonal conflict

Occurs when one’s self-concept is threatened

Interpersonal conflict

Arises as a result of different viewpoints, group loyalties, and poor communication

Escalated or de-escalated to make it productive

Intergroup conflict

Sources of Conflict

Organizational change

Different sets of values

Threats to status

Contrasting perceptions

Lack of trust

Incivility

Difficult tasks

Personality clashes

Figure 11.2 - Five Major Personality Traits

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

Differentiates people into sixteen categories based on their preferences for:

Thinking versus feeling

Judging versus perceiving

Extroversion versus introversion

Sensing versus intuition

Advantages and Disadvantages of Conflict

Advantages

Parties learn each other’s preferences and stimulates to find improved approaches

Energizes creativity and promotes experimentation

Brings hidden problems to the surface

Individuals are more committed to the outcome after conflict resolution

Disadvantages

Cooperation and teamwork deteriorate

Fosters distrust

Individuals experience

Defeat

Decline in self-image

Personal anxiety

Increased stress

Reduced motivation, satisfaction, and commitment

Conflict Outcomes

Win-win outcome of conflict: Both parties perceive they are in a better position than they were before the conflict began

Participant intentions - Product of the participants’ intentions and their strategies

Conflict Outcomes

Resolution strategies

Avoiding - Results in a lose-lose situation

Smoothing - Results in a lose-win outcome

Forcing - Results in a win-lose situation

Compromising - No clear-cut outcome

Confronting: Facing conflict directly and working towards a mutually satisfactory resolution

Results in a win-win outcome

Figure 11.4 - Guidelines for Conflict Resolution through Confrontation

Other Ways to Resolve Conflicts

Application of a relevant rule or policy

Separate parties by:

Reassigning work spaces

Removing one person from a committee

Placing workers on different shifts

Insert neutral person who can facilitate resolution

Challenge parties to work toward a unifying goal

Relationship-Restoring Approaches

Signaling the offense

Acknowledgment of error

Acceptance

Appreciation

Negotiating Tactics

Resolving a conflict to a win-win outcome

Select a neutral site, arrange comfortable seating and prohibit observers

Set deadlines to force a resolution

Advice for individual negotiators

Set minimum and optimum goals in advance

Negotiating Tactics

Gather data thoroughly and listen carefully

Focus on issues, not personalities

Separate facts from feelings and search for areas where concessions are possible

Resolving a conflict to a win-win outcome

Select a neutral site, arrange comfortable seating and prohibit observers

Set deadlines to force a resolution

Negotiating Tactics

Advice for individual negotiators

Set minimum and optimum goals in advance

Gather data thoroughly and listen carefully

Focus on issues, not personalities

Separate facts from feelings and search for areas where concessions are possible

Trust-building

Building trust

Showing respect

Exhibiting sincere caring and concern

Being honest and true to one’s word

Demonstrating dependability and reliability

Destroying trust

Telling half-truths and lies

Showing inconsistencies between promises and actions

Threatening the goal achievement or self-image of others

Withholding needed information

Assertiveness

Process of:

Expressing feelings

Asking for legitimate changes

Giving and receiving honest feedback

Assertiveness

Assertive people are:

Not afraid to ask others to change an offensive behavior

Willing to refuse unreasonable requests

Direct, honest, expressive, and confident

Capable of making others feel valued

Figure 11.5 - Stages in Assertive Behavior

Interpersonal Facilitation

Capacity to focus on others’ personal needs, sensitivities, and idiosyncrasies

Work to keep conflict under control and collaboration high among team members

Requires awareness of:

Personality traits that would create synergy within a team

Employees who are emotionally volatile

When to intervene

Interpersonal Facilitation

Built on a foundation of care, concern, sensitivity, and psychological flexibility

Compassion: Action-oriented process that involves:

Noticing

Appraising

Feeling

Compassionate responding

Interpersonal Facilitation

Managers with well-developed interpersonal facilitation skills:

Build on their emotional intelligence and learn about co-workers’ personal lives

Make mental notes about employee likes and dislikes, values, interests, and preferences

Monitor others’ degree of job involvement, mood level, commitment, and satisfaction

Develop and apply their facilitative skills in a variety of social settings

Stroking

Feel good when received and contribute to the recipient’s sense of self-esteem

Positive strokes

Hurt physically or emotionally and make recipients feel less proud

Negative strokes

Mix of positive and negative comments

Mixed strokes

Offered to employees if they perform correctly or avoid problems

Conditional strokes

Presented without any connection to behavior

Unconditional strokes

Figure 11.6 - Probable Relationships of Conflict Resolution Strategies and Behavior

Power

Ability to influence other people and events

Bases of power

Personal power: Ability of leaders to develop followers from the strength of their own personalities

Known as referent or charismatic power

Legitimate power: Arises from the culture of society by which power is delegated from higher established authorities to others

Known as position or official power

Power

Expert power: Arises from a person’s knowledge of and information about a complex situation

Known as the authority of knowledge

Reward power: Capacity to control and administer items valued by another

Basis for reinforcing desirable behavior

Coercive power: Capacity to punish another, or at least to create a perceived threat to do so

Uses fear as a motivator

Figure 11.7 - Possible Responses to the Use of Power

Organizational Politics

Intentional behaviors that are used to:

Enhance or protect a person’s influence and self-interest

Inspire confidence and trust by others

Key dimensions of political skill

Being socially astute

Having interpersonal influence

Creating useful networks

Expressing sincerity

Organizational Politics

Pros - Help attain promotion, sell a proposal, or gain personal visibility

Cons - Self-serving, manipulative, and deceitful

Political behaviors become dysfunctional when:

Threats are made to achieve one’s goals

Coalitions are formed to block a legitimate objective

Untrue information is circulated to destroy the competitor

Outright sabotage occurs

Steps to Increase Influence

Treat the other party as a potential ally

Identify your objectives

Learn about the other party

Inventory your resources to identify something of value to offer

Steps to Increase Influence

Assess your relationship with the other person

Decide what to ask for and what to offer

Make the actual exchange, producing a gain for both parties

Accept victory graciously and avoid boasting

Tactics Used to Gain Political Power

Social exchange

Alliances

Identification with higher authority

Doing favors for others

Control of information

Selective service

Power and status symbols

Power plays

Networks

Posturing

Other Tactics to Gain Political Power

People in a continuing relationship feel a strong obligation to repay their social debts to each other

Norm of reciprocity

People who are more effective at using organizational politics than others

High self-monitors

Low self-monitors

Self-monitors

Ability to protect and enhance their self-image while intentionally affecting another’s assessment of them

Impression management

Figure 11.9 - Common Impression Management Strategies

Newstrom14e_PPT_Ch16 (1).ppt

Organizational Behavior

John W. Newstrom

Human Behavior at Work

14e

Chapter Sixteen
Organizational Behavior across
Cultures

Learning Objectives

How social, legal, ethical, political, and economic conditions vary in different countries

The operation of ethnocentrism and cultural shock

Ways to overcome barriers to cultural adaptation

The Nuances of cross-cultural Communication

Understanding the Context of International OB

Multiculturalism: When the employees in two or more cultures interact with each other on a regular basis

Expatriates: Employees sent from another nation

Cultural intelligence: Ability to understand, accept, adapt to, work alongside, and communicate with persons of a variety of global cultures

Individual-Difference Factors

Cultures that emphasize individual rights and freedoms

Individualism

Accents the group and values harmony among members

Collectivism

Belief that strong and legitimate decision-making rights separate managers and employees

Power distance

Employees value clarity and prefer to avoid ambiguity at work

Uncertainty avoidance

Individual-Difference Factors

Define gender roles in more traditional and stereotypical ways
Value achievement and the acquisition of wealth

Masculine societies

Broader viewpoints on the great variety of roles that both males and females can play in the workplace and at home

Feminine societies

Necessity of preparing for the future, the value of thrift and savings, and the merits of persistence

Long-term orientation

Value the past and accent the present, with a rich respect for tradition and the need to fulfill historical social obligations

Short-term orientation

Figure 16.2 - Training Multiplier Effect in Action

Legal and Ethical Environments

Managers have to be aware of:

The differences in the laws and ethical values

Local customs and practices

U.S. employees operating internationally are guided by Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977

Cultural views limit the ability of female expatriates to be effective despite evidence to the contrary

Political and Economic Conditions

Impact of political conditions

Instability of the government and nationalistic drives

Subordination of employers and labor to an authoritarian state

Economic issues - Low per capita income, rapid inflation, and unequal distribution of wealth

Depressed economic conditions in another country can represent an opportunity for a firm

Cultural Contingency

Productive practices of nation depend on culture

Neither the home nation’s productivity approaches nor the host nation’s traditional practices are to be used exclusively

Managerial implications

Expatriate managers must learn to operate effectively in a new environment

Organization structures and communication patterns need to be suitable for both home office and other branches

Figure 16.3 - Forces Inhibiting and Supporting Cultural Adaptation

Parochialism

Seeing a situation around them from one’s own perspective

Individuals fail to recognize key differences between their own and others’ cultures

If they recognize the differences, they tend to conclude that the impact of those differences is insignificant

People assume that the two cultures are more similar than they actually are

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism (self-reference criterion): Believing own homeland conditions are the best

Interferes with obtaining productivity from local employees

Cultural empathy: Understanding of how differences in culture affect businesses and an appreciation of cultural contributions to successes

Geocentric organizations: Seek to integrate the interests of the various cultures involved

Cultural distance

Difference between two social systems and range from minimal to substantial

Affects the responses of all people to business-related issues

Ethnocentric issues will be magnified if the cultural distance is great, and integration of cultures will be more difficult

Cultural Shock

Confusion, insecurity, and anxiety caused by a strange new environment

Phases of cultural shock

Excitement and stimulation

Disillusionment

Insecurity and disorientation

Adaptation

Figure 16.4 - Factors That Contribute to
Cultural Shock and Reverse Cultural Shock

Overcoming Barriers to Cultural Adaptation

Careful selection

Low ethnocentrism

Desire and support

Cultural intelligence

Compatible assignments

Easier for employees if they are sent to nations with low cultural distance

Overcoming Barriers to Cultural Adaptation

Predeparture training

Language training, orientation to the geography, customs, food, culture, and political environment

Orientation and support in new country

Assigning mentors to ease transition

Incentives and guarantees

Valuing the expatriate’s experience

Xenophobia: Fear, and rejection, of ideas and foreign things

Overcoming Barriers to Cultural Adaptation

Preparation for reentry

Repatriation: Employees returning to their home country after working in another nation

Reverse cultural shock: Expatriates facing readjustment difficulties when returning to their home country

Figure 16.5 - Primary Sociocultural
Clusters of Industrialized Nations

Source: Adapted from Simcha Ronen and Allen I. Kraut, “Similarities among Countries Based on Employee Work Values and Attitudes,” Columbia Journal of World Business, Summer 1977, p. 94.

Cross-Cultural Communication

Communicating with people from other cultures

High-context cultures: View silences as positive, and place a high value on learning the intentions of others

Emphasize personal relations and place high value on trust

Focus on nonverbal cues and defer to societal status

Cross-Cultural Communication

Low-context cultures: Rely on precise meanings of spoken words as well as those in written rules and legal documents

Conduct business first and value expertise and performance
Pay close attention to details and express themselves in direct and explicit fashion

Transcultural employees: Employees with cross-cultural adaptability

Low in ethnocentrism
Adapt readily to different cultures without major cultural shock

OL 500 PP.zip

Newstrom14e_PPT_Ch01 (1).ppt.pptx

Chapter One The Dynamics of People and Organizations

Organizational

Behavior

John W. Newstrom

Human Behavior at

Work

14e

Organizational Behavior (OB)

Systematic study and application of knowledge about how people act within organizations

Identifies ways in which people can act more effectively

Is a scientific discipline and an applied science

Provides a useful set of analysis tools

Benefits of Organizational Behavior

Helps observe the behavior of individuals within an organization

Aids in understanding the complexities involved in interpersonal relations

Examines the dynamics of relationships within small groups

Aids in viewing and managing organizations as whole systems

Forces of Organizational Behavior

People must be related in some structural way so their work can be effectively coordinated

Technology

Provides the tools necessary for employees to carry out their tasks

Environment

Organizations operate in internal and external environments

Positive Characteristics of the OB Field

Practice: Conscious application of conceptual models and research results

To improve individual and organizational performance at work

Evidence-based management: Managers become committed to a rigorous collection of facts and combine them with relevant research

Ch03.pptx

Chapter Three Managing Communications

Organizational

Behavior

John W. Newstrom

Human Behavior at

Work

14e

Figure 3.1 - The Communication Process

Figure 3.4 - Guidelines for Effective Listening

Newstrom14e_PPT_Ch02 (2).ppt.pptx

Chapter Two Models of Organizational Behavior

Organizational

Behavior

John W. Newstrom

Human Behavior at

Work

14e

Elements of Organizational Behavior System

Vision: Challenging portrait of what the organization and its members can be

Mission: Helps an organization identify the:

Business it is in and market niches it tries to serve

Types of customers it is likely to have

Reasons for its existence

Goals: Concrete formulations of achievements an organization is aiming for within set periods of time

Models of Organizational Behavior

Constitute the belief system that dominates management’s thought and affects management’s actions in each organization

Mcgregor’s theory of human behavior

Theory X: Traditional set of assumptions about people

Theory Y: Implies a more humanistic and supportive approach to managing people

Figure 2.3 - McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y, Alternative Sets of Assumptions about Employees

Paradigms

Frameworks of possible explanations about how things work

Impacts

Influence managerial perceptions of the world around them

Define one’s boundaries and provide prescriptions for how to behave

Encourage resistance to change

Consciously or unconsciously affect one’s behavior

oci presentation.ppt

Organizational Culture Inventory (OCI)

Strengthening

Organizations

through

Individual

Effectiveness

OCI Circumplex

The OCI Circumplex allows you to compare your organization’s scores along the 12 cultural norms to those of others who described the culture of their organizations. When unadjusted (or “raw”) scores for each cultural norm on the circumplex are recorded, they convert the results for an organization or subunit to a percentile score that provides a more realistic picture of the culture.

The bold center ring represents the 50th percentile. Scores falling below the 50th percentile are low relative to the scores for other organizations and reflect weak expectations for the behavior in question. Scores that fall close to the 50th percentile are average relative to the scores of other organizations and reflect moderate expectations for the behavior in question.

Instructions for Responding

Response Options

Please think about what it takes for you and people like yourself (e.g., your co-workers, people in similar positions) to “fit-in” and meet expectations in your organization.

Using the response options below, indicate the extent to which people are expected to:

__point out flaws

__show concern for the needs of others

__stay detached and perfectly objective

__oppose new ideas

(1) Not at all

(2) To a slight extent

(3) To a moderate extent

(4) To a great extent

(5) To a very great extent

1. Add up the ten numbers appearing in the shaded section marked off immediately below. Write the sum in the box labeled: “TOTAL:7 o’clock Position.”

2. Do the same to the rest of the remaining sections to obtain TOTALS for all 12 positions.

3. Chart the TOTAL scores on the corresponding clock positions of the circumplex. The completed profile represents your impressions of the culture of your organization.

Scoring Sheet Instructions

Higher Order

Needs

Lower Order

Needs

Satisfaction vs. Security Needs

Satisfaction

Security

The styles are positioned on the circumplex according to the extent to which each promotes the fulfillment of either satisfaction or security needs.

Styles located near the top of the circumplex (11, 12, 1 and 2 o’clock styles) represent behavior motivated by a need for satisfaction; the sense of gratification, pleasure, or contentment that comes from doing something personally fulfilling and enjoyable.

Styles located near the bottom of the circumplex (3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 o’clock styles) represent behavior motivated by a need for security; the strong desire to protect one’s self from what one perceives as dangerous or threatening.

Task vs. People Orientation

Task-Centered

People-Centered

Styles located on the right side of the circumplex (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, and with some overlap, the 12 and 6 o’clock styles) represent behavior that is orientated toward people.

Styles located on the left side of the circumplex (7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and with some overlap, the 12 and 6 o’clock styles) represent behavior that is primarily concerned with tasks.

Achievement
Self-Actualizing
Humanistic-Encouraging
Affiliative

The Constructive Styles

Members interact with others and approach tasks in ways that will help them to meet their higher-order satisfaction needs.

The Constructive orientation reflects a healthy balance of people and task related concerns and promotes the fulfillment of higher order needs. Styles associated with this orientation focus on the attainment of organizational goals through the development of people. Constructive styles account for synergy and explain why certain individuals, groups and organizations are particularly effective in performance, growth and quality.

The Passive/Defensive Styles

Members interact with people in ways that will not threaten their own security.

Approval
Conventional
Dependent
Avoidance

The Passive/Defensive orientation represents an orientation toward people as opposed to tasks, fueled by and reinforcing individual insecurity. These styles characterize people who subordinate themselves to the organization but, in the process, create stress for themselves and allow the organization to stagnate. Passive/Defensive styles can temporarily produce a predictable and superficially secure situation, but at the cost of learning, adaptability and ultimately survival.

The Aggressive/Defensive Styles

Members approach tasks in forceful ways to protect their status and security.

Oppositional
Power
Competitive
Perfectionistic

The Aggressive/Defensive orientation emphasizes tasks over people and is driven by underlying insecurities. In the extreme, these styles lead people to focus on their own needs at the expense of others in the group. Thought sometimes temporarily effective, Aggressive/Defensive styles may lead to stress, decisions based on status rather than expertise, and conflict rather than collaboration.

Subculture Profiles

Organizations are made up of individuals and groups that share some characteristics and are different on other attributes.

Ideal Culture Profile

Data from 5 organizations: heavy manufacturing, high-tech manufacturing, banking and bio-medical organizations.

This is a “Typical Ideal Culture Profile” based on the average scores of members of five different organizations. The industries represented by this sample included heavy manufacturing, high-tech manufacturing, banking and biomedical. Respondents in this sample described how people should be expected to behave in order for their organization to be successful.

Outcomes Associated with the Cultural Styles

Constructive

Passive/

Defensive

Aggressive/

Defensive

+ indicates positive significant relationship

0 indicates non-significant relationship

- indicates negative significant relationship

Key:

Individual Level

-Member Satisfaction

-Person/Norm Conflict

-Motivation

Group/Unit Level

-Group Motivation

-Work Avoidance

-Cooperation/Teamwork

Organizational Level

-Perceived Client Satisfaction

-Reputation for Customer Service

-Turnover Rate

Factors Reinforcing the Cultural Styles

+ indicates positive significant relationship

0 indicates non-significant relationship

- indicates negative significant relationship

Key:

Job Level

-Autonomy

-Significance

-Complexity of People-Related

Activities

Goal Characteristics

-Clarity of Goals

-Set Participatively

Reward/Punishment Practices

-Monetary Rewards

-Praise

-Criticism

-Other Punishment

Constructive

Passive/

Defensive

Aggressive/

Defensive

Factors Reinforcing the Cultural Styles

(continued)

+ indicates positive significant relationship

0 indicates non-significant relationship

- indicates negative significant relationship

Key:

Leadership Styles

-Person-Centered

-Task-Centered

Structural Characteristics

-Shared Influence

-Centralization

-Standardization

Constructive

Passive/

Defensive

Aggressive/

Defensive

Goal Setting

Clear, challenging goals--set participatively, profiled against less effective goals and goal setting

(blue line) Clear Goals

(shaded area) Less Effective Goals

Key:

Reward vs. Punishment

Organizations emphasizing rewards profiled against those emphasizing punishment.

(blue line) Rewards

(shaded area) Punishment

Key:

Quality of Customer Service

Superior customer service profiled against poor customer service

(blue line) Superior Service

(shaded area) Poor Service

Key:

Role Conflict “Inconsistent Messages”

Low role conflict profiled against high role conflict

(blue line) Low Role Conflict

(shaded area) High Role Conflict

Key:

High vs. Low Satisfaction

with Organization

High job satisfaction profiled against low job satisfaction employees

(blue line) High Satisfaction

(shaded area) Low Satisfaction

Key:

High vs. Low Regard

for TQM Implementation

High commitment and satisfaction with quality improvement profiled against low commitment and satisfaction

(blue line) High Commitment

(shaded area) Low Commitment

Key:

High vs. Low

Sales Increase: Retail

High sales growth stores profiled against low sales growth stores

(blue line) High Sales Growth

(shaded area) Low Sales Growth

Key:

Newstrom14e_PPT_Ch04 (1).ppt.pptx

Chapter Four Social Systems and Organizational Culture

Organizational

Behavior

John W. Newstrom

Human Behavior at

Work

14e

Social System

Complex set of interacting human relationships

Behavior of one member impacts others

Open system: Engages in exchanges with its environment

Social equilibrium: Interdependent parts of a system that are in dynamic working balance

When parts work against each other, disequilibrium occurs

Functional and Dysfunctional Effects

Functional effects: When change is favorable for the system

Employees are creative and seek to improve the quality of the product or service

Dysfunctional effects: When change is unfavorable for the system

Employees are absent frequently and resistant to organizational changes

Psychological Contract

Conditions of each employee’s psychological involvement with the social system

To prevent breakdowns, employers should:

Clarify employees’ expectations and perceptions

Discuss mutual obligations

Exercise caution when conveying promises

Provide detailed explanations for unfulfilled promises

Alert employees to the realistic prospects of reneging

Work Ethic

Viewing work as a very important and desirable goal in life

Employees with strong work ethics:

Like work and derive satisfaction from it

Have stronger commitment to the organization and its goals

Varies in a group depending on personal background, type of work, and geographical location

Work Ethic

Declined over the decades due to:

Difference in attitudes among younger employees

Emergence of competing social values

Leisure ethic

Desire for community and connectedness

Entitlement

Social policy and tax laws changes

Role Conflict and Ambiguity

Role conflict: Experienced when others have different perceptions or expectations of one’s role

Results in work-life conflict

Role ambiguity: Exists when roles are inadequately defined or substantially unknown

Employees are more satisfied when their roles are clearly defined by job descriptions and statements of performance expectations

Communicating and Changing Culture

Storytelling: Way to forge a culture and build organizational identity

Effectively taps into the emotions of an audience and creates shared meaning and purpose

Key means for achieving socialization

Individualization: Employees exert influence on the social system by deviating from the culture

Counterculture: Subgroup of individuals within a larger culture

Newstrom14e_PPT_Ch05.ppt.pptx

Chapter Five Motivation

Organizational

Behavior

John W. Newstrom

Human Behavior at

Work

14e

Learning Objectives

The motivational process

The motivational drives

Need category systems

Behavior modification and reinforcement

Goal setting and its effects

The expectancy model of motivation

Equity comparisons

Motivation

Indicators of employee motivation

Engagement and commitment

Satisfaction and turnover

Work motivation: Result of a set of internal and external forces that cause an employee to:

Choose an appropriate course of action

Engage in certain behaviors

Motivation

Work motivation elements that interest employers

Direction and focus of the behavior

Level of the effort and persistence of the behavior

Motivational Drives

Drives: Strong desires for something

Product of the cultural environment

Affect people’s:

Perspectives of their jobs

Approach to life

Achievement Motivation

Drive to accomplish objectives and get ahead

Achievers work hard when:

They receive personal credit for their effort

Risk of failure is only moderate

They receive feedback about past performances

Characteristics of achievers

Take responsibility for their actions and results

Control their destiny

Affiliation Motivation

Seek regular feedback

Enjoy winning individually or as a team

Drive to relate to people on a social basis

Affiliation-oriented managers have difficulty:

Assigning challenging tasks

Directing work activities

Monitoring work effectiveness

Difference between Achievement-motivated Employees and Affiliation-motivated Employees

Achievement-motivated employees

Work better when supervisors provide detailed evaluations

Choose technically capable assistants

Affiliation-motivated employees

Work better when they receive recognition

Surround themselves with friends and likable people

Power Motivation

Drive to influence people, take control, and change situations

Can be constructive or destructive in nature

Institutional power - Need to influence others’ behavior for the good of the whole organization

Personal power - Need to influence others’ behavior for personal gains

Managerial Application of the Drives

Observe employees’ behavior to determine what they will respond to

Identify their strongest motivational drive

Communicate to each particular employee’s needs

Human Needs

Primary needs: Basic physical needs

Universal

Vary in intensity from person to person

Conditioned by social practice

Secondary needs: Social and psychological needs

Develop as people mature

Get affected by manager’s plans

Key Conclusions about Secondary Needs

Strongly conditioned by experience

Vary in type and intensity

Subject to change across time

Work in combination and influence each other

Are hidden from conscious recognition

Are vague feelings

Influence behavior in powerful ways

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Human needs arranged according to their importance

Lower-order needs: First and second level needs

First-level needs - Basic survival and physiological needs for food, air, water, and sleep

Second-level needs - Bodily safety and economic security needs

Higher-order needs: Top three needs

Love, belonging, and social involvement at work

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Esteem and status needs

Self-actualization: Ongoing process of becoming all that one is capable of becoming

Interpretations

People have a variety of needs they wish to satisfy

All need levels are often partially satisfied

Gratified needs are not as strongly motivating as unmet needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Managers must:

Identify and accept employee needs

Realize that needs may differ among employees

Limitations

Difficult to study and not fully verified

Providing opportunities for self-actualization to all employees is difficult

The five need levels have not been established as unique

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Model

Two separate sets of factors influence motivation

Hygiene factors: Potent dissatisfiers or maintenance factors

Are not strongly motivating

Required to build a foundation on which to create motivation

Motivational factors: Are primarily motivators

Absence does not cause strong dissatisfaction

Job content: Motivators that are job-centered

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Model

Job context: Environment surrounding a job

Intrinsic motivators: Internal rewards that a person feels when performing a job

Extrinsic motivators: External rewards that occur apart from the nature of work

Interpretations

Provides distinction between maintenance and motivational factors

Shows the importance of intrinsic rewards

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Model

Limitations

Not universally applicable

Reduces the motivational importance of pay, status, and relations with others

Model outlines only general tendencies

Maintenance factors may be motivators to some people

Motivators may be maintenance factors to others

Is method bound

Alderfer’s E-R-G Model

Modified need hierarchy model with:

Existence needs: Physiological and security factors

Relatedness needs: Social factors, involve being understood and accepted by people

Growth needs: Desire for self-esteem and self-actualization

Figure 5.3 - A Comparison of Maslow’s, Herzberg’s, and Alderfer’s Models

Interpreting Motivational Models

All models have strengths and weaknesses

All models add to the understanding of the motivational process

New models are being developed

Cognitive models will dominate for some time

Model used must be adapted to the situation and blended with other models

Assignment	Number of Graded Items	Percentage Value Per Item	Total Percentage
Peer Evaluation	1	15%	15%
Career Paper	1	15%	15%
Group Diagnosis Paper	1	20%	20%
Customer Feedback	1	10%	10%
Team Paper	1	15%	15%
Team Presentation	1	25%	25%
Total Course Percentage Possible			100%

UC-GLOBAL Grading Scales
UC-COCE Undergraduate Grading Scale	UC-COCE Graduate Grading Scale
Grade	Numerical Equivalent	Grade Points	Grade	Numerical Equivalent	Grade Points
A	93-100	4.0	A	93-100	4.0
A-	90-92	3.67	A-	90-92	3.67
B+	87-89	3.33	B+	87-89	3.33
B	83-86	3.00	B	83-86	3.00
B-	80-82	2.67	B-	80-82	2.67
C+	77-79	2.33	C+	77-79	2.33
C	73-76	2.00	C	73-76	2.00
C-	70-72	1.67	F	0-72	0.00
D+	67-69	1.33
D	60-66	1.00
F	0-59	0.00

Date or Module	Topics	Exercises/Assignments/Participation
9/3	Orientation and Introductions	Review Syllabi
9/10	The Dynamics of People and Organizations	The Dynamics of People and their Position Within the Organization- Chapters 1 & 2
9/17	Organizational Behavior Insights	The Impact of Social Systems in the Workplace- Chapter 3 & 4
9/24	Motivation and Rewarding Employee Performance	Motivating and Rewarding Employee Performance- Chapters 5 & 6
10/1	Leadership and Empowerment	Creating an Agile Organization- Chapters 7 & 8 Career Paper (Due 11:00am)
10/8	Employee Attitudes and Their Effects on Organizations and Individuals	The “Fit Between the Individual & The Organization”-Chapters 9 & 10
10/15	Conflict, Power, and Organizational Politics	Group Dynamics Chapters 11 & 12
10/22	Teams and Managing Change	Transition into Higher Order Complexity-Chapters 13 & 14
10/29	Organization Behavior Across Cultures	4Th Industrial Revolution- Chapters 15 & 16
11/5	Transformational Maps	Global Forum Group Diagnosis Paper (Due 11:00am)
11/12	Teams and Team Building	Team building exercise – TBD
11/19	Foresight	Guest Speaker-TBD
11/26	Team Building for Final Presentation	Group Work
12/3	Final Group paper and presentations	Team Presentation & Group Paper
12/10	Final Group paper and presentations	Team Presentation & Group Paper