Discussion

Elements of Argument English 101C / Sherman

From Elements of Argument, 12th ed., Rottenberg and Winchell

Jaws poster art: Roger Kastel

Three Main Elements of Argument � Claim � The argument/thesis; an assertion that will need to be

proven � Can also refer to other statements/assertions that are

made within the main argument

� Support � Proof for the claim � Various forms of Evidence and Appeals

� Warrants � Any underlying assumptions in an argument � May be implied or stated outright

What is a Claim? � Statement of assertion; the idea or

proposed action being argued

� Generally refers to the thesis statement in an argument

� But can also be found throughout an argument, in assertions that are made as part of the overall argument, or as part of the conclusion in an argument

Three Types of Claims

� Claim of Fact

� Claim of Value

� Claim of Policy

Claim of Fact • Statement that something: • Is occurring/did occur/will occur • Or does exists/did exist/will exist • Can typically be verified by evidence • But can also take the form of: • A prediction • Or a statement asserting a cause/effect

relationship • Differs from a fact in that the arguer will

need to offer support to build an argument in favor of the claim/assertion

Examples – Claims of Fact

� Shark attacks have increased in the last three years off the coast of Sydney, Australia (Innis).

� The social behavior of sharks is being studied at a zoo in Sydney (Parker).

� The new shark exhibit is expected to bring in more visitors (Parker).

Don Emmert/AFP/Getty Images

Claim of Value

• A judgment or evaluation • An assertion that something is: • Good/better/best • Bad/worse/worst; • Ugly/beautiful • Wrong/right • Typically about either

values/beliefs/morals or aesthetics • Provides a set of subjective criteria to

evaluate something

Examples – Claims of Value

� Most conservationists believe it is more beneficial to the environment, and also more ethical, to catch and

release potentially dangerous sharks than to kill them

(Innis).

� Some sharks are friendly and also play an important role in ocean ecosystems (Innis).

� Tiger sharks are gentle and easy to work with (Innis).

� Environmentalists claim that it is wrong to interfere with shark populations (Innis).

� Some sharks have beautiful markings.

Divernet.com

Claim of Policy

• Statement proposing action • Usually includes �should,��must,� �ought to�

• Provides support to show the merits of taking the proposed course of action over other options

Examples – Claims of Policy

� The catch-and-kill shark culling policy should be stopped.

� Not all patrol boats should be used for hunting sharks.

� Authorities ought to find a new solution to the shark problem during beach season.

Support

� Proof for an argument/claim

� Two types:

� Evidence � Appeals

Evidence

� Facts

� Examples

� Statistics (facts in numeric form)

� Expert testimony

Examples of Facts � “Laeticia Brouwer, 17, was fatally attacked by

a shark while surfing in Western Australia last week” (Hubbard).

� “The latest attack prompted Australian Environment Minister Josh Frydenberg to resurface the idea of killing sharks” (Hubbard).

� “A drum line is a type of trap made up of a large baited hook attached to a floating object, which is then anchored to the seabed” (Hubbard).

NSW Department of Primary Industries

Examples of Examples

� Shark nets are seen by some as not only ineffective, but as harmful to other marine creatures, including

dolphins, turtles, and rays (Elst).

� Alternatives to shark culling include the use of drones, sonar, and electromagnetic fields to deter sharks

(Elst).

� People can take responsibility for their own safety by avoiding swimming in fishing zones, canals, and

harbour mouths, by not interfering with or swimming

near shark nets, and by keeping pets out of the water

(Elst).

The Northern Star

Examples of Statistics � “The state’s Fisheries Department has tagged 338

sharks with radio transponders and installed 320

monitors on the seabed” (Innis).

� “Before the last three years, there had been only 13 deaths in the past century” (Innis).

� “Tourism in the state…brings in about $7.5 billion a year” (Innis).

� “‘We have 31,000 followers who get tweets on surf conditions, which beaches are patrolled,’ and

occasionally, whether a shark has passed by” (Innis).

Mackenzie Price

Examples of Expert Testimony

� “Last week, the federal environment minister, Josh Frydenberg, accused Western Australia, the state where the last three fatal attacks occurred, of failing to respond to the

problem. ‘The commonwealth would welcome any proposal to

protect human life first and foremost,’ he said, suggesting

culling or other measures as the state saw fit” (Whitehead).

� “Vic Hislop, a former shark hunter from Queensland, called for the helicopter strike teams [to come in]…warning, ‘As

they continue to let the sharks escape after they eat

somebody, it’s going to get worse and worse. Make no

mistake’” (Whitehead).

� “But Western Australia denies that killing sharks would be productive. Last week, the state fisheries minister, Dave Kelly, said that culling did not ‘actually make our beaches any safer.’ And its premier, Mark McGowan, said people would

always face a very small risk of being attacked in the ocean,

calling it a ‘harsh reality’” (Whitehead).

Appeals � Appeals to Emotions � Pity, fear, hope, anger

� Ex: We need to keep our beaches safe, especially with the holiday weekend coming up. Children could be harmed.

� Appeals to Values � Democracy, fairness, cooperation, trust, family

� Ex: It’s important that we hear all sides before making a decision about how to protect beach-goers.

� Ex: We all want what’s best for our community.

� Appeals to Authority � Political leaders, religious leaders, experts

� Ex: Green Peace agrees with the catch and release policy.

Bradley Hunter

Warrants � Any underlying assumptions stated in the

argument

� Can be stated or implied

� Can be found throughout an argument, as an attempt to provide support

� Sometimes part of a larger idea on which an argument/claim relies (a larger premise or idea/belief behind the claim)

� Easiest to find when flawed/faulty

Types of Warrants • Motivational warrants � Assumptions about the shared values of the

audience � Ex: We all want safe beaches—no matter the cost.

• Substantive warrants � Assumptions about our acceptance of the evidence,

its accuracy, or whether it is sufficient, representative, or current � Ex: This year’s attacks show there’s a need for

culling. • Authoritative warrants � Assumptions about our acceptance of the credibility

and authority of expert testimony or a source of evidence � Ex: Australia’s environmental minister supports

culling.

Hermanus Backpackers

Language & Tone � Humorous, ironic, or sarcastic

� Irreverent, casual, or formal � Biased/subjective vs. neutral/objective

� Exaggerated

� Vivid, descriptive, memorable, detailed

� Qualifiers Some, might, most, may, in some cases,

sometimes, could, perhaps, possibly (Qualifiers can help make a statement more accurate.

� Ex: Culling is one possible solution. � Ex: There could be other ways to deter sharks. � Ex: It’s unlikely that we’ll be able to find a perfect solution.

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Logical Fallacies

� Flaws/Holes in the argument

� Unfounded/inaccurate assumptions

� May be found throughout an argument

Examples of Types of Flaws/Fallacies

• Jumping to conclusions • Unfounded/inaccurate generalizations

(stereotyping) • Either/or conclusions (black/white) • Unfounded appeal to tradition/history • Manipulation of audience�s emotions • Unequal comparisons/problematic

analogies

Examples of Flawed Statements � Hunting and killing sharks is the only way to keep

beach-goers safe.

� Everyone supports the increased culling of sharks in Western Australia.

� Opponents to the new shark culling policy will never win this battle.

� We either have to reduce shark populations, or people are going to die in vast numbers.

� All sharks are killers.

� It’s a bloodbath out there! Children’s lives are at stake!

Getty Images

Additional Elements

� Background Information/History � A form of support/evidence

� Definition of Key Terms � A form of support/evidence

� Establishing Common Ground � A form of support; usually an appeal

Additional Elements, contd. � Opposing Viewpoint/Counter-Argument

and Rebuttal � Organizational structure in which claims and counter-

arguments are provided � Can include evidence and/or appeals � Can strengthen the argument by acknowledging the

consideration of the opposing view; can help establish credibility of the arguer

� Concession � An attempt to acknowledge, or agree with, part of the

opposing viewpoint, ultimately to strengthen one�s own position/argument/point of view

� Can sometimes include an appeal

Works Cited

Elst, Alix Foster Vander. “Top 5 Alternatives to Shark Nets,” Greenpeace, 16 Dec. 2016.

Hubbard, Chloe. “No Shark Cull…,” NBC News, 30 April 2017.

Innis, Michelle. “Australia Catch-and-Kill Shark Policy…,” New York Times, 3 Feb 2014.

Parker, Laura. “Studying Sharks’ Social Lives…,” New York Times, 11 Jan. 2016.

Whitehead, Eleanor. “A Surfer is Killed,” New York Times, 25 April 2017.