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An Applied Research Case Study Analysis of Managerial
Leadership’s Ability to Positively Influence Tolerance of
Religious and International Cultural Diversity in the United
States Workplace Business Environment.
Darrell Norman Burrell, EdS Asila Safi, DM
Virginia International University Colorado Technical University
A.T. Still University
Emad Rahim, D.M., PMP Patricia Justice, Ph.D.
Morrisville State College Jackson State University
Walden University
Robin Walker
Columbia University, Teachers College
Abstract
Historically at most organizations in the United States, diversity training and other
cultural initiatives have focused on valuing diversity in the workplace, particularly in
regard to leadership development. This typical approach to diversity training for
employees is primarily concentrated on racial issues involving African-American and
Latino/Hispanic-American workers. The immigration of executives, laborers and students
from China, India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Thailand, South Korea, South Africa, Turkey,
Jordan, and Japan has dramatically changed the context of diversity among American
employers. This new, multi-cultural workforce has introduced a unique set of diversity
issues that has created new layers of complexity when it comes to managerial leadership,
organizational environments, and organizational development, specifically related to
cultural and religious considerations.
This action research case study explores the leadership perspectives of three upper-level
managers who are bilingual and naturalized U.S. citizens with varied cultural
backgrounds and religious affiliations. The goal of this study is not to redefine leadership
theory or organizational theory, but to provide viable diversity solutions and approaches
that can positively influence the world of practice.
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Introduction
Since 2001, a U.S. government agency has experienced a tremendous increase in
discrimination complaints related to race, ethnicity, and religion. A private, internal
human resources development study discovered that the majority of these grievances
were filed by American-Middle Eastern, male employees. Some believed that these
charges were the result of backlash from the September 11th terrorist attack by men of
Middle Eastern descent. The Agency complaints, especially those directed towards
Middle Eastern-American male employees, had risen ten-fold, due to a fearful and
resentful national perception of Muslim/Arab workers, simply because they, like the 9/11
attackers, originated from a particular region as well as shared certain cultural affiliations
and religious backgrounds. The number of racial hostility complaints continued to rise,
even after the Agency made diversity training mandatory for organizational leaders
which had not been required in the past. This new, multi-cultural workforce has
introduced a unique set of diversity issues that has created new layers of complexity
when it comes to managerial leadership, organizational environments, and organizational
development, specifically related to cultural and religious considerations.
The agency’s diversity initiative consisted of a one-hour, on-line course which
did not include interactive dialogue or discussion. Each employee independently
completed the mandatory diversity training which addressed issues related to ethnicity
and race only, primarily between Caucasian-Americans, African-Americans and
Latino/Hispanic-Americans. There was not any instructional training on multi-cultural
and religious differences in the diversity curriculum.
The requirement to complete the Agency training came at an interesting time of
the year. Employees were sent notices to complete the course during a season which
began at the end of the month-long, Islamic fasting period of Ramadan and concluded at
the end of the Jewish celebration of Hanukah. What is even more significant is that these
annual religious observances - all issues of diversity - are not even mentioned in the
training overview. What is equally important and also not addressed in the agency’s
omission of these global religious traditions is that these and other key multi-cultural
practices have had, and will continue to have, a great impact on organizational behavior
and leadership.
Whether acknowledged or ignored, these cultural and religious considerations
have not only changed managerial and leadership development of a diverse labor force,
these considerations have caused a complex cultural evolution of the workplace itself.
While many might believe that having open and public religious activities and viewpoints
are appropriate in the workplace, the growth of cultural and ethnic diversity in the
American work environment has created increased debate about diversity in the
workplace (Thomas, 1991). Traditionally, the roots of many U.S. holidays have sprung
from pagan and Judeo-Christian rites and rituals. However in the past two decades
throughout America, diverse national observances have evolved to include some old and
new, traditional, fundamental and radical characteristics of different cultures and
religions, as well as considerations of atheism and agnosticism:
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Consider the relevancy that then senator, now President, Barack Obama outlined
in his book, The Audacity of Hope: Thoughts on Reclaiming the American
Dream when he said, “Given the increasing diversity of America’s population,
the dangers of sectarianism have never been greater. Whatever we once were,
we are no longer just a Christian nation; we are also a Jewish nation, a Muslim
nation, a Buddhist nation, a Hindu nation, and a nation of nonbelievers (Obama,
2008)."
Further consider how much the U.S. work environment has and is changing with
the growth of competent professionals who are America citizens from various
international, ethnic, cultural and religious backgrounds. Although diversity is not just
about skin color, the Agency’s initiative only focused on race. To be more culturally
relevant and up-to-date, diversity training and leadership intervention strategies must also
include an understanding of multi-cultural issues related to differences and similarities
among cultural and religious traditions. To truly be a global and progressive organization,
inclusive diversity education must spotlight and celebrate both the individual and the
group, in relation to cultural and ethnic influences in workers’ values and lives in order
for all to appreciate, if not understand, the diverse communication styles used by people
from varied backgrounds, countries and religions (Thomas, 1991). Cultural understanding
helps all workers respect and recognize these differences in order to see the strengths of
these differences as leverage to helping workers collaborate, share knowledge, and
become more effective (Franzoi, 1996).
Representing a sample of convenience, three multi-cultural leaders were
interviewed to actively address the observed deficiencies in religious and cultural
sensitivity in these organizations. Each participant is a U.S. citizens as well as the
highest-ranking, non-American born executives in his/her organization. Each participant
has intimate knowledge of what it means to be a cultural and religious minority. The
interviews explored what managers can do with certain actions and behaviors to promote
an organizational environment that values international, cultural and religious diversity.
The goal is to identify some viable diversity strategies that can influence the world of
practice. For the purposes of this study, their identities and the name of the agency will
remain anonymous:
Leader 1: Female, 39, born in Afghanistan, U.S. Citizen, religion is Muslim, holds a Master in Business Administration degree.
Leader 2: Male, 35, born in South Africa, U.S. Citizen, religion is Bahá'í, holds a Master in Public Administration degree.
Leader 3: Female, 46, born in India, U.S. Citizen, religion is Hindu, with a doctorate in education.
An action research approach was used because of its applicability to
professional practice and its ability to allow stakeholders with intimate knowledge to
actively take part in the data collection process. Action research is an applied inquiry
procedure in which members study and inspect their own organizational practice
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methodically and analytically using the modus operandi of data collection, data sorting,
data evaluation and solution recommendation. The value of an action research approach
in this context is that it is not simply hypothesis-testing. An action research approach is
concerned with experimentation in a way that is centered on shifting the state of affairs,
not just on understanding the variables that influence them. Action research is methodical
and engrosses assembling facts on which to base meticulous deliberation. Action research
does not view workers as study objects. It views employees as empowered change agents
who participate in problem-solving through collaboration, pooling of organizational tribal
and historical knowledge, and by tapping into their professional abilities to improve
organizational culture and circumstances (Stringer, 2007).
The benefit of interviewing leaders from diverse ethnic, cultural and religious
backgrounds was that they directly related to the problem and fully understood current
organizational climate and critical historical organizational knowledge, which is vital to
complex organizational problem-solving (Boud, Keogh, & Walker 1985; Schon, 1991).
The main point of view is that the increase of globalization throughout the world has
created the need for global leaders with multi-cultural understanding of the influence of
culture on the leadership process (North, 2007).
Literature and Perspectives
There is an inherent conflict in exploring workplace cultural and religious
diversity because of the need to see each worker both as an individual and as a
member of a group (Franzoi 1996; Nelson & Quick, 2005; Thomas, 1991). On one
hand, supervisors are required to view each worker as an individual, to evaluate his or
her individual strengths, skills, and ability to be promoted and not classify or
stereotype the worker on the origin of group association. Each employee, regardless
of group association, is innately singular and has distinctive life experiences and will
not be exactly like other members of the cultural and religious group (Thomas, 1991).
On the other hand, supervisors should be sensitive and alert enough to the idea
that an individual worker’s behavior and perspectives may be affected, influenced, or
enhanced by that subordinate’s association in a particular group (Thomas, 1991).
It is a reasonable assertion that societal and cultural influences have a profound
effect on employee values, behaviors, priorities, and actions as employees (Franzoi,
1996). Understanding diversity and cultural influences provide a framework for how
to relate and understand others. In the context of this action research paper,
international cultural diversity refers to the following:
1. An international and religiously diverse community population, which must be sufficiently large enough to be self-sustaining and to produce new
generations but not a member of the most, dominate homogenous cultural
group (Franzoi, 1996).
2. A significant majority of that international and religiously diverse community population’s perspectives, experiences, and patterns of
behavior, language, concepts, beliefs, and values about life should guide
our individual and collective behaviors (Franzoi, 1996).
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3. A process of social transmission and inheritance of tribal knowledge consistently occurs where the international and religiously diverse
community population’s priorities and other cultural artifacts are passed
between members over the course of generations (Franzoi, 1996).
4. Members knowingly identify themselves as members of the international and religiously diverse community population and subscribe to a shared
system of norms, behaviors, symbols, methods of communication, and
meanings (Franzoi, 1996; Nelson & Quick, 2005; Thomas, 1991).
All cultural tribal knowledge is learned through interaction and experiences with
others in that culture (Franzoi 1996). People see the world differently based on their
cultural and social influences and find meaning and base interpretations on their
experience which is the basis for how diverse employees feel welcomed and included
in the workplace (Franzoi, 1996; Nelson & Quick, 2005; Thomas, 1991).
For virtually all immigrant groups or individuals, a process of acculturation takes
place along a scale ranging from full identification with one’s native culture to the
assimilation of some of or all of the new culture. For many, there is an attempt to
hold onto an open sense of pride for one’s religious and international cultural heritage
and at the same time become mainstream American. The choice is not seen as either/
or but as both. Identification with two cultures often continues through many
generations (Thomas, 1991).
A significant aspect of leadership activities and behaviors should be an
understanding of how our cultural diversity influences employee participation and
inclusion in the workplace in terms of individualism and collectivism. These terms
refer to how people see and define themselves in relationship to others (Franzoi
.1996; Nelson & Quick, 2005; Thomas, 1991).
In individualist cultures, priorities are set with minimal consideration given to
groups other than your immediate family. In collectivist cultures, the needs of many
outweigh the needs of a few. Individualist cultures are loosely integrated; collectivist
cultures are tightly integrated (Franzoi, 1996). New immigrants to this country often
assimilate, consume, and incorporate these cultural experiences into their make-up
(Franzoi 1996). This assimilation can be challenging for those of different cultural
and religious backgrounds that grew up in a collectivist culture where decisions are
based on the concerns of the other members of the group (Franzoi, 1996). The United
States is a great example of individualist culture. People are defined or perceived by
their acquisition of materials such as their car, house and their salary (Franzoi, 1996).
For employees from international cultures or religious cultures that are
collectivist, there is a socialized emphasis on relationships among people to a greater
degree and stresses interdependent activities and suppresses individual aims for those
of your family, religion, or cultural circle. Often, it is difficult for individuals from
highly individualist cultures to understand collectivist values (Franzoi, 1996).
Consider that knowledge is a good example of a concept that everyone
possesses and uses. Also consider that knowledge is used for the basis of action and
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behavior in the workplace and can influence how employees relate to each other,
share with others, and collaborate with one another (Cummings & Worley, 2008).
Employee knowledge development is influenced by cultural, ethnic, and religious
socializations and has a great area of practical importance in an individual’s ability to
feel included, welcomed and accepted (Franzoi, 1996).
To provide some context consider that throughout history, the United States
was geographically isolated on the North American continent from Europe. Bordered
by oceans, Canada, and Mexico as neighbors, the country developed its place in the
world through internal growth and cultural socialization based on American norms,
values, and traditions. Most of its citizens grew up only knowing one language,
English. Only a tiny percentage of the population had ever been out of the country
(Ryan, 2000). Even in the 1940s, the United States foreign diplomats often did not
speak the language of their assigned countries, knew little of the culture, and as a
consequence were limited in their ability to engage and understand other societies
(Ryan, 2000). These early events provide a navigational map and insight into how
American workers value diversity and relate to workers from international
backgrounds, religions and cultures (Ryan, 2000).
Diversity in the workplace is not a new issue. It became an issue when several
prevailing factors converged at the same time:
1. Increased cultural and ethnic immigration from outside the U.S. from groups with different backgrounds, languages and religions.
2. Growth of international business, global competition, and international outsourcing.
3. Increased presence and impact from international telecommunications including e-mail and Internet technologies.
4. Individuals began increasingly to celebrate their differences and become less amenable to compromising their racial, cultural,
religious, and native language differences (Friedman, 2007)
“The fall of the Berlin Wall didn’t just help flatten the alternatives to
free market international capitalism, it also unlocked enormous pent-
up energies for hundreds of millions of different cultural, racial, and
religious backgrounds in places like India, Brazil, China, and the
former Soviet Empire. It also allowed Americans to look at the world
differently and to see it more as a seamless whole. Because the Berlin
Wall was not only in our way; it was blocking our sight and our
ability to think about the whole world as a single market, a single
ecosystem, and a single community,” (Friedman, 2007).
Leaders of U.S. organizations must also recognize that the make-up of the
overall American workforce today is vastly different than it was in the 1990s
(Wuthnow, 2007). In context some people might state, “There have always been
workers of diverse races, dissimilar language backgrounds, different religions, and
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dissimilar ethnic backgrounds. America has been labeled the melting pot” (Barone,
2006).
Traditionally, the American leadership approach to diversity has been for
people of different races, colors, and religions to assimilate into homogeneous
American customs, values, and religions. Historically, immigrants and minorities were
expected to deemphasize their own cultural, religious, and language familiarities so that
they fit in and this burden of change was always stressed to them. This carried over in
the workplace where organizations historically expected those subordinates who were
different to bear the burden of adjusting. The approach used was that cultural
assimilation was the process that ensured cohesiveness because without it there would
be organizational incongruence (Thomas, 1991).
To really comprehend organizational culture and its impact on diverse cultural
and religious tolerance and understanding, there must be some discussion about the
origins and contexts of the deepest echelon of perceptions, suppositions and values.
Schein (1992) asserts that underlying perceptions and suppositions are developed based
on our socializing experiences. Organizational cultures are produced, shaped, and
changed by employees, leaders, and stakeholders. Leaders are centers of influence for
the creation of an organization's vision, values, and ideology. Organizational values
articulate inclination for desired actions, activities, and behaviors focused on specific
results. Organizational norms customarily tolerated actions and behaviors that are
viewed as the culturally acceptable methods of meeting organizational objectives and
priorities. Leaders also institute the structure for interaction, collaboration, and
communication for the organization. Organizational norms and values provide the
framework for the aspects of the organization’s culture (Schein, 1992). Ultimately
organizational leaders must take the lead in fostering behaviors that will influence the
organizational culture to be more tolerant, culturally competent, respectful, considerate,
and inclusive (Thomas, 1991).
Methodology
The interviews included three organizational leaders of diverse ethnic, cultural,
and religious backgrounds and used an action research approach to assess the issue of
religious and cultural diversity in the organization to make recommendations on how to
improve content and delivery of the diversity training to the benefit of the organization
and its workers. The participants, two bilingual females and one male executive with
advanced degrees and over 10 years of management experience, had recently completed
the Agency’s diversity training. Each one was interviewed separately about their views
on how the actions and behaviors of organizational leaders can promote a climate that
values cultural and religious diversity and is tolerant and respectful of differences beyond
just race and color.
The involvement of a diverse group of participants in the problem assessment,
data collection, and solution development created an opportunity to benefit from a wide
variety of perspectives, innovations, and ideas. A broader set of backgrounds and
attitudes to problem solving can permit the propensity of more creative solutions to
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develop (Greenwood & Levin, 2007). The interviewees’ feedback discussions were
guided by the eights steps outlined by Cummings & Worley (2007, p. 27). The
interviewees were charged with:
1. Outlining the nature of the problem 2. Allowing the researcher to be the facilitator of the intervention 3. Amassing facts and information about the problem 4. Soliciting opinion and perspectives 5. Developing a collective analysis of the problem 6. Developing a joint plan of attack for the problem 7. Developing an action intervention 8. Evaluating the results of the intervention.
In the individual interviews, each leader was asked the following questions:
1. What are the organizational benefits of having employees from internationally diverse
and religiously diverse backgrounds?
2. What are the most positive leadership practices, methods, and approaches that leaders
can engage in to perpetuate an organizational culture that values and appreciates
diversity?
The diversity issue was discussed individually with Leader 1 (Female, 39,
Afghanistan, Muslim, holds a Master in Business Administration degree):
1. What are the organizational benefits of having employees from internationally diverse and religiously diverse backgrounds? Leader 1 said, “More diverse
employees allow an organization to tap into a wider range of intellectual capital
from different people. These diverse people can have the ability to take different
approaches to problem solving, which is important as the country becomes more
international and intercultural through increased immigration and globalization.”
2. What are the most positive leadership practices, methods, and approaches that leaders can engage in to perpetuate an organizational culture that values and
appreciates diversity? Leader 1 said, “Leaders should provide forums for
employees to understand the values, experiences, and perspectives of coworkers
from diverse international cultures and religions. Leaders should have mechanisms
in place to measure and understand employee values on diversity. Leaders should
create forums for employees to have discussions where they can ask questions, talk,
and have social interactions with co-workers from diverse religious and
international cultural backgrounds. These mechanisms and discussions can become
a catalyst, provide an avenue to transform and change the culture in the organization
towards one that values diversity and is more tolerant of diverse religious and
cultural backgrounds. These leadership-induced actions can play a role in
transforming an organization that is intolerant to an organization that values
diversity.
Based on the feedback from the discussions, a model was developed to help
articulate Leader 1’s vision of leadership’s role in perpetuating a leadership culture. After
the model was selected, it was shown to Leader 1 to see if it accurately depicted her
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correct vision of leadership’s role in effectively promoting an organizational culture that
valued international, cultural and religious diversity.
Organizational leaders have to create a work environment where there is
tolerance and respect for cultural and religious diversity. For this transformation to
occur, leadership must find mechanisms and forums in order for several steps to take
place, which are demonstrated in the following leadership diversity model. Leader 1
concurred that the following model created an accurate visual description of her diversity
perspective.
Darrell Norman Burrell Leadership Diversity Model
Unearthing
Unearthing in this model represents the creation of forums and mechanisms for
awareness, understanding, and the appreciation of international, cultural, and religious
values, differences, and stereotypes.
Assessing
Assessing in this model is a systematic survey of the organizational culture and
climate as it relates to international, cultural, and religious diversity and sharing those
results throughout the organization.
Journeying
Journeying in this model represents the use of activities and interactive
workshops to allow employees with diverse backgrounds to communicate, share life-
changing experiences, and get to know each other socially and culturally in ways that
might not occur in the normal work environment. These interactions allow employees to
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understand the kinds of behaviors that are present on an organizational scale from denial
of differences towards the appreciation and celebration of employee differences.
Refurbishing
Refurbishing in this model represents how the use of the earlier steps
encouraged and fostered by leadership begin to influence the organizational culture and
perspectives of employees through intervention of new organizational practices, creating
an organizational climate that celebrates international, cultural, and religious diversity.
Invigorating
Invigorating in this model represents how the expansion of ethnic diversity
initiatives allows for a culture that celebrates differences. One where employees are
encouraged to share stories about their diverse background instead of attempting to hide
or minimize their international, cultural, and religious origins out of fear of being
ostracized or isolated. Activities that demonstrate how employees value diversity are
made part of employee performance evaluations. Positive agents for diversity are
acknowledged and rewarded for their support of diversity in the organizational culture.
The diversity issue was discussed individually with Leader 2 (Male, 35, South
Africa, Bahá'í, holds a Master in Public Administration degree):
1. What are the organizational benefits of having employees from internationally diverse
and religiously diverse backgrounds? Leader 2 said, “A workplace that values
international cultural and religious diversity is more likely to be one that benefits from
collective knowledge, innovation, voice, and the creativity of all employees. An
intolerant workplace can have severe consequences on employee retention, worker
productivity, organizational knowledge transfer, and employee job satisfaction. Workers
that see themselves as valued members of their organization tend to be more committed
and connected to the organization’s values, activities, priorities, norms, and mission.
In contrast, minority group members tend to feel less appreciated and valued
than majority group workers due to stereotyping, bias, misconception, and prejudice. A
work culture where diversity is not valued can have dysfunctional penalties including
dejected employee motivation, low job satisfaction, and high employee turnover for
workers in minority groups. As a consequence, when an organization ignores the role of
cultural and religious diversity, employee minimization will occur which creates an
environment where employees do not collaborate, have trust, share knowledge, and do
not maximize their work product potential.”
2. What are the most positive leadership practices, methods, and approaches that leaders can engage in to perpetuate an organizational culture that values and
appreciates diversity?
Leader 2 said, “Managers should provide avenues for employees to learn the best
aspects about employees from diverse backgrounds, cultures, and religions.
Managers should have a vision that shows employees how culturally diverse
collaborative employee teams can be more productive and innovative. Managers
should not force diversity on employees or define cultural understanding to
employees. Managers should empower and encourage employees to provide
avenues to interact and develop their own context and levels of understanding.
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Managers should provide avenues and mechanisms where employees can engage in
discovery and create breakthroughs in the development of an organizational culture
that values and celebrates international cultural and religious diversity.”
Based on the feedback from the discussions, a model was identified to articulate
Leader 2’s vision of leadership’s role in perpetuating a leadership culture. The 4D Model
of Appreciative Inquiry fits well into Leader 2’s version of leadership. After the model
was selected it was shown to Leader 2 to see if it accurately depicted his correct vision of
leadership’s role in effectively promoting an organizational culture that valued
international, cultural, and religious diversity. Leader 2 concurred that the following
model created an accurate visual description of his diversity perspective. Appreciative
Inquiry (AI) as a process for organizational development was employed extensively. The
AI process can provide a useable process for organizations and individuals to evaluate
when they are at their best and most productive, while identifying the assets, actions, and
activities that allow top performance. Instead of always focusing on what is wrong,
organizations and individuals uncover the strengths and activities to development them.
They also develop profound future visions based upon these strengths, which become a
catalyst for achieving that vision, and the enthusiasm and motivation to bring it into to
fruition and fulfillment. The AI 4D Model has four phases (Cooperrider & Whitney,
2005):
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Discovery: Valuing the best aspects and values of internationally and religiously diverse employees.
Dream: Developing a vision of what an internationally and religiously inconclusive environment would look like.
Design: Empowering employees to actively participate in determining the nature of an inclusive culture that benefits from contributions of diverse
employees.
Destiny: Evolving, maturing, and growing the organizational culture to be more tolerate and celebratory of employees that are internationally and
The diversity issue was discussed individually with Leader 3 (Female, 46, India,
Hindu, with a doctorate in education.):
1. What are the organizational benefits of having employees from internationally diverse
and religiously diverse backgrounds? Leader 3 said, “The benefits of an internationally
and religiously diverse environment are where employees openly share knowledge and
collaborate because all employees feel that their perspectives are valued and appreciated.
Different people with different backgrounds have different ways of solving problems and
developing innovations. This employee difference can provide avenues for new
efficiencies, innovative processes, and novel problem solutions.
2. What are the most positive leadership practices, methods, and approaches that leaders
can engage in to perpetuate an organizational culture that values and appreciates
diversity? Leader 3 said, “Leaders need to be honest with employees about the current
organizational climate, diversity challenges, and benefits of diversity. Leaders need to
demonstrate behaviors that show integrity, ethics, and respect for international cultural
and religious diversity. Leaders should create a vision of an organization where all
employees feel valued and appreciated. Addressing diversity is very complex and so the
leader should have the courage, persistence, and conviction to support diversity initiatives
and activities in spite of resistance. Leaders should understand that for the organization to
reach its potential there must be contributions from all employees.
The Leadership Diamond Model provides an encompassing perspective of
Leader 3’s perspective on diversity leadership (Koestenbaum, 2002, p. 18). After the
model was selected it was shown to Leader 3 to see if it accurately depicted her correct
vision of leadership’s role in effectively promoting an organizational culture that valued
international, cultural, and religious diversity. Leader 3 concurred that this model created
an accurate visual description of their diversity perspective.
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Koestenbaum's Leadership Diamond Model
The Leadership Diamond refers to the importance of leaders and all employees
acting ethically, respectfully, and with integrity towards each other. It means showing
compassion, cultural competence, and providing service to employees through meeting
their needs and providing them with tools that they need to do their work successfully. It
also means behaving in accordance with moral principles (Koestenbaum, 2002, p. 18).
In the Koestenbaum Model, vision means being motivating to employees
through behaviors that apply critical thinking skills and see circumstances in innovative
ways; courage is defined as managing uncertainty, taking control, and using leadership
influence to drive consequential initiatives onward; and reality refers to being honest,
communicating honestly, relying on information that is accurate, not on emotions in
making complex decisions. It also means being able to understand other people's
perceptions of what is actually true. This also includes eliminating bureaucratic red tape,
being honest with employees, and providing open communication. When all of the
aspects of the external structure of the diamond are demonstrated in the organization,
then employees feel committed, valued, and are more willing to collaborate and share
knowledge as they move towards greater employee productivity and organizational
efficiency (Koestenbaum, 2002, p. 18).
Three models were used to provide context for the type of leadership
interventions recommended by Leaders’ 1, 2, and 3 in that they outline core activities that
are needed to spur organizational cultural change towards one of tolerance, cultural
competence, and inclusion. Each model provides a theoretical perspective of the variables
influencing organizational effectiveness and outlines the critical interrelated components.
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After the individual interview results, the three organizational leaders where
convened as part of discussion focus group. The goal of this collaboration was to allow
these individuals to come together as a group to share, discuss, and develop some
consensus of recommendations. All suggested significant actions and behaviors that
leaders can use to promote the actions and behaviors of organizational leaders in order to
promote a climate that values cultural and religious diversity and is tolerant and
respectful of differences beyond just race and color. The group was asked a series of
questions to outline what organizational leaders can do to create a tolerant culture that
maximizes the benefits of religious and cultural diversity in the organization. The focus
was on seeing the benefits and developing innovative leadership approaches to improve
the organizational culture by building on strengths (Thatchenkery & Metzker 2006, p.
77). With each discussion topic, the group was required to brainstorm and come up with
answers based on their experiences at the Agency and knowledge of cultural diversity.
Their responses were recorded on flip charts.
Focus group question 1- Communication is key to being an effective leader in
today’s internationally, culturally, and religiously diverse work environment.
What can managers and leaders do to be more effective in this area? Responses:
1. Articulate a vision of the potential benefits of an organizational culture that appreciates, respects, values, and celebrates international, cultural, and
religious diversity.
2. Use inclusive language because words shape realities. Do not use stereotypes and inaccurate labels.
3. Improve listening skills. 4. Recognize and suspend prejudicial perceptions and stereotypes. 5. Articulate respect and appreciation of international, cultural, and religious
differences.
6. Seek to understand others with differences. Focus group question 2- What are the biggest organizational challenges that
having an internationally, culturally, and religiously diverse workforce creates?
Responses:
1. Management complexity: It is less complex to manage a group of like experience, like value, and like perspective homogeneous workforce.
2. Equality complexity: How can administrators be just when different religions and cultures describe and illustrate fairness in diverse ways due to
the nature of different socializing experiences?
3. Difference complexity: Diverse workers often have diverse styles of communication, interactions, and perceptions, which can create challenges
to management.
4. Employee conflict and misunderstandings occur because of style and communication differences.
5. A universal lack of understanding and information of diverse cultural and religious beliefs and their ffect on the work culture.
6. Limited information on diverse international cultures and diverse religions.
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7. The existence of strong, organizational cultural and influential employee cliques.
8. The lack of a safe haven for forums to ask questions or discuss diversity issues.
9. Not enough resources and emphasis placed on diversity initiatives. 10. Lack of appropriate management support and commitment at every level of
the organization for organizational diversity.
11. Lack of rewards or individual performance goals that encourage participation and commitment to diversity initiatives and activities.
Focus group question 3- What do you see as the leadership fundamentals of
embracing international, cultural, and religious diversity? Responses:
1. Respect- This encompasses respecting the values, experiences, customs, and perceptions of others.
2. Tolerance- This includes being open-minded and patient as it relates to ambiguities in customs, communication styles, language and expectations.
3. Adaptability- New situations have the ability to evolve and change so managers must be willing to adapt to change and encourage employees to
be flexible in their thinking and actions too.
4. Self-awareness- Leaders need to acknowledge and understand the nature, triggers, and origins of their biases, prejudices, and reactions so that they
can be checked and managed.
5. Empathetic- Leaders must have the ability to attempt to understand what it means to walk in the diverse person’s shoes.
6. Perseverance- Leaders must understand that cultural change and acceptance of international, cultural, and religious differences can be slow and difficult.
Conclusions
The benefits of a culturally competent, diversity tolerant, and diversity respectful
culture are that there is the ability to improve employee morale (Thomas, 1991). When
employees feel respected and valued they are more likely to feel more committed to the
organization. Demoralized, resentful workers are not conducive to a healthy and
nurturing work environment (Thomas, 1991).
“When managers work with diverse employees, it is often difficult to
comprehend all the issues. As leaders, they must move from unconscious
incompetence, where they have no idea what they are doing to offend others, to
conscious competence. Organizations often take the limited viewpoint that
through a diversity training course that the organization can dictate how workers
will act and think. Behavior conversion alone does not produce irreversible
attitude adjustments. Creating a culture where employees are sensitive,
culturally competition, respectful, and inclusive requires devotion,
consequences, resources, support, and rewards from all levels of stakeholders,
managers, and organizational leaders. Devotion begins with realizing that one is
not superior or inferior to anyone else-by race, sex, ethnicity, ability, or culture.
106
This realization allows organizations to create relationships based upon honesty,
trust, and mutual respect. Major drivers for change become ethical and moral
motivations, understanding that valuing and respecting employees with racial,
cultural, and religious differences is the right thing to do (Thomas 1991).”
Human resources development activities and management actions need to be
transformational if these initiatives are to serve any organization’s ability to embrace
cultural, racial, ethnic, and religious diversity (Thomas, 1991). Human resources
development professionals should identify and develop transformational leaders that
function and act from a basis of elevated integrity and ethical behaviors and
consistently demonstrate a compassion and understanding of the exceedingly multi-
faceted variables that influence harmony, minimize conflict, and perpetuate
cohesiveness in any organization (Schein, 1992). Managers and organizational leaders
must personally act in accordance with productive values and beliefs that show respect
and appreciation for the value of cultural and religious diversity and they must teach
others to do the same. They must propagate contagious values and behaviors that
promote tolerance (Thomas, 1991).
This is demonstrated in the ability to change the culture by teaching in a manner
that allows employees to find positive meanings and influencing values (Hunt, 1996,
p.44). These types of approaches entail leaders who engage in the creative intervention
of positive fresh stories, innovative symbols, and new traditions, so that all workers in
the organization can industriously and compassionately handle the cultural, racial, and
religious ambiguities adjoining an organization’s culture. Organizational workers
cannot execute devoid of cooperative and shared networks of amended values and
meanings, new ways of behaving and beliefs effectively (Hunt, 1996).
Ostroff, Kinicki, and Tamkins (2003) acknowledged human resources
development and managerial leadership as an evolving progression of actions that have
the ability to positively influence both employees and the organizational culture.
Correspondingly, Denison (1990) outlined how human resources development activities
and management vision, values, actions, and behaviors reinforce principles of the
organizational culture (Amabile, Conti, Coon, Lazenby, & Herron, 1996; Deshpande,
Farley, & Webster, 1993; Jassawalla & Sashittal, 2002; Prather & Turrell, 2002) and
employee actions (Ogbonna & Harris, 2000; Xenikou & Simosi, 2006). The culture
positively matures, transforms and develops only when leadership actions influence
workers to collaborate and engage in productive and synergistic organizational cultural
behaviors (Koestenbaum, 2002, p. 266).
Leadership must demonstrate the aptitude to achieve established priorities and
goals through goal-setting direction, aligning subordinates, forecasting, arranging,
motivating, socializing, mentoring, directing, and controlling in a manner consistent with
creating an organizational culture and structure for organizational success (Kotter, 2001,
p. 103). The major aspect of effective and inclusive leadership must be facilitating and
developing the benefits of diversity through social groups by fostering understanding,
collaboration, communication, and respect (Bennis, 1992).
107
Managers themselves, including these multi-cultural study participants, have
expressed a need to integrate ethics and spirituality into the management and leadership
of their organizations. However, learning how to successfully reconcile economic value
and ethical and spiritual value demands further managerial and human resources
instruction, specifically tailored to each business. When examining organizational
culture, behavior, structure and its impact on the expression of religion and spirituality in
the American workplace, volatile questions about leadership style, values and
institutional norms are raised: Does the company create a secular atmosphere or promote
particular religious traditions? Does management sponsor and require attendance at
diversity seminars? Is there a non-discrimination policy to protect people of “minority”
religions and cultures? These questions address the institutional, and not just the
individual, aspects of religion and spirituality in the workplace. Leadership can create or
stifle the institutional space for individual religious expression (Hicks, 2003, p. 25).
With or without organizational leadership, the forces of globalization have
radically moved most businesses across the United States toward cultural and religious
diversity among employers and employees. While the changes may have been gradual
and/or awkward at first, this precipitous rise in spiritual diversity has transformed all
aspects of the American workplace, its leaders as well as the general labor force. For
most people, the effects of this process on their relationship to work is to find new
meaning in their work, a renewed and inspired commitment to performance through
service, and a deepening of the valuing of relationships in the workplace. However, for
some people, the transformation process creates a severe conflict between the culture of
the organization and their need for spiritual development (Biberman & Whitty, 2000, p.
9).
Although corporate interest in this spiritual workplace transformation has
primarily been based on profitability and productivity, research shows the core benefits
of transformation are not necessarily economic, yet are critical to the success of
individuals, organizations and society. Both companies and people do well when there is
an alignment between organizational and individual beliefs and values (Dehler & Welsh,
1994).
Workplaces that allow people to remain true to their deepest beliefs in their
daily work provide not only an outlet for personal expression but will “become the only
way for companies to make a profit,” because it creates the context for creativity
(Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2003, p.115). Emphasizing the dramatic increase in
incorporating spirituality into management theory, management development and
management practice, many recent studies suggest ways in which individual,
organizational and global transformation can be integrated (Biberman & Whitty, 2000, p.
6).
The unprecedented growth of Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism and other faiths have
shattered a presumed Judeo-Christian homogeneity in corporate America which no longer
fits demographic, economic or religious realities. Throughout U.S. history, such an
assumed uniformity generally, if not always, excluded minority expressions of faith,
108
particularly Native American traditions and many aspects of African American religions.
Whether this new spiritual and cultural diversity in the American workplace is a
challenge to confront, or an opportunity to welcome, is up for debate. Both aspects
should be accorded their full debate (Hicks, 2003, p. 17).
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Darrell Norman Burrell is a faculty member at Virginia International University in
Fairfax, VA www.viu.edu He is also an adjunct faculty member at Averett University,
Strayer University, and in the on-line MBA is Sustainability at Marylhurst University.
He is a doctoral student at A.T. Still University. He is also a Presidential Management
Fellow, www.pmf.gov with over 18 years of management experience. He has an EdS
(Post Master’s Terminal Degree) in Higher Education Administration from The George
Washington University. He has graduate degrees in Human Resources Management
and Organizational Management from National Louis University, and a graduate degree
in Sales and Marketing Management from Prescott College. He can be contacted at E-
mail: [email protected]
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Dr. Asila Safi has a doctoral degree in Management from Colorado Technical
University. Her research is on leadership development in the Federal Government. She
has a graduate degree in Organizational Management from the National Louis
University. She is fluent in five languages and has over nine years of management
experience in government and corporate America. E-mail: [email protected]
Robin Walker is an interdisciplinary doctoral student in Education at Teachers College,
Columbia University. Her doctoral research focuses on International Communications
and Organizational Leadership, examining the media’s global impact on youth
development. She has received a Master of Arts in Religion, and a Bachelor of Arts in
English degree from Yale University. Robin was named a Yale Visiting Fellow in
2004 and served as an Edward Zigler Fellow at the Bush Center for Child Development
and Social Policy from 2005-2007. Ms. Walker has over 20 years of communications
experience in the corporate, consulting and non-profit arenas. E-mail:
Dr. Patricia Justice has a doctorate degree in Urban Higher Education from Jackson
State University. Her research is on the linkage of undergraduate engineering student
engagement and persistence in engineering. She has a graduate degree in International
Business and Marketing from Claremont Graduate University. Ms. Justice is President
and CEO of Montage Education Technology with over 20 years of management,
organizational behavior and technology experience within the public and private
sectors. She can be contacted at E-Mail: [email protected]
Dr. Emad Rahim is a faculty member with Morrisville State College, Walden
University, and TUI University. He earned a doctorate of management in
organizational development from the Institute for Advance Studies at Colorado
Technical University, Colorado Springs. He holds two graduate degrees in project
management and business management. He is extensive experience in organizational
consulting and non-profit management. Dr. Rahim has multiple publications on the
topics of diversity management, project management, workplace resolution, and
organizational development. He has extensive experience teaching in the classroom and
on-line. He can be reached at: [email protected]
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