Analysis

Broaden-and-build theory identifies that positive and negative emotions will have different cognitive and behavioral effects (Fredrickson, 2001). Then, considering the social exchange theory distinguishes between two types of reciprocity orientation: positive reciprocity, which “involves the tendency to return positive treatment for positive treatment”, and negative reciprocity, which “involves the tendency to return negative treatment for negative treatment” (Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005). Therefore, when one employee gives the appearance of knowledge-hiding, then all begin concealing their knowledge and it becomes a collective knowledge hiding of all employees.

Knowledge sharing theory is considered productive knowledge behavior with many types of counterproductive knowledge behaviors impending the progress of the organization toward its overall objective. When individuals within the organization do not actively communicate their knowledge, regardless of their motivation to protect it, disengagement from knowledge sharing occurs.

2.2.1 Major hypothes(is)(es). Explain how they are formulated.

H1. The availability of an organizational knowledge management (KM) system has a negative effect on intra-organizational knowledge hiding.

There are various types of knowledge processes. Most recent involve technological systems. Through those KM systems that enables knowledge sharing processes by making it easier for employees to request said knowledge, there appears to be limited boundaries of time and space. Therefore, an assumption is made regarding the availability of KM systems may reduce knowledge hiding behavior. Even those trivial tasks that does not require effort may engage in knowledge sharing. This hypothesis was formulated due to knowledge sharing routinely used by employees appears to become a routine habitual behavior.

H2. The availability of organizational knowledge policies has a negative effect on intra-organizational knowledge hiding.

Organizational structural capital consists of policies that are capable to empirically help support the processes of enhanced knowledge integration. These policies are formulated as non-human elements of intangible assets that represent the intelligence of an organization. Knowledge policies are used to help guide employee learning processes and knowledge sharing within the organization. Through the use of these policies, employee become more comfortable in knowledge sharing to the degree it becomes a natural response to share. This hypothesis was formulated due to knowledge sharing becoming less likely to be hidden by the employees.

H3. The existence of a positive organizational knowledge culture has a negative effect on intra-organizational knowledge hiding.

Historical literature confirms certain attributes such as, open communication, decision-making involvement, promotion of knowledge sharing, social trust, social networks, and high levels of organizational commitment have an impact on knowledge sharing. Additionally, knowledge hiding behavior is hypothesized to be reduced because of a positive knowledge culture. In looking through a psychological knowledge ownership perspective for knowledge sharing, an individual may feel ownership of the knowledge sharing. When an employee experiences the ownership perspective of their organization, they are more committed and engaged in responsible behaviors such as knowledge sharing. Another factor for consideration is the level of ethics in the organizational culture. When employees are expected to grow a sense of moral obligation toward their organization with high ethical values such as openness, fairness, and trust, there is less opportunity for knowledge hiding and other counterproductive work behaviors. This hypothesis was formulated due to positive organizational knowledge culture should reduce counterproductive knowledge behavior such as intra-organizational knowledge hiding.

H4. Intra-organizational knowledge hiding has a positive effect on reciprocal knowledge hiding.

Social exchange theory has the assumption that people are motivated by their own self-interest. This encourages the individual that something they have is valued by someone else that can be reciprocated. Broaden-and-build theory examines the different cognitive and behavioral effect from both positive and negative emotions through both positive and negative reciprocity. Both theories compliment each other from the aspect of when an employee believes knowledge hiding is occurring, they tend to practice knowledge hiding. This hypothesis was formulated due to the existence of negative reciprocity being documented to information withholding and the assumption is likely to apply to knowledge hiding.

H5. Intra-organizational knowledge hiding has a positive effect on turnover intentions.

There are intangible and tangible costs associated when an employee voluntarily leaves an organization. These can have devastating outcomes for knowledge-intense organizations. Tangible costs are hiring and training expenses while intangible costs include the loss of human capital. Historical literature shows that most people consider knowledge hiding to be unhealthy, unethical and harmful to everyone. The longer an employee senses knowledge hiding is occurring, they tend to show higher turnover intentions. This hypothesis was formulated due to when there is contrast to a knowledge-sharing environment that reduces turnover intentions, a knowledge-hiding environment increases turnover intentions.

H6. Compensation per FTE has a negative effect on intra-organizational knowledge hiding.

H7. Involuntary turnover rate has a positive effect on intra-organizational knowledge hiding.

Compensation per FTE and involuntary turnover rate are two antecedents of intra-organization hiding. When employees are experiencing benefit cuts, and lower wages, they question the financial stability of the organization and even experience involuntary turnover. These are just a few of the factors that influences an employees’ behavior regarding job security. Additionally, when an employee experiences the previous described factors, they may become self-embroiled in a power/knowledge paradigm that defines their actions that has a negative outcome on how they handle knowledge-sharing. Both of these hypotheses were formulated by the factor when employees have to compete for their job security by increasing their expert knowledge to be more valuable from their organization’s perspective. This creates opportunity for knowledge hiding instead of a positive behavior of knowledge-sharing.

2.3. Methodological design

The perceptual constructs (self-reporting) of facilitating conditions include: KM system (FCS), policies (FCP) and culture (FCC) with all three connecting from the top half of the model, to the Intra-Organizational Knowledge Hiding (IOKH). The objective constructs (based on organizational data) of compensation for full-time equivalent and involuntary turnover connect from the bottom half of the model to the IOKH. This gives IOKH the position of a mediator since IOKH connect to reciprocal knowledge hiding (RKH) and voluntary turnover intentions (VTI).

This research has consideration as an experimental design due to the strong internal validity of the outcomes as shown in the tables of the research and as explained throughout the rest of this paper. The group defined for the research had differing levels of employees within the main group. Additionally, there was a large sampling for the survey. (Trochim, 2006)

2.4. Variables’ definitions and measures. Validity and reliability of the scales.

Voluntary turnover intentions (VTI) were adapted for this study. Each construct was operationalized with multiple indicators that pertained to various aspects of a relevant concept measured on a seven-point Likert-type scale. The voluntary turnover intentions scale included one negatively worded item which served as a cognitive speed-bump to reduce common method variance. A 13-item scale was used to measure the social desirability bias. The face validity assessment was done by asking for feedback from a group of scholars with expertise in the domain of this study and from potential respondents. There were three rounds of revisions with feedback from the review team was sued to modify and improve the questions until everyone was in agreement with the final revision. Through this process, it was concluded that no further modifications were necessary because an acceptable level of construct and reliability and validity was observed.

2.5. Control factors/variables (if any) – implemented experimentally and/or statistically

Although demographics were collected, the authors did not report using them as control variables for any statistical analysis.

2.6. Sample and population

The sample consisted of 691 employees of 15 North American credit unions who were given a questionnaire, from their respective executives.

2.7. Procedures – brief summary

For this study, the executives were recruited through their professional associations to reach their credit union. The two associations were Credit Union Central of Canada and Filene Research Institute in the USA. This study targets credit unions because they are considered knowledge-intensive organizations. Credit unions are unique in the following aspects:

1. Their members generate both supply of and demand on funds, and credit unions minimize the difference in rates between internal lenders and borrowers to act in the best interest of their members

2. They operate in a highly competitive environment due to industry deregulation, the appearance of virtual banks and new digital currency transmitters.

A high-level manager at each location forwarded the online survey link to a random group of employees Participation was optional although, there was explanation to the importance of this survey and the findings would be shared with those participating credit unions.

2.8. Data analysis strategy

The following objective organizational-data was obtained directly from the top executives of each credit union:

1. The number of FTE employees based on a standard work week (35 – 40 hours) over the course of the fiscal year. All full-time, part-time and contractual employees were included with vacation and sick time being excluded.

2. The compensation consisting of all salaries, wages, performance awards and bonuses, overtime and pay premiums, commissions, profit sharing, severance pay and all other cash incentive during the period. Stock options reimbursement of business expenses and other long-term deferred payments were excluded.

3. Involuntary separations defined as the total number of involuntary separations attributable to organizational restructuring, termination, etc.

Data collected as part of the larger study with compensation per FTE was calculated by dividing compensation by the number of FTE employees. Involuntary turnover (ITURN) was calculated by dividing the number of involuntary separations by the number of FTE employees.

Although 26% of all employees completed the survey, there were 691 valid responses obtained. The average age of the participants was 42 years with the age range from 19 to 77 years old. The average number of years worked at their present job was five while the average number of years worked at their present credit union was ten. Over 70 percent of the employees had a post-secondary diploma or degree and 93 percent were employed full-time.

2.10. Your overall assessment of the quality of the research

To me, the quality of the research was sufficient. I do not agree with including the contract employees within the study. The reason being is their level of knowledge sharing is significantly different than full-time or part-time. For example, in Table 1 of the study, the objective organizational-level data statistics was based on the full-time and part-time employee work hours while the contract employee was based off of dollar amounts. For me to have a clearer understanding, I would want to know the following of the contract worker:

1. What is their average number of hours worked per week of their contract?

2. What is the level of knowledge management that needs to be shared?

Then in table two, I have the understanding the SDB showed that some respondents over-stated for facilitating conditions and under-reported knowledge hiding in relationship to voluntary turnover intentions. Overall, the magnitude of the correlations was small yet consistent with prior studies. Question I would have; why did respondents have the need to be socially desirable? What type of employees had this response?

For the structural model, I am questioning the relevance of having each credit union having the perceptual indicator averaged. While I understand reasoning for consistency, was this manipulated to minimize outcome possibilities? I then question if the initial model should have been reduced for even more consistent outcomes.

3. Critique of study (3-6 pages)

3.1. Is the relevancy of the study justified?

Yes the relevancy of the study justified. Cronbach’s alpha for all constructs were over .8 and the average variance extracted exceeded 0.5 and composite reliability values exceeded 0.7. Employees believed, on average, that they less frequently engaged in knowledge hiding activities than their colleges did with t = 9.753 and p < 0.001. The item-to-total correlations were above 0.5 while loadings captured over 50 percent of the variance of their respective constructs. Additionally, the social desirability bias showed correlations with self-reported constructs.

3.2. Is it clear why each theory was needed and how each theory was used?

These theories identified in section 2.2, give direction and opportunity for understanding outcomes. They indicate the purpose of the study which was to identify and empirically test several antecedents and the consequences of intra-organizational knowledge hiding. From the theory identification and the study outcome, there were seven implications identified.

3.2.1. Was theory used to formulate hypotheses?

Yes, they helped to identify the survey questions and identify potential hypotheses. Additionally, each hypotheses was developed through a type of problem-solving theory that identified with the hypotheses. The defined hypotheses identified with each aspect of the proposed model and blended into an outcome of two more models that are components of the original proposed model.

3.2.2. Is the paper consistent? Are the components aligned? Research questions to theories, Research questions and theories to model, Model to hypotheses, Hypotheses to variables, variables to measures, Model to methodological design, Model to data analysis strategy

Yes the paper appears to be consistent. The paper flow begins with the introduction and theoretical background addressing the research question: What is knowledge hiding? Identification of the facilitating conditions establishes the framework for theory identification that defines the model. The proposed model has independent variables that consist of two constructs (perceptual and objective) with all flowing into the mediator of intra-organizational knowledge hiding, with one of two dependent variables for outcomes – reciprocal knowledge hiding and voluntary turnover intentions. The outcomes of the data analysis strategy confirm recreating the initial model into two separate models. The first is an individual-level structural model with the three facilitating conditions feeding into the mediator. This model has the outcome of reciprocal knowledge hiding with r squared at 35.2 percent and voluntary turnover intentions r squared at 7.2 percent. The second model of organizational-level structural model has the outcome of reciprocal knowledge hiding with r squared at 62.5 percent and voluntary turnover intentions at 3.3 percent. However, the second model included facilitating conditions of culture as a variable which was also included in the individual-level model.

3.3. Critique utility and value of model

3.3.1. Clarity

The clarity would be best understood as evidence of construct validity as the tables provided evidence for convergent validity as the scales showed positive correlations with other measures within the same construct. Additional evidence was presented supporting the discriminant validity through the matrix of loadings and cross-loadings balancing within each of the constructs. Those variables within the perceptual and objective constructs showed the complete correlations with each construct’s counterparts. Finally, the value of the initial model developed seven hypotheses with Cronbach’s alpha for all constructs being above .85. Additionally, the construct correlations had the square root of AVE above 0.802

3.3.2. Comprehensiveness and parsimony

This paper begins with a model that addresses perceptual constructs and objective constructs mediated by intra-organizational knowledge hiding for one of two dependent variable outcomes of reciprocal knowledge hiding and voluntary turnover intentions. All variables were presented in the first model. The two outcome models gave a breakdown from the first presented model. The two outcome models presented even greater simplicity, justifying the first model. The survey outcomes presented a multitude of items per variable which provided for a strong structured outcome.

3.3.3. Appropriateness of level(s) of analysis

The analysis was through an individual level, distinguished through groups of employment level, by similar organizations within an industry type. The survey questions in facilitating conditions were focused on the individual’s perception of the organization. Reciprocal knowledge hiding and voluntary turnover intentions were focused on the individual response of themselves.

3.4. Critique Population/sample(s).

3.4.1. Population from which sample (or census) is drawn

It was appreciated to see varied levels of employee involvement for they population used. A high-level manager at each type of credit union organization sent a link to a random group of employees. Those employees had the option whether they wanted to participate. Processing through this assignment, an appreciation is growing regarding the industry type used. The type of questions asked for this study could have been asked in any industry. From this perspective, it was not necessary to use another population.

3.4.2. Type of sample

The actual type of sample selected was only identified as a random sample. The authors did not identify how the random sample was selected. Consideration may be for a cluster random sample as there were 15 different credit unions where random clusters within each credit union was given the survey. The results were from all surveys completed as if they were from one location and one group.

The type of sampling for this research could be considered as a purposive sampling. The obvious purpose in this research is a clearer and more defined understanding of knowledge hiding. In this research, there was a predefined group – employees from credit unions. The sample was identified as sending the survey link to all employees and allowed to whether to volunteer to participate in the survey.

3.4.3. Is sampling procedure adequate?

Yes, as there was no pressure to take the survey. Additionally, it is assumed the survey response was anonymous.

3.4.4. Is sample appropriate to address research questions?

The survey questions were ones that could have been addressed in different populations. The hypotheses were directed to whomever did participate in the survey. This study easily has the foresight to be used in any industry.

3.5. Operational definition and measurement

3.5.1. Clarity and specificity of operational definitions of constructs and variables

I felt the specificity of the operational definitions of the constructs and variables were very clear through the models and the tables as addressed in the research paper and as described through this assignment.

3.5.2. Appropriateness of level of measurement

The level appropriateness for measurement was appropriate through the individual level of having a large sample (691 individuals from 15 credit unions)

3.5.3. Reliability of measures

Partial Least Squares (PLS) is a second-generation structural equation modeling technique that was chosen as it fits with the context of this study because it is suitable for exploratory research when new constructs and structural relationships are tested for the first time. PLS was used with SmartPLS v.2 software for testing the proposed model. The use of PLS was appropriate as the objective was to test a number of hypothesis instead of obtaining the best model fit. Additionally, PLS may be used when a construct is operationalized with only a single indicator.

There were two steps in examining the hypothesized model:

1. Analysis of the measurement model; and

2. Analysis of the structural model.

In the measurement model, the assessment of the psychometric properties of the perceptual constructs was completed separate from the objective constructs as the following:

1. In PLS, the presence of objective constructs may affect the allocation of weights and loading thereby confounding the true psychometric properties of indicators of self-reported constructs.

2. When assessing convergent and discriminant validity, self-reported constructs and their indicators should be measured against each other without the influence of factors that do not apply.

3. The objective constructs were measured with only a single formative indicator, therefore discussion of their psychometric properties is irrelevant.

3.5.4. Internal and external validity of measures

Table two was very clear in the descriptive statistics and reliability assessment. This was done through a one-factor test where all indicators were added to an un-rotated solution with the eigenvalues over one. The way I envision this is through the eigenvalues having FCS, FCP and FCC above the p < 0.001 and IOKH, RKH and VTI were below.

3.5.5. Construct validity of measures

Table four showed the matrix of loadings and cross-loadings confirming discriminant validity of the items.

Table five was the construct correlations confirmed the discriminant validity of the items. The diagonal values represented the square root of the average variance extracted with all constructs being in the range of 0.802 to 0.919.

3.6. Statistical analysis

3.6.1. Appropriateness of analytical procedures to model

Structural Model – There were two structural models that were estimated separately:

1. The first one contained only perceptual (self-reported) constructs because the purpose was to establish which constructs have a statistically significant effect and retain them for further analysis. It was easier to achieve statistical significance when testing the model with objective organizational-level factors because of having a smaller sample size. The individual-level structural model was based solely on perceptual measures. Bootstrapping was done to obtain t-values for the structural relationships. KM systems and policies did not have an effect on intra-organizational knowledge hiding (B = -0.38, p<0.01). Intra-organizational knowledge hiding had a strong positive effect on reciprocal knowledge hiding (B = 0.59, p<0.01) and a medium positive effect on voluntary turnover intentions (B= 0.27, p<0.01).

3.6.2. Appropriateness of procedures to data

The appropriateness of the sample size was large enough due to a sample size of 691, with five independent variable, one mediator and two dependent variables. The items per variable were a minimum of three up to 10.

3.6.3. Appropriateness of test statistics and other reported indicators to data analysis

Possible consideration would be to not include those contract employees that were given opportunity to participate in the survey. They are not involved in the day-to-day culture and knowledge sharing activities in the organizations. This would affect the compensation and turnover variables of the objective constructs.

3.6.4. Correctness of interpretation of data analysis

It can be interpreted through the outcomes as per identified through this paper, the interpretation of the data was correctly interpreted and the p-values, Cronbach alpha and AVE confirmed expectations.

4. Credibility, future value, and recommendations (1-2 pages)

4.1. Credibility of contribution

The credibility of the contribution comes from the background information that counterproductive knowledge behavior has received less attention than knowledge sharing research which has continuously grown.

4.1.1. Who cares?

Managers, administration and employees who desire a strong, supporting knowledge-sharing culture should have interest in this study regardless of industry.

4.1.2. Implications for theory

The authors were believable in their processes and delivery of data outcomes. This study was to identify and empirically test several antecedents and consequences of intra-organizational knowledge hiding. Other researchers should understand the implications for theory are as follows:

1. Employees should objectively re-evaluate the magnitude of their own and their colleagues’ knowledge hiding behavior.

2. The availability of KM systems and knowledge policies has no impact on intra-organizational knowledge hiding.

3. Organizational knowledge culture dramatically reduces knowledge hiding behavior.

4. Knowledge hiding and knowledge sharing belong to unique yet possibly overlapping dimensions of knowledge behavior.

5. Job insecurity motivates knowledge hiding.

6. Employees may reciprocate both positive and negative knowledge behavior.

7. Intra-organizational knowledge hiding promotes voluntary turnover.

4.1.3. Implications for practice

Yes, this research is believable. Additional information for researchers to consider is as presented below with the following numbers coinciding with the implications for theory above:

1. Employees believed that they engage in counterproductive knowledge behavior by hiding knowledge from their fellow co-workers to a lesser degree than their colleagues hid knowledge from them. This resulted in the employees either under-estimating their own knowledge hiding behavior or overstating their colleagues’ knowledge hiding behavior.

2. When organizations have a KM system and knowledge sharing policies, this study hypothesized, the employees may find it easier to engage in knowledge sharing activities. This is a critical outcome of the study because organizations that continue to invest heavily in KM systems without a comprehensible review, risk demotion of positive knowledge sharing practices.

3. Historically, possibly the most important antecedent of productive knowledge behavior is the collaborative organizational culture that encourages group identity and minimizes self-identity. This study revealed that the existence of a positive organizational knowledge culture reduces counterproductive knowledge behavior.

4. Knowledge sharing may be motivated by the feeling of responsibility, accountability and duty that is directed toward and organization and/or the feeling of altruism, helpfulness and kindness that is directed toward a co-worker. The availability of KM systems and policies makes it easier for employees to share knowledge.

5. Facilitation of intra-organizational knowledge hiding, as per this study, is from two indicators of job insecurity – compensation per FTE and involuntary turnover rate. Identified are many reasons why employees begin to conceal knowledge from their coworkers to increase their expert power to impress their employer.

6. Although social exchange theory proves that when employee voluntarily share knowledge, it is usually positively reciprocated. This study also concludes when employees engage in negative reciprocation, they are likely hiding their knowledge and others demonstrate the same behavior.

7. When there is voluntary turnover, costs are accrued resulting in additional financial expenses. Reasoning for voluntary turnover could give insight for change through employee exit interviews.

4.2. What might have been improved in present study to enhance its credibility and

contribution?

4.2.1. Design, Measures, Analysis

Again, my only thought is to do this study without contract employees. Depending on type of contract they had probably dependent on the type of knowledge sharing they were able to do. Technically, an assumption is made regarding the contract employees. Or possibly consider the contract employees hours worked, as per their contract to be in a third category for hours worked instead of as pay amount. Another possibility is to have the contract employees in their own study.

As for everything else, I believe this was an above standard research paper. This research would be a close mirror to the direction I am wanting to pursue for my dissertation.

5. Describe your chosen area of study (1-2 pages. You can copy some sections from Case 1)

5.1. Define your topic of research interest.

My topic of interest is an interconnection between succession planning and contingency planning. During my 30 plus years in the nonprofit arena, I have seen many small nonprofits not have any type of a contingency plan when having to unexpectantly replace their Executive Director. Additionally, I have seen many small nonprofits not have any type of succession plan when having to deal with a sudden loss of any top administrator. I have experienced and witnessed seeing many small nonprofits not have any type of a succession plan. How do I address my experience to this study? First, I know I will need to show proof through literary review of this topic. As I have been researching for module assignments through my classes, I have found minimal literature support regarding the interconnection between succession and contingency planning. This has ignited my desire to search more on the two areas but am finding myself toying between various constructs/variables especially since I am still learning about developing my research interest.

I am finding myself becoming more interested in a variable mediator role for succession and contingency planning. I am favoring the person-job-fit aspect as the mediator. In my experience, I have seen individuals move into positions for the potential of rising in positions for succession planning, only to see they were not a fit after moving into an administrative position they were being trained. I am needing to develop the indicators for the person-job-fit that best directs the mediation opportunity. I believe this is a direction I need to take to enhance the mediation concept.

5.2. What is your research question?

Whether Person-Job-Fit mediates the interconnection between succession planning and contingency planning.

5.3. How do you plan to contribute to this area of study?

It is my hopes this study will confirm that person-job-fit has a mediator role on the interconnection between contingency planning and succession planning. This will give support for employers to maximize position productivity that will encourage direction for complete succession and contingency planning that will strengthen an organization instead of putting the organization at risk. This study should also help solidify strong contingency plans working with strong succession plans that will minimize obstructions when having to implement a succession plan.

5.4. What kind of data do you plan to use for your dissertation? (about 50 words)

The data I plan to use is the outcome of a survey having a 5 point or a 7 point Likert scale. I have not determined my final scale size at this time as it will be determined by the questions asked and potential outcomes. I plan to submit the survey through non-profit member agencies of InterHab, United Way World Wide, Kansas Non-Profit Chamber, Kansas Leadership Center. I am also considering usage of social media submission through LinkedIn and Facebook.

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