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Gender and Leadership

Chapter 15

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

Overview

Women and Leadership Perspective

The Glass Ceiling Turned Labyrinth

Evidence of the Leadership Labyrinth

Understanding the Labyrinth

Gender Differences in Leadership Styles and Effectiveness

Navigating the Labyrinth

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

Gender and Leadership Approach Description

Historical View

Gender and leadership

Researchers ignored issues related to gender and leadership until the 1970s

Scholars started by asking “Can women lead?”

Changed by women in leadership

Presence of women in corporate and political leadership

Highly effective female leaders--PepsiCo’s CEO, GM’s CEO, General Ann Dunwoody, and so on.

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

Gender and Leadership Approach Description

Historical View

Current research primary questions

Do men and women lead differently?

Are men more effective leaders than women?

Why are women underrepresented in elite leadership roles?

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

The Glass Ceiling Turned Labyrinth

Women

Currently outnumber men in higher education--57% of bachelor’s degrees, 60% of master’s degrees, more than 50% of doctorates, nearly half of professional degrees (Catalyst, 2017).

Make up nearly half of the U.S. labor force--47%

Still are underrepresented in upper echelons of America’s corporations and political system

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

The Glass Ceiling Turned Labyrinth

Women

Represent only 5.4% of Fortune 500 CEOs (Brown, 2017)

Hold only 20.2% of Fortune 500 board seats (Catalyst, 2017)

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

The Glass Ceiling Turned Labyrinth

Women in Politics

105 of the 535 seats in the U.S. Congress = 19.6%

21%: Senate; 19.3%: House of Representatives

Women of color occupy just 38 seats (Center for Women and Politics, 2017a,b)

World average of women’s representation in national legislatures or parliaments is 23.3%. The United States is ranked 101st out of 193 countries (Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2017).

High-ranking U.S. women military officers = 6.9% (U.S. Dept. of Defense, 2014)

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

The Gender Gap in Leadership

Global phenomenon whereby women are disproportionately concentrated in lower level and lower authority leadership positions than men. (Powell & Graves, 2003)

Three types of explanations

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

Understanding the Labyrinth

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

Figure 15.1: Understanding the Leadership Labyrinth

Understanding the Labyrinth

Human Capital Differences

Pipeline Problem--Women have less education, training, and work experience than men resulting in a dearth of qualified women.

Pipeline is not empty but leaking--Explanation that women haven’t been in managerial positions long enough for natural career progression to occur (Heilman, 1997); not supported by research.

Domestic division of labor--Explanation that women self-select out of leadership tracks by choosing “mommy track” positions that do not funnel into leadership positions (Belkin, 2003; Ehrlich, 1989; Wadman, 1992); not supported by research (Eagly & Carli, 2004).

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

Understanding the Labyrinth

Women

do have somewhat less work experience and continuity than men, largely due to disproportionate responsibility women assume for child rearing and domestic duties

respond to work-home conflicts by not marrying, not having children, becoming “superwomen,” taking leaves of absence or working part time

who use flextime and workplace leave are often marginalized; taking time off from a career makes reentry difficult (Williams, 2010)

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

Understanding the Labyrinth

Women

occupy more than half of all management and professional positions (Catalyst, 2017) but have fewer developmental opportunities

Have fewer responsibilities in the same jobs as men

are less likely to receive encouragement, be included in key networks, and receive formal job training than their male counterparts

confront greater barriers to establishing informal mentor relationships

are more likely to be put in precarious leadership situations associated with greater risk and criticism

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

Understanding the Labyrinth

Gender Differences in Leadership Styles and Effectiveness

Gender = social meaning ascribed to biological sex categories

Differences between men and women often assumed to be natural consequence of innate differences

Contrary to stereotypical expectations, women leaders aren’t less task oriented or more interpersonal than men leaders.

Women do lead in a more participative manner than men.

Adaptive style because women are devalued when they lead in a masculine manner, occupy a typically masculine role, or when evaluators are male.

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

Understanding the Labyrinth

Transformational leadership

Women’s styles tend to be more transformational than men’s.

Even as transformational leaders, they are valued less than men.

Women engage in more contingent behavior than men.

Women tend to emphasize social values that promote others’ welfare to a greater extent than men.

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

Effectiveness of Male and Female Leaders

Men and women equally effective overall

Men and women more effective in roles congruent with their gender

Women less effective than men when role is masculinized (military), when supervising large numbers of men, or when rated by men

Somewhat more effective in education, government, social service; substantially more effective in middle management

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

Commitment to Employment and Motivation to Lead

Men and women show same level of identification and commitment to paid employment roles.

Men and women both view roles as workers as secondary to partner and parent roles.

Women less likely to promote themselves for leadership positions.

Women less likely to emerge as group leaders; more likely to serve as social facilitators.

Men place more importance on power-related goals, associate power with less negative outcomes, and are more likely to take advantage of opportunities for professional advancement.

Men more likely to ask for what they want; women less likely to negotiate or self-promote and receive more backlash when they do.

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

Understanding the Labyrinth

Prejudice

gender bias stemming from stereotyped expectations--“women take care and men take charge”

Stereotypes = cognitive shortcuts that influence the way people process information regarding groups and group members.

Gender stereotypes include beliefs about the attributes of men and women and prescribe how men and women ought to be.

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

Understanding the Labyrinth

Gender Stereotypes

Pervasive, well documented, and highly resistant to change (Dodge, Gilroy, & Fenzel, 1995; Heilman, 2001)

Men are stereotyped with agentic characteristics

confidence, assertiveness, independence, rationality, and decisiveness

Women are stereotyped with communal characteristics

concern for others, sensitivity, warmth, helpfulness, and nurturance (Deaux & Kite, 1993; Heilman, 2001)

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

Understanding the Labyrinth

Gender stereotypes explain numerous findings:

Women facing cross-pressures to be tough but not too “manly”

Greater difficulty for women to be viewed as effective in top leadership roles (Eagly & Karau, 2002)

Penalties for women who violate gender stereotypes (for example, Price Waterhouse vs. Ann Hopkins; media coverage of 2008 Hillary Clinton presidential run)

Decision-makers influenced by homosocial reproduction, a tendency for a group to reproduce itself in its own image (for example, Male leaders choosing male successors)

People high in social dominance orientation show stronger preference for leaders who are White and male (Hoyt & Simon, 2016)

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

Understanding the Labyrinth

How Stereotypes Affect Women Themselves

Pressure of tokenism (Kanter, 1977) and being scrutinized.

Women may assimilate to stereotype OR may counter the stereotype. Depends on

leader’s self-efficacy

explicitness of the stereotype

type of task

gender composition of the group

power of the leader

whether stereotype threats are combined

Understanding the Labyrinth

Intersectionality = People who have multiple identities (gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, etc.)

Have different leadership experiences

Black women may experience bias in leadership positions differently than White women or Black men; sometimes advantaged; sometimes disadvantaged

Navigating the Labyrinth

Figure 15.2: Leadership Effectiveness

Navigating the Labyrinth

Factors contributing to leadership effectiveness and rise of female leaders

Culture of many organizations is changing

Gendered work assumptions are being challenged

Organizations valuing flexible workers and diversity of top managers and leaders

Developing effective and supportive mentoring relationships

Increasing parity in domestic responsibilities

Negotiating for valued positions and resources

Navigating the Labyrinth

Factors contributing to leadership effectiveness and rise of female leaders

Women’s foray into entrepreneurship (women-owned businesses = 31% of privately owned firms)

Improving perceptions of women’s leadership by combining communal and agentic qualities

Adopting transformational leadership style

Becoming more assertive without losing their femininity

Women and Leadership

Strengths

Criticisms

Application

Strengths

Understanding the research in gender and leadership can help promote more women into upper echelons of leadership

Developing a more androgynous style of democratic leadership

Research on gender and leadership is productive in both dispelling myths about the gender gap and shining a light on aspects of the gender barrier that are difficult to see and therefore are overlooked

Understanding many components of the labyrinth will give us the tools necessary to combat this inequality from many perspectives

Research addresses larger, more significant considerations about gender and social systems

Criticisms

Leadership researchers should put a greater emphasis on understanding the role of gender, ethnicity, and sexual orientation in leadership processes.

Researchers should examine the differences in the impact of gender, ethnicity, and sexual orientation on leadership.

Research in gender issues and leadership is predominantly in Western contexts and should be expanded into other global regions.

Research on gender and leadership should be expanded to include closing the gender gap at home.

Application

Make it easier for women to reach top positions by

Understanding obstacles that make up the labyrinth

Initiating tactics to eradicate inequality

Prejudice still a factor and needs to be addressed with awareness

Women can manage biased perceptions of their leadership by enacting individualized consideration and inspirational motivation

Using effective negotiation techniques can enhance leadership advancement

Changes in organizational culture, women’s career development, mentoring opportunities, and increased numbers of women in strategic positions will increase presence of women in prominent leadership roles.