Environmental History
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NorsemeninGreenland.pptxThe Norsemen
Greenland, Iceland and North America
Iceland was inhabited by a few Irish monks in the 790s; this was a large and topographically inhospitable island (glaciers, ice fields, mountains, earthquakes, etc)
However: Iceland had a better climate in the medieval period than now and possessed: fields and forests of birch
Iceland was settled starting in 860 CE, less by clans and more by individuals (some single men & women but more married couples)
by the 930s, the suitable land was taken
alþing: annual meeting or assembly of the free men of Iceland, so there would be “one law in the land”
Various Scandinavian gods were worshipped
Around 1000 CE, a large group of Icelanders were baptized at the directive of Thorgeir, the law speaker for the alþing
Greenland
in 928, Erik the Red was banished by a district þing from Iceland for a killing (also expelled from Norway for the same reason) … he sailed westward
this new place was Greenland (Erik used the name as an advertising gimmick); by the late 980s, Greenland boasted farms, churches, a cathedral and a monastery & nunnery
active trade
Norse settlement of Greenland
Broad-based subsistence system based on farming and wild resources: in Iceland and Greenland these farming settlements were fairly dispersed
Community collaboration in farming
Imported domestic animals; also engaged in limited barley and flax production: very difficult to grow crops in Greenland
Shieling: a mountain pasture used for the grazing of cattle in summer, implying transhumance between there and a valley settlement in winter
Norse settlement in Iceland and Greenland was strongly conditioned by available grazing
Wild resources were very important – it seems likely that the Norse exercised careful game management
Evidence of careful land management
Modification of farming practices based on where the Norse were settled (i.e. Greenland vs Iceland vs other locales)
Pigs became rare in the North Atlantic; goats and sheep common in Greenland
Walrus hunting was important in the Norse Greenland economy
Norse in Greenland shifted from sea fishing to seal-hunting: adaptation to Greenland’s climate
Archaeology indicates that early on in the settlement of Greenland the Norse switched from cod to seal
Climate factors such as sea ice and the timing of the seals’ arrival near areas of human settlement impacted the Norse consumption of marine life
Seals played a critical role in Norse survival in Greenland in the 13th & 14th centuries
Greenland and Iceland remained separate polities (from the Norwegian kingdom) until the 1260s CE
Gradual increase in political ties with Norway over the course of the 12th century
Royal influence/involvement were greater in Greenland: it had a much smaller population than Iceland, and its trade was largely focused on prestige goods
Trade commodities: walrus tusk and hide, narwhal teeth, polar bears
Norway likely in control of this trade from an early date; certain by the 14th century
Greenland had no role in bulk trade of dried fish
Kalmar Union: est. 1397 caused Greenland to become marginalized
Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK): knowledge developed over generations: encompasses world view and accumulated knowledge of environmental variability, resource fluctuation, the nature of interactive relationships and the temporal and spatial pattering of these dynamics on the local scale
What TEK means: an understanding of likely seasonal variability in resources, ranges of expected weather and farming productivity, best use of wild resources as dietary supplements and survival strategies
Human societies engage with natural environments through their accumulated TEK, mediated by cultural traditions, ideologies and belief systems
Key themes in Norse Greenland’s adaptation and sustainability: combination of terrestrial & marine resources, farming infrastructure improvements, successful communal organization of labor
Limits to how much domestic stock could produce: failure to meet household provisioning requirements
Stock-culling would have been forced by periods of extended winter feeding or of reduced pasture productivity (caused by lower summer temperatures, shorter growing season, loss of pasture area to erosion or sea-level change)
If repeated stock-culling is required too often, in too short a time span, the herds/flocks can fall below minimum biological replacement levels
This suggests an important role for large magnate farms (better locations, more land, more animals), and also that over time, small farmers were likely to become tenants of larger ones
Potential for stored food was limited by the general absence of grain or dried fish
Migrating seal populations = a vital source of food
Hvalsey Church, Eastern Settlement
Later middle ages: balance between farming and marine hunting shifted – higher use of marine animals
Shift represents an initially successful response to climate change
Unprecedented challenges in the 13th and 14th centuries
Sea level rose, cooling trends, summer sea ice
Reduction in grazing and fodder production and increased winter byring time and fodder needs
Increasing North Atlantic storminess, esp. after 1425 CE
The small Western settlement failed sometime in the late 14th century
Much larger Eastern settlement failed in the mid-15th century
After 1400 CE the Norwegians ceded control over the North Atlantic trade to the Hanseatic League
To these merchants, profits came from providing large quantities of fish and fish oil to urban markets in Europe
Devalued the walrus hunt: important part of the Greenlandic economy
Regular shipping between Norway and Greenland ceased after the 1370s CE; last navigation between Greenland and Norway was around 1420 CE
Contact with the Inuit in the mid-14th century
Crozier head, 1050-1100, made of walrus ivory
L’Anse-aux-Meadows settlement dates to ca. AD 1000 UNESCO World Heritage site since 1978
L’Anse-aux-Meadows
L’Anse-aux-Meadows
L’Anse-aux-Meadows
