GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE

Journal of Information Privacy and Security, 11: 243–261, 2015 Published with license by Taylor & Francis ISSN: 1553-6548 print / 2333-696X online DOI: 10.1080/15536548.2015.1105652

Geospatial Intelligence, Technological Development, and Human Interaction

Roberto Mugavero Department of Electronic Engineering, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”

Federico Benolli and Valentina Sabato Observatory on Security and CBRNe Defence

In today’s steadily mutable era, threats and hazards are increasingly expanding. In addition to terror- ism, asymmetric conflicts and social unrest are endangering international security while technological knowledge and defensive tools symmetrically respond. With this interpretation, it appears clear that the investigative methods require thorough scientific support if they are to be a tool for investigation as well as for decision-making. In contrast, recent worldwide accidents such as the 2001 Twin Towers attack on September 11 in New York City have revealed a lack of intelligence, which cannot be fixed without acknowledging the fundamental value of the human intelligence (HUMINT) contribution. In order to face these issues, it is relevant to characterize the key aspects that allow a suitable interac- tion among the highly technological geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) and the traditional HUMINT activities, with the goal to design the main procedures for a crucial collaboration.

INTRODUCTION

Never before have there been such a strong worldwide demand for security as in the current historical period. Environmental disasters, industrial accidents, terrorism, and crime have become a common denominator for decision-makers at this time. All are issues that need to relate to each other with real-time crucial information to keep up to date, both concerning preventative efforts and the post-event analyses. Furthermore, since the phenomena just mentioned focus upon specific areas, it is clear that the analyses post-event should be related to geographical information in a broad sense, regarding whether phenomenon could arise in a definite position of geographical space identified by cartographic coordinates or they would be considered as information only logically linked to a spatial position.

In order to obtain effective results, geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) incorporates highly advanced technologies capable of exploiting interactive as well as dynamic products, such as fly- through and walk-through. Those technologies, for example, may be adopted as valuable realistic simulations to determine, among other issues, the effects of meteorological condition, tides, wind,

© OSDIFE Correspondence should be addressed to Federico Benolli. E-mail: [email protected]

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and light referenced to the intelligence mission requests. Thanks to activities based on predictive data increasingly scientifically reliable, GEOINT offers versatile and innovative solution to meet the modern cognitive needs regarding intelligence requirements and identifying emerging threats before they actually appear.

These technologies are substantial components of workflows such as tasking, processing, exploitation, and dissemination and take advantage of constant elaboration and managing data and images to transform them into geospatial information. In addition, acknowledgment is grow- ing that GEOINT should move from an emphasis on data and analysis to place more emphasis on awareness. This point highlights how the creation of a geospatial knowledge is requires a much more significant effort than just automated data processing. It is a complex cognitive procedure that simultaneously involves perception, learning, communication, association of log- ical connections and an effective reasoning process (National Military Intelligence Association, 2009).

GEOINT, using multiple and advanced sensors as well as the integration of various intelli- gence disciplines, has proved to be able to create a common operational picture of a specific area by creating in one comprehensible visual representation. This feature allows a specific inter- vention in key areas of strategic importance, such as policy or military, as well as in support of national defense, law enforcement, and civil organizations. In this sense, it is offering the oppor- tunity to localize detailed activities and objects on the Earth. Thus, it is clear that integrating images and geospatial data on map as well as using devices capable of operating in three or four dimensions while integrating typical forms of information collection, as human intelligence (HUMINT), judgment and discernment of activities and events would be consequently expanded, providing a most updated and accurate context to final decision-makers. Furthermore, the criti- cal objective would be to generate an interactive network able to meet the parallel needs of the intelligence, security and national defense services while supporting users to cooperate actively in the implementation of common requirements (Office Of Geospatial-Intelligence Management, 2006).

The present study focuses upon an achievable collaboration between the main HUMINT activ- ities and GEOINT procedures. The ensuing research has considered the real effectiveness of collecting information through human factors in order to determine the main agreements and interaction between the mentioned disciplines. In the final analysis, it would attempts to develop a standard model, concerning possible HUMINT activities, which could specifically interact with the multiple GEOINT applications both from a theoretical point of view and from a mainly practical perspective.

ANALYTICAL MODEL

Although uncertainty has always been an element in international security, the global changes emerging in the 21st century have identified some evolving increasingly complex foreign powers, like never before. Thus, countries are progressively facing new critical issues such as territorial conflicts, transnational crime, terrorism, trafficking in drugs and arms, the economic failure of nations, and a growing number of both state and non-state actors with access to weapons of mass destruction. Because of the emerging global terrorist networks, states are required to confront a new elusive threat, not only threatening foreign countries in crisis, but also operating inside their own borders. Intelligence objectives have dramatically grown up since the days of the Cold

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War, and the new multifaceted environment has revealed the extraordinary functional value of GEOINT. As a result, it is more difficult than ever to predict exactly where and when an exact intervention will be needed to protect national interests and where the intelligence community should be more focused in order to provide the best information that benefits of both operators and decision-makers (Mcauley, 2005).

Thus, demanding conditions and the need to ensure a global knowledge support to provide an effective backing in crisis periods have driven the discipline to evolve towards digital processes and modern collaboration standards among nations. Furthermore, such technological develop- ment has facilitated the conversion of strategy from attrition warfare to a new concept based on prevention. Therefore, it is easy to see how the necessity to obtain more accurate, timely, and targeted information has dramatically increased. Interoperability and international cooperation have become essential factors in the dissemination of intelligence community information, and a greater integration of GEOINT tools, process and analysts able to identify and efficiently describe the crucial aims seem to be increasingly necessary.

Looking more closely at the specific discipline, GEOINT operational activities balance the ability to direct, plan, and manage requirements. GEOINT operators directly interact with cus- tomers and the National System for Geospatial Intelligence (NSG). This interaction occurs in order to obtain and provide the best quality products possible in response to each individual request. In this regard, although similar to the cycle of intelligence, the GEOINT process is based on a concept that contemplates GEOINT as an independent intelligence discipline, but also as the basis of support that allows an accurate integration for supplementary operations. Moreover, GEOINT activities are also facilitated by the Unified Geospatial-Intelligence Operations (UGO), consisting of cooperation and coordination designed to assess, align, and uniformly execute GEOINT operations throughout the NSG and its partner organizations (Joint Chief of Staff, 2013a).

At the conclusion of the GEOINT process, it is possible to generate standard geospatial prod- ucts as well as more specialized results, integrating data from different types of sensors, able to exploit superior graphics dimensions such as three- and four-dimensional graphics. In regard to basic products, for example, simple maps, charts, images, and vector information, these can be used either alone or through multi-level interconnections. The latter is allowed either by some additional data such as geographical status of vegetation, climate, culture, and language of a country, or by the integration of intelligence information. Standard products are primarily derived from the electro-optical sensors and geospatial data already existing. Data may also be obtained by radar and multi-spectral sensors, which usually offer two-dimensional results, and even those data could be treated and processed into three-dimensional products. Those products meet a sig- nificant part of the GEOINT standard requirements and represent the foundation for specialized development. Consequently, they are able to provide additional functionality to basic products, allowing those to be customized for a specific purpose. The most exclusive features offered by specialized products include the ability of data integration from multiple sensors and advanced exploitation of the space-temporal fourth dimension.

Time can be used for many purposes, for example, to create dynamic and interactive products introducing movement as a variable and allowing analysts to obtain more complete results. The following products are described in order to make the discipline more understandable (Office Of Geospatial- Intelligence Management, 2006):

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• CMV Image, for example, is able to show aircraft parked at an aviation base. By a stan- dard evaluation, it could allow awareness that two of the aircraft took off the day before. Furthermore, by using more sophisticated analysis, the same image could be related with further intelligence information concerning, among others, the reason of departure or the suspected target of such aircraft.

• D fly-through displays in three dimensions some information, such as buildings, roads, and the topography of a specific territory. The same software could be used for specialized anal- ysis and interpreted in combination with other intelligence features, such as from photos taken by a HUMINT source, which are able to obtain more specific details greatly influenc- ing the information collection. Moreover, it could also match data from other intelligence sources such as signals intelligence (SIGINT), imagery intelligence (IMINT), measurement and signatures intelligence (MASINT), and open-source intelligence (OSINT), suitable to pinpoint locations of subjects or to locate threats too. Finally, such advanced systems would be able to implement specific simulations designed to predict future circumstances.

Technological advances in geospatial data exploitation have provided the opportunity to integrate features from multiple intelligence disciplines to each other along with other information gathered through the exploitation of sophisticated techniques, useful both to create new products and to improve analysis procedures.

Current scientific advances have permitted the easy transfer and manipulation of informa- tion acquired from images, topographic maps and graphs. In addition to this, vector data, useful for geospatial references, have been used to modify and update maps otherwise quickly made obsolete. Therefore, these data provide the possibility of being improved with images and digi- tized information, which products that are able to provide, among others, further details relating to specifically localized events or to recent environmental changes. Moreover, due to the intro- duction of geographic information systems (GIS), new digital platforms are gaining increasing importance as they can store, organize and display any geo-referenced information, making feasible a real-time data interaction from various information sources.

Another central aspect, which is able to represent the finest potential of GEOINT software, is the fundamental relationship between spatial data and time. Precisely, GEOINT—just starting from observation and measurement of the physical world—aims to draw conclusions based on the spatial relationships among objects and their evolution over time. Therefore, it allows acquir- ing intelligence information through both qualitative and quantitative analysis of shapes, sizes, heights, distances, movement, and placement within certain geographical areas. Actually, space and time are exactly some aspects that distinguished GEOINT from other disciplines, allowing GEOINT to create a powerful visual tool capable of integrating information from multiple sources within digital platforms by bringing out, quickly and intuitively, certain space-time relations that are complicated to obtain otherwise. Thus, modern geospatial systems have shown how to join the main strengths of imagery to GEOINT peculiarities, while maintaining and enhancing the distinctive character of each specialty (National Research Council Of The National Academies, 2006).

The ability to quantify the knowledge obtained through multiple intelligence disciplines adds a huge value to GEOINT consumers. In fact, it allows the production of highly actionable infor- mation not only for the military, but also to design more timely and effective and safer policy decisions and social welfare choices, such as in case of natural disasters (Figure1).

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FIGURE 1 Example of GEOINT data collection procedure, useful in case of environmental disasters.

In addition, technological progress has helped to increase the use of the electromagnetic spectrum, greatly improving the ability to achieve informative objectives otherwise denied or manipulated. Today, such evolution lays the foundation for a further useful surveillance of mov- ing targets and it allows more accurate measurements of soil characteristics and describes the distinctive elements of materials and substances remaining at a distance. Even though all data and information, from any source and in any form, might be usefully integrated in a GEOINT system, with regard to collection through highly sophisticated instruments, the principal devices could be identified as the following examples (Penn State University, 2007):

• Satellite systems: They are systems able to provide to analysts extremely close, high resolu- tion, and real-time images. The images offer the chance of obtaining frames also concerning areas where access would otherwise be prohibited, which is essential for national secu- rity. Commercial software also offers considerable advantages in multinational agreements operations, for example, through sharing information between allied countries, without compromising the knowledge of each nation.

• Drones: Characterized by the ability to fly for long periods, the unmanned aerial vehicles are proving to be crucial not only for increasingly persistent surveillance activities, but also due to their high-resolution image capability valuable for military, government, and commercial practice.

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• Remote sensing sensors: Remote sensing refers to the acquisition of information about spe- cific targets through devices, which remain at a distance from the object of study. These kinds of sensors could offer advantages, both individually and in relation to each other, by exploiting multiple technologies, such as electronics, optics, and electro-optics, but also chemical and mechanical devices. Furthermore, information might be recorded not only with images, but also with digital and analog implements. The obtained data would be use- ful, for example, to national security, for environmental observation, land planning, and topographical surveys.

It could be necessary to draw a further distinction between static and dynamic collection of images. Some of the first devices are able to reproduce extremely detailed representations of objects and places, while others offer infrared temperature measurements, foliage and camou- flage individuation, crop conditions and the analysis of coastal hydrology situations. In addition, there are sensors capable of combining multispectral bands to allow analysts to distinguish, for example, the effective presence of aircraft, to recognize specific substances according to various types of emissions, and to identify the characteristics of specific vehicles. These tools offer the opportunity to control activities of particular interest in real time, providing a more rapid aware- ness of developing events compared with what could be achieved by simple sequence of frames. Among all, synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and light detection and ranging (LIDAR) are inter- esting since they are essential in case of poor visibility due to weather conditions or the light, and allow to quickly represent Earth surface and aspects, generating extremely precise three- dimensional models. Finally, but no less important, it proves to be relevant the modern GPS, which permits the accurate location of everything on the Earth.

First, because of multiple sources information fusion, GEOINT facilitates a close collabora- tion between the intelligence community users. It provides a new sharing multidisciplinary data approach within a digital environment that finds its highest expression during the analysis and exploitation phases of the intelligence cycle. In addition, GEOINT takes a step forward in rela- tion to other intelligence disciplines due to its ability of being able to integrate more increasing sophisticated sensors, capable of providing heterogeneous data. This feature offers to analysts a greater operational flexibility to face changing circumstances and to achieve aims that are ever more complex. In fact, a multi-source cooperation, starting from the earliest steps of the intelli- gence cycle, should be considered as the turning point for more defined and effective information sharing, processing, analysis, and dissemination.

Currently, by employing the most modern digital workstations, analysts are able to manipulate, measure, and record data electronically as well as to improve images comparing those with others found on the net. In addition to this ability, the current analytical capabilities such as automated extraction, recognition, correction, and information collection have provided significant benefits for GEOINT analysts, who should be able to more handily manage the enormous volume of com- plex elements collected from different Intelligence sources. Consequently, both data processing and digital displaying have provided new tools for image management and increasingly combined multidisciplinary collection strategies. According to this approach, GIS platforms constitute a valuable contribution to the analysis since they offer some powerful synthesis tools, which allow the analysts to relate information concerning different targets connected to each other in order to better understand the actual influence within national infrastructures. The exploitation of these

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instruments also allows the simulation of potential dynamic scenarios, simultaneously consid- ering remote sensing platforms, sensors and the increasing commercial news and documents availability from various fields.

Obtaining analog data represents a vital information priority for the intelligence community as is providing greater accessibility to a range of customers able to interact directly on shared platforms in a joint digital environment. With regard to this point, maps and charts have always supplied a solid basis for a better understanding of the external environment. In fact, due to digital data, it is now possible to create products up to four dimensions by overlaying analog tables, which can create a common basis within a shared information framework. Therefore, GEOINT resources offer the opportunity to observe spaces and actionable models in any size and scale, starting from buildings, passing through cities, and up through regional and global depiction. For example, three-dimensional products construct a visualization suited to the human eye, allowing the simultaneous perception of all three sides. However, the addition of a timing feature has led to the development of four dimension systems, creating dynamic scenarios in order to rapidly obtain accurate and realistic representations, which are able to consider, among others, climatic changes, wind erosion, tides, and any other activities relevant to humans. The development process for GEOINT tools is equivalent for both standard and more sophisticated products. Essentially, the analyst begins to create an electronic basis, such as a map, image, graph or digital representation of an area of interest. Then, data and information relating more detailed information connected area are overlaid, in order to accomplish platforms in three and four dimensions (Figure 2).

Currently, the use of a common operational picture offers an opportunity to integrate precise locations with specific data in a definite area. This approach has generated a common infor- mation basis where clients and organizations, confident to interact with matching data, have simultaneous access. Therefore, GEOINT operators could interact with those platforms in order to create a realistic interactive setting, which is able to represent a specific area in four dimen- sions. Consequently, this interaction would allow analysts not only to anticipate specific events with high confidence, but also to make a damage assessment in special circumstances. Moreover, in such a digital environment based on interoperability, it is clear that Internet exploitation has become imperative as a sharing information instrument. Technology evolved in an increasingly data-centric system where networks, devices, applications and databases have to interact with each other in order to quickly retrieve information and electronically disseminate information. In addition to this, such a comprehensive and globally widespread geospatial database aid to link basic intelligence knowledge with an accurate digital model of the Earth.

Thus, current global needs have led GEOINT to play a distinctive role for the intelligence community, as an essential tool for a deeper understanding of our current era. The exploitation of GIS platforms, which are populated by information from several activities (Figure 3), has enabled the expansion of achievable goals and a more specific awareness of essential knowledge essential to greater global security.

In addition to information fusion among nature, infrastructure, and any kind of human activi- ties, GIS systems are now able to identify the daily relations between one or more specific issues and the related environment. Consequently, the ability exists to monitor personal relationships with family and friends as well as most frequented locations and specific habits of individual people. Such data, supported by relevant geospatial coordinates, could be able to provide required information to predict both individual and group behavior (Mason).

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FIGURE 2 Example of overlapping electronic plans in order to originate a working GEOINT platform.

Starting from a primary connection, software could be able not only to further describe the relationship between subjects and surrounding environment, but also the entire ensuing relation- ships network. In addition to this ability, a careful analysis of what would be displayed could allow one to draw conclusions concerning both existing and future relationships between relevant human clusters of interest to the intelligence community.

As a result, by considering this feature and other GEOINT applications as fundamental support for the intelligence community, it is easy to understand how HUMINT should not be omitted from cooperation within the intelligence discipline in order to obtain a complete, accurate, and functional product (National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 2003).

In this regard, HUMINT refers to an intelligence discipline that bases its analysis and interpre- tations on information obtained through interpersonal relationships. This technique is primarily founded on the personal ability of being able to interact with another subject on some topics of interest (Cannavicci, 2010). A HUMINT agent should attempt to meet the target in order to pose general or specific questions, observing and extrapolating an individual profile that would repre- sent private thoughts, personality, the way the person could react and the best way to manage a conflict or critical situations as well.

The present research has been undertaken to describe the benefits of interaction between two dissimilar disciplines such as GEOINT and HUMINT, in order to define a common standard model where the main elements of both could be integrated to generate a more effective working environment. Toward this end, this discussion now considers several factors will be addressed to

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FIGURE 3 Example of relatable data and information across GIS platforms.

better understand the principal features of HUMINT activity and how they relate to the geospatial context.

First of all, the principal skills which any HUMINT operator should be endowed with during collection operations include an intercultural competence, consisting of the personal ability of being able to adapt to cultures other than his own, based on cognitive, physical, and emotional aspects (Blascovich and Hartel). In addition, an awareness is important of the importance of nonverbal behavior examination and familiarization with the basic concepts of human neurophys- iologic issues. In fact, they could greatly facilitate HUMINT agents examining the interaction between the human source motivational, affective and cognitive processes, in order to acquire as much information as possible from a specific source.

Actually, despite the recent development of sophisticated techniques to acquire information, HUMINT activities remain the primary avenue for both secret service agencies and for industrial espionage. HUMINT techniques are crucial in convincing a specific subject to reveal confidential information covertly. On this basis, HUMINT collection activities could be reduced to three main stages, which may vary depending on the specific situations and would include source research- ing and recruiting, as well as a psychological handling moment as well. The latter would be

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accomplished either through a direct or indirect approach depending on the most suitable way to mask actual identities (Delicato, 2008).

For these purposes, the social psychologist Robert Cialdini has identified a specific method to persuade an interlocutor through what he describes as the “reciprocity principle” in which a HUMINT operator might begin to provide unsolicited favors, without asking anything in return at that time. The goal would be for the source to feel more confident to go along with conse- quent demands for a low-value information before moving on to other more valuable collection goals. This method exploits the involuntary dynamics of the parasympathetic nervous system to facilitate a fiduciary relationship with human sources. It is clear that those who manage relation- ships of this sort have to be careful not to fall into any interlocutor deception, or attempts to use techniques to resist previous persuasion attempts (Clark, 2012).

Consequently, if HUMINT would be considered as a broad set of methods designed to obtain information it could be evaluated as a primary source for providing data not available to other sources. Such collection is mainly aimed at identifying the opponents’ intentions, composition, strength, disposition, strategies, equipment, personnel, and capabilities whether military, political, or commercial. Moreover, it would be conducted in order to obtain useful data to satisfy precise information requests or to integrate further intelligence disciplines into each other (Headquarters, Deparment Of Army, 2006a). As a result, data could be evaluated by analysts, who would specify how to behave and the relationship expectation, but also they would review, edit, and analyze the information collected to date, before being sent to those who had requested a specific intervention.

Procedures observed thus far could be adapted to many different areas of action. In fact, they offer enormous advantages in those circumstances where the acquisition of information is essen- tial for safety or for making effective decisions in strategic and operational fields connected with the protection of institutional interests. The same could be said for government intelligence, busi- ness intelligence, competitive intelligence, intelligence investigation, medical intelligence, and of course the military information and safety departments.

Overall, it seems necessary to take a deeper look into the most common features of the HUMINT operator’s communication. Most fundamental aspects of written documents could be considered as follows:

• accuracy in recording information; • content completeness, and synthesis as well as clarity of language and use of simple easily

understandable sentences; • congruence obtained through standard patterns; • timeliness in transmitting information, and—finally, perhaps most important— • an evaluation of the subject’s reliability.

Within a wide range of formats used to produce final reports, two main categories could be distin- guished. The first is a group of operating documents used to relate information that does not refer to any specific intelligence request as well as others to identify only technical aspects and sensi- tive HUMINT collection. Regarding this model type, decision-makers simply provide operational directives relating to the standard formats and to recommend effective procedures. Furthermore, there are other sets of relationships, defined as administrative, which are only used to provide or collect information responding to intelligence needs. In addition, it would be essential to provide a brief list of topics to highlight fundamental priorities in order to quickly respond to main questions concerning who, what, where, when, how, and why (Headquarters, Deparment Of Army, 1992).

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In fact, adherence to these basic instructions would allow efficient communications both through electronic and paper methods and, in addition, it would assist analysts to quickly scan multiple documents looking for specific information. In this regard, among standard models, size activity location unit time equipment (SALUTE) report and intelligence information report (IIR) have gained particular importance for the intelligence community. People of all army ranks mainly use the first one in order to communicate information of immediate interest. Indeed, the IIR is usually employed to report all information gathered in response to particular needs. It expands upon information reported previously by a SALUTE report as well as provides a mechanism to report information that is too chaotic or not critical enough to justify a SALUTE warning. The latter could be produced at every level of responsibility and a competent authority must con- firm it before being sent to the global intelligence community. Before releasing such a report, the mentioned authority would obviously ask for additional information, adding more admin- istrative details and establish connections among immediate and national needs (Headquarters, Department Of Army, 2006b).

HUMINT has been the earliest discipline exploited for intelligence needs, and it continues to be the most effective source for a long-term asymmetrical warfare targets. No other mode of collection is able to provide services as useful as being able to find out who, what, where, how, when, and why an enemy intends to act. As a result, the latter could be obtained exclu- sively by a variety of information directly acquired within a specific environment. In addition to this, most of the methods used to make HUMINT operations do not require generally expen- sive equipment, but at the same time, a moderately trained person could equally procure a huge amount of relevant information. Therefore, regardless of the technological advances, HUMINT continues to be a complex system composed both of human and technical variables that should appropriately interact together in a variety of contexts that evolve over time. Consequently, those who work within the more complex intelligence systems must possess the specific knowledge, skills, abilities, attitudes, and temperament needed to operate in an effective, reliable and accurate manner.

However, to keep up with the times, it is easily comprehensible how some situations require specific technological support aimed at increasing the effectiveness of HUMINT operations. In this regard, it is noted that researching and acquiring information methods are constantly increasing. Effectively, before the computer scientist John McCarthy coined the term artificial intelligence (1956), sources could be represented almost exclusively by HUMINT operators (Hessenbruch, 2000). Today, these operators could have access to very powerful technological support by employing satellites (IMINT); equipment that allows radioactive emissions and radio frequency detection (MASINT); systems for electronic signals and electromagnetic interception (ELINT, SIGINT); and the availability of sources accessible to anyone such as magazines, pub- lications, but also, and not least, the Internet (OSINT). Moreover, these intelligence disciplines, supported by HUMINT activities, could be integrated into GEOINT platforms (Margolis, 2013).

Despite the incessant technological progress, current world crises and conflict scenarios char- acterized by multi polarity and global asymmetric threats have bring back to the light the inestimable value of HUMINT. Intelligence operators should be capable to go into the depths of the human soul. By the way, they would be allowed to access private and sensitive information not possible for all those technological systems to acquire. Although, in most cases, HUMINT oper- ations require a human being to intervene inside dangerous areas and situations to obtain relevant

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information, such activities are still of vital importance to the intelligence community and conse- quently for the GEOINT world as well. It is important to note that HUMINT activities might not be codified precisely, but it has been demonstrated by experience that those could confirm exactly what is beyond any measurability that holds value in certain circumstances. In observance of that evolving practice, HUMINT has proved to be capable of being able to provide unique results for multiple agencies. It should be noted that, through ages, states have chosen to exploit interplay of multiple intelligence sources rather than preferring one to the other. Consequently, it is valuable to integrate with other sources to corroborate information obtained by HUMINT operators with more probative value and vice versa (National Research Council Of The National Academies, 1996).

By analyzing the United States’ war against terrorists, it has emerged that non-state actors cannot compete against technologically advanced countries in terms of firepower and informa- tion gathering. Consequently, their reaction has led those actors to a communications involution, greatly reducing technological exploitation and leaving little space for SIGINT activities to be effective. As a result, even the most innovative GEOINT cannot be relied upon to follow ene- mies’ movements solely by drones and satellites, particularly against terrorists. In addition, the same could be said in further areas, such as nuclear negotiations and natural disasters, and so, it would be investigative reporting on site is indispensable. Consequently, even in a GEOINT environment where technology plays an essential role, information collection through the contri- bution of spies and indigenous recruits appears crucial to identify and locate specific targets and to raise situational awareness in order to obtain more detailed previews of future scenarios.

Most of the secret information is poorly digitized and diplomats as well as experts exploitation for specific HUMINT purposes have greatly increased. HUMINT must keep with the times, but simultaneously other disciplines such as GEOINT cannot rely only on technology to get complete and fully reliable results. For instance, SIGINT provides raw data for HUMINT collectors in order to identify and complete their objectives, information gathered “on the ground” should be sent to SIGINT analysts who could consequently process data relating to interceptions. In addition, dur- ing a target interview, HUMINT operators would be able to provide detailed coordinates related to crucial located elements and to determine their exact position by a precise comparison among topographic maps, aerial photographs, interactive maps or simply using GPS devices (SPIEGEL STAFF, 2013). This approach allows the rapid verification of the reliability of the sourced infor- mation, easily identifying discrepancies between what was reported and the obtained knowledge by other methods. Therefore, despite high operative risks, HUMINT is a valid option to circum- vent physical perimeters and to infiltrate the confidentiality, integrity and availability of protected evidence through the acquisition of deep information.

An additional issue concerns how it could be possible to use HUMINT information obtained by personal interpretations of subjective elements, within operating systems. The latter since those establish their bases on definite, traceable and verifiable data, such as alphanumeric strings identification of individual images, URL reference to a specific web page and even the geograph- ical coordinates obtained through common GPS utilization. In that regard, after verification of a specific HUMINT intervention, it would be appropriate to determine the most suitable resource capabilities and availability whether in the military, government, corporate or scientific environ- ment, are necessary in order to meet operational requirements. Furthermore, such a planning activity would not necessarily involve a single subject assignment nor it would identify only one

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aim as well. In fact, it would likely be a collaboration among additional analyses concerning ele- ments obtained from supplementary resources that would provide the HUMINT research with an indispensable contribution to extend their standards of reliability. Thus, it would be convenient to select the most suitable operators to intervene in a specific environment, functional for partic- ular requirements and talented with distinctive, technical and operative skills, but also related to location.

Because of what has been analyzed up to now, and due to specific rigorous procedures and methodologies as well as persistent research, the credibility of information gleaned from human sources could be guaranteed with strict margins of impartiality. In addition, the principal aspects that seem to be able to provide more guarantees of authenticity, aimed at effective interface with GEOINT systems, could be considered the interaction among information obtained from mul- tiple intelligence disciplines and the modern technological equipment exploitation in order to support HUMINT activities. Furthermore, the following advanced instrumentation should be con- sidered worthy of note both as useful supports for collection and for ensuing HUMINT products verifiability (Polinet S.r.l., 2015; SEMAR, 2015):

• Audio monitoring: It includes all equipment aimed at intercepting sounds and conversa- tions among subjects. It could consider a wide variety of microsystems suitable for any eventuality such as pens, watches, calculators, telephones, mouse, and USB devices.

• Video surveillance: It embraces all those micro-cameras aimed to capture environments, situations, and all those individual aspects of a human source such as appearance, gestures, and facial expression.

• Surveillance and security: For the purpose of this research, it includes the full range of GPS devices valuable for survey and location. The latter could be used to follow targets move- ments while remaining at a distance, and eventually, due to latest technology, to listen to conversations, or to observe behaviors through integration with audio and video equipment at the same time.

• Counterintelligence systems: It contains all necessary equipment to carry out effective recovery operations. The latest technologies offer the possibility of detecting the presence of covert listening devices, micro cameras, spy phones as well as offering protection from phone and environmental tapping, but also to escape from being located by a GPS device.

Moreover, before describing the experimental model developed as a conclusion of this research, it is necessary to briefly examine the main practical evaluation activity of HUMINT reports. This activity is fundamental to analysts’ efforts as well as to provide adequate feedback essential for HUMINT collectors in order to verify the reliability, accuracy, and adequacy of information reported by a specific source (Joint Chief of Staff, 2013b). Therefore, it is necessary to monitor the actual synchronization among operators and the original objectives of research. Moreover, it should take into account the actual correspondence between the amount of collected information and the specific decision-makers’ requirements, but also the accuracy, the timeliness and the applicability of results obtained in relation to the original claims. Consequently, those who would make the latter evaluations would have an additional duty of providing useful feed- back information to HUMINT operators concerning any activity gaps in order to gather further information essential for the research success.

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RESULTS

Thinking about a standard report, which could be able to effectively meet all HUMINT require- ments, could be considered almost utopian. Consequently, the primary objective of this project has been to contemplate the principal characteristics shared by most HUMINT intervention to define an accurate, complete, credible and feasible model for GEOINT. Thus, the authors propose a simple format—essential and intuitive, but also arraying all relevant data in order to provide correct information, verifiable, and in a useful context as well. This approach, as described graphically in Appendix A, includes an identification by a numerical or alphanumeric code, corroborated through a classification based on specific predetermined criteria. Immediately succeeding, the operator would be required to indicate the primary objective information and, if necessary, an additional target. The subject would be focused in four main topics, each of those partitioned into subsections both fixed and, in some circumstances, flexible in compli- ance with the many needs, variables and confidentiality aspects which collection activities may entail. Finally, it has incorporates a closing section dedicated to adding notes, where HUIMINT operators could insert additional elements and specific relevant annexes for each activity.

In addition, space-time information related to static and dynamic data and calculation provide important opportunities for geospatial analysis through database and data mining exploitation. The most current procedures are able to take advantage of very simple representations of geo- graphic references placed in relation to each other. But, the latter could also exploit more structured data, queries, indexes and algorithms that could be used to manage and report a mul- tiplicity of both geolocated objects and events which, for instance, could evolve over space and time. The precise integration of the time factor in databases has been one of the most com- plex challenges of our era. In this regard, data mining is an interactive process that attempts to extract useful information from raw data, patterns and trends, which were previously unknown. Even it is an innovative research field, its roots lie in different methodologies already established, including database management, statistics and retrieval information. The main purpose behind the new growing analysis features has been an increasing necessity to transform large amounts of data into specific knowledge. In this regard, the authors have attempted to better represent how a HUMINT relationship could actually interact with the latter systems and depict the kind of benefits that could be produced according to different GEOINT applications.

First of all, standard products are able to create relationships between data that could be inter- preted solely on a two dimensional plane. For example, it has been considered an interactive map representative of a specific area integrated by precise and detailed symbols, which identifies and localizes multiple intelligence activities both already completed and still in the course of working together. According to the present research, the actual interaction among information gathered from HUMINT activities could be applied through interactive icons that could allow either locat- ing or reporting specific activities in space, or, in another regard, to answer critical questions essential for the analysts.

Through a direct interaction with the analyst, hypothesized software offers the possibility to open a wide range of operating windows due to such icons mentioned above, and provide more detailed information selected from different options. It has been considered a preliminary interface which would display data for the immediate use by analysts who have to examine requested information, such as activity purpose or by identification code related to the opera- tor who has performed the investigation, references of primary sources, the operation outcome

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and any hyperlinks useful to create instantaneous connections with data obtained through other methods. As graphically represented in Appendix B, each mentioned topic would be able, through ensuing queries, to provide more detailed information on specific referenced issues.

GEOINT represents a more specialized level of products that exploit an overlap and fusion of two-dimensional maps and time. Moreover, in such a scenario, information obtained by HUMINT collection would not only offer supplementary data from other disciplines, but would also offer essential support since it would be able to provide useful knowledge, especially in fourth dimension exploitation. Due to this confidential information, this approach could be an effective value-added tool in order to predict events, to shift timing, or to manifest any other chain reactions because of relevant conditions.

CONCLUSION

As a general observation, it appears evident that no single intelligence discipline is capable of col- lecting all existing data. In this regard, the most important contribution provided by technology is to integrate information gathered by a wide spectrum of operating modes, in order to merge those into each other and to create a more comprehensive intelligence picture. Starting from such an assumption, it seems appropriate to consider that GEOINT could be the most suitable platform to integrate multiple intelligence activities. In addition, it would allow a harmonious cohabitation among most advanced technologies alongside more traditional operating intervention methods, specifically HUMINT. Such an original vision could radically change the current intelligence discipline in order to both obtain and preserve a greater situational awareness. Furthermore, a combination of contributions from both military and civilian personnel could be a transform- ing key for the intelligence community. HUMINT actors operate in the field, deep inside local communities, and probably represent the most important sensors of all (Mazumadar, 2013).

The primary objective of this project was to clarify what GEOINT is and its effective develop- ment and importance in understanding major current world scenarios. Through a detailed analysis of its main characteristics, the authors have sought to bring out its crucial role for contemporary global needs.

In fact, compared to other approaches to intelligence, GEOINT allows both the exploitation and integration of the results from multiple intelligence disciplines. Both during the information collection and analysis phases, as well as the data production and dissemination steps; GEOINT devices and platforms proven to possess the capacity to support decision-making needs and provide an essential added value in assisting the intelligence community to operate on a joint basis.

An additional purpose of this study was to identify the essential HUMINT aspects that con- tribute mutual support between with the GEOINT discipline, in order to produce intelligence products that are increasingly comprehensive and capable of addressing the complex challenges that threaten society now and in the foreseeable future. In this regard, the authors have devised an operational model capable of integrating the main HUMINT features with the most sophisticated GEOINT tools. Toward that end, this project has devised a standardized reporting format for the HUMINT data collection. Furthermore, a procedural prototype has been created to allow an effective incorporation of latter documents with respect to GEOINT requirements. In recognition of the challenging interaction among “volatile” information, such as that created by HUMINT

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activities, and the GEOINT needs of certainty, the outcome of the present analysis does not claim to be a faultless operational prescription but rather a good basis to integrate further research in this complex field.

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APPENDIX A

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APPENDIX B

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