Assignment 1: Job Description

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Chapter 4

ANALYZING WORK AND DESIGNING JOBS

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Chapter 4 discusses analysis and design of work and lays out considerations that go into making informed decisions about how to create and link jobs. The chapter begins with a look at the big-picture issues related to analyzing work flow and organizational structure, then turns to analyzing and designing jobs. Traditionally, job analysis has emphasized the study of existing jobs in order to make decisions such as employee selection, training, and compensation. In contrast, job design has emphasized making jobs more efficient or more motivating; however the two activities are interrelated.

What Do I Need to Know?

LO 4-1 Summarize the elements of work flow analysis.

LO 4-2 Describe how work flow is related to an organization’s structure.

LO 4-3 Define the elements of a job analysis, and discuss their significance for human resource management.

LO 4-4 Tell how to obtain information for a job analysis.

LO 4-5 Summarize recent trends in job analysis.

LO 4-6 Describe methods for designing a job so that it can be done efficiently.

LO 4-7 Identify approaches to designing a job to make it motivating.

LO 4-8 Explain how organizations apply ergonomics to design safe jobs.

LO 4-9 Discuss how organizations can plan for the mental demands of a job.

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After reading and discussing this chapter, you need to know the elements of work flow analysis and the following definitions:

Work Flow Design, job and position as shown in next slide:

Work Flow In Organizations 1 of 2

Work Flow Design

Process of analyzing tasks necessary for production of a product or service.

Position

Set of job duties performed by a particular person.

Job

Set of related duties.

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LO 4-1 Summarize the elements of work flow analysis.

Informed decisions about jobs take place in the context of the organization’s overall work flow. Work Flow Design - The process of analyzing the tasks necessary for the production of a product or service.

Job - A set of related duties.

Position - The set of duties (job) performed by a particular person. Basing decisions on work flow design can lead to better results than the more traditional practice of looking at jobs individually.

Figure 4.1: Developing a Work Flow Analysis

Jump to Appendix 1 long image description

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As shown in Figure 4.1, inputs fall into three categories: raw inputs (materials and information), equipment, and human resources (knowledge, skills, and abilities). Work flow analysis next considers the work processes used to generate the outputs identified. Work processes are the activities that a work unit’s members engage in to produce a given output. They are described in terms of operating procedures for every task performed by each employee at each stage of the process. Specifying the processes helps HRM professionals design efficient work systems by clarifying which tasks are necessary. Knowledge of work processes also can guide staffing changes when work is automated, outsourced, or restructured. Work flow analysis identifies the inputs required to carry out the work processes. Work flow takes place in the context of an organization’s structure. It requires the cooperation of individuals and groups. Ideally, the organization’s structure brings together the people who must collaborate to create the desired outputs efficiently.

Work Flow In Organizations 2 of 2

Work Flow Design and an Organization’s Structure

Within an organization, units and individuals must cooperate to create outputs.

The organization’s structure brings together people who must collaborate to efficiently produce desired outputs.

Centralized

Decentralized

Functional

Product or Customer

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LO 4-2 Describe how work flow is related to an organization’s structure.

Besides looking at the work flow of each process, it is important to see how the work fits within the context of the organization’s structure. The structure may do this in a way that is highly centralized (that is, with authority concentrated in a few people at the top of the organization) or decentralized (with authority spread among many people). The organization may group jobs according to functions (for example, welding, painting, packaging), or it may set up divisions to focus on products or customer groups.

Jobs that involve teamwork or broad responsibility tend to require a structure based on divisions other than functions. When the goal is to empower employees, companies then need to set up structures and jobs that enable broad responsibility, such as jobs that involve employees in serving a particular group of customers or producing a particular product, rather than performing a narrowly defined function. The organization’ structure also affects managers’ jobs. Managing a division responsible for a product or customer group tends to require more experience and cognitive (thinking) ability than managing a department that handles a particular function. Managing a functional department requires skill in managing conflicts and aligning employees’ efforts with higher-level goals, because these employees tend to identify heavily with their department or profession.

Job Analysis 1 of 11

Careful job analysis makes it possible to define what a person in a certain position does and what qualifications are needed for the job. Firefighters use specific equipment to extinguish fires, require physical strength to do their jobs, and must possess the ability to make decisions under pressure.

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Job Analysis 2 of 11

The process of getting detailed information about jobs

Job analysis

Job descriptions

Job specifications

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To achieve high-quality performance, organizations have to understand and match job requirements and people. Analyzing jobs and understanding what is required to carry out a job provide essential knowledge for staffing, training, performance appraisal, and many other HR activities.

Job Description - A list of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities (TDRs) that a particular job entails.

Job analysis: the process of getting detailed information about jobs. Preparation of a job description begins with gathering information about the job from people already performing the task, the position’s supervisor, or the managers creating the position. Based on that information, the writer of the job description identifies the essential duties of the job, including mental and physical tasks and any methods and resources required. The output of a job analysis are job descriptions and job specifications. whereas the job description focuses on the activities involved in carrying out a job, a job specification looks at the qualities or requirements the person performing the job must possess. It is a list of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) that an individual must have to perform the job. Knowledge refers to factual or procedural information that is necessary for successfully performing a task.

Job Analysis 3 of 11

Job Description

A list of tasks, duties, and responsibilities (TDRs) that a particular job entails.

Key components

Job Title

Brief description of the TDRs

List of the essential duties with detailed specifications of the tasks involved in carrying out each duty

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Whenever the organization creates a new job, it needs to prepare a job description.

Job descriptions should be reviewed periodically:

Once per year

Performance appraisals are a good opportunity to review the job description. Preparation of a job description begins with gathering information about the job from people already performing the task, the position’s supervisor, or the managers creating the position. Based on that information, the writer of the job description identifies the essential duties of the job, including mental and physical tasks and any methods and resources required.

Figure 4.2: Sample Job Description

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A job description typically has the format shown in Figure 4.2. It includes:

Job title

Brief description of the TDRs

List of the essential duties with detailed specifications of the tasks involved in carrying out each duty. Although organizations may modify this format according to their particular needs, all job descriptions within an organization should follow the same format. This helps the organization make consistent decisions about such matters as pay and promotions. It also helps the organization show that it makes human resource decisions fairly. Whenever the organization creates a new job, it needs a new job description. Organizations should give each newly hired employee a copy of his or her job description. This helps the employee to understand what is expected. Ideally, employees will want to go above and beyond listed duties when the situation and their abilities call for that. Many job descriptions include the phrase ‘and other duties as requested’ as a way to remind employees not to tell their supervisor, “But that’s not part of my job.”

Job Analysis 4 of 11

Job Specification

List of knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAO needed to perform a particular job.

Knowledge: factual or procedural information necessary for successfully performing a task.

Skill: an individual’s level of proficiency at performing a particular task.

Ability: a general enduring capability that an individual possesses.

Other Characteristics: job-related licensing, certifications, or personality traits.

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Whereas the job description focuses on the activities involved in carrying out a job, a job specification looks at the qualities of the person performing the job. KSAOs are characteristics of people and are not directly observable. They are observable only when individuals are carrying out the TDRs of the job—and afterward, if they can show the product of their labor. Thus, if someone applied for a job as a news photographer, you could not simply look at the individual to determine whether he or she can spot and take effective photographs. However, you could draw conclusions later about the person’s skills by looking at examples of his or her photographs. Accurate information about KSAOs is especially important for making decisions about who will fill a job. A manager attempting to fill a position needs information about the characteristics required and about the characteristics of each applicant. Interviews and selection decisions should therefore focus on KSAOs

Figure 4.3: Sample Job Specifications

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Figure 4.3 is a set of sample job specifications for the job description in Figure 4.2

Job Analysis 5 of 11

Sources of Job Information

Incumbents – people who currently hold the position in the organization.

Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) – published by U.S. Department of Labor

Occupational Information Network (O*NET) – an online job description database developed by the Labor Department

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There are several sources of job information. The incumbents, or people who currently perform the job are a good source. This source should be supplemented by observations, when applicable, or supervisor input. Supervisors may have a clearer vision of what is expected from that job.

Two other sources are provided by the Department of Labor. The dictionary of occupational titles and the Occupational information network which is an online job description database.

Job Analysis 6 of 11

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O*NET Online is an application that was created for the general public to provide broad access to the O*NET database of occupational information. The O*NET database includes information on skills, abilities, knowledges, work activities, and interests associated with occupations. This information can be used to facilitate career exploration, vocational counseling, and a variety of human resources functions, such as developing job orders and position descriptions and aligning training with current workplace needs.

Job Analysis 7 of 11

Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)

What is it?

A standardized job analysis questionnaire containing 194 questions about work behaviors, work conditions, and job characteristics that apply to a wide variety of jobs.

Key sections:

Information input

Mental processes

Work output

Relationships with other persons

Job context

Other characteristics

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After gathering information, the job analyst uses the information to analyze the job. One instrument for analyzing jobs is the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ).- The person analyzing a job determines whether each item on the questionnaire applies to the job being analyzed, and then rates each item based on six scales. Using the PAQ provides an organization with information that helps in comparing jobs, even when they are dissimilar.

Job Analysis 8 of 11

Fleishman Job Analysis System

What is it?

Job analysis technique that asks subject-matter experts to evaluate a job in terms of the abilities required to perform the job.

Categories of Abilities:

Written comprehension

Deductive reasoning

Manual dexterity

Stamina

Originality

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To gather information about worker requirements, the Fleishman Job Analysis System asks subject-matter experts (typically job incumbents) to evaluate a job in terms of the abilities required to perform the job. When the survey has been completed in all 52 categories of abilities, ranging from written comprehension to deductive reasoning, manual dexterity, stamina, and originality, the results provide a picture of the ability requirements of a job. Such information is especially useful for employee selection, training, and career development.

Job Analysis 9 of 11

Analyzing Teamwork

SKILL DIFFERENTIATION

AUTHORITY DIFFERENTIATION

TEMPORAL (time) STABILITY

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Work design increasingly relies on teams to accomplish an organization’s objectives, so HR managers often must identify the best ways to handle jobs that are highly interdependent. Just as there are standardized instruments for assessing the nature of a job, there are standard ways to measure the nature of teams. Three dimensions are most critical:

1. Skill differentiation—The degree to which team members have specialized knowledge or functional capacities.

2. Authority differentiation—The allocation of decision-making authority among individuals, subgroups, and the team as a whole.

3. Temporal (time) stability—The length of time over which team members must work together.

Job Analysis 10 of 11

Importance of Job Analysis

Job analysis is so important to HR managers that it has been called the building block of all HRM functions.

Almost every HRM program requires some type of information determined by job analysis.

Work redesign

HR planning

Selection

Training

Performance appraisal

Career planning

Job evaluation

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Job analysis is also important from a legal standpoint.

It helps determines essential job requirements and job-related duties as required by the EEO laws and regulations.

Job analysis also helps supervisors and other managers carry out their duties.

Identify types of work in their units

Information about work flow process

Information that supports hiring decisions, performance review, and compensation

Table 4.1: Competency Model

PROJECT MANAGER COMPETENCIES	PROFICIENCY RATINGS
Organizational & Planning Skills Ability to establish priorities on projects and schedule activities to achieve results.	1—Below Expectations: Unable to perform basic tasks. 2—Meets Expectations: Understands basic principles and performs routine tasks with reliable results; works with minimal supervision or assistance. 3—Exceeds Expectations: Performs complex and multiple tasks; can coach, teach, or lead others.
Communications Ability to build credibility and trust through open and direct communications with internal and external customers.	1—Below Expectations: Unable to perform basic tasks. 2—Meets Expectations: Understands basic principles and performs routine tasks with reliable results; works with minimal supervision or assistance. 3—Exceeds Expectations: Performs complex and multiple tasks; can coach, teach, or lead others.
Financial & Quantitative Skills Ability to analyze financial information accurately and set financial goals that have a positive impact on company’s bottom line and fiscal objectives.	1—Below Expectations: Unable to perform basic tasks. 2—Meets Expectations: Understands basic principles and performs routine tasks with reliable results; works with minimal supervision or assistance. 3—Exceeds Expectations: Performs complex and multiple tasks; can coach, teach, or lead others.

Source: Based on R. J. Mirabile, “Everything You Wanted to Know about Competency Modeling,” Training and Development (August 1997): pp. 73–77.

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When HRM is actively engaged in talent management as a way to support strategy, organizations need to think beyond skills for particular jobs. They must identify the capabilities they need to acquire and develop in order to promote the organization’s success. For this purpose, organizations develop competency models. A competency model identifies and describes all the competencies required for success in a particular occupation or set of jobs. Organizations may create competency models for occupational groups, levels of the organization, or even the entire organization. A competency is an area of personal capability that enables employees to perform their work successfully. Table 4.1 shows an example of a competency model for a project manager. The left side of the table lists competencies required for a project manager (organizational & planning skills; communications; and financial & quantitative skills). The right side of the table shows behaviors that might be used to determine a project manager’s level of proficiency for each competency. As in these examples, competency models focus more on how people work, whereas job analysis focuses more on work tasks and outcomes. Competency models help HR professionals ensure that all aspects of talent management are aligned with the organization’s strategy.

As the chart illustrates,

Organizational & Planning Skills- proficiency ratings refer to

1—Below Expectations: Unable to perform basic tasks.

2—Meets Expectations: Understands basic principles and performs routine tasks with reliable results; works with minimal supervision or assistance.

3—Exceeds Expectations: Performs complex and multiple tasks; can coach, teach, or lead others.

Communications-

1—Below Expectations: Unable to perform basic tasks.

2—Meets Expectations: Understands basic principles and performs routine tasks with reliable results; works with minimal supervision or assistance.

3—Exceeds Expectations: Performs complex and multiple tasks; can coach, teach, or lead others.

Financial & Quantitative Skills-

1—Below Expectations: Unable to perform basic tasks.

2—Meets Expectations: Understands basic principles and performs routine tasks with reliable results; works with minimal supervision or assistance.

3—Exceeds Expectations: Performs complex and multiple tasks; can coach, teach, or lead others.

Job Analysis 11 of 11

Trends in Job Analysis

Organizations must analyze jobs in the context the organization’s structure and strategy.

Jobs change and evolve over time, job descriptions need to be flexible..

Downsizing has affected organizations in the nature of their jobs.

Expanded use of project-based org structures

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Jobs change and evolve over time. Job analysis must not only define jobs when they are created, but also detect changes in jobs as time passes.

Because the work can change rapidly and it is impossible to rewrite job descriptions every week, job descriptions and specifications need to be flexible. Research suggests that successful downsizing efforts almost always entail changes in the nature of jobs, not just their number. Jobs that have survived the downsizing of the most recent recession tend to have a broader scope of responsibilities coupled with less supervision. These changes in the nature of work and the expanded use of “project-based” organizational structures require the type of broader understanding that comes from an analysis of work flows. Because the work can change rapidly and it is impossible to rewrite job descriptions every week, job descriptions and specifications need to balance flexibility with the need for legal documentation.

Job Design 1 of 11

Job Design

The process of defining how work will be performed and what tasks will be required in a given job.

Job Redesign

A similar process that involves changing an existing job design.

To design jobs effectively, a person must thoroughly understand:

job itself (through job analysis) and

its place in the units work flow (work flow analysis)

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Although job analysis is important for an understanding of existing jobs, organizations must also plan for new jobs and periodically consider whether they should revise existing jobs.

Figure 4.4: Approaches to Job Design

Jump to Appendix 2 long image description

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As shown in Figure 4.4, the available approaches emphasize different aspects of the job: the mechanics of doing a job efficiently, the job’s impact on motivation, the use of safe work practices, and the mental demands of the job.

Job Design 2 of 11

Designing Efficient Jobs

Industrial Engineering: study of jobs to find simplest way to structure work to maximize efficiency.

Reduces complexity of work.

Allows almost anyone to be trained quickly and easily perform the job.

Used for highly specialized and repetitive jobs.

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If workers perform tasks as efficiently as possible, not only does the organization benefit from lower costs and greater output per worker, but workers should be less fatigued. Industrial engineering provides measurable and practical benefits. However, a focus on efficiency alone can create jobs that are so simple and repetitive that workers get bored. Industrial engineering is usually combined with other approaches to job design.

Job Design 3 of 11

The Job Characteristics Model

Skill variety – extent to which a job requires a variety of skills to carry out tasks involved.

Task identity – degree to which a job requires completing a “whole” piece of work from beginning to end.

Task significance – extent to which the job has an important impact on lives of other people.

Autonomy – degree to which the job allows an individual to make decisions about the way work will be carried out.

Feedback - extent to which a person receives clear information about performance effectiveness from the work itself.

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LO 4-7 Identify approaches to designing a job to make it motivating.

Employers also need to ensure that workers have a positive attitude toward their jobs so that they show up at work with enthusiasm, commitment, and creativity. A model that shows how to make jobs more motivating is the Job Characteristics Model, developed by Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham. This model describes jobs in terms of five characteristics:

1. Skill variety—The extent to which a job requires a variety of skills to carry out the tasks involved.

2. Task identity—The degree to which a job requires completing a “whole” piece of work from beginning to end (for example, building an entire component or resolving a customer’s complaint).

3. Task significance—The extent to which the job has an important impact on the lives of other people.

4. Autonomy—The degree to which the job allows an individual to make decisions about the way the work will be carried out.

5. Feedback—The extent to which a person receives clear information about performance effectiveness from the work itself.

Individual differences among workers will affect how much they are motivated by job characteristics and able to do their best work. For example, someone who thrives in a highly structured environment might not actually be motivated by autonomy and would be a better fit for a job where a supervisor makes most decisions

Figure 4.5: Characteristics of a Motivating Job

Jump to Appendix 3 long image description

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As shown in Figure 4.5, the more of each of these characteristics a job has, the more motivating the job will be, according to the Job Characteristics Model. The model predicts that a person with such a job will be more satisfied and will produce more and better work.

This model describes jobs in terms of five characteristics

1. Skill variety—The extent to which a job requires a variety of skills to carry out the tasks involved.

2. Task identity—The degree to which a job requires completing a “whole” piece of work from beginning to end (for example, building an entire component or resolving a customer’s complaint).

3. Task significance—The extent to which the job has an important impact on the lives of other people.

4. Autonomy—The degree to which the job allows an individual to make decisions about the way the work will be carried out.

5. Feedback—The extent to which a person receives clear information about performance effectiveness from the work itself.

Job Design 4 of 11

Designing Jobs That Motivate

Job Enlargement

Broadening types of tasks performed in a job

Job Extension

Enlarging jobs by combining several relatively simple jobs to form a job with a wider range of tasks

Job Rotation

Enlarging jobs by moving employees among several different jobs

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In a job design, job enlargement refers to a broadening of the types of tasks performed.

The objective of job enlargement is to make jobs less repetitive and more interesting.

Methods of job enlargement include:

Job extension

Job rotation

Job Design 5 of 11

Job Enrichment

Empowering workers by adding more decision-making authority to jobs.

Based on Herzberg’s theory of motivation.

Individuals motivated more by intrinsic aspects of work.

Self-Managing Work Teams

Have authority for an entire work process or segment

Team members motivated by autonomy, skill variety, and task identity.

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Not every worker responds positively to enriched jobs. These jobs are best suited to workers who are flexible and responsive to others; for these workers, enriched jobs can dramatically improve motivation. Instead of merely enriching individual jobs, some organizations empower employees by designing work to be done by self-managing work teams that s have authority for an entire work process or segment. Team members typically have authority to schedule work, hire team members, resolve problems related to the team’s performance, and perform other duties traditionally handled by management. Teamwork can give a job such motivating characteristics as autonomy, skill variety, and task identity. s have authority for an entire work process or segment. Team members typically have authority to schedule work, hire team members, resolve problems related to the team’s performance, and perform other duties traditionally handled by management. Teamwork can give a job such motivating characteristics as autonomy, skill variety, and task identity. Because team members’ responsibilities are great, their jobs usually are defined broadly and include sharing of work assignments. Team members may, at one time or another, perform every duty of the team. The challenge for the organization is to provide enough training so that the team members can learn the necessary skills. Another approach, when teams are responsible for particular work processes or customers, is to assign the team responsibility for the process or customer, then let the team decide which members will carry out which tasks. A study of work teams at a large financial services company found that the right job design was associated with effective teamwork. In particular, when teams are self-managed and team members are highly involved in decision making, teams are more productive, employees more satisfied, and managers are more pleased with performance. Teams also tend to do better when each team member performs a variety of tasks and when team members view their effort as significant.

Figure 4.6: Alternatives to the 8-5 Job

Jump to Appendix 4 long image description

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As shown in Figure 4.6, the more of each of these characteristics a job has, the more motivating the job will be, according to the Job Characteristics Model, developed by Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham.

Test Your Knowledge

Adding more tasks to an existing job is called ____________, while adding more decision- making authority to jobs is called _________.

Job extension; job rotation

Job rotation; job enrichment

Job enlargement; job enrichment

Job enlargement; job rotation

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Adding more tasks to an existing job is called ____________, while adding more decision-making authority to jobs is called _________.

Job extension; job rotation

Job rotation; job enrichment

Job enlargement; job enrichment

Job enlargement; job rotation

Answer: C

Job Design 6 of 11

Flexible Work Schedules

Flextime

A scheduling policy in which full-time employees may choose starting and ending times within guidelines.

A work schedule that allows time for community and family interests can be extremely motivating.

Job Sharing

A work option in which two part-time employees carry out tasks associated with a single job.

Enables an organization to attract or retain valued employees who want more time to attend school family matters.

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One way in which an organization can give employees some say in how their work is structured is to offer flexible work schedules. Two approaches include flextime and job sharing

Job Design 7 of 11

Telework

The broad term for doing one’s work away from a centrally located office.

Advantages to employers include

Less need for office space

Greater flexibility to implement for managerial, professional, or sales jobs.

Difficult to set up for manufacturing workers.

Flexibility to employees with special needs

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Flexibility can extend to work locations as well as work schedules. For employers, advantages of telework include less need for office space and the ability to offer greater flexibility to employees who are disabled or need to be available for children or elderly relatives. The employees using telework arrangements may have less absences from work than employees with similar demands who must commute to work. Telecommuting can also support a strategy of corporate social responsibility because these employees do not produce the greenhouse gas emissions that result from com-muting by car. Occasional telework is available at two-thirds of companies.

Question: What advantages of telework might make it the most widely

used form of flexibility?

Job Design 8 of 11

Ergonomics

Study of interface between individuals’ physiology and characteristics of physical work environment.

Goal is to minimize physical strain on the worker by structuring physical work environment around the way the human body works.

Redesigning work to make it more worker- friendly can lead to increased efficiencies.

Use of mobile devices can result in RSIs.

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4-8 Explain how organizations apply ergonomics to design safe jobs.

The way people use their bodies when they work affects their physical well-being and may affect how long they can work. The goal of ergonomics is to minimize physical strain on the worker by structuring the physical work environment around the way the human body works. Ergonomic design may involve modifying equipment to reduce the physical demands of performing certain jobs or redesigning the jobs themselves to reduce strain. Ergonomic design may target work practices associated with injuries

A recent ergonomic challenge comes from the popularity of mobile devices. As workers find more and more uses for these devices, they are at risk from repetitive-stress injuries (RSIs). Heavy users of these devices must therefore trade off eyestrain against physical strain to wrists, unless they can hook up their device to an extra, properly positioned keyboard or monitor. When using mobile devices or any computer, workers can protect themselves by taking frequent breaks and paying attention to their posture while they work.

Job Design 9 of 11

OSHA’s Four-pronged Strategy

1. Issue guidelines for specific industries (nursing homes, grocery stores, and poultry-processing plants)

2. Enforce violations

3. Advise employers

4. National Advisory Committee on Ergonomics defines research needs

Job Design 10 of 11

Designing Jobs That Meet Mental Capabilities and Limitations

Work is designed to reduce information- processing requirements of the job.

Workers may be less likely to make mistakes or have accidents.

Simpler jobs may be less motivating.

Technology tools may be distracting employees from their primary task resulting in increased mistakes and accidents.

LO 4-9 Discuss how organizations can plan for the mental demands of a job.

Just as the human body has capabilities and limitations, addressed by ergonomics, the mind, too, has capabilities and limitations. Employers may seek to reduce mental as well as physical strain. The job design may limit the amount of information and memorization involved. Adequate lighting, easy-to-read gauges and displays, simple-to-operate equipment, and clear instructions also can minimize mental strain. Computer software can simplify jobs—for example, by performing calculations or filtering out spam from important e-mail. Organizations can select employees with the necessary abilities to handle a job’s mental demands. Changes in technology sometimes reduce job demands and errors, but in some cases, technology has made the problem worse. Some employees try to juggle information from several sources at once—say, talking on a cell phone while typing, surfing the web for information during a team member’s business presentation, or repeatedly stopping work on a project to check

e-mail or Twitter feeds. In these cases, the cell phone, handheld computer, and e-mail or tweets are distracting the employees from their primary task. They may convey important information, but they also break the employee’s train of thought, reducing performance and increasing the likelihood of errors.

Job Design 1 of 11

Designing Jobs That Meet Mental Capabilities and Limitations (continued)

Limit amount of information and memorization that the job requires.

Organizations can provide:

adequate lighting

easy-to-read gauges and displays

simple-to-operate equipment

clear instructions

Every job requires some degree of thinking, remembering, and paying attention, so for every job, organizations need to evaluate whether their employees can handle the job’s mental demands.

Summary 1 of 5

Work flow analysis identifies:

amount and quality of a work unit’s outputs

work processes required to produce these outputs

inputs used to carry out processes and produce outputs

Within an organization, units and individuals must cooperate to create outputs, and organization’s structure brings people together for this purpose.

Job analysis is the process of getting detailed information about jobs.

First, the analysis identifies the amount and quality of a work unit’s outputs (products, parts of

products, or services).

•Next, the analyst determines the work processes required to produce the outputs, breaking down tasks into those performed by each person.

•Finally, the work flow

First, the analysis identifies the amount and quality of a work unit’s outputs (products, parts of products, or services).

•Next, the analyst determines the work processes required to produce the outputs, breaking down tasks into those performed by each person.

•Finally, the work flow analysis identifies the inputs used to carry out the processes.

Summary 2 of 5

Job analysis includes preparation of

Job descriptions

Job specifications

Information for analyzing an existing job often comes from incumbents and their supervisors.

The U.S. Department of Labor provides information:

Dictionary of Occupational Titles

Occupational Information Network (O*NET)

Job analysis is the process of getting detailed in-formation about jobs. It includes preparation of job descriptions and job specifications.

•A job description lists the tasks, duties, and responsibilities of a job.

•Job specifications look at the qualities needed in a person performing the job. They list the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics that are required for successful performance of a job.

•Job analysis provides a foundation for carrying out many HRM responsibilities, including work redesign, human resource planning, employee selection and training, performance appraisal, career planning, and job evaluation to determine pay scales.

Summary 3 of 5

The nature of work and job design is changing.

Viewing organizations in terms of a field of work needing to be done instead of specific job descriptions

Organizations are adopting project-based structures and teamwork, which also require flexibility and ability to handle broad responsibilities.

The basic technique for designing efficient jobs is industrial engineering.

The basic technique for designing efficient jobs is industrial engineering, which looks for the simplest way to structure work to maximize efficiency. Through methods such as time-and-motion studies, the industrial engineer creates jobs that are relatively simple and typically repetitive. These jobs may bore workers because they are so simple.

Summary 4 of 5

According to the Job Characteristics Model, jobs are more motivating if they have greater skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.

Ways to create such jobs include:

Job Enlargement

Job Rotation

Job Enrichment

Self-managing work teams offer greater skill variety and task identity

Flexible work schedules and telework offer greater autonomy

According to the Job Characteristics Model, jobs are more motivating if they have greater skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback about performance effectiveness. Ways to create such jobs include job enlargement (through job extension or job rotation) and job enrichment. In addition, self-managing work teams offer greater skill variety and task identity. Flexible work schedules and telework offer greater autonomy.

Summary 5 of 5

Goal of ergonomics is to minimize physical strain on the worker by structuring the physical work environment around the way the human body works.

Employers may seek to reduce the mental as well as physical strain and reduce errors and accidents.

Job design may limit amount of information and memorization involved.

Technology tools may actually cause more distractions, errors, and accidents.

Ergonomic design may involve modifying equipment to reduce the physical demands of performing certain jobs or redesigning the jobs them- selves to reduce strain. Ergonomic design may target work practices associated with injuries. Adequate lighting, easy-to-read gauges and displays, simple-to-operate equipment, and clear instructions also can minimize mental strain.

Appendix 1 Figure 4.1: Developing a Work Flow Analysis

Raw inputs are the materials, data, and information needed.

Equipment is the special equipment, facilities, and systems needed.

Human Resources are the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed by those performing the tasks.

Activity is the tasks required in the production of the output.

Output is the product, information, or service provided. How is the output measured?

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Appendix 2 Figure 4.4: Approaches to Job Design

Design for Efficiency

Industrial engineering

Design for mental capacity

Filtering information

Clear displays and instructions

Memory aids

Design for motivation

Job enlargement

Job enrichment

Teamwork

Flexibility

Design for safety and health

Ergonomics

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Appendix 3 Figure 4.5: Characteristics of a Motivating Job

Skill variety

Less motivation: few skills needed

More motivation: many skills needed

Task identity

Less motivation: work is a small part of the whole

More motivation: whole piece of work is completed

Task significance

Less motivation: minor impact of others

More motivation: major impact on others

Autonomy

Less motivation: decisions made by others

More motivation: much freedom to make decisions

Feedback

Less motivation: difficult to see effectiveness

More motivation: effectiveness readily apparent

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Appendix 4 Figure 4.6: Characteristics of a Motivating Job

Flextime

Core time is 9 am to 3 pm.

IBM permits a meal break of up to 2 hours so employees can do personal tasks.

Job sharing

Two lawyers, both fathers, share the job of assistant counsel at Timberland

Compressed workweek

All employees of Red Dot Corporation have the option of working 10 hours per day. Monday through Thursday.

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