chap 7
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Noe9e_PPT_ch07_accessible.JBrito.edited.pptxChapter 7 Traditional Training Methods
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This chapter reviews traditional methods that can be used in training delivery. The traditional training methods addressed in this chapter are organized into three broad categories: presentation methods, hands-on methods, and group building methods. While new technologies have changed training delivery in many respects, traditional methods are still used in virtually all organizations, often in conjunction with new innovations. Different methods are described, along with their advantages and limitations. The chapter concludes by comparing methods on several characteristics, including learning outcomes, transfer enhancement, cost, and overall effectiveness. Fundamentally the goal of this chapter is to educate the reader on how best to employ different training methods to maximize learning, transfer, and other effectiveness criteria.
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Objectives
Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of presentational, hands-on, and group building training methods
Provide recommendations for effective on-the-job training (OJT)
Develop a case study
Develop a self-directed learning module
Discuss the key components of behavior modeling training
Explain the conditions necessary for adventure learning to be effective
Discuss what team training should focus on to improve team performance
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70-20-10 Model
70 percent of learning derives from job-related experiences
20 percent of learning derives from interactions with others
10 percent of learning derives from formal educational events
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Introduction
Several studies have demonstrated that most workplace learning occurs informally on the job and through interactions with others. The 70-20-10 model is a commonly used formula in the training profession to describe the optimal sources of learning. It holds that individuals obtain 70 percent of their knowledge from job-related experiences, 20 percent from interactions with others, and 10 percent from formal educational events. Notwithstanding the importance of informal learning, traditional training methods still have their place.
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A Learning System
Guided Competency Learning
well defined competencies trained via lecture and online methods
Social Competency Learning
well defined competencies learned via mentoring, job experiences, and coaching
Guided Contextual Learning
context dependent competencies trained via simulation, on-the-job training, behavior modeling, and experiential learning
Social Contextual Learning
context dependent competencies learned via social media and informal interactions through others
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Figure 7.1 on page 293 shows a learning system with four quadrants. The framework crosses two dimensions. The first dimension is competency vs. context based learning. Competency based learning occurs when the company has defined a set of broad competencies for positions or for the whole company. Context based learning is unique to employees specific needs. The second dimension relates to whether learning is guided (created and guided by the company) vs. social (created and guided by user).
Guided competency learning—well defined competencies trained via lecture and online methods
Social competency learning—well defined competencies learned via mentoring, job experiences, and coaching
Guided contextual learning: context dependent knowledge and skills trained via simulation, on-the-job training, behavior modeling, and experiential learning
Social contextual learning: context dependent knowledge and skills learned via social media and informal interactions through others
More and more companies are using training methods from all four quadrants. This allows employees to have more choice in how and when they learn. It also recognizes the need for both dedicated training time using traditional methods (such as instructor-led courses) as well as just-in-time learning that can occur through accessing relevant content (such as a video) or interacting with peers and experts (such as through social media).
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Traditional Training Methods
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Traditional Training Methods Long Description
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Presentation methods are methods in which trainees are passive recipients of information, such as facts, processes, and problem-solving methods.
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Lecture
Audiovisual Techniques
On-the-job Training
Self-Directed Learning
Apprenticeship
Simulations
Case Studies
Business Games
Role Plays
Behavior Modeling
Adventure Learning
Team Training
Action Learning
Lectures
Lectures may have different formats
Standard lecture—trainer speaks and trainees listen
Team teaching—two or more trainers present
Guest speakers
Panel—multiple speakers present and ask questions
Student presentations—groups of trainees present
Advantages
relatively inexpensive and efficient for large groups
useful when the instructor is the main knowledge holder
Disadvantages
passive
potentially weak connection to the work environment
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Lecture
A lecture is the method of training delivery involving a trainer verbally communicating material. Communication is primarily one-way. Instructor-led classroom instruction remains a popular training method despite new technologies.
There are different variations of the lecture:
Standard lecture: trainer talks while trainees listen
Team teaching: two or more trainers present different topics or alternative views of information
Guest speakers: speakers visit a session for a predetermined time
Panel: two or more speakers present information and ask questions
Student presentations: groups of trainees present topics to the class
Advantages
Lecture is relatively inexpensive, and it is an efficient way to cover a large amount of information to a large group. Lecture is also useful when the instructor is the main knowledge holder. A lecture can also demonstrate a subject matter expert’s enthusiasm for a topic.
Disadvantages
Disadvantages of lectures include the lack of trainee involvement, lack of feedback, and the potentially weak connection to the work environment. It is also difficult to judge learners’ levels of understanding. Thus, lecture is often supplemented with more participative methods.
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Audiovisual
Includes overheads, slides, and video
Video is highly popular, but rarely used alone
Video can be effective for illustrating communication skills, interviewing skills, customer-service skills, and step-by-step procedures
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Audiovisual Techniques
Audiovisual instruction includes overheads, slides, and video. Video is one of the most popular training methods, but is rarely used alone. Video can be highly effective for illustrating communication skills, interviewing skills, customer-service skills, and step-by-step procedures. Video is also useful for giving real-life examples of material covered via lecture or other methods.
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Video
Advantages
can demonstrate content that cannot be easily demonstrated live
provides consistency
useful complement to other methods
Disadvantages
creative approach may be weak
may become obsolete
passive
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Advantages
Video can demonstrate content that cannot be easily demonstrated live, provides consistency in training from session to session, and serves as a useful complement to other training methods.
Disadvantages
Most problems with video result from the creative approach used. Disadvantages include too much content for trainees to absorb, poor dialogue or poor acting, and overuse of music and humor. Videos may also become obsolete, limiting their credibility. Given that video is passive, it should be used in conjunction with more active learning methods.
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On-the-Job Training (OJT)
Involves learning by observing others and emulating their behavior
Considered informal because it does not occur in a classroom and because managers or coworkers are trainers
Advantages
requires less time and cost than formal training
customized and offered at any time
focuses on actual job content
Disadvantages
may be inconsistent
bad habits may be passed on
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Hands-On Methods
Hands-on methods are those that require the trainee to be actively involved in the learning process.
On-the-job Training
On-the-job training (OJT) involves new or inexperienced employees learning by observing their peers or managers at work and trying to emulate their behaviors. OJT is considered informal because it does not necessarily occur as part of a training program and because managers, peers, or mentors serve as trainers. OJT can be useful for training newly hired or promoted employees, upgrading experienced employees’ skills when new technology is introduced, and cross-training employees.
Advantages
OJT requires less time and cost. It can be customized to the specific needs of an employee, and training is immediately applicable because OJT occurs on the job using actual tools and equipment. OJT can be offered at any time, and trainers are readily available because they are peers or managers. Because OJT focuses on actual job content, transfer is maximized.
Disadvantages
OJT is typically unstructured and may be inconsistent. Bad habits may be passed on. Therefore, OJT should be structured to be most effective.
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Enhancing OJT
Effectively prepare for instruction by breaking tasks down into important steps
Prepare the necessary resources and support prior to training
Show trainees how to perform the task and explain key points
Have the trainee practice small parts and then the entire task
Provide praise and constructive feedback
Have the trainee practice until accurate reproduction is achieved
Provide support materials to facilitate transfer
Evaluate the OJT
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There are a number of principles to structure and enhance OJT. Some of these principles include:
Effectively prepare for instruction by breaking tasks down into important steps
Prepare the necessary resources and support prior to training
Show trainees how to perform the task and explain key points
Have the trainee practice small parts and then the entire task
Provide praise and constructive feedback
Have the trainee practice until accurate reproduction is achieved
Provide support materials to facilitate transfer
Evaluate the OJT
An effective OJT program includes:
A policy statement describing the purpose of OJT, emphasizing the company’s support
A clear specification of who is accountable for conducting OJT. If managers conduct OJT, this is mentioned in their job descriptions and is part of their performance evaluations.
A thorough review of OJT at similar companies.
Training of managers and peers in the principles of structured OJT.
Availability of lesson plans, checklists, manuals, learning contracts, and progress report forms
Evaluation of employees’ levels of basic skills (reading, computation, writing) before OJT.
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Apprenticeships (1)
Work-study type training involving on-the-job and classroom training
Typically sponsored by a company or trade union
Common in skilled trades, such as carpentry, plumbing, and welding
Trainee advantages
earn pay while they learn
wages increase as skills improve
competitive job offers
Trainee disadvantages
historically restricted access to women and minorities
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Apprenticeship
An apprenticeship is work-study type training involving both on-the-job and classroom training. Apprenticeships are typically sponsored either by a company or by a trade union. The typical length of an apprenticeship is four years, but they can range from two to six years. Apprenticeships are most common for positions in the skilled trades, such as for an electrician, carpenter, and plumber.
To qualify as a registered apprenticeship under state or federal guidelines, the apprenticeship must involve at least 144 hours of classroom instruction and a certain number of hours, which depend on the state. Once training is complete, apprentices are called journey workers, and they earn certification from the U.S. Department of Labor or a state apprenticeship agency.
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Apprenticeships (2)
Employer advantages
meet specific business needs
attract talented employees
trainees are skilled and motivated
Employer disadvantages
costly
potentially narrow skill set
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Advantages
Apprenticeships have benefits for both the learner and the company. Learners earn pay while they learn and their wages increase automatically as their skills improve. Learners often receive a job offer and good wages from the company that sponsors their training. Apprentices gain a wide range of skills and knowledge based on their classroom and on-the-job experience. Apprenticeship programs benefit employers by providing them with the skills they need but are difficult to find in the labor market. Employers benefit from high employee retention and loyalty rates among apprentices, improved morale and emphasis on continuous learning, a talent pool, improved safety, and training customized to their needs.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of apprenticeships include the development costs and the time commitment that management and learners have to make. There is a somewhat narrow skill focus in current apprenticeships (i.e., one craft or trade), which may be somewhat limiting. From a diversity perspective, these programs have historically restricted access to women and minorities.
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Simulations
Training method that represents a real-life situation where trainees’ decisions result in outcomes that mirror what would happen on the job
The best simulations have a high degree of identical elements
Advantages
highly realistic hands-on practice
allow trainees to make mistakes
Disadvantages
potentially expensive to develop
may be difficult to incorporate identical elements
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Simulations
A simulation is a training method that represents a real-life situation, with trainees’ decisions resulting in outcomes that mirror what would happen if they were on the job. Simulations can be used as a stand-alone training method or incorporated into a course or program. Short simulations can be 5 to 12 minutes long, focusing on a single subject area. Short simulations do get learners to interact with the content, helping to facilitate and reinforce learning and transfer of training at a lower cost and time commitment than is involved with complex simulations. However, short simulations do not provide the immersive experience of a longer more complex simulation, which mimics a complex situation or type of equipment (such as a flight simulator for pilots).
Advantages
Simulations allow for highly realistic hands-on practice, and they allow trainees to make mistakes and learn from them without fear of negative repercussions.
Disadvantages
Simulations can be expensive to develop. Further, it may be difficult to fully incorporate identical elements.
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Case Study
In-depth scenario on how employees or an organization dealt with a difficult situation
Trainees are required to analyze and critique the actions taken, indicate appropriate actions, and suggest what should have been done differently
Advantages
useful for developing intellectual skills
engaging for learners
Disadvantages
trainees must be highly motivated and have a degree of expertise
recommendations are merely hypothetical
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Case Studies
A case study is a description about how employees or an organization dealt with a difficult situation. Trainees are required to analyze and critique the actions taken, indicate the appropriate actions, and suggest what might have been done differently. This approach assumes that individuals learn through a process of discovery. Cases are usually appropriate for developing higher-order intellectual skills such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation, which are needed by managers, physicians and many other professionals.
Four types of case studies are common in training contexts:
Illustrative case studies include one or two instances of an event or a concept to provide trainees with information and clarity
Explanatory case studies are those that describe events or phenomena where the results are known and not open to interpretation
Intrinsic case studies focus on a person such as a leader, manager, or patient
Critical instance case studies are those that examine one or more situations to emphasize a point or test an assumption
Advantages
Cases are useful for developing intellectual skills, as noted above, and they are good for engaging learners.
Disadvantages
Learners must be highly motivated and have a degree of expertise. Thus, cases may be not appropriate for all learners. Existing cases have the advantage of being already prepared, but may not actually relate to the specific company or work situation. Trainees’ recommendations are merely hypothetical; it is unknown how they would actually transfer skills.
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Four Types of Case Studies
Illustrative case studies include one or two instances of an event or a concept to provide trainees with information and clarity
Explanatory case studies are those that describe events or phenomena where the results are known and not open to interpretation
Intrinsic case studies focus on a person such as a leader, manager, or patient
Critical instance case studies are those that examine one or more situations to emphasize a point or test an assumption
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Steps in Developing a Case Study
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Steps in Developing a Case Study Long Description
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The following are key steps for developing cases:
Identify a story
Gather information
Prepare a story outline
Decide on administrative issues
Prepare case materials
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Identify a story
Gather information
Prepare a story outline
Decide on administrative issues
Prepare case materials
Business Games (1)
Common characteristics of games:
involve a contest or competition
designed to demonstrate an application of a knowledge or skill
alternative courses of action are available
trainees do not know for certain the consequences of their actions
rules limit participant behavior
Advantages
can be used for training that would otherwise involve risk of accident or high cost
active involvement
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Business Games
Business games require trainees to actively gather information, analyze, and make decisions, typically for the purpose of developing managerial skills. Games are primarily used for management skill development. Games stimulate learning because participants are actively involved and because games mimic the competitive nature of business. Games are also used for developing job-specific skills, such as patient triage and aircraft repair.
Typical games share several characteristics:
The game involves a contest either among trainees, among teams of trainees, or against an established criterion such as time or quantity.
The game is designed to demonstrate an understanding and application of a knowledge, skill, or behavior.
Several alternative courses of action are available to trainees, and trainees can estimate the consequences of each alternative, but only with some uncertainty.
Trainees do not know for certain what the consequences of their actions will be because the consequences are partially based on the decisions of other participants.
Rules limit participant behavior.
To ensure learning and transfer of training, games used in training should be simple enough that trainees can play them in a short period of time. The best games generate excitement among the participants and interest in the game. Meaningfulness of the game is enhanced if it is realistic and if content is relevant to the job. Debriefing from a trainer can help trainees understand the game experience and facilitate learning and transfer.
Advantages
Games are similar to simulations. They can be used for training that would otherwise involve risk of accident or would be too costly. Games actively involve learners.
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Business Games (2)
Disadvantages
difficult to develop
not always realistic
trainees must be motivated
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Disadvantages
Games can be difficult to develop, and they may not always to be realistic. Trainees must be highly motivated.
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Debriefing Business Games
How did the score of the game affect your behavior and the behavior of the team?
What did you learn from the game?
What aspects of the game remind you of situations at work?
How does the game relate to your work?
What did you learn from the game that you plan to use at work?
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The questions below are useful for debriefing business games:
How did the score of the game affect your behavior and the behavior of the team?
What did you learn from the game?
What aspects of the game remind you of situations at work?
How does the game relate to your work?
What did you learn from the game that you plan to use at work?
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Role Plays
Require trainees take on a role, such as a manager or disgruntled employee, and explore what is involved in the role
Often included in programs focused on the development of interpersonal skills
Advantages
allow trainees to practice skills
trainees are engaged
Disadvantages
trainees may not always take role playing seriously
scenarios may not be realistic
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Role Plays
Role plays are a training method that requires the trainees take on a role such as a manager, client, or disgruntled employee, and explore what is involved in the role. Role plays are usually included in training programs focused on the development of interpersonal skills. Role-plays can be completed in small groups of two to three persons in which all trainees complete the role-play, or several trainees can volunteer to role-play while the remaining trainees observe them.
Advantages
Role plays allow trainees to practice skills and be engaged.
Disadvantages
Trainees may not always take role playing seriously. Role playing scenarios may not always be realistic.
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Enhancing Role Plays
Explain the background and context
Provide a script with sufficient detail
Arrange the room so other trainees can see
Provide observation sheets and checklists that highlight key issues
Provide sufficient time to debrief and provide feedback
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Role plays need to be structured to be most effective.
Provide background on the context and purpose of the role play.
Provide a script with sufficient detail for the trainees to follow.
Arrange the room so other trainees can see the role players.
Provide observation sheets and checklists that highlight the key issues of the role play.
Provide sufficient time to debrief and provide feedback.
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Behavior Modelling
Hands-on method that involves presenting to trainees a model, highlighting the key aspects of the model, practice, and feedback
Based on social learning theory
Advantages
hands-on practice
highly effective in promoting transfer
Disadvantages
potentially time consuming to implement
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Behavior Modeling
Behavior modeling is a hands-on method that involves presenting to trainees a model, highlighting the key behaviors and aspects of the model, allowing trainees to practice, and then providing feedback. Behavior modeling is based on social learning theory. Social learning theory emphasizes that individuals learn by observing models of behavior, emulating such behavior, and then receiving reinforcement and rewards. Learning new skills results from directly experiencing the consequences of using a skill, as well as observing others and seeing the consequences of their behavior. Behavior modeling is appropriate for learning skills and behaviors and is very effective for teaching interpersonal skills.
Developing behavior modeling training involves determining what tasks need to be addressed and what key behaviors are necessary to complete the task. A key behavior is one of a set of behaviors that is needed to perform a task. Key behaviors for interpersonal skills are not exact behaviors, but rather general behaviors that are useful across situations.
The most effective practice sessions allow trainees to practice key behaviors multiple times risk-free with other trainees who understand the company and the job. The trainer and peers should provide feedback. Practice sessions may also be videotaped to allow trainees to observe themselves.
Behavior modeling helps ensure that transfer of training occurs by using application planning. Application planning is the process for preparing trainees to transfer the key behaviors back to the job. It involves the trainee preparing a written document specifying situations in which they should use the key behaviors.
Advantages
Behavior modeling involves hands-on practice and is highly effective in promoting transfer.
Disadvantages
Behavioral modeling is potentially time-consuming to implement.
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Effective Modelling Displays
Clear presentation of the key behaviors
A model that is credible to trainees
An overview of the behaviors
Repetition of each behavior
A review of the behaviors
Models using the behaviors correctly and incorrectly
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Effective modeling displays include:
clear presentation of the key behaviors
a model that is credible to trainees
an overview of the key behaviors
repetition of each key behavior
a review of the key behaviors
models using the key behaviors both correctly and incorrectly
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Adventure Learning
Method aimed at developing teamwork, leadership skills, and
Exercises must be related to a specific learning objective
Advantages
trainees interact and build relationships
can be self-enlightening and invigorating
Disadvantages
potential physical harm
costly
not all trainees may be motivated
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Group Building Methods
Group building methods are those designed to improve work team or group effectiveness. These methods involve trainees sharing ideas and experiences, building group identity, generating an understanding of interpersonal dynamics, and getting to know the strengths and weaknesses of themselves and their teammates.
Group building methods often involve experiential learning. Experiential learning training programs have four stages:
gaining conceptual knowledge and theory
taking part in a behavioral simulation
analyzing the activity
connecting theory and the activity with on-the-job or real-life situations
Adventure Learning
Adventure learning is a training delivery method aimed at developing teamwork, leadership skills, self-awareness, problem solving, and conflict management skills. The activities range from highly strenuous and challenging ones, such as dog sledding or mountain climbing, to less physically challenging ones, such as rope courses, trust falls, and simulated high-level activities.
To be successful, adventure learning exercises must be related to a specific learning objective. After exercises, the facilitator should lead a discussion about what was learned, how events in the exercise relate to the job situation, and how to apply what was learned on the job.
Advantages
Adventure learning provides an opportunity for trainees to interact and build relationships with coworkers in a more informal situation. The exercises can serve as “metaphors” for organizational events and individual behavior. The exercises can be self-enlightening, invigorating, and self-esteem enhancing.
Disadvantages
Because adventure learning may be physically demanding and risky, the company may open itself up to negligence claims due to personal injury or emotional distress. These activities are often costly, and not all trainees may be motivated to participate. Adventure learning may not result in high levels of transfer.
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Team Training
Three key aspects of team performance
Behavior—teams must communicate, coordinate, adapt, and complete complex tasks
Knowledge—teams must have “mental models” that allow them to function effectively
Attitudes—members must have favorable attitudes toward each other
Advantages
when properly designed, results in more effective teams
Disadvantages
potentially costly
time consuming
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Team Training
Team training refers to training that is designed to improve team effectiveness. There are three key aspects of team performance—behavior, knowledge, and attitudes—that are the focus of team training.
behavior—teams must perform actions that allow them to communicate, coordinate, adapt, and complete complex tasks
knowledge—teams must have “mental models” or memory structures that allow them to function effectively
attitudes—effective teams require that members have favorable attitudes toward each other
Advantages
When properly designed, team training generally results in more effective teams.
Disadvantages
Effective team training is potentially costly and time-consuming.
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The Structure of Team Training
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The Structure of Team Training Long Description
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Figure 7.4-page 311 Main elements of the structure of team training
There are five primary strategies for team training:
cross-training—developing understanding among team members of each other’s tasks and skills so that each member could perform the work of others
coordination training—involves training the team how to share information and make decisions
team leader training—training for the team manager or facilitator, which may involve how to resolve conflict and how to help the team coordinate activities and resources
scenario-based training—training that places team members in a realistic context while learning
guided team self-correction—training that emphasizes continuous learning and knowledge sharing
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Action Learning
Involves assigning teams an actual problem, committing to an action plan, and holding them accountable
Used to solve important problems, develop leaders, build teams, and transform organizational cultures
Advantages
highly interactive and engaging
highly effective in developing the target skills and promoting transfer
Disadvantages
requires trainees with a high level of ability
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Action Learning
Action learning gives teams an actual problem, has them work on solving it, commit to an action plan, and holds them accountable. Companies use action learning to solve important problems, develop leaders, build high performance work teams, and transform organizational culture. Several types of problems are typically addressed, including how to change the business, better use technology, enhance customer service, and develop global leaders. Action learning typically involves teams of six to thirty employees.
Six Sigma and Kaizen training programs involve principles of action learning. Six Sigma is a data-driven approach and methodology for eliminating defects in any process, from manufacturing to transactional and from product to service. Kaizen, the Japanese word for improvement, is one of the underlying principles of lean manufacturing and total quality management. Kaizen refers to practices participated in by employees from all levels of the company that focus on continuous improvement. Learners attend training over a period of many weeks, complete application assignments, and apply what they’ve learned on the job. Trainees focus on specific work-related projects. Once trained, employees can train other employees and give advice and recommendations to management.
Advantages
Action learning is highly interactive and potentially very engaging. It is also highly effective in developing the target skills and promoting transfer.
Disadvantages
Action learning requires trainees with a high level of skill and ability. This is not necessarily a bad thing, but requires careful attention being paid to those who are involved.
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Choosing a Method
A variety of considerations should be taken into account
The learning outcome (which is most important)
The learning environment
Transfer of training considerations
Cost
Overall effectiveness
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Choosing a Training Method
Selecting the most appropriate training methods is not necessarily straightforward. A variety of considerations should be taken into account. Such considerations include:
The learning outcome, which is the most important consideration
The learning environment
Transfer of training considerations
Cost
Overall effectiveness
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General Trends
There is considerable overlap in learning outcomes across methods
Hands-on methods are more effective than presentation methods
Presentation methods are less expensive
Where possible, use multiple methods to capitalize on the strengths of each
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The following trends can be noted from the matrix for choosing training methods:
There is considerable overlap between learning outcomes across the various training methods.
Most of the hands-on methods provide a better environment for learning and transfer than the presentation methods, which are more passive.
The presentation methods are less expensive than hands-on methods.
If possible, trainers should use several different methods within a single training program to capitalize on the different strengths of each method for facilitating learning and transfer.
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