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Noe9e_PPT_ch04_accessible.JBritoedited.pptxChapter 4 Learning & Transfer of Training
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Chapter 4
Learning & Transfer of Training
This chapter discusses theories of learning and transfer of training. Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in human capabilities, and transfer of training refers to trainees applying what they have learned on the job. A fundamental premise of this chapter is that learning is a complex process and that a variety of factors may help or hinder the successful application of trained skills. A number of theories and frameworks of learning and transfer are presented along with their implications for practice. With an understanding of the principles discussed in this chapter, those responsible for training will be better able to design, deliver, and support learning efforts to help ensure their benefits are realized.
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Objectives
Discuss the five types of learner outcomes
Explain the implications of learning theory for instructional design
Incorporate adult learning theory into the design of a training program
Describe how learners receive, process, store, retrieve, and act upon information
Discuss the internal conditions (within the learner) and external conditions (learning environment) necessary for the trainee to learn each type of capability
Discuss the implications of open and closed skills and near and far transfer for designing training programs
Explain the features of instruction and the work environment that are necessary for learning and transfer of training
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Learning & Transfer
Both learning and transfer are necessary for training effectiveness
Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in human capabilities
Transfer refers to trainees applying what they have learned to their jobs
Generalization is applying what was learned to situations that are similar but not identical to those in training
Maintenance is the continued use of what was learned over time
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Introduction
Many companies are using innovative instructional methods to make training more interesting and accessible to help trainees learn and apply it to their work. Regardless of the training content, a number of conditions must be present for learning to occur and for employees to use what they learned on the job. The following are particularly important:
providing opportunities for trainees to practice and receive feedback
offering meaningful training content
identifying any prerequisites that trainees need to complete the program successfully
allowing trainees to learn through observation and experience
ensuring that the work environment, including managers and peers, support learning and use of skills on the job
In order for training to be effective, both learning and transfer are needed.
Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in human capabilities that can include knowledge, skills, attitudes, behaviors, and competencies.
Transfer refers to trainees effectively and continually applying what they have learned in training to their jobs. There are two important goals for transfer—generalization and maintenance. Generalization refers to a trainee’s ability to apply what was learned to situations that are similar but not necessarily identical to those encountered during training. Maintenance refers to the process of trainees continuing to use what they learned over time.
Effective learning and transfer require that consideration be paid to trainee characteristics, training design, and characteristics of the work environment.
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Multiple Learning Outcomes
Verbal Information
specialized knowledge, including names, labels, facts, and bodies of knowledge
Intellectual Skills
concepts and rules critical to solve problems, serve customers, and create products
Motor Skills
coordination of physical movements
Attitudes
beliefs and feelings that predispose a person to behave in a certain way
Cognitive Strategies
strategies that regulate thinking and learning
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What Is Learning? What Is Learned?
Understanding learning outcomes is important because they influence characteristics of the learning environment that are necessary for learning to occur. Specific learning outcomes include:
verbal information: specialized knowledge, including names, labels, facts, and bodies of knowledge
intellectual skills: concepts and rules critical to solve problems, serve customers, and create products
motor skills: coordination of physical movements
attitudes: beliefs and feelings that predispose a person to behave in a certain way
cognitive strategies: strategies that regulate thinking and learning; they relate to decisions regarding what information to attend to, how to remember, and how to solve problems
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Learning Theories
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Learning Theories Long Description
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Reinforcement Theory
Social Learning Theory
Goal Theories
Need Theories
Expectancy Theory
Adult Learning Theory
Information Processing Theory
Reinforcement Theory
Individuals are motivated to perform or avoid behaviors because of past outcomes of behavior
Trainers need to identify what outcomes learners find most positive and negative and then link these outcomes to acquiring new knowledge and skills
Positive reinforcement is adding a desirable outcome following desirable behavior
Negative reinforcement is removing an unpleasant outcome following desirable behavior
Punishment (positive punishment) is adding an unpleasant outcome following undesirable behavior
Extinction (negative punishment) is removing a desirable outcome following undesirable behavior
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Reinforcement Theory
The basic premise of reinforcement theory is that individuals are motivated to perform or avoid behaviors because of past outcomes of behavior. In other words, behavior is controlled by its consequences. Behavior modification is primarily based on reinforcement theory.
Positive reinforcement is adding a desirable outcome following desirable behavior
Negative reinforcement is removing an unpleasant outcome following desirable behavior
Punishment (positive punishment) is adding an unpleasant outcome following undesirable behavior
Extinction (negative punishment) is removing a desirable outcome following undesirable behavior
Reinforcement theory suggests that trainers need to identify what outcomes learners find most positive and negative and then link these outcomes to learners acquiring new knowledge and skills.
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Social Learning Theory
Individuals learn by observing models of behavior, emulating behavior, and receiving reinforcement and rewards
Learning results from directly experiencing the consequences of using a skill, observing others, and seeing the consequences of their behavior
Attention
Retention
Motor reproduction
Motivational processes
Self-Efficacy is Important
Self-efficacy reflects an individual’s belief that he/she can successfully learn knowledge and skills
Self-efficacy can be increased through:
verbal persuasion
logical verification
modeling
past accomplishment
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Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory emphasizes that individuals learn by observing models of behavior, emulating such behavior, and then receiving reinforcement and rewards. Learning new skills results from directly experiencing the consequences of using a skill, as well as observing others and seeing the consequences of their behavior.
Learning is also influenced by self-efficacy, which is an individual’s belief that he/she can successfully learn knowledge and skills. Self-efficacy can be increased several ways:
verbal persuasion: offering words of encouragement to convince individuals they are capable of learning
logical verification: creating a perceived relationship between a new task and a task already mastered
modeling: showing individuals how to successfully perform a task
past accomplishment: letting trainees build a history of successful accomplishments
Social learning theory specifies four processes involved in learning—attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivational processes.
attention: learners must be aware of the important aspects of performance as demonstrated by the trainer
retention: learners must be able to code the desire behavior in memory
motor reproduction: learners must practice desired behavior
motivational processes: learners must receive positive reinforcement for desired behaviors to continue
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Goal Orientation
Learning orientation relates to trying to increase ability and competence in a task
People with a learning orientation view mistakes as useful for learning
Performance orientation refers to a desire to look good in comparison to others
Individuals with a performance orientation avoid mistakes because they do not want to appear foolish
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Goal Theories
Goal setting theories suggest that behavior results from a person’s conscious goals and intentions. Goals influence behavior by directing energy and attention, sustaining effort over time, and motivating the person to develop strategies for goal attainment. In training, goal setting theory suggests that learning can be effectively facilitated by setting specific, challenging goals.
Goal orientation refers to the goals held by a trainee in a learning situation. Goal orientation can include learning orientation and performance orientation.
Learning orientation relates to trying to increase ability or competence in a task. People with a learning orientation believe that training success is defined as showing improvement and making progress, prefer trainers who are more interested in how trainees are learning than in how they are performing, and view errors and mistakes as part of the learning process.
Performance orientation refers to learners who focus on task performance and how they compare to others. Persons with a performance orientation define success as high performance relative to others, value high ability more than learning, and find that errors and mistakes cause anxiety and want to avoid them.
Learners with a high learning orientation will direct greater attention to the task and learn for the sake of learning, as opposed to learners with a performance orientation. Learners with a performance orientation will direct more attention to performing well and less effort to learning.
Trainers should strive to promote a learning orientation among trainees. Accordingly, they should set goals around learning and experimenting with new ways of having trainees perform trained tasks. They should also deemphasize competition among trainees, create a community of learning, and allow trainees to make errors. When trainees make mistakes, trainers should provide constructive feedback and avoid making trainees look incompetent.
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Promoting a Learning Orientation
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Promoting a Learning Orientation Long Description
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Set goals around learning and experimenting
Deemphasize competition
Create a community of learning
Provide constructive feedback
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
self-actualization needs
esteem needs
social needs
safety needs
physiological needs
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Need Theories
Need theories help explain the value that a person places on certain outcomes. A need is a deficiency that a person is experiencing at a given point in time. A need motivates a person to behave in a manner to satisfy the deficiency. Need theories help to explain the value that a person places on outcomes.
Maslow’s model includes five needs—physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization. According to this model, trainees must satisfy lower level basic needs before progressing on to meet higher level growth needs.
physiological needs: air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sleep
safety needs: protection from elements, security, stability, freedom from fear
social needs: friendship, intimacy, affection, and love
esteem needs: achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, self-respect, respect from others
self-actualization needs: realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment
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Alderfer’s Theory
Existence
physical needs such as food, clothing, and shelter
Relatedness
interpersonal needs in personal and professional settings
Growth
needs for personal development
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Alderfer’s model includes three needs—existence, relatedness, growth.
existence: relates to a person's physical needs such as food, clothing, and shelter
relatedness: relates to a person's interpersonal needs within his personal as well as professional settings
growth: relates to a person's needs of personal development
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McClelland’s Theory
Need for achievement
need to achieve challenging goals, prove something, and recognition
Need for power
need to dominate and influence others
Need for affiliation
need to be a part of something and a desire for social relationships
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McClelland’s need theory focuses primarily on the needs for achievement, affiliation and power, all of which can be learned.
need for achievement: these people need to achieve challenging goals, need to prove something, and seek recognition
need for power: these people have a need to dominate, influence others, and have power over them
need for affiliation: these people need to be a part of something and highly desire social relationships
Need theories suggest that to motivate learning, trainers should attempt to understand learners’ needs, explain how the training will help them meet their needs, and adapt training to meet their needs. Another implication is providing employees with a choice of training programs to attend. Giving employees a choice of which training course to attend can increase their motivation to learn because trainees are able to choose programs that best match their needs.
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Implications of Needs Theories
Trainers should attempt to understand learners’ needs, explain how training will meet needs, and adapt training
If certain basic needs are not met, motivation may suffer
However, training should not necessarily attempt to meet all needs
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Expectancy Theory Implications
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Expectancy Theory Implications Long Description
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Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory suggests that behavior is based on three factors—expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.
Expectancy beliefs relate to whether an individual believes he or she can perform a specific behavior. These beliefs are related to self-efficacy.
Valence is the value that individuals placed on an outcome or reward.
Instrumentality relates to beliefs whether performing will result in a particular outcome. Will individuals receive something valued if they perform well?
Based on this model, trainers should: 1) ensure that trainees are confident in their ability to learn and perform (expectancy); 2) provide and communicate valued rewards (valence); and 3) ensure that valued rewards are receive if trainees successfully learn and transfer (instrumentality).
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Expectancy beliefs relate to whether an individual believes he or she can perform a specific behavior
Valence is the value that individuals placed on an outcome or reward
Instrumentality relates to beliefs whether performing will result in a particular outcome
Adult Learning Theory
Adults have the need to know “why”
Adults have a need to be self-directed
Adults bring more work-related experiences to the learning situation
Adults enter a learning experience with a problem-centered approach
Adults are extrinsically and intrinsically motivated
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Adult Learning Theory
Adult learning theory, also called andragogy, is a theory or model of how adults learn. The theory is based on the following assumptions:
Adults have the need to know why they are learning something.
Adults have a need to be self-directed.
Adults bring more work-related experiences into the learning situation.
Adults enter into a learning experience with a problem-centered approach to learning.
Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.
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Adult Theory Implications
Mutual planning and collaboration
Use learner experiences for examples and applications
Develop instruction based on learners’ interests and competencies
Provide opportunities for application
Ensure training is problem centered
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There are several implications for training based on this theory.
Mutually plan and collaborate in instruction
Use learner experiences as a basis for examples and applications
Develop instruction based on learners’ interests and competencies
Provide opportunities for immediate application
Ensure training is problem centered v. subject centered
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Information Processing Theory
Information processing theory proposes that information taken in by the learner undergoes several transformations in the brain
A message is received by the senses, is registered, stored in short-term memory, transformed to long-term memory, and a response to the message is organized
The final link in the model is feedback from the environment
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Information Processing Theory
Information processing theory places greater emphasis on the internal processes that occur when training content is learned and retained. The theory proposes that information taken in by the learner undergoes several transformations in the brain. A message is received by the senses, is registered, stored in short-term memory, transformed to long-term memory, and a response to the message is organized. The final link in the model is feedback from the environment.
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Information Processing Theory Model
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Information Processing Theory Model Long Description
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This model highlights how external events, such as the following, influence learning.
Changes in the intensity or frequency of the stimulus affect attention
Informing the learner of the objectives to establish an expectation
Enhancing perceptual features of the material (stimulus) draws the attention of the learner to certain features
Verbal instructions, pictures, diagrams, and maps suggest ways to code the training content so that it can be stored in memory
Meaningful learning context creates cues that facilitate coding
Demonstration or verbal instructions help organize the learner’s response and facilitate the selection of the correct response
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Closed vs. Open Skills
Transfer can be enhanced by understanding the type of skill
Closed Skills
Involve responding to predictable situations with standardized responses
Open Skills
Involve responding to variable situations with adaptive responses
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Transfer of Training Theory
Closed vs. Open Skills
A distinction needs to be made between closed skills and open skills. Performing a closed skill involves responding to predictable situations with standardized responses. In contrast, performing an open skill involves responding to variable situations with adaptive, tailored responses. There is a one best way to perform closed skills; whereas there are multiple ways to perform open skills that are contingent upon the situation at hand. Examples of closed skills include preparing food in a fast food restaurant, cleaning a hotel room, filling out a report, and checking in an air-line passenger. Examples of open skills include facilitating discussions in a training session, performing a role in a stage play, motivating employees, and responding to difficult customers.
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Promoting Transfer for Closed Skills
Provide detailed checklists to follow
Provide high-fidelity practice
Shape favorable attitudes toward compliance
Reward compliance
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Means to promote transfer for closed skills involve providing detailed checklists to follow, providing high-fidelity practice, shaping favorable attitudes toward compliance, and rewarding compliance.
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Promoting Transfer for Open Skills
Teach general principles
Shape favorable attitudes toward experimentation
Allow trainees to make mistakes without fear of punishment
Provide rewards for experimentation
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Means to promote transfer for open skills include teaching general principles, shaping favorable attitudes toward experimentation, allowing trainees to make mistakes without fear of punishment, and providing rewards for experimentation.
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Theory of Identical Elements
Transfer will be maximized when the tasks, materials, and equipment in training are similar to the work environment
Identical elements are particularly important for promoting near transfer, applying learned capabilities exactly to the work situation
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Theory of Identical Elements
The theory of identical elements proposes that transfer is maximized when what is being learned is identical to what the trainee has to perform on the job. Transfer will be maximized when the tasks, materials, equipment, and other conditions in training are similar to those encountered in the work environment. Identical elements are particularly important for promoting near transfer. Near transfer refers to trainees’ ability to apply learned capabilities exactly to the work situation. Identical elements are particularly important for closed skills.
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Stimulus Generalization Approach
Transfer is enhanced when the most important features, or general principles, are emphasized during training
The stimulus generalization approach is appropriate to promote far transfer, applying learned capabilities to the work environment when it is not identical to training
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Stimulus Generalization Approach
The stimulus generalization approach suggests that the best way to promote transfer is to emphasize the most important features, or general principles, during training. It is also important to identify the range of work situations in which these general principles can be applied. The stimulus generalization approach is particularly important to promote far transfer. Far transfer refers to a trainee’s ability to apply learned capabilities to the work environment when it is not identical to that of the training session. The stimulus generalization approach is appropriate for open skills.
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Cognitive Theory of Transfer
Transfer depends on a trainee’s ability to retrieve learned capabilities
Meaningful material and coding schemes enhance storage and recall of training
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Cognitive Theory of Transfer
This theory is based on information processing theory discussed earlier. This theory proposes that the likelihood of transfer depends on a trainee’s ability to retrieve learned capabilities. The likelihood of transfer is increased by providing trainees with meaningful material that enhances the chances that they will link what they encounter in the work environment to the learned capability. It is also important to provide trainees with cognitive strategies for encoding learned capabilities in memory so they are readily retrieved.
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Mental & Physical Processes
Learning depends on the learner’s cognitive processes, organizing the content in a mental representation, and relating the content to existing knowledge from long-term memory
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Mental & Physical Processes Long Description
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The Learning Process
Mental and Physical Processes
Learning depends on the learner’s cognitive processes, organizing the content in a mental representation, and relating the content to existing knowledge from long-term memory.
From this perspective, learning is a function of eight processes:
expectancy: the mental state that the learner brings to the instructional process
perception: the ability to organize the message from the environment so it can be processed and acted upon
working storage: rehearsal and repetition so material can be coded for memory
semantic encoding: the actual coding process of incoming messages
long-term storage: learning content residing in long-term storage
retrieval: identifying learned material in long-term memory and using it to influence performance
generalizing: being able to adapt learning for use in similar situations
gratifying: feedback the learner receives as a result of using learning content
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expectancy
perception
working storage
semantic encoding
long-term storage
retrieval
generalizing
gratifying
Learning Strategies
Different learning strategies influence how training content is coded
Rehearsal
learning through repetition
Organizing
finding similarities and themes
Elaboration
relating the material to other more familiar knowledge
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Different learning strategies influence how training content is coded—rehearsal, organizing, and elaboration:
rehearsal: learning through repetition
organizing: finding similarities and themes in the training material
elaboration: relating the material to other more familiar knowledge
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The Learning Cycle
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The Learning Cycle Long Description
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The Learning Cycle
Several models of learning styles have been proposed. Some suggest that trainees will learn best if instruction matches how they like to learn (e.g., visual, through movement, hearing). Others suggest that learning involves stages or cycles.
Trainees tend to overemphasize one stage or another, and to become effective learners, they need to develop strengths in each of the stages. For example, one model suggests learning involves four stages: concrete experience (e.g., encountering a work problem), reflection (thinking about the problem), abstract conceptualization (generating ideas how to solve the problem), and active experimentation (implementing the ideas). Implementing the ideas provides feedback as to their effectiveness so the learner can see the results and start the learning process over again.
Conventional wisdom suggests that instruction needs to match the trainees' learning style or force them to engage in all stages. In fact, there is little to no evidence supporting that matching instruction to trainees' learning style enhances learning and transfer of training.
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Employees Need to Know the Objectives
An objective may have three components
what the learner is expected to do or know
quality or level of acceptable performance
conditions under which the learner is expected to perform
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Implications of the Learning Process and Transfer of Training for Instruction
Based on the theories presented throughout this chapter, there are several implications for instruction. Instruction refers to the trainer’s manipulation of the environment in order to help trainees learn.
Employees need to know the objectives
Objectives refer to the purpose and expected outcomes of the training activities. Individuals learn best when they understand the training objectives. An objective may have three components:
A statement of what the employee is expected to do (performance or outcome)
A statement of the quality or level of performance that is acceptable (criterion)
A statement of the conditions under which the trainee is expected to perform the desired outcome (conditions)
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Employees Need Meaningful Content
Content should be linked to current job experiences and tasks that have meaning
Material should be presented using familiar concepts, terms, and examples
Content should be aligned with personal and professional goals
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Employees need meaningful training content
Employees are more likely to learn when the training is linked to current job experiences and tasks that have meaning for them. To enhance meaningfulness, the following strategies might be useful:
Telling stories about others’ success in applying training content, especially former trainees
Relating training content to what trainees already know about their jobs
Showing how training relates to company goals and strategy
Showing how trainees can use training content ideas at work
Discussing examples or cases that remind trainees of the good and poor work they have seen
Repeating the application of ideas in different contexts
Presenting evidence that what they will learn during training is what high-performing employees use in their jobs
Showing how the conditions that trainees face in training are similar to those on the job
Providing practice or application activities that can be used on the job
Providing hard copies or electronic access to well-organized materials so trainees can refer to them on the job or use them to teach others
Allowing trainees to choose their practice strategy and how they want training content presented
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Employees Need Opportunities for Practice
Practice should:
involve the trainee actively
include overlearning
take the appropriate amount of time
include the appropriate unit of learning
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Employees need opportunities to practice
For practice to be effective, it needs to involve the trainee actively, include overlearning (repeated practice), take the appropriate amount of time, and include the appropriate unit of learning. It is best to provide a variety of examples and practice, rather than all practice.
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Employees Need a Number of Pre-practice Conditions
Provide strategies that will result in the greatest learning
Encourage trainees to reflect
Provide advanced organizers
Help trainees set challenging learning goals
Create realistic expectations for trainees
For training in teams, clarify roles and responsibilities
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Employees need a number of pre-practice conditions
There are a number of steps trainers can take at the beginning of training to enhance trainees’ motivation to learn and facilitate retention of training content.
Provide information about the process or strategy that will result in the greatest learning
Encourage trainees to reflect on their own learning, which is known as meta-cognition
Provide advanced organizers—outlines, texts, diagrams, and graphs
Help trainees set challenging learning goals
Create realistic expectations for trainees
For training in teams, clarify roles and responsibilities for different members
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Employees Need Practice Involving Experience
Learners need practice involving direct experience
Overlearning is needed
Incorporate errors in the learning process
… and teach individuals how to learn from them
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Employees need practice involving experience
Learning will not occur if employees practice only by talking about what they are expected to do. They need direct practice and overlearning. Overlearning involves continuing to practice the new skill or behavior beyond the point at which the learner has demonstrated proficiency more than once. This maximizes the likelihood of transfer.
Errors are also useful for learning, and therefore, trainers should provide error management training. Error management training refers to giving trainees the opportunities to make errors during training and then focusing on why the errors occurred and how to overcome them in the future. It is important to note that allowing trainees simply to make errors does not help learning. For errors to have a positive influence on learning, trainees need to be taught to use errors as a chance to learn.
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Massed vs. Spaced Practice
Massed practice involves practicing continuously without rest
With spaced practice, individuals are given rest intervals within the practice session
In general, spaced practice is superior
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Massed vs. spaced practice
Massed practice conditions are those in which individuals practice a task continuously without rest. In spaced practice conditions, individuals are given rest intervals within the practice session. Spaced practice is superior to massed practice in general. However, the difference in effectiveness of massed versus spaced practice varies by the characteristics of the task.
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Whole vs. Part Practice
Whole practice involves focusing on all tasks at the same time
Part practice involves practicing each component as soon as it is introduced in training
Trainers should incorporate both types
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Whole vs. part practice
One option with practice is focusing on all tasks at the same time (whole practice). Another option is practicing each component as soon as it is introduced in a training program (part practice). It is probably best to employ both whole and part practice.
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Employees Need to Commit Training Content to Memory
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Employees Need to Commit Training Content to Memory Long Description
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Employees need to commit training content to memory
There are several ways trainers can help employees commit training content to memory.
Help them understand how they learn
Emphasize important points and eliminate irrelevant content
Use a concept map to show relationships among ideas
Teach key words, provide a procedure, sequence, or visual image
Encourage trainees to take notes and engage in reflection
Have trainees engage in overlearning
Provide rest breaks during training
Use quizzes or boosters
Break courses into small chunks of learning using modules or microlearning
Have trainees complete pre-training work
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Help them understand how they learn
Emphasize important points and eliminate irrelevant content
Use a concept map to show relationships among ideas
Teach key words, provide a procedure, sequence, or visual image
Encourage trainees to take notes and engage in reflection
Have trainees engage in overlearning
Provide rest breaks during training
Use quizzes or boosters
Break courses into small chunks of learning using modules or microlearning
Have trainees complete pre-training work
Boosters
Boosters refer to retrieval opportunities that help the learner’s brain consider training information as important and help retain it
Boosters can include short multiple choice, short-answer quizzes, or other activities that require learners to retrieve what they have learned from long-term memory
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Another way to help employees commit to memory what they learned is through reflection. Reflection involves having trainees spend a short amount of time such as fifteen minutes, reviewing and writing about what they learned and how they performed.
To help ensure that trainees help retain the knowledge, skill, and behavior or other training content they need to engage in overlearning.
Overlearning refers to reviewing and practicing multiple times to help insure training content is stored in long-term memory.
Overlearning also helps automatization with a task. Automatization refers to making performance of a task, recall of knowledge, or demonstration of a skill so automatic that it requires little thought or attention.
Boosters refer to retrieval opportunities that can help the learner’s brain consider training information as important and help retain it. Boosters can include short multiple choice, short-answer quizzes, or other activities that require learners to retrieve what they have learned from long-term memory.
Research suggests that no more than four or five items can be attended to at one time. If a lengthy process or procedure is to be taught, instruction needs to be delivered in relatively small chunks or short sessions in order to not exceed memory limits.
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Microlearning
Microlearning refers to training delivered in small pieces or chunks to engage trainees, motivate them to learn, and help facilitate retention
Chunks of learning are presented using videos or games spanning 5 to 8 minutes
Used to replaced longer training and to supplement formal training
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Microlearning refers to training delivered in small pieces or chunks designed to engage trainees, motivate them to learn, and help facilitate retention. The chunks of learning are presented using videos or games that are typically five to eight minutes long. Microlearning is used to replace longer training courses with one or several short courses. It is also being used to reinforce or supplement formal training (send quizzes after training, share short pieces of training content before the program to generate excitement), and create just-in-time learning content.
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Employees Need Feedback
Feedback should be specific and should follow the behavior as closely as possible
Feedback can come from a variety of sources, such as through interpersonal interactions, video recordings, tests and quizzes, on-the-job observation, and performance data
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Employees need feedback
Employees need feedback about how well they are meeting training objectives. The feedback should be specific and should follow the behavior as closely as possible. Feedback can come from a variety of sources, such as through interpersonal interactions, video recordings, tests and quizzes, on-the-job observation, and performance data.
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Employees Learn Through Observation, Experience, & Interaction
Individuals learn through observation and imitating the actions of models
Trainers should promote three key types of interaction:
Learner-content
Learner-instructor
Learner-learner
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Employees need feedback
Employees need feedback about how well they are meeting training objectives. The feedback should be specific and should follow the behavior as closely as possible. Feedback can come from a variety of sources, such as through interpersonal interactions, video recordings, tests and quizzes, on-the-job observation, and performance data.
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Employees Need the Training Program to be Properly Coordinated and Arranged
Training administration is important
Communicate courses to employees
Prepare instructional materials
Arrange the training facility and room
Test equipment that will be used
Provide support during instruction
Distribute evaluation materials
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Employees need feedback
Employees need feedback about how well they are meeting training objectives. The feedback should be specific and should follow the behavior as closely as possible. Feedback can come from a variety of sources, such as through interpersonal interactions, video recordings, tests and quizzes, on-the-job observation, and performance data.
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Encourage Trainee Responsibility & Self-management
Self-management refers to a person’s attempt to control aspects of decision making and behavior
Self-management training involves setting goals to use skills on the job, identifying obstacles and ways to overcome them, and self-administering rewards
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Encourage trainee responsibility and self-management
Trainees need to take responsibility for learning and transfer, which includes being involved and engaged during training and using content back on the job. Self-management training may help promote taking responsibility. Self-management refers to a person’s attempt to control certain aspects of decision making and behavior. Self-management training involves setting goals to use skills on the job, identifying obstacles that might hinder transfer and ways to overcome them, and self-administering rewards.
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Ensure a Supportive Work Environment
Characteristics of a positive climate for transfer include:
Supervisors and coworkers encourage transfer
Task cues to use new skills
Lack of punishment for using new skills
Extrinsic reinforcement consequences
Intrinsic reinforcement consequences
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Ensure that the work environment supports learning and transfer
A number of obstacles in the work environment can inhibit learning and transfer—obstacle work conditions, lack of peer support, and lack of management support.
obstacle work conditions: time pressures, inadequate equipment, few opportunities to use skills, inadequate budget
lack of peer support; peers discourage use of new knowledge and skills, are unwilling to provide feedback, and see training as a waste of time
lack of management support: management opposes the ideas presented in training, does not discuss training opportunities, is unwilling to provide practice and feedback
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Consider Both Internal & External Conditions
Internal conditions are processes within the learner that are necessary for learning
External conditions are processes in the learning environment that are necessary for learning
External conditions should directly influence forms of instruction, and they should be designed to facilitate the internal conditions
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Instructional Emphasis for Learning Outcomes
It is important to understand the difference between internal and external learning conditions. Internal conditions are processes within the learner that are necessary for learning to occur. These processes include how information is processed, stored in memory, and recalled. External conditions are processes in the learning environment that are necessary for learning to occur. These conditions include the physical learning environment and opportunities for practice and feedback. The external conditions should directly influence forms of instruction, and they should be designed to facilitate the internal conditions for learning to occur. One size does not fit all. Different internal and external conditions are necessary to facilitate different learning outcomes.
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