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Essentials of Psychology: Concepts and Applications, 6e Chapter 11: Personality

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Icebreaker: Is There An Unconscious Reality?

Each student is asked to reflect upon the following questions to begin thinking about concepts related to personality.

Can you identify behaviors or experiences that seem to support the existence of the unconscious or of unconscious motivation?

How can psychologists determine if these behaviors or experiences are truly the product of the unconscious or unconscious motivation?

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Chapter Objectives (1 of 3)

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

11.01 Define the concept of personality.

11.02 Identify and describe the three levels of consciousness and three structures of personality in Freud’s psychoanalytic theory.

11.03 Identify and describe the stages in Freud’s theory of psychosexual development.

11.04 Describe the personality theories of Jung, Adler, and Horney.

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Chapter Objectives (2 of 3)

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

11.05 Describe the trait theories of Allport, Cattell, Eysenck, and the Big Five Model.

11.06 Evaluate the genetic basis of personality traits.

11.07 Describe the social-cognitive theories of Rotter, Bandura, and Mischel.

11.08 Describe the self-theory of humanistic theorist Carl Rogers.

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Chapter Objectives (3 of 3)

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

11.09 Explain the difference between the concepts of self in collectivistic and individualistic cultures.

11.10 Apply suggestions for enhancing self-esteem.

11.11 Identify the two major types of personality tests, describe their features, and evaluate self-report and projective personality tests.

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Module 11.1

The Psychodynamic Perspective

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Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory (1 of 9)

Personality refers to the relatively stable set of psychological characteristics and behavior patterns that make individuals unique and that account for the consistency of their behavior over time.

Sigmund Freud was the architect of the first major theory of personality, psychoanalytic theory.

Psychoanalytic theory holds that personality and behavior are shaped by unconscious forces and conflicts.

Freud’s theory of personality is complex, but there are four major concepts: levels of consciousness, structure of personality, defense mechanisms, and stages of psychosexual development.

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Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory (2 of 9)

Freud represented the mind as consisting of three levels of consciousness:

The conscious, the part of the mind corresponding to the state of present awareness.

The preconscious, the part of the mind whose contents can be brought into awareness through focused attention.

The unconscious, the part of the mind that lies outside the range of ordinary awareness and that holds troubling or unacceptable urges, impulses, memories, and ideas.

Freud believed much of the contents of the mind reside in the unconscious, and therefore we are unaware of our deepest wishes, ideas, and urges.

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Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory (3 of 9)

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Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory (4 of 9)

Freud proposed that personality consists of three mental entities: id, ego, and superego.(conscience)

The balance and interactions of these three parts largely determines our behavior and our ability to meet life challenges.

The id operates only in the unconscious, and follows the pleasure principle, the demand for instant gratification.

The ego operates according to the reality principle, and attempts to balance the instinctual demands of the id with social realities and expectations.

The superego is the internal moral guardian or conscience.

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Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory (5 of 9)

Freud believed the ego uses defense mechanisms to prevent the anxiety that would result if troubling desires and memories residing in the unconscious were fully realized in conscious awareness.

Repression, or motivated forgetting, is the major defense mechanism.

Other defense mechanisms include denial, reaction formation, rationalization, projection, sublimation, regression, and displacement.

Freud believed repressed desires or memories may become revealed in disguised forms, such as in dream symbols and slips of the tongue—Freudian slips.

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Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory (6 of 9)

Freud proposed personality develops through five psychosexual stages of development. He considered these to be psychosexual in nature as they involve changes in how the child seeks physical pleasure from the body’s erogenous zones.

Psychological conflicts may emerge during each psychosexual stage of development. These conflicts can lead to the development of fixations, personality traits or behavior patterns characteristic of a particular stage.

The oral stage is the first stage of psychosexual development, during which the infant seeks sexual gratification through oral stimulation, such as sucking, mouthing, and biting.

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Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory (7 of 9)

The anal stage is the second stage of psychosexual development, during which sexual gratification is centered on processes of elimination (retention and release of bowel movements).

In Freud’s view, anal fixations either reflect too harsh or too lenient toilet training. Training that is too harsh may lead to traits associated with the anal-retentive personality; extremely lax training may lead to traits associated with the anal-expulsive personality.

The phallic stage is the third stage of psychosexual development and is marked by erotic attention on the phallic region (penis in boys, clitoris in girls) and the development of the Oedipus complex.

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Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory (8 of 9)

The Oedipus complex is the psychological complex in which the young boy or girl develops incestuous feelings toward the parent of the opposite gender and perceives the parent of the same gender as a rival.

Some psychodynamic theorists use the term Electra complex when discussing the form of the Oedipus complex in girls.

Freud believed young boys develop castration anxiety, an unconscious fear of removal of the penis for having unacceptable sexual impulses.

Freud held that girls experience penis envy, which leads girls to feel inferior or inadequate.

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Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory (9 of 9)

The latency stage is the fourth stage of psychosexual development, during which sexual impulses remain latent or dormant.

The fifth and final stage of psychosexual development is the genital stage. This stage begins around puberty and corresponds to the development of mature sexuality and emphasis on procreation.

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Discussion Activity 1

What characteristics define personality?

If personality is stable across time, what kind of behavioral consistency might you predict for someone with respect to their academic performance or the degree to which they are introverted or extroverted?

In what ways do you think a person’s behavior is a product of both personality and the situation?

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Think-Pair-Share Activity 1

Students pair up and answer the following questions:

Have you ever caught yourself giving into an id impulse when you shouldn’t have?

Have you ever stopped yourself from acting on id impulses?

Why do you think you gave in or stopped? Was it your conscience or was it the situation?

Student pairs should then share their answers with the class.

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Knowledge Check Activity 1

Which is the correct order of Freud’s stages of psychosexual development?

genital, oral, anal, latency, phallic

genital, anal, phallic, oral, latency

oral, genital, phallic, anal, latency

oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital

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Knowledge Check Activity 1: Answer

Which is the correct order of Freud’s stages of psychosexual development?

Answer: d. Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital

Freud proposed there were five stages of psychosexual development, beginning with the oral stage during infancy. Psychosexual development then proceeds through the anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages. The final stage, the genital stage, begins around puberty.

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Other Psychodynamic Approaches (1 of 3)

Neo-Freudians placed a lesser emphasis on sexual and aggressive motivations and a greater emphasis on social relationships and workings of the ego, especially the development of the self.

Leading neo-Freudians include Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Karen Horney.

Carl Jung places a greater emphasis on the present than on infantile or childhood experiences as well as a greater emphasis on conscious processes, such as self-awareness and pursuit of self-directed goals.

Jung believed that people possessed a personal unconscious and a collective unconscious. The collective unconscious contains primate images, archetypes, that reflect ancestral or universal human experiences.

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Other Psychodynamic Approaches (2 of 3)

Alfred Adler ‘s theory of individual psychology emphasizes the unique potential of each individual.

He believed that the creative self, the part of the personality that is aware of itself and organizes goal-seeking behavior, plays a greater role in our personalities than Freud had believed.

The inferiority complex is Adler’s concept involving the influence that feelings of inadequacy of inferiority in young children have on their developing personalities and desires to compensate. Feelings of inferiority lead to a desire to compensate, which Adler called the drive for superiority.

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Other Psychodynamic Approaches (3 of 3)

Karen Horney was one of the staunchest critics of Freud’s views on female development.

She focused less on the sexual and aggressive drives as shapers of personality and more on the roles of social and cultural forces.

Children may develop basic anxiety or basic hostility.

Horney proposed that men may experience “womb envy” due to the physiological superiority of women.

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Evaluating the Psychodynamic Perspective

Psychodynamic theory remains one of the most detailed and comprehensive theories of personality.

However, critics believe Freud placed too much importance on sexual and aggressive drives and too little emphasis on the role of social relationships in the development of personality.

Another criticism is the lack of evidence to support many of the principles on which the theory is based, including penis envy and castration anxiety.

Perhaps the greatest limitation of the psychodynamic approach is the difficulty in scientifically testing many of its key components.

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Discussion Activity 2

Jung identified four major archetypes (shadow, animus, anima, and self) as well as numerous other archetypes related to the family (mother, father, child), stories (hero, maiden, wise old man, magician, sorceress, earth mother, trickster) and animals (dogs, horses).

What are some examples of these archetypes that can be found in books or movies?

Which archetypes are presented?

Why do we resonate so strongly to Jungian archetypes?

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Module 11.2

The Trait Perspective

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Gordon Allport: A Hierarchy of Traits

Trait theorists believe that personality consists of a distinctive set of relatively stable or enduring characteristics, called traits.

Gordon Allport proposed personality traits are inherited but are influenced by experience, and that these traits could be ranked within a hierarchy in relation to the degree in which they influence behavior.

Cardinal traits are the more pervasive dimensions that define an individual’s general personality.

Central traits are more common but less wide-reaching traits, considered the basic building blocks of personality.

Secondary traits are specific traits that influence behavior in few situations.

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Raymond Cattell: Mapping the Personality (1 of 2)

Raymond Cattell believed there were two basic levels of traits.

Surface traits lie on the “surface” of personality and are characteristics that can be inferred from observations of behavior.

As surface traits often occur together, such as stubbornness and being foul-tempered, Cattell proposed a deeper level of personality consisting of more general, underlying traits that give rise to surface traits.

Source traits is Cattell’s term for traits at the deep level of personality that are not apparent in observed behavior but must be inferred based on underlying relationships among surface traits.

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Raymond Cattell: Mapping the Personality (2 of 2)

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Hans Eysenck: A Simpler Trait Model

Hans Eysenck constructed a simple model of personality which describes personality using three major traits:

Introversion-extraversion, tendencies toward being solitary and reserved on the one end or outgoing and sociable on the other end.

Neuroticism, tendencies toward emotional instability, anxiety, and worry.

Psychoticism, tendencies to be perceived as cold and antisocial.

Eysenck believed biological differences are responsible for variations in personality traits from person to person.

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The Five-Factor Model of Personality: The “Big Five”

The five-factor model (FFM) is the dominant contemporary trait model of personality, consisting of five broad personality factors: neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness.

The Big Five represents a consolidation and integration of traits previously identified by Cattell, Eysenck, and other trait theorists.

The Big Five traits help us predict a range of outcomes, such as academic and job performance, emotional adjustment, and psychological well-being.

A concern is that the Big Five factors may not be as independent of each other as many investigators believe.

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Evaluating the Trait Perspective

The trait perspective has intuitive appeal, as people commonly use trait terms when describing their own and others’ personalities. Trait theories have also been useful in the development of many personality tests.

The major criticism of trait theories is that they merely attach a label to behavior rather than explaining it.

Another criticism is that behavior may not be as stable across time and situations as trait theorists suppose.

A developing consensus is emerging around the concept of interactionism – the belief that both personality traits and situational factors, and the interactions between them, influence behavior and personality.

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Think-Pair-Share Activity 2

Students pair up and answer the following questions:

When you were a child, what traits predominated in your personality?

What traits are characteristic now?

Can you explain why some traits remained stable and why others changed?

Student pairs should then share their answer with the class.

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Genes and Traits: Moving Beyond the Nature-Nurture Debate

Researchers today are moving beyond the old nature-nurture debate and recognize that both heredity and environment play important roles in the development of personality.

Genetics accounts for an estimated 40 to 55 percent of the variability in personality traits, and environmental factors account for the remainder.

The relationship between genetics and environmental influences is a two-way street: genetic factors influence the development of personality traits, and environmental influences, such as early life experiences, affect the developing brain in ways that influence personality development.

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Written Assignment Activity 1

Select one of your most central personality traits and discuss the extent to which that trait exists in the people who reared you and any other children who were reared with you. It does not matter whether or not you are biologically related.

Then use your observations to discuss the influences of nature and/or nurture on personality.

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Module 11.3

The Social-Cognitive Perspective

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The Social-Cognitive Perspective

Traditional behaviorism holds that personality is the sum total of an individual’s learned behavior; distinctive patterns of behavior are determined by differences in learning experiences.

Social-cognitive theory is a contemporary learning-based model that emphasizes the roles of cognitive and environmental factors in determining behavior.

Social cognitive theorists believe that personality consists of individual’s repertoires of behavior and ways of thinking about themselves and the world.

Three primary contributors to social cognitive theory are Julian Rotter, Albert Bandura, and Walter Mischel.

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Julian Rotter: The Locus of Control

Julian Rotter believed that our ability to explain and predict behavior depends on knowing an individual’s reinforcement history as well as the person’s expectancies, subjective values, and perceptions of control.

Expectancies are personal predictions about the outcomes of behavior.

Subjective value is the importance individuals place on desired outcomes.

Perceptions of control refers to the general expectancies one has about their ability to obtain reinforcements. Some people have an internal locus of control, wherein they believe they can obtain reinforcements through their own work and effort. Other people have an external locus of control and believe what happens to them is largely controlled by external forces.

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Albert Bandura: Reciprocal Determinism and the Role of Expectancies

Albert Bandura believed people are active agents directing their own lives. His model of reciprocal determinism holds that cognitions, behaviors, and environmental factors mutually influence each other.

Bandura emphasized the role of observational learning and the importance of outcome expectations and efficacy expectations.

Outcome expectations are predictions of the outcomes of behavior. You are more likely to drink alcohol in a social situation if you believe it will be a pleasant experience.

Efficacy expectations are personal predictions about the ability to perform particular tasks or behaviors you set out to accomplish.

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Walter Mischel: Situation Versus Person Variables

Walter Mischel argued that behavior is influenced by both situation variables, environmental factors such as rewards and punishments, and person variables, or internal personal factors.

Two of Mischel’s person variables, expectancies and subjective values, have the same meaning as in Rotter’s model. Mischel added these person variables:

Competencies, the knowledge and skills we possess.

Encoding strategies, personal perceptions of events.

Self-regulatory systems and plans, the ability to plan a course of action to achieve goals and to reward ourselves for accomplishing them.

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Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Perspective

Social-cognitive theorists broadened the scope of learning theory to include cognitive influences on learning and the recognition that much of what we learn occurs by observing others in social contexts.

Cognitive behavior therapy incorporates behavioral and cognitive approaches to therapy and mirrors the teachings of the social-cognitive theories.

Critics of social-cognitive theory claim that it presents a limited view of personality, as it fails to account for unconscious processes and genetic factors.

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Discussion Activity 3

Research has revealed that collectivistic cultures tend to have lower levels of life satisfaction compared to individualistic cultures.

Why might this be?

Can this finding be explained through the concept of locus of control? Why or why not?

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Module 11.4

The Humanistic Perspective

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Carl Rogers: The Importance of Self (1 of 2)

Humanistic psychologists believe that personality is expressed through the conscious experience of directing ourselves toward fulfilling our unique potentials as humans.

Self-theory is Carl Roger’s model of personality, which focuses on the importance of the self. Carl Rogers believed that each person has an inner drive that leads them to strive toward self-actualization.

One of the primary functions of the self, as Rogers view it, is to develop self-esteem. Initially, a person’s self-esteem mirrors how other people value, or fail to value, them.

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Carl Rogers: The Importance of Self (2 of 2)

Roger’s believed it is crucial for parents to bestow unconditional positive regard on their children.

Children learn to value themselves as having intrinsic worth, rather than judging themselves as either good or bad depending on whether they measure up to other’s expectations.

Children given conditional positive regard may learn to think of themselves as being worthwhile only when they behave in socially approved ways.

Our self-esteem is ultimately a function of how close we come to meeting our self-ideals, the idealized sense of how or what we should be.

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Abraham Maslow: Scaling the Heights of Self-Actualization

Abraham Maslow also believed in an innate human drive toward self-actualization, which shapes our personality by motivating us to develop our unique potentials.

In the humanistic view, personality is thought of as a continuing process of personal growth and realization.

Humanistic psychologists note that each of us has unique feelings, desires and needs. The path to psychological health is paved with awareness and acceptance of all parts of ourselves.

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Culture and Self-Identity

Whether we define ourselves in terms of our individuality or the social roles that we perform is influenced by the values of the culture in which we were raised.

A collectivistic culture is one that emphasizes people’s social roles and obligations.

Collectivist cultures emphasize communal values such as conformity, interdependence, and conflict avoidance.

An individualistic culture is one that emphasizes individual identity and personal accomplishments.

Individualistic cultures emphasize values of independence and self-sufficiency.

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Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective

The humanistic perspective focuses on the need to understand conscious experience and one’s sense of self.

Roger’s client-centered therapy remains highly influential.

Humanistic theory help restore the concept of self to psychology.

However, critics note is difficult to scientifically study private, subjective experiences and in measuring such core concepts as self-actualization. Critics also contend that the humanistic emphasis on self-fulfillment may lead some people to become self-indulgent and so absorbed with themselves that they lack concern for others.

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Written Assignment Activity 2

Reflect on the question “Who am I?”

What are some of the experiences in your life that have led you to develop this self-concept?

How has your culture influenced your self-identify?

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Building Self-Esteem

Rogers and Maslow recognized the importance of self-esteem in developing a healthy personality. We can boost self-esteem by developing skills and abilities that enable us to achieve our goals and enhance our sense of self worth.

Ways to building self-esteem include:

Acquire competencies: become good at something.

Set realistic, achievable goals.

Enhance self-efficacy expectations.

Create a sense of meaningfulness in your life.

Challenge the need for constant approval.

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Discussion Activity 4

Research has shown that students who spend more time on Facebook perceive others to be happier than they are and to have better lives.

How much time do you spend on social media each day?

How do you feel when you see others’ profiles or posts?

What are some ways people can reduce social media use?

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Module 11.5

Personality Tests

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Self-Report Personality Inventories

Personality tests are structured psychological tests that use formal methods of assessing personality. Self-report personality inventories are structured psychological tests in which individuals are given a limited range of response options to answer a set of questions about themselves. These are considered objective tests.

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was constructed to help clinicians diagnose mental disorders and is widely used in clinical settings.

Self-report personality inventories are valid and are also relatively inexpensive to administer and score. However, these tests may be prone to biases or subtle distortions, such as a desire to respond in a socially desirable direction.

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Projective Tests (1 of 3)

In projective tests, ambiguous or vague test materials, such as inkblots, are used to elicit responses that are believed to reveal a person’s unconscious needs, motives, and drives.

The Rorschach test consists of ten cards each having an ambiguous ink blot. The person is asked what each blot looks like. Their responses, and follow-up questions by the examiner, are used in scoring.

The test is based on the assumption that people project aspects of their own personalities onto their responses to the ambiguous figures.

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Projective Tests (2 of 3)

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Projective Tests (3 of 3)

The Thematic Apperception Test consists of a set of pictures depicting ambiguous scenes that may be interpreted differently. The person is asked to tell a story about the scene, what led up to the events, and what the outcome will be.

The test assumes that the stories people tell reveal aspects of their own personalities, or projections of their own psychological needs.

Criticisms of projective tests include whether they are valid and clinically useful.

Another problem is stimulus pull, the fact that ambiguous stimuli often contain cues, such as sad-looking faces, which may elicit certain types of responses.

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Think-Pair-Share Activity 3

Students pair up and answer the following questions:

Suppose you were offered a terrific job, but a condition of employment is for you to take a personality test.

No one will tell you what the test involves, how it is scored, or how the results will be used to make decisions regarding your employment.

Would you agree to take the test? Why or why not?

Student pairs should then share their answers with the class.

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Self-Assessment (1 of 2)

Can you compare and contrast the four main theorical approaches to understanding personality?

What are Freud’s stages of psychosexual development? Can you give an example of a consequence of fixation at each stage?

How do the neo-Freudians theories of personality contrast with Freud?

Can you explain how nature and nurture contribute to personality?

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Self-Assessment (2 of 2)

Can you explain how culture influences personality?

Can you give an example of a self-report personality inventory and a projective test of personality, and explain the uses of each?

Can you describe skills or techniques to enhance self-esteem, and the importance of doing so?

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Summary (1 of 3)

Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to:

Define the concept of personality.

Identify and describe the three levels of consciousness and three structures of personality in Freud’s psychoanalytic theory.

Identify and describe the stages in Freud’s theory of psychosexual development.

Describe the personality theories of Jung, Adler, and Horney.

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Summary (2 of 3)

Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to:

Describe the trait theories of Allport, Cattell, Eysenck, and the Big Five Model.

Evaluate the genetic basis of personality traits.

Describe the social-cognitive theories of Rotter, Bandura, and Mischel.

Describe the self-theory of humanistic theorist Carl Rogers.

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Summary (3 of 3)

Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to:

Explain the difference between the concepts of self in collectivistic and individualistic cultures.

Apply suggestions for enhancing self-esteem.

Identify the two major types of personality tests, describe their features, and evaluate self-report and projective personality tests.

Psychology

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