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Module 8.1 Motivation: The “Whys” of Behavior

Module 8.2 Hunger and Eating

Module 8.3 Sexual Motivation

Module 8.4 Emotions

Motives and emotions motivate us to move, act, or prepare for action. The words motive and emotions are both derived from the Latin root movere, meaning “to move.”

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Module 8.1

Motivation:

The “Whys”
of Behavior

Motivation involves factors that activate, direct, and sustain goal-directed behaviors.

Motives include needs and wants that drive behavior.

Motives are the “whys” of behavior. Note that motives cannot be observed, but must be inferred.

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Instinct theory: Behavior is motivated by fixed, inborn patterns of behavior that are specific to members of
a particular species

Problems:

List of instincts grew too long to be useful

Instincts describe but do not explain behavior

Human behavior is too variable and flexible

What about the roles of culture and learning?

Instinct theory was popular in the early days of psychology, but was replaced by other biological models, especially drive theory.

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Body Temperature
98.6°

Blood Vessels in Skin Dilate to Remove Heat

Person Sweats

Turns Down Furnace

Removes Sweater

Drive theory holds that motivation is based on an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that reduce these states of tension. The satisfaction of a drive is called drive reduction. Organisms seek to maintain homeostasis, or a state of equilibrium or stability. Disturbances of homeostasis create drives that motivate behavior that leads to the restoration of a steady balance.

Needs vs Drives: A need is a state of deficiency or deprivation, while a drive is a state of physiological tension that results form a need.

Two Major Types of Drives:

Primary Drives

Secondary Drives

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We have an innate, biologically based need for exploration and activity

Stimulus motives: Internal states prompting
exploratory behavior

Needs for stimulation vary

We seek ways to maintain our optimal level of arousal

Strong needs for high levels of sensation (sensation-seeking) appears to have a strong genetic component

In contrast to drive theory that focuses on reducing internal states of arousal, arousal theory posits a basic need to maintain an optimal level of stimulation, which can lead people to seek ways of increasing their level of stimulation whenever they fall below their optimal level. Are you a sensation-seeker? Do you know someone who is?

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High-incentive
Goal

Strong
Pull

Stronger Motivated
Behavior

High-incentive value goal

Low-incentive
Goal

Weak
Pull

Weaker Motivated
Behavior

Low-incentive value goal

Incentive theory focuses on psychological sources of motivation. It holds that motivation is influenced by rewarding goal-related stimuli; for example, an ice cream cone, an A in a college course, or money. Goals with high incentive values produce a stronger pull or lure on behavior than low-incentive goals. What are the incentives that motivate your behavior?

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Affiliation Motivation

George is an engineer who is working late. He is worried
that his wife will be annoyed with him for neglecting her.
She has been objecting that he cares more about his work
than his wife and family. He seems unable to satisfy both
his boss and his wife, but he loves her very much and will
do his best to finish up fast and get home to her.

Achievement Motivation

George is an engineer who wants to win a competition
in which the man with the most practicable drawing will
be awarded the contract to build a bridge. He is taking
a moment to think how happy he will be if he wins.
He has been baffled by how to make such a long span
strong, but he remembers to specify a new steel alloy
of great strength, submits his entry, but does not win,
and is very unhappy.

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivations

Psychosocial needs (also called interpersonal needs) are psychologically-based needs such as need for achievement and need for friendship or affiliation.

Need for achievement may be motivated by extrinsic motivation (money) or intrinsic motivation (accomplishing goals for their own sake). We can also distinguish between achievement motivation (effort to excel) vs. avoidance motivation (effort to avoid failure). What primarily motivates you---the desire to excel, to do well, or the desire to avoid doing poorly or failing?

Achievement motivation involves the need to excel, especially in competition with others. People who are relatively high in the need for achievement work harder and more persistently, they tend to delay gratification well and to pursue competitive careers.

Situational factors have been shown to influence achievement motivation, causing it to increase when the probability of success and the incentive value of success are high. Additionally, the pursuit of achievement can be influenced by a fear of failure, so that the motive to avoid failure stimulates efforts to achieve.

Extrinsic motivation – Reflects a desire for external rewards

Intrinsic motivation – Reflects a desire for internal gratification

Don’t think that a particular motive has to be completely extrinsic or completely intrinsic. Many times a given motive has aspects of both! Examples?

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Esteem

Achievement, respect, prestige, status, approval

Safety

Safe and secure housing, protection from crime and harsh weather

Self-Actualization

Fulfillment of individual potential

Abraham Maslow proposed that human motives are organized into a hierarchy of needs – a systematic arrangement of biological and psychosocial needs, according to priority, in which lower level needs take precedence before higher level needs.

Like Rogers, Maslow argued that humans have an innate drive toward personal growth, culminating in the need for self-actualization, which is the need to fulfill one’s potential (the highest need in his hierarchy): “What a man can be, he must be.”

While the model has intuitive appeal and seems very accurate at first glance, it does have limitations:

Needs may not exist in a perfect fixed or set order, as Maslow suggested
The order of needs may change as life circumstances dictate
The same behavior may reflect multiple needs

Later in his career, Maslow added additional “levels” to the hierarchy, including cognitive needs, aesthetic needs, and self-transcendence.

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Module 8.2

Hunger and Eating

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It’s the brain, not the stomach, that controls hunger.

The hypothalamus plays a key role in regulating hunger. The hypothalamus is the key brain structure in regulating hunger. It responds to changes in the level of blood sugar (glucose) and release of fat from fat cells – the body’s fat storing cells. One area of the hypothalamus, called the lateral hypothalamus (LH) is involved in initiating or “turning on” eating behavior. Another, the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), plays a key role in “turning off” hunger by controlling feelings of satiety (feelings of fullness or having had enough to eat). We’ve learned the control of hunger is more complex and also depends upon hormones and other chemicals in the brain that act on the hypothalamus. One of these chemicals, the hormone ghrelin, is released by the stomach and travels to the brain, where it stimulates release of a neurotransmitters called NPY (neuropeptide Y) that acts on the hypothalamus to stimulate eating. Another hormone, leptin, is released by fat cells in the body and works to curb appetite by signaling the hypothalamus when we’ve eaten enough.

Source: WIN Weight Control Information Network, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health.

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In the U.S., two-thirds of adults are overweight and one-third are obese

In the U.S., one-third of children
are overweight or obese

Represents a major health risk

Why is obesity on the rise?

Too many calories
(“Did someone say supersize it?”)

Too little exercise

Percentage

Obese

Overweight

Women

Men

All adults (20+ years old)

Why is the American waistland expanding? Nearly one in three Americans are clinically obese and about two of three are overweight. What factors contribute to overweight and obesity? What are the health risks of obesity? What can we do about it, as individuals, parents, and members of society?

Causal factors include:

Behavioral patterns (eating too fast or too large portions; adopting unhealthy diet, eating fast food too often)

Genetics

Basal metabolic rate

Set Point Theory

Number of fat cells in the body

Environmental factors (exposure to food-related cues, use of modern energy-saving conveniences)

Emotional states (eating in anger, to quell anxiety, boredom, etc. )

Suggestions for maintaining a healthy weight:

Limit fat intake.

Control portion size.

Slow down the pace of eating.

Beware of hidden calories.

Make physical activity a part of your lifestyle.

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Anorexia Nervosa

Bulimia Nervosa

AP Images/Eugenio Savio

While about one in three Americans are obese, many others are dangerously thin due to anorexia nervosa or have disturbed eating behaviors in the form of eating and purging episodes associated with bulimia nervosa. Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are diagnosable psychological or mental disorders that can have very serious consequences.

Anorexia nervosa involves intense fear of gaining weight, disturbed body image, refusal to maintain normal weight, and use of dangerous measures to lose weight.

Bulimia nervosa involves habitually engaging in out-of-control overeating followed by unhealthy compensatory efforts, such as self-induced vomiting, fasting, abuse of laxatives and diuretics, and excessive exercise.

Features of Anorexia Nervosa :

Self starvation, dangerously low body weight

Intense fear of becoming fat

Distorted body image

Occurs most often in young women

Dangerous medical condition

Features of Bulimia Nervosa:

Episodes of binge eating followed by purging

Obsessed with weight and unhappy with body, but the typical person with bulimia maintains a normal body weight

Can lead to many medical complications

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Sociocultural Factors

Psychological Factors

Biological Factors

Source: Data derived from American College Health Association National College Health Assessment—Reference Group Data Report, Fall 2011.

What causes eating disorders? There appears to be a number of factors that contribute to the development of eating disorders

Sociocultural factors : Social pressure on young women to achieve unrealistic standards of thinness.

Psychological factors: Issues of control and perfectionism, history of abuse or family conflict in many cases; negative emotions such as anxiety and depression

Biological factors: Disturbances in brain mechanisms controlling hunger and satiety; irregular serotonin activity

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Module 8.3

Sexual Motivation

Sexual motives are a major source of motivation. Our sexuality is not limited to our sexual behavior, but also includes our sense of ourselves as male or female (gender identity) and sexual orientation (directionality of erotic attraction). Society also imposes a set of cultural expectations, or gender roles, that designates behaviors and roles it considers appropriate for one gender or the other.

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Gender Roles

Culturally imposed behaviors

Gender Identity

Psychological sense of maleness
or femaleness

Sexual Orientation

Direction of erotic attraction

We use the term sex to refer to the biological division between males and females (and to sexual organs).

We use the term gender as a psychosocial concept that distinguishes masculinity from femininity. Some cultures, such as some Native American cultures, recognize a third or intersex gender.

The psychological sense of being male or female is called gender identity.

Sexual orientation refers to the direction of our erotic attraction, whether it is toward men, women, or both.

We use the term gender roles to refer to the set of behaviors that a particular culture deems acceptable for men and women.

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Masters
and
Johnson

Excitement

Plateau

Orgasm

Resolution

Landmark research by Masters and Johnson showed that the body’s response to sexual stimulation can be characterized in terms of a sexual response cycle consisting of four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

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Level of sexual arousal

Time

(b) Women

(a) Men

Orgasm

Plateau

Excitement

Refractory
period

Resolution

The excitement phase is the stage of initial arousal, which escalates quickly. Muscle tension, respiration rate, heart rate and blood pressure increase. Vasocongestion, the signature characteristic of sexual arousal, is the engorgement of blood vessels in the genitals. Click to continue.

The plateau phase occurs when physiological arousal continues to build, but at a slower pace. Click to continue.

The orgasm phase occurs when sexual arousal reaches its peak intensity and is discharged in a series of muscular contractions that pulsate through the pelvic area. Orgasm in the male is accompanied by ejaculation. The subjective experience of orgasm is very similar for men and women, although women can be multi-orgasmic. Click to continue.

The resolution phase is characterized by subsiding physiological arousal. Men experience a refractory period after orgasm, when they are largely unresponsive to further stimulation. This may last from a few minutes to a few hours and increases with age. Women do not experience a refractory period and can become quickly rearoused if they desire continued stimulation.

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Exclusively

heterosexual

Predominantly

heterosexual,

only

incidentally

homosexual

Predominantly

heterosexual,

more than

incidentally

homosexual

Equally

heterosexual

and

homosexual

Predominantly

homosexual,

more than

incidentally

heterosexual

Predominantly

homosexual,

only

incidentally

heterosexual

Exclusively

homosexual

Kinsey Continuum

Sexual orientation refers to a person’s attraction to members of the same sex (homosexuality) or opposite sex (heterosexuality), or either sex (bisexuality). What determines sexual orientation? The answer remains unclear, but most experts believe that both biological factors (genes, possible prenatal hormonal influences on the developing brain) and experience play determining roles.

Contemporary conceptualizations of sexuality adopt the Kinsey model that holds that homosexuality and heterosexuality are endpoints on a continuum, with various points in between. Modern sexologists recognize that there are more than “the big three” sexual orientations.

Scientists continue to explore the origins of sexual orientation. Most adopt an interactionist view that holds that genes and prenatal hormones interact in a chain of events that ultimately shapes sexual orientation.

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This video is about the degree of sexual prejudice in our society, the variables associated with sexual prejudice, and some suggested mechanisms for reducing this prejudice.

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People do not make a conscious choice to adopt
a particular sexual orientation

Modern research focuses on biological determinants
of sexual orientation

Stronger genetic relationships are related to higher
concordance of sexual orientation
Prenatal exposure to testosterone may be important
Early life gender-nonconforming behavior may indicate a genetic or biological influence, but this factor must be considered carefully

Despite all of the factors in this slide, the final answer is that we do not yet know what “causes” a given sexual orientation, and it is likely a combination of many different factors.

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May involve a lack
of sexual desire or interest, difficulties becoming aroused,
or problems
achieving orgasm

Juice Images/Cultura/Getty Images

Occasional problems with sexual interest or response may affect virtually everyone.

People with sexual dysfunctions have persistent difficulties with sexual interest, arousal, or response.

Examples can include things like erectile dysfunction or premature (or early) ejaculation in men, and a lack of sexual interest or difficulty reaching orgasm for women. There are many different sexual dysfunctions, and despite common belief they are not uncommon and nothing to be embarrassed about!

Most are very responsive to appropriate treatment, and should be discussed with an appropriate professional.

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Biological

Mouth (Sucking, Biting)

Psychosocial

Circulatory problems

Childhood influences:
Upbringing, cultural attitudes

Medications

Emotional factors

Neurological conditions
or diseases

Relationship problems

Hormones

Performance anxiety

Many causal factors are involved, including biological and psychosocial factors. The specific factors depend on the particular disorder and particular case.

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Module 8.4

Emotions

Basic components of emotions:

Bodily arousal

Nervous system activation

Cognition

Subjective experience of the feeling

Thoughts, judgments about people or situations that evoke the feeling

Expressed behavior

Outward expression of emotions, such as approaching something positive or moving away from something negative

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Darwin noticed the close similarity in emotional expression between apes and humans.

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Anger

Fear

Disgust

Sadness

Happiness

Surprise

Researchers find that six basic emotional expressions are universally recognized.

But note the importance of cultural differences with respect to:

Display rules that vary across cultures

Gestures and bodily movements also vary across cultures

Rules for governing appropriate display of emotions by men and women. Note that women tend to be better at expressing and recognizing emotions.

Disgust

Sadness

Happiness

Anger

Disgust

Sadness

Happiness

Anger

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Paul Ekman, Ph.D/Paul Ekman Group, LLC

NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR: This is from the “Try This Out” box on p. 302of the text. Students are asked to identify the emotion the man from a remote area of New Guinea is displaying. The man was asked to make faces corresponding to particular emotions.

Disgust

Sadness

Happiness

Anger

Disgust

Sadness

Happiness

Anger

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Paul Ekman, Ph.D/Paul Ekman Group, LLC

Disgust

Sadness

Happiness

Anger

Disgust

Sadness

Happiness

Anger

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Paul Ekman, Ph.D/Paul Ekman Group, LLC

Disgust

Sadness

Happiness

Anger

Disgust

Sadness

Happiness

Anger

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Paul Ekman, Ph.D/Paul Ekman Group, LLC

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Frank Trapper/Corbis

Tim Graham Picture Library/Getty Images

Behaviorally, emotions are expressed through body language and facial expressions. Research indicates considerable cross-cultural similarities and some differences in emotional expression and ability to recognize facial expressions of emotion.

Display rules, which are socially and culturally-related customs regarding the extent to which one outwardly expresses (displays) their emotions, vary from culture to culture.

Research finds that women tend to be better at both expressing their own emotions through words and facial epxressions and perceiving feelings in others than are men. Other research finds this to be true for happy or sad faces, but note that men are better at identifying angry faces. There may be neurological differences that explain these trends.

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Cross-cultural similarities have also been found in the cognitive and behavioral components of emotions, although display rules, or norms for regulating appropriate expression of emotion, vary across cultures. In this video, researchers explore different emotional expressions across cultures by interviewing and surveying people from different cultures.

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Emergence of positive psychology focuses
renewed attention on human happiness

What makes people happy?

It’s not wealth – happiness tops out
after a certain amount of earnings

What about marriage?

Two factors seem to predict happiness
* Having friends
* Religion

Is there a “set point” for happiness?

Source: Kahneman et al., 2006

Research shows that happiness increases in relation to increasing wealth up to a subsistence standard. Beyond that level, increasing wealth has only marginal effects on personal happiness. People tend to compare themselves to their own reference groups, so even wealthy people may feel poor by comparing themselves to others who are even wealthier. Other factors, such as having friends and religious commitment are more reliably related to happiness levels. Evidence also points to a genetic “set point” for happiness. But marriage does not appear have a lasting effect on personal happiness. People may experience a honeymoon bounce but then slowly fall back to their baseline happiness levels.

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Gratitude visits

Three blessings

One door closes, another opens

Savorings

What can we do in our daily lives to boost our happiness? These are some suggestions from the founder of positive psychology, Martin Seligman.

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In which photo is Paul really smiling?

Belief that mimicking facial movements will induce
the corresponding emotion

Have you ever been told
to “turn that frown
upside down?”

All smiles are not the same

Duchenne Smile

Paul Ekman, Ph.D/Paul Ekman Group, LLC

As the old song puts it, “put on a happy face.” The facial-feedback hypothesis holds that facial muscles send signals to the brain that help it recognize the emotion being experienced. Consequently, when we smile, we may find ourselves feeling better.

But note that practicing smiling (and frowning) can affect emotional states, there is a limitation : a put-on smile is different than a true (Duchenne smile).

The photo on the right is the genuine smile.

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Emotions are regulated by different areas of the brain

The limbic system, including the amygdala and hippocampus are involved in the fear response

The importance of the cerebral cortex

Hemispheric differences in the processing of emotions

The amygdala processes incoming stimuli and triggers a fear response to potential threats.

The hippocampus considers the context in which a stimulus occurs, and relates it to the memory of past events that may induce fear.

Cerebral cortex:

Evaluates the meaning of emotional stimuli
Plans and directs appropriate responses
Determines approach or avoidance behaviors
Processes the cognitive (or subjective) experience of emotions

Positive emotions seem more centered in the left prefrontal cortex, while negative emotions are focused in the right prefrontal cortex.

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James-Lange Theory:

“I feel afraid because I tremble”

Cannon-Bard Theory:

“The dog makes me tremble
and feel afraid”

Two-Factor Theory:

“I label my trembling as fear because
I appraise the situation as dangerous”

Stimulus

Autonomic
Arousal

Fear

Conscious
Feeling

Subcortical
Brain Activity

Autonomic
Arousal

Fear

Conscious
Feeling

Stimulus

Autonomic
Arousal

Fear

Conscious
Feeling

Appraisal

The James-Lange theory of emotion holds that you see a snake, your pulse races, and you feel afraid because your pulse is racing and you have other bodily responses associated with fear.

The Cannon-Bard theory holds that you see a threatening object and the body’s response (orchestrated by the autonomic nervous system) and subjective experience of fear occur virtually simultaneously. We see a threatening object, such as a bear in the wood, we then experience both fear and a pounding heart, and then we run.

Two-Factor theory holds that you experience general autonomic arousal and then label the source of your arousal depending on your appraisal of the situation. If you see a snake, become highly aroused and attribute the arousal to a dangerous stimulus, you will feel fear rather than anger or pleasurable excitement.

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Source: Adapted from LeDoux, 1996.

Psychologist Joseph LeDoux proposes a dual-pathway model of fear. Sensory inputs that trigger fear arrive first in the thalamus and then take a faster path directly to the amygdala (the “low road”), as well as a slower path through the cortex (the “high road”). Thus, we respond quickly to a possible threatening stimulus, due to activation of the amygdala, the fear-triggering center in the brain. The signal sent through the high-road to the cortex takes longer to process, allowing us to more carefully evaluate whether the stimulus is truly threatening (a snake) or not (a stick).

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Here we have a representation of the four major theoretical models of fear.

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Ability to manage emotions

Main characteristics:

Knowing your emotions

Managing your emotions

Motivating yourself

Recognizing emotions
in others

Helping others handle
their emotions

You can have a high IQ but still be clueless when it comes to recognizing or managing emotions. How important is EI to success in relationships or employment?

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Applying Psychology in Daily Life

Managing Anger

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Become aware of your emotional reactions
in anger-provoking situations

Review the evidence

Practice more adaptive thinking

Practice competing responses

Don’t get steamed

Oppose anger with empathy

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Congratulate yourself for responding assertively rather than aggressively

Scale back your expectations of others

Modulate verbal responses

Learn to express positive feelings