Please answer one of the following two topics

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Early Leadership Perspectives

Substitutes for Leadership Model

Proposes that certain characteristics of individuals, the job, and/or the organization can act as substitutes for leadership or neutralize leadership impact altogether.

While Path-Goal theory focused on the centrality of the leadership role to employee satisfaction and work performance, the Substitutes for Leadership Model18 proposes that certain characteristics of individuals, the job, and/or the organization can act as substitutes for leadership or neutralize leadership impact altogether. In this context, neutralizing means replacing leadership attributes that do not affect followers’ outcomes.

A team that is well-run, experienced, and organized might substitute for or neutralize the need for a task-oriented leader because the team already knows how to carry out the requirements of their roles. For example, organizations like W.L. Gore, tomato processor Morning Star, and steelmaker Worthington Industries cultivate an environment in which teams are largely left to manage themselves.19

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

SOURCE: Gupta, Ashum. “Leader Member Exchange.” Practical Management. June 6, 2009. http://practical-management.com/pdf/Leadership-Development/Leader-Member-Exchange.pdf?format=phocapdf. Copyright © practical-management.com.

Contemporary Leadership Perspectives

Figure 11.6: LMX Theory

The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory.20 builds on the idea that leaders develop different relationships with different followers. The quality of the relationship determines whether the leader (often subconsciously) places the follower in the “In-Group Exchange” or the “Out-Group Exchange”.

In-group exchange Typically, team members who are loyal, trustworthy, and skilled have high-quality relationships with leaders. The leader devotes more attention to this In-Group, assigns challenging tasks, and often spends more one-to-one time with members. People in this group are given more opportunities for growth and advancement and often mirror the leader’s work ethic and characteristics.

Out-Group exchange People who are perceived to be incompetent, unmotivated, untrustworthy team members have low-quality relationships with their leaders. Leaders tend to assign simple, limited tasks to this group, communicate with them only when necessary, and often withhold opportunities for growth or advancement.

Contemporary Leadership Perspectives

Transformational Leadership

Idealized influence (also referred to as charisma) is behavior that gains the admiration, trust, and respect of followers.

Inspirational motivation promotes commitment to a shared vision of the future.

Intellectual stimulation encourages people to view problems from a different perspective and to think about innovative and alternative ways to address them.

Individualized consideration creates mutual respect or trust and a genuine concern for the needs and desires of others.

Whereas the transactional leader rewards or disciplines followers based on performance, the transformational leader inspires them to transcend their self-interests for the good of the organization and commit to a shared vision, while also serving as a role model. Transformational leadership is becoming an increasingly popular model for today’s leaders. The four dimensions of transformational leadership are idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration.

In direct opposition to transformational leadership is laissez-faire leadership, in which a leader fully delegates responsibility to others. This type of leader has little involvement with followers, almost no control over the task, and little interest in making decisions unless forced into it. Investor Warren Buffett is an example of a laissez-faire leader, who prefers to give his management teams a lot of freedom to make decisions rather than monitoring them to any great degree.

Contemporary Leadership Perspectives

Charismatic Leadership

Use inspirational techniques to energize and motivate followers.

Place more emphasis on their own needs and interests and become caught up in their own hype.

Transformational leadership theory was inspired by Max Weber’s concept of charismatic leadership, which is the ability of a leader to use his or her personality or charm to inspire, motivate, and acquire loyalty and commitment. Charismatic leaders are similar to transformational leaders in that they both use inspirational techniques to energize and motivate their followers. However, while transformational leaders are focused on the best interests of the individuals and the organization, charismatic leaders may place more emphasis on their own needs and interests2and become caught up in their own hype. Leaders who follow their own agendas become inflexible, believe they can do no wrong, and tend to dismiss advice from others if it diverges from their own convictions. Adolf Hitler is an example of a charismatic leader who inspired devotion in others to carry out his own political agenda – to tragic results.

Contemporary Leadership Perspectives

Follower-Centered Leadership Perspective

Focuses on how followers view leaders and how they view themselves.

Implicit leadership theories

Implicit followership theories

Followership is the capacity of individuals to cooperate with leaders. The theory that studies it stems from cognitive categorization theory, which explores the idea that people tend to label others on the basis of a first impression.

The Follower-Centered Leadership Perspective focuses on how followers view leaders and how they view themselves. There are two types of theories in this approach: implicit leadership theories, and implicit followership theories.

According to implicit leadership theories, we have a natural tendency to apply certain traits and attributes to others to determine whether they are leaders, such as charismatic, attractive, intelligent, dedicated, tyrannical, and strong. These traits are called leadership prototypes and are behaviors we associate with leadership.

According to implicit followership theories, we have preconceived notions about the types of behaviors that leaders believe characterize followers and non-followers. Common prototypes ascribed to good followers include enthusiasm, industriousness, and being a good citizen. Ineffective or non-followers are seen as easily influenced, arrogant, uneducated, slow, inexperienced, and rude. Like LMX theory, followership theories show that opinions based on first impressions or very quick judgments can prejudice our views of others and create negativity within the group.

Power-Distributing Leadership Perspectives

Empowering leadership.

Shared leadership.

Self-leadership.

The concept of “distributed leadership” has grown in popularity over the last few years and serves as an alternative to those theories that have focused on leadership traits, characteristics, and behaviors. Instead, distributed leadership calls for sharing the power and influence within organizations. Let us return to our case to further explore the three main facets of power-distributing leadership: empowering, shared, and self-leadership.

Power-Distributing Leadership Perspectives

Empowering Leadership

The practice of delegating power that motivates employees and inspires them to achieve goals.

Leading by example, coaching, participative decision-making.

Informing.

Showing Concern.

Empowering leadership is the practice of delegating power that motivates employees and inspires them to achieve goals.33 Bill Gates is a good example of an empowering leader because he encourages employees to share their ideas, innovate new products, processes, and systems, and build on their strengths.34 Empowering leadership is similar to participative leadership, in which leaders allow their employees to partake in decision-making processes and provide them with the resources and support to carry out their roles. Empowering leaders encourage their employees to act independently and make decisions without the presence of a formal leader. Some of the behaviors they use:

Leading by example, coaching, participative decision making: empowering leaders encourage employees to make suggestions and express their ideas. Chuck Branston encouraged the lending staff to take part in the decision-making process.

Informing: empowering leaders keep their employees up-to-date about company information and goals. According to Jonathan, Chuck made a point of telling the lending staff the direction the bank was taking and the decisions that were being made at the top.

Showing concern: empowering leaders take an interest in the well-being of their employees and treat them with respect. For example, Chuck Branston arranged additional training for Jonathan when he was new.

Power-Distributing Leadership Perspectives

Shared Leadership

Figure 11.7: Traditional Leadership Versus Shared Leadership

Shared leadership distributes influence among groups and individuals to achieve organizational or team goals. Rather than being solely responsible for decision-making, the leader shares responsibility with the group as members strive to complete common goals.

Power-Distributing Leadership Perspectives

Self-Leadership

A process whereby people intentionally influence their thinking and behavior to achieve their objectives.

Three main categories:

Behavior-focused strategies.

Natural reward strategies.

Constructive thought pattern strategies.

Self-leadership is a process whereby people intentionally influence their thinking and behavior to achieve their objectives.37 In other words, people can deliberately guide themselves towards attaining favorable outcomes. Behavior-focused strategies are targeted towards increasing our self-awareness and managing our own conduct. They include self-observation, self-goal setting, self-reward, self-correcting feedback, and self-cueing. Natural reward strategies help us to find pleasure in certain aspects of our roles, leading to an enhanced sense of competence, self-discipline, and application. Constructive thought pattern strategies focus on the modification of certain key mental processes. Mental imagery is one strategy we can use to shape our thought processes, by visualizing the successful attainment of the goal before we begin. This is a common technique among top athletes; for example, Brazilian footballer Ronaldinho uses mental imagery to prepare for a game and to plan his strategy on the pitch.

Values-Based Leadership Perspectives

Authentic Leadership.

Spiritual Leadership.

Servant Leadership.

Ethical Leadership.

Following the economic turbulence over the last few years, there has been a shift from power-based leadership to values-based leadership. Values-based leaders use their power wisely by leading through a set of morals, with the intention of meeting the needs of others by equipping them with the right tools to unleash their potential, so they can act for the greater good. There are four types of values-based leadership.

Values-Based Leadership Perspectives

Authentic Leadership

A pattern of leadership behavior based on honesty, practicality, and ethicality.

Focus on empowerment and trust.

Authentic leadership is a pattern of leadership behavior based on honesty, practicality, and ethicality. Warren Buffett, for instance, empowers his advisors to point out flaws in his reasoning. Support for this type of leadership has been gaining ground as a reaction to the number of corporate scandals and blunders made by high-profile leaders. When authentic leaders find their “true north” or moral compass, they are more focused on empowering their employees, forming meaningful relationships, and fostering an ethical environment.6 Authentic leadership has been associated with improved job performance, increased job satisfaction, greater trust in the leader/follower relationship, and organizational commitment.

Values-Based Leadership Perspectives

Spiritual Leadership

A values-based style of leadership that motivates employees through faith, hope, and vision and encourages positive social emotions, such has forgiveness and gratitude.

Not necessarily religion, but shared values.

Spiritual Leadership is a values-based style of leadership that motivates employees through faith, hope, and vision and encourages positive social emotions such has forgiveness and gratitude. The concept of spirituality is not necessarily connected with religion; rather it is communicated in the workplace through shared values, attitudes, and behaviors. Spiritual leaders use their charisma to unite followers and to encourage them to view their roles as an opportunity for growth and meaningful contribution. Spiritual leadership may be linked to higher organizational commitment and productivity.

Values-Based Leadership Perspectives

Servant Leadership

A pattern of leadership that places an emphasis on employees and the community rather than on the leader.

“Leading from behind.”

Servant leaders are empathic and perceptive.

Servant leadership is a pattern of leadership that places an emphasis on employees and the community rather than on the leader. Servant leaders share their power and tend to “lead from behind,” ensuring the team (not the leader) receives recognition for hard work. They are usually empathic, good listeners, perceptive, and committed to growth in the organization and the community. Servant leadership has been connected with high morale, loyalty, and ethics.

Richard Murphy (1944-2013) is a good example of a servant leader. Murphy, at one time New York City’s commissioner of youth services, founded the Harlem Children’s Zone in New York and created numerous other community learning centers to serve thousands of city students after school hours. He was also the innovator of ground-breaking ideas such as a youth helpline. Uninterested in earning profit or being in the public eye, Murphy was primarily motivated to ensure the well-being of children in disadvantaged areas. Behind the scenes, he championed and supported other leaders and spent his life fighting for social change.

Values-Based Leadership Perspectives

Ethical Leadership

A means of influencing others through personal values, morals, and beliefs.

Importance of honesty, accountability, and fairness.

Ethical leadership is a means of influencing others through personal values, morals, and beliefs. By following their own personal values as well as the organization’s values, ethical leaders are role models for ethical conduct. They communicate honestly and openly about the importance of ethical behavior and hold their followers accountable for failing to uphold organizational values, often rewarding those who consistently demonstrate ethical behavior. Typically, they are fair, honest, principled people who excel at making fair, balanced decisions and who practice what they preach.

Cross-Cultural Leadership

The process of leading across different cultures.

Cross-cultural Leadership Dimensions:

Charismatic/value-based.

Team-oriented.

Participative.

Humane-oriented.

Autonomous.

Self-Protective.

Cross-cultural leadership is the process of leading across different cultures. Many companies and organizations of all sizes employ people from different cultural backgrounds, have branches in other countries, or outsource parts of their business abroad. The six dimensions of the CLT leadership profiles are:57

Charismatic/Value-Based. This dimension captures the leader’s capacity to inspire, motivate, and expect high performance outcomes from others.

Team-Oriented. Team orientation highlights effective team building and the implementation of a common purpose or goal among team members.

Participative. This CLT describes the extent to which managers engage others in making and implementing decisions.

Humane-Oriented. The leadership dimension that signifies supportive, considerate compassionate and generous leadership was thought to be only a moderate contributor to outstanding leadership across all the cultures.

Autonomous. This CLT describes independent and individualistic leadership. Unlike the other dimensions, autonomous leadership is thought to impede or only slightly facilitate outstanding leadership.

Self-Protective. This leadership dimension describes the self-interests of the leader in terms of face-saving, safety, and security and is generally reported to inhibit outstanding leadership.

Cross-Cultural Leadership

Table 11.3: Summary of Comparisons for CLT Leadership Dimensions

Comparisons.

Leadership and Gender

Causes of inequality:

Leadership style and expectations.

Family and career demands.

Professional networks.

Discrimination and stereotypes.

Gender inequality is still the source of much debate.

Leadership and Gender

Ways to Challenge Patterns of Inequality

Minimize prejudice and adjust culture.

Adjust evaluation process.

Adopt open-recruitment methods.

Redress the balance.

Encourage networking.

Keep the doors open.

Provide management opportunities.

Establish family-friendly practices.

Encourage men to use family-friendly benefits.

Allow time to achieve.

Leadership and Gender

Figure 11.8: Maternity Leave Policies Around the World

While more women are achieving leadership positions, there is no doubt that in the United States and other countries they are still underrepresented in higher levels of organizations. For example, there are only 13 women among the 200 highest paid CEOs in the United States and only 27 women CEOs in the Fortune 1000 (see Figure 11.8).