Perception/Motivation - Organizational Behavior Post and Responses

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Chapter 5: Motivation: Concepts and Theoretical Perspectives

The Motivation Process

Motivation is defined as forces from within individuals that stimulate and drive them to achieve goals.

Neck, Organizational Behavior. © SAGE Publications, 2017.

We define motivation as forces from within individuals that stimulate and drive them to achieve goals. But how does motivation affect the way we behave? Motivation is a process by which behavior is energized, meaning we are willing to work hard; directed, meaning we have chosen what to work at; and maintained, meaning we intend to work for some period of time to achieve objectives.

The Motivation Process

Neck, Organizational Behavior. © SAGE Publications, 2017.

Figure 5.1: The Motivation Process

The motivation process is shaped by unsatisfied needs and the resulting tension, as shown in detail in Figure 5.1. For example, you may have an unsatisfied goal to achieve a high grade in an exam, which creates tension. The demand to satisfy this need and relieve the discomfort drives you to study hard, which helps you to attain your goal, thus reducing tension. There are many theories about motivation, but most focus on how motivation is based on different needs and the behavioral outcomes of those needs.

The motivation Process

Categories of Motivation Theories

Content theories explain why people have different needs at different times and how these needs motivate behavior.

Process theories describe the cognitive processes through which needs are translated into behavior.

Neck, Organizational Behavior. © SAGE Publications, 2017.

Researchers have spent decades attempting to identify the underlying factors that motivate people. Needs motivation theories are generally divided into two categories: content theories and process theories. Content theories explain why people have different needs at different times and how these needs motivate behavior. There are four main content theories: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Alderfer’s ERG theory, McClelland’s need theory, and Herzberg’s two-factor theory. Process theories describe the cognitive processes through which needs are translated into behavior. The process theories we will investigate in this chapter are equity theory, expectancy theory, and goal-setting theory.

Needs Theories

Figure 5.2: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Neck, Organizational Behavior. © SAGE Publications, 2017.

SOURCE: Factoryjoe (Mazlow’s Hierarchy of Needs.svg) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons.

Psychologist Abraham Maslow developed one of the most popular needs theories, referred to as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 5 a pyramid of five levels of individual needs with physiological needs at the bottom and self-actualization needs at the top. Each need must be satisfied before we can go on to satisfy the next one. For example, at the base of the pyramid, we need to satisfy the physiological need to eat food and drink water in order to survive before we can satisfy our safety needs such as looking after our families or getting a job. Maslow’s hierarchy is based on the belief that successfully accomplishing the lower level needs leads to the achievement of higher level needs such as gaining confidence, self-esteem, and finally self-actualization.

Needs Theories

ERG Theory

ERG theory suggests that people are motivated by categories of needs arranged in the form of a hierarchy.

Existence.

Relatedness.

Growth.

Neck, Organizational Behavior. © SAGE Publications, 2017.

Developed by psychologist Clayton Alderfer, ERG theory also suggests that people are motivated by categories of needs arranged in the form of a hierarchy. Instead of Maslow’s five need categories, however, Alderfer includes only three: existence needs (E), relatedness needs (R), and growth needs (G). Existence needs are similar to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs, relatedness needs are comparable with Maslow’s love/belonging needs, and growth needs bear similarities to Maslow’s esteem needs and self-actualization needs. Alderfer proposed that instead of satisfying needs one step at a time, we can satisfy different levels in any order or even at the same time depending on the circumstances. ERG theory has received more support from researchers than Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, but further research needs to be carried out to fully test the validity of Alderfer’s model.

Needs Theories

Herzberg’s Two−Factor Theory

Figure 5.3: Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Neck, Organizational Behavior. © SAGE Publications, 2017.

A third theory of motivation, developed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg, is called two-factor theory (or motivation-hygiene theory or dual theory). It explores the impact of motivational influences on job satisfaction. Herzberg conducted interviews with hundreds of workers before identifying two main factors influencing employee behavior: hygiene factors and motivators.

Needs Theories

Herzberg’s Two−Factor Theory

Hygiene factors are sources of job satisfaction such as salary, status, and security.

Motivators include achievement, recognition, and responsibility to build job satisfaction.

Neck, Organizational Behavior. © SAGE Publications, 2017.

Hygiene factors are sources of job satisfaction such as salary, status, and security. Herzberg found that the first step to employee satisfaction was to eliminate poor hygiene factors. For example, if employees do not feel they are being paid enough, employers can remedy the situation by introducing fair and competitive wages. Even when all the poor hygiene factors have been successfully improved or eliminated, however, we have only reduced job dissatisfaction rather than increasing job satisfaction. To correct this, Herzberg suggested that managers need to use motivators such as achievement, recognition, and responsibility to build job satisfaction.

Needs Theories

McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory

Acquired Needs Theory holds that needs are shaped over time, formed by our experience and cultural background.

Need for achievement

Need for affiliation

Need for power

Developed by psychological theorist David McClelland, Acquired Needs Theory holds that our needs are shaped over time and formed by our experiences and cultural background. McClelland classified needs into three main categories: need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power. Although McClelland believed that in each of us one of these needs is the dominant motivator, he also believed that all three, in particular the need for achievement, can be learned through training.

Needs Theories

McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory

Need for achievement is the desire to excel.

Need for affiliation is the desire to belong to a group and be liked.

Need for power is the desire to control and influence others.

Need for achievement is the desire to excel. People who are achievement-oriented are generally positive in nature, tend to set their own goals, thrive on feedback, and take ownership of their work. High achievers do well in challenging environments but may lose motivation in routine roles. Walt Disney is a good example of a person with a desire to excel. While he lost his first character Oswald the Lucky Rabbit to distributors who stole the rights, his high need for achievement, in part, led him to follow his own path inventing subsequent characters such as Mickey Mouse, creating the first full-length animated motion picture (Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs), and creating Disneyland, the first theme park − a remarkable series of achievements.

Need for affiliation is the desire to belong to a group and to be liked. Generally, people who possess this need as a dominant motivator like to maintain the status quo; they tend not to make good managers because they do not like to make unpopular decisions or give orders for fear of falling out of favor with their colleagues. Without daily contact with others, people with strong affiliation needs might lose motivation, which may lead to job dissatisfaction.

Need for power is the desire to control and influence the behavior of others. There are two types of power. Institutional power is the power an individual exerts for the good of the organization and its employees, and personal power is power focused on controlling and manipulating others for personal gain. Dictators Fidel Castro and Adolf Hitler are examples of leaders who used their power to coerce and control their followers.

Needs Theories

Money as a Motivator

Is money a high level need?

Money is one of the primary mechanisms managers use for motivating people in the workplace.

Money is one of the primary mechanisms managers use for motivating people in the workplace. But how does money fit in with the content theories? Generally, money sits with lower level needs: safety and physiological for Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, existence for Alderfer’s ERG theory, and hygiene factors for Hertzberg’s two-factor theory. Money provides us with food, housing, clothing, and all the necessities of life. If money is so important, why did the theorists not consider it a high-level need?

Needs Theories

Comparison of the Four Content Theories of Motivation

Figure 5.4: Comparison of the Four Content Theories of Motivation

Most people who live in modern societies and work in contemporary organizations receive a paycheck that affords them a certain standard of living. This means their lower level needs are already being satisfied. Instead, people focus on higher level needs such as belongingness, esteem, self-actualization according to Maslow, relatedness and growth for Alderfer, and Hertzberg’s motivator factors. Money is not as important here according to these theorists. As the Beatles said, “I don’t care too much for money, ‘cause money can’t buy me love.”

Money can sometimes become a status symbol or an indication of success and some people are paid far more than others. For example, CEO of Discovery Communications, David Zaslav earned $150 million in 2014, making him the highest paid CEO in the United States. However, appealing as it might be to earn millions, money generally does not relate directly to the needs that people are trying to satisfy in the workplace. This is not to say that money is unimportant but rather that it may not be the most important or most effective motivator. For example, promising an employee a ten cent per hour raise or a $300 year-end bonus may not necessarily increase motivation. Instead, as these theories suggest, people are motivated by their affiliation with others and the opportunity to achieve, grow, and be recognized for their accomplishments.