Perception/Motivation - Organizational Behavior Post and Responses

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Chapter 4: Perceptions and Learning

Learning Processes: Behavioral Theory

Learning is an ongoing process in which individuals adjust their behavior based on experience.

Neck, Organizational Behavior. © SAGE Publications, 2017.

Perception is shaped by learning, an ongoing process in which individuals adjust their behavior based on experience.19 Understanding the way we learn is essential to OB, since it has a direct influence on our work performance, our ability to relate to others, and our career progression. We all learn in different ways, and it is never too late to learn new skills. In fact, recent studies have shown that contrary to common thought, it is not just children who can easily absorb new languages; adults are just as capable of learning new linguistic skills with the same ease. Indeed, studies demonstrate that we are capable of learning any new skill, or even a few at a time, as long as we change our mindset and focus on the task at hand.20

Learning Processes: Behavioral Theory

Classical Conditioning

Neck, Organizational Behavior. © SAGE Publications, 2017.

Figure 4.3: Classical Conditioning

The concept of classical conditioning was developed by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Classical conditioning suggests that learning can be accomplished through the use of stimuli. Pavlov’s most famous experiment used different stimuli to elicit a behavioral response in dogs. Pavlov found that dogs began to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell — a neutral stimulus — before they were given food — an unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, the bell became a conditioned stimulus that caused the dogs to salivate (conditioned response) without the food being present.

OB in the real world

Operant Conditioning Theory

Operant conditioning is the process of forming associations between learning and behavior by controlling its consequences.

Neck, Organizational Behavior. © SAGE Publications, 2017.

Operant conditioning is the process of forming associations between learning and behavior that occurs when the consequences of behavior are being controlled. At the root of operant conditioning is the law of effect theory devised by U.S. psychologist E.L. Thorndike, which states that behavior followed by pleasant results is more likely to be repeated, whereas behavior followed by unpleasant results is not.23 For example, if your boss reprimands you for being late to work, you are less likely to repeat the behavior. Theorists have since refined operant conditioning into the more comprehensive reinforcement theory.

Learning Processes: Behavioral Theory

Reinforcement Theory

Neck, Organizational Behavior. © SAGE Publications, 2017.

Figure 4.4: Reinforcement Theory

Pioneered by psychologist B.F. Skinner and his colleagues, reinforcement theory is the most fully developed theory of operant conditioning to date. We define reinforcement as the application of consequences for the purpose of establishing patterns of behavior. Within reinforcement theory, behavior is a function of its consequences and is determined exclusively by environmental factors such as external stimuli and other reinforcers. The steps in the reinforcement process, sometimes referred to as the ABC’s of behavior, are outlined in Figure 4.4.

Learning Processes: Behavioral Theory

Positive and Negative Reinforcement

Positive Reinforcement

Positive consequences are used to reinforce certain behaviors.

Negative Reinforcement

It is the removal of previously experienced negative consequences, resulting in the likelihood that certain behaviors will occur again.

Neck, Organizational Behavior. © SAGE Publications, 2017.

Many managers use positive reinforcement, where positive consequences are used to reinforce certain behaviors to make the employee more likely to behave in similar ways in the same or similar situations. Conversely, negative reinforcement is the removal of previously experienced negative consequences, resulting in the likelihood that certain behaviors will occur again in the same or similar situations.

Learning Processes: Behavioral Theory

Punishment vs. Extinction

Punishment is

Unpleasant consequences.

Removal of positive consequences.

Extinction is

Absence of any consequences – positive or negative.

Neck, Organizational Behavior. © SAGE Publications, 2017.

Punishment is the administration of unpleasant consequences or removal of positive ones for the purpose of discouraging undesirable behavior. There are two types of punishment: positive punishment, the administering of unpleasant consequences, and negative punishment, the removal of pleasant consequences.

Using punishment techniques in the workplace can often be risky and demotivating, which is why many managers often choose extinction, the absence of any consequences, which reduces the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations.32 In one example, an employee continually makes jokes during important meetings, resulting in disapproving frowns from some of his teammates and laughter from others. In this situation, the employee may be seeking attention which both the positive and negative reactions are rewarding. The manager instructs the rest of the team to pay no attention to this person during meetings. As a result, he no longer makes jokes because the reinforcing consequences of that behavior have been removed.

Learning Processes: Behavioral Theory

Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement

Intermittent reinforcement

Fixed interval schedule.

Fixed ratio schedule.

Variable interval schedule.

Variable ratio schedule.

Neck, Organizational Behavior. © SAGE Publications, 2017.

Schedules of reinforcement determine how often specific instances of behaviors will be reinforced. In the real world, it is unrealistic to think that every single behavior will be reinforced every time it occurs, but some organizations select a reinforcement schedule when they are trying to deliberately reinforce specific desired behaviors. There are two main types of schedules: continuous reinforcement and intermittent reinforcement.

Continuous reinforcement is a reinforcement schedule in which behavior is rewarded every time it takes place. In intermittent reinforcement, behavior is not rewarded every time it occurs.34 There are four types of intermittent schedules:

Many companies use a fixed interval schedule, a reward provided only after a certain period of time has elapsed, as the most common form of reinforcement schedule.

A fixed ratio schedule is followed when desired behaviors are rewarded after they have been exhibited a fixed number of times.

A variable interval schedule is designed to reinforce behavior at varying times.

Finally, a variable ratio schedule rewards people after the desired behavior has occurred after a varying number of times..

Learning Processes: The Cognitive View

In Social Cognitive Theory we learn by observing, imitating, and modeling the behavior of others within a social context.

In social cognitive theory, psychologist Albert Bandura proposed that we learn by observing, imitating, and modeling the behavior of others within our social context. The theory holds that our cognitive processes, which include awareness, perception, reasoning and judgment, play important roles in how we learn new knowledge and skills.

Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy describes our personal belief in our ability to perform certain tasks or behaviors.

Learning Processes: The Cognitive View

The first is self-efficacy describes our personal belief in our ability to perform certain tasks or behaviors. For example, if you feel very confident speaking in public then you have high self-efficacy with regard to public speaking; on the other hand, if you feel very nervous about giving a speech in front of an audience, you have low efficacy in this area.

Vicarious Learning

Vicarious learning is a process of learning by watching the actions or behaviors of another person.

Learning Processes: The Cognitive View

The second component of social cognitive theory is vicarious learning, a process of learning by watching the actions or behaviors of another person. Vicarious learning influences our degree of self-efficacy. For example, if you see a colleague on a similar career path successfully giving the weekly presentation during a meeting, you might be more inclined to volunteer to do the next one, because you have observed this event as a positive experience thereby increasing your self-efficacy for doing presentations. However, if you observe the same colleague stumble nervously through the presentation, it might give you second thoughts about doing one yourself, resulting in low self-efficacy for giving presentations.

Self-regulation

Self-regulation is the process in which we set goals that create a discrepancy between a desired state and a current state.

Learning Processes: The Cognitive View

The third factor is self-regulation, the process in which we set goals that create a discrepancy between a desired state and a current state. This discrepancy creates tension, which drives us to increase effort to reduce tension and reach the goal. For example, your manager sets a goal for you to complete a complex project within two weeks; you might feel uncomfortable or nervous about your ability to achieve the goal within the allotted timeframe, so you work harder in order to reduce your feelings of discomfort and to successfully complete the assignment on time.

Examining The evidence

Figure 4.5: Triadic Reciprocal Model of Behavior

Bandura also believed human functioning is shaped by three factors that are reciprocally related: reinforcement, cognitive processes and behavior. The relationship is shown graphically in the triadic reciprocal model of behavior.