Unit 2: : Case Study

Arod229

Neck2e_PPT_03.pptx

Home >Business & Finance homework help >Operations Management homework help >Unit 2: : Case Study

Chapter 3

Perception and Learning

Case Study: “Twitter’s Adaptability”

Case Questions:

1. What was valuable about Evan Williams’ decision to task his employees with mustering up a new business idea?

2. How are employee empowerment, adaptability, and on the job training related?

Neck, Organizational Behavior, 2e. © SAGE Publishing, 2020.

Perception: Interpreting Our Environment

Perception: The process by which we receive and interpret information from our environment.

Managing perceptions in the workplace is important for nurturing a healthy organizational culture.

Neck, Organizational Behavior, 2e. © SAGE Publishing, 2020.

LO 3.1 Describe the basic concept of perception

Managing perceptions in the workplace is important for nurturing a healthy organizational culture, especially when people hold different perceptions about their colleagues, how tasks are carried out, and even the organization itself.

A number of years ago, the Washington Post carried out an experiment in perception by placing world-famous violinist Joshua Bell, disguised as a street musician, in a Washington Metro station. Wearing a baseball cap, T-shirt, and jeans, Bell performed a 43-min set of six classical pieces for unsuspecting commuters. Of the 1,097 who passed by, only 7 stopped for just over a minute to listen to his virtuoso performance before continuing their journey. By the end of his performance, the virtuoso Bell had made a grand total of US$30 and a few cents--hardly enough to buy a ticket to one of his own sell-out concerts.

So what does this experiment tell us about perception? Was it because Bell was dressed as a street musician that the commuters didn’t stop to listen? Or was it because of the setting--after all, how likely is it that a world-famous musician would perform for free in a Metro station? Whatever the reason, we can conclude that most people perceived Bell to be someone other than who he was, which affected their ability to recognize and appreciate his talent as a musician.

Perception: Interpreting Our Environment (Cont.)

Neck, Organizational Behavior, 2e. © SAGE Publishing, 2020.

3.1 Describe the basic concept of perception

Figure 3.1 Optical Illusion

Source: http://www.goillusions.com/2015/05/three-or-four-perspective-matters.html.

Take a look at the Figure 3.1. What do you see?

You might say you see three bars while someone else sees four. In this trick, drawing neither answer is the “right” one. The cartoon illustrates the fact that we often perceive things differently from one another.

Perception: Interpreting Our Environment (Cont.)

Components of the Selection Process:

Perceiver

Environment

Focal Object

Neck, Organizational Behavior, 2e. © SAGE Publishing, 2020.

LO 3.1 Describe the basic concept of perception

Perceiver--Perceptions are shaped by past experiences, culture, attitude, values, upbringing, and more. This means the nature of the perceiver has a strong influence on the perceptual process. For example, say you were raised in an environment where working hard and being on time were considered very important. You might have a negative attitude toward a coworker who comes to work late or takes long work breaks. Once you have formed this perception, it might be difficult for you to change your mind about your coworker even if he performs well.

Environment--The context or the setting also affects the perception process. For example, you may not notice a person dressed in athletic attire running on the street, but if she turned up at a high-level work meeting in the same clothes, she would definitely look out of place.

Focal Object--The person, thing, or event being interpreted also affects our perception. We perceive people who stand out differently from others--a work colleague who is vocal in meetings might be perceived differently from one who says very little.

Perception: Interpreting Our Environment (Cont.)

Why Is Perception Important?

In 1936, psychologist Kurt Lewin observed that people act not upon the basis of reality, but upon their perceptions of reality.

We tend to interpret events differently from what actually happens in our environment.

Neck, Organizational Behavior, 2e. © SAGE Publishing, 2020.

LO 3.1 Describe the basic concept of perception

Understanding perception is a critical part of understanding behavior. In the workplace, the way we are perceived and the way in which we perceive others are crucial for career progress and for building our relationships.

For example, a salesperson’s success or failure depends on how he is perceived by prospective customers. He could have all the knowledge in the world about a product, but if he is perceived as overeager or too talkative, he is unlikely to make the sale.

Uncritically allowing our perceptions to take control can create distorted versions of reality that can be very harmful to working relationships.

Common Perceptual Distortions

Common perceptual distortions:

Stereotypes

Selective attention

Halo effect

Primacy effect

Recency effect

Neck, Organizational Behavior, 2e. © SAGE Publishing, 2020.

LO 3.2 Explain the different types of perceptual distortions

Stereotypes: An individual’s fixed beliefs about the characteristics of a particular group.

Selective attention: The tendency to selectively focus on aspects of situations that are most aligned with our own interests, values, and attitudes.

Halo effect: A perception problem through which we form a positive or negative bias of an individual based on our overall impressions of that person.

Primacy effect: A perception problem through which an individual assesses a person quickly on the basis of the first information encountered.

Recency effect: A perception problem through which we use the most recent information available to assess a person.

Common Perceptual Distortions (Cont.)

Common perceptual distortions:

Contrast effect

Projecting

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Impression management (IM)

Ingratiation

Neck, Organizational Behavior, 2e. © SAGE Publishing, 2020.

LO 3.2 Explain the different types of perceptual distortions

Contrast effect: An effect that takes place when people rank something higher or lower than they should as a result of exposure to recent events or situations.

Projecting: A process through which people ascribe their own personal attributes onto others.

Self-fulfilling prophecy: The way a person behaves based on pre-existing expectations about another person or situation so as to create an outcome that is aligned with those expectations.

Impression management: The process by which we attempt to influence the perceptions others may have of us.

Ingratiation: A strategy of winning favor and putting oneself in the good graces of others before making a request.

Common Attribution Errors

Attribution theory: suggests that people look for two causes to explain the behaviour of others:

Internal attributions--personal characteristics

External attributions--situational factors

Neck, Organizational Behavior, 2e. © SAGE Publishing, 2020.

LO 3.3 Apply attribution theory to more effectively interpret behavior

Attribution theory holds that people look for two causes to explain the behavior of others: internal attributions, which are personal characteristics of others, and external attributions, which are situational factors.

For example, say you worked with a colleague called Tom who has a problem with absenteeism. How would you make sense of his behavior? Do you think he is lazy and indifferent? Or do you think he is so overloaded with responsibilities that he finds the prospect of coming to work overwhelming? If you choose the first option, you would ascribe Tom’s behavior to internal causes: you believe Tom’s absenteeism is a result of laziness and apathy. However, if you choose the latter option, you are attributing Tom’s behavior to external causes: you blame overwhelming amounts of work for his poor attendance record.

Common Attribution Errors (Cont.)

Neck, Organizational Behavior, 2e. © SAGE Publishing, 2020.

LO 3.3 Apply attribution theory to more effectively interpret behavior

Figure 3.2 Determinants of Attribution

Source: Based on Mehlman, R. C., & Snyder, C. R. (1985). Excuse theory: A test of the self-protective role of attributions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 994–1001.

Three factors influence our internal and external attributions: consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus, as outlined in Figure 3.2 above.

Common Attribution Errors (Cont.)

Three factors influence our internal and external attributions:

Consistency

Distinctiveness

Consensus

Neck, Organizational Behavior, 2e. © SAGE Publishing, 2020.

LO 3.3 Apply attribution theory to more effectively interpret behavior

Consistency is the extent to which a person responds in the same way over a period of time. For example, Tom is late arriving at work every morning (high consistency in the same situation), we tend to ascribe his tardiness to internal causes and assume he is just not a punctual person. If, however, he is only late to work on Fridays (low consistency in the same situation), then we might assume an external cause, such as his wife must be at work early on Fridays and he must drop his children off at school.

Distinctiveness is the extent to which a person behaves consistently in similar situations. For example, if Tom tends to be frequently late to work, late returning from lunch, and late to mid-morning staff meetings (low distinctiveness across situations), we might ascribe his behavior to internal factors such as being lazy and indifferent. Conversely, if Tom is punctual in most situations but is sometimes late returning from lunch (high distinctiveness across situations), we might ascribe his tardiness in that particular situation to the fact that he sometimes visits his aging grandmother during lunch to see if she needs any heavy chores done around her house.

Consensus looks at how everyone else responds in the same situation. For example, if several people in the office are absent or late on the same day (high consensus with other people in the same situation), we might ascribe this behavior to an external attribution such as a dust storm that has slowed the morning commute for everyone or a virus or flu that has spread through the office. Conversely, if everyone else but Tom has arrived on time and is not absent on a given day (low consensus with other people in the same situation), we are more likely to attribute Tom’s tardiness or absence to internal factors.

Common Attribution Errors (Cont.)

Fundamental attribution error: Tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the impact of internal factors when making judgments about behavior of others.

Self-serving bias: The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors and put the blame for failures on external factors.

Neck, Organizational Behavior, 2e. © SAGE Publishing, 2020.

LO 3.3 Apply attribution theory to more effectively interpret behavior

There are two common attribution errors: fundamental attribution error and self-serving bias.

Self-serving bias is the tendency for individuals to attribute external factors more than internal factors for one’s own failures. For example, say you got top marks in an exam, you might attribute your success to studying hard (internal factors). But what if you failed? Instead of accepting your lack of study as the reason you failed, you might blame external factors such as the room being too warm, or being tired.

Fundamental attribution error is the inclination to attribute internal factors to the behavior of others more than external factors. For example, if we are working with someone we perceive to be difficult or who keeps making mistakes, we might put the blame on some facet of their personality such as laziness or disorganized. However, when we make a mistake, we usually attribute the error to our own situation (“I made a mistake because I’m tired, stressed, working too hard . . .”) rather than blaming our own personality.

Learning Processes: Behavioral Theory

Learning: Ongoing process through which individuals adjust their behaviour based on experience.

Classical conditioning: Conditioning concept developed by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov that suggests that learning can be accomplished through the use of stimuli.

Neck, Organizational Behavior, 2e. © SAGE Publishing, 2020.

LO 3.4 Use reinforcement theory to understand learning and modify behavior

Perception is shaped by learning, an ongoing process through which individuals adjust their behavior based on experience. Understanding the way we learn is essential to OB because it has a direct influence on our work performance, our ability to relate to others, and our career progression. We all learn in different ways, and it is never too late to learn new skills.

The concept of classical conditioning was developed by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Classical conditioning suggests that learning can be accomplished through the use of stimuli. Pavlov’s most famous experiment used different stimuli to elicit a behavioral response in dogs. Pavlov found that dogs began to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell--a neutral stimulus--before they were given food--an unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, the bell became a conditioned stimulus that caused the dogs to salivate (conditioned response) without the food being present.

Learning Processes: Behavioral Theory (Cont.)

Neck, Organizational Behavior, 2e. © SAGE Publishing, 2020.

LO 3.4 Use reinforcement theory to understand learning and modify behavior

Figure 3.3 Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s most famous experiment used different stimuli to elicit a behavioral response in dogs. Pavlov found that dogs began to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell--a neutral stimulus--before they were given food--an unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, the bell became a conditioned stimulus that caused the dogs to salivate (conditioned response) without the food being present. The steps are outlined in Figure 3.3 above.

Learning Processes: Behavioral Theory (Cont.)

Operant Conditioning--The process of forming associations between learning and behaviour by controlling its consequences.

Neck, Organizational Behavior, 2e. © SAGE Publishing, 2020.

LO 3.4 Use reinforcement theory to understand learning and modify behavior

Operant conditioning is the process of forming associations between learning and behavior that occurs when the consequences of behavior are being controlled. At the root of operant conditioning is the law of effect theory devised by U.S. psychologist E. L. Thorndike, which states that behavior followed by pleasant results is more likely to be repeated, whereas behavior followed by unpleasant results is not.

For example, if your boss reprimands you for being late to work, you are less likely to repeat the behavior. Theorists have since refined operant conditioning into the more comprehensive reinforcement theory.

Learning Processes: Behavioral Theory (Cont.)

Reinforcement Theory:

Reinforcement

Reinforcement Theory

Organizational Behaviour Modification

Neck, Organizational Behavior, 2e. © SAGE Publishing, 2020.

LO 3.4 Use reinforcement theory to understand learning and modify behavior

Reinforcement--The application of consequences to establish patterns of behaviour.

Reinforcement Theory--A theory that states that behaviour is a function of its consequences and is determined exclusively by environmental factors such as external stimuli and other reinforcers.

Organizational Behaviour Modification: The use of behavioural techniques to reinforce positive work behavior and discourage unhelpful work behaviour.

Learning Processes: Behavioral Theory (Cont.)

Neck, Organizational Behavior, 2e. © SAGE Publishing, 2020.

LO 3.4 Use reinforcement theory to understand learning and modify behavior

Figure 3.4 Reinforcement Theory

Learning Processes: Behavioral Theory (Cont.)

Positive reinforcement--reinforcement contingency through which behaviours followed by positive consequences.

Negative reinforcement--reinforcement contingency through which behaviours are followed by the removal of previously experienced negative consequences.

LO 3.4 Use reinforcement theory to understand learning and modify behavior

Many managers use positive reinforcement, in which positive consequences are used to reinforce positive behaviors to make the employee more likely to behave in similar ways in the same or similar situations. Disney applies positive reinforcement through recognition programs and by showing sincere appreciation for its employees by writing personal thank you notes.

Negative reinforcement is the removal of a particular item or stimulus following the demonstration of a certain behavior in order to increase that behavior. For example, say you hate when your mom nags you to wash the dishes. You might start doing the dishes immediately after the meal is finished in order to avoid your mom’s nagging.

Learning Processes: Behavioral Theory (Cont.)

Punishment: Unpleasant consequences or removal of positive consequences to discourage undesirable behavior

Positive Punishment

Negative Punishment

Extinction: Absence of any consequences to reduce likelihood of behavior being repeated

LO 3.4 Use reinforcement theory to understand learning and modify behavior

Punishment is the administration of unpleasant consequences or removal of positive ones for the purpose of discouraging undesirable behavior. There are two types of punishment: positive punishment--the administering of unpleasant consequences--and negative punishment--the removal of pleasant consequences.

For example, say your manager reprimands you for interrupting him during a meeting--this is positive punishment because your manager has administered unpleasant consequences that decrease the likelihood of your interrupting him again. Conversely, suppose that after the interruption your manager stops addressing comments to you and asking for your input, this is negative punishment because your manager has removed positively reinforcing consequences in an effort to eliminate your unappreciated behavior.

Learning Processes: Behavioral Theory (Cont.)

Schedules of Reinforcement: determine how instances of behaviors will be reinforced

Continuous reinforcement

Intermittent reinforcement

Fixed interval schedule

Fixed ratio schedule

Variable interval schedule

Variable ratio schedule

LO 3.4 Use reinforcement theory to understand learning and modify behavior

Continuous reinforcement is a reinforcement schedule in which behavior is rewarded every time it takes place. For example, some companies reward their sales teams with commissions every time they make a sale.

Intermittent reinforcement is not rewarded every time it occurs. There are four types of intermittent schedules:

Many companies use a fixed interval schedule, a reward provided only after a certain period of time has elapsed, as the most common form of reinforcement schedule. For example, employees receive a monthly or annual paycheck for working during a fixed period of time or interval.

A fixed ratio schedule is followed when desired behaviors are rewarded after they have been exhibited a fixed number of times. For example, production line workers may be rewarded with a cash incentive every time they produce a certain number of items.

A variable interval schedule is designed to reinforce behavior at varying times. For example, an employee may be rewarded with high praise following desirable behavior during periods of different length. However, employers need to ensure that too much time does not pass between reinforcements, because this might reduce the schedule’s effectiveness.

Finally, a variable ratio schedule rewards people after the desired behavior has occurred after a varying number of times. For example, in a call center, the more calls workers make, the higher the chance of closing a sale, leading to greater financial compensation.

Learning Processes: The Cognitive View

Social cognitive theory: proposes that learning takes place through observation, imitation, and modeling of others within a social context.

Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory:

Self-efficacy: belief we have in our ability to succeed in a specific task or situation.

LO 3.5 Apply social cognitive theory to social learning and cognitive processes

In social cognitive theory, psychologist Albert Bandura proposed that we learn by observing, imitating, and modeling the behavior of others within our social context. The theory holds that our cognitive processes, which include awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment, play important roles in how we learn new knowledge and skills. This type of learning is particularly significant in the workplace, where employees tend to model the behavior of their managers.

For example, a manager who demonstrates commitment, works late when needed, and completes projects on time is likely to lead a team with a similar work ethic. Conversely, if a manager arrives to work late, leaves early, and takes long lunch breaks, then employees are likely to imitate this behavior, leading to a decrease in work productivity and performance.

Self-efficacy describes our personal belief in our ability to perform certain tasks or behaviors.

For example, Twitter’s policy of entrusting its employees to put their learning into practice gives them a high degree of self-efficacy.

Learning Processes: The Cognitive View (Cont.)

- Vicarious learning: process of learning by watching the actions or behaviors of another person.

- Self-regulation: process whereby people set goals, creating a discrepancy between the desired state and the current state.

LO 3.5 Apply social cognitive theory to social learning and cognitive processes

Vicarious learning--a process of learning by watching the actions or behaviors of another person.

Twitter encourages its employees to learn by emulating the behavior of their managers. Similarly, Currency Capital fosters vicarious learning through its mentorship program where new hires learn from seasoned high-performing employees. Vicarious learning is particularly important in organizations as it encourages the sharing of knowledge among employees.

Self-regulation--the process in which we set goals that create a discrepancy between a desired state and a current state. This discrepancy creates tension, which drives us to increase effort to reduce tension and reach the goal.

For example, your manager sets a goal for you to complete a complex project within 2 weeks; you might feel uncomfortable or nervous about your ability to achieve the goal within the allotted time frame, so you work harder in order to reduce your feelings of discomfort and to successfully complete the assignment on time.

Learning Processes: The Cognitive View (Cont.)

LO 3.5 Apply social cognitive theory to social learning and cognitive processes

Figure 3.5 Triadic Reciprocal Model of Behavior

Bandura believed human functioning is shaped by three factors that are reciprocally related: reinforcement, cognitive processes, and behavior. The relationship is shown graphically in the triadic reciprocal model of behavior (Figure 3.5) above.

Learning Processes: The Cognitive View (Cont.)

Triadic reciprocal model of behaviour: A model that shows human functioning shaped by three factors that are reciprocally related: reinforcement, cognitive processes, and behaviour.

LO 3.5 Apply social cognitive theory to social learning and cognitive processes

Consider two quarterbacks in a football game. The first throws an interception. This causes him to think that he is not an effective passer and lowers his self-efficacy for completing passes. Lower self-efficacy causes him to become tentative, make more mistakes, and throw more incompletions and interceptions. His poor play encourages the defensive players to try even harder, which creates more negative reinforcers in the form of pressure. In contrast, the second quarterback also throws an interception. However, unlike the first, he acknowledges his mistake and is determined to try harder; his self-efficacy remains constant. He increases his efforts, which leads to a touchdown pass. This success increases his self-efficacy even further. The defensive players become tentative because of his good play, which leads to even more success for the quarterback.