Philosophy
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NatureofPhilosophy1.pptxIntroduction to Philosophy Philosophy 1301
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Tips for Doing Well in this Class
Have an open, yet critical mind.
Tolerate a certain amount of ambivalence.
“The test of a first rate intelligence is the ability to hold two opposed ideas in the mind at the same time and still retain the ability to function.” -- F. Scott Fitzgerald
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Tips for Doing Well in this Class
Engage in critical thinking—not rationalization.
Examine an argument’s presuppositions—yours as well as others.
Characterize your opponent’s position fairly before criticizing it [Straw Man].
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Tips for Doing Well in this Class
Do not get defensive. Try to articulate the reasons for why you hold a certain position. That is, what arguments, evidence, and reasons can you put forth in support of your position?
Don’t let your ego impede the critical thinking process.
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Pacific Division
Central Division
Eastern Division
American Philosophical Association Largest general philosophical organization in the English-speaking world
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Traditional Divisions of Philosophy
Epistemology—theory of human knowledge
Metaphysics—nature and structure of reality
Ethics—right and wrong; good and bad
Logic—principles of reasoning
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Branches of Philosophy
| Philosophy of Science Philosophy of Religion Philosophy of Law Philosophy of Medicine Philosophy of Technology | Philosophy of History Philosophy of Mind Philosophy of Language Philosophy of Art Social/Political Philosophy |
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Important for philosophers to understand the discipline about which they are philosophizing. Otherwise, they risk criticisms from experts in those fields.
Lewis Wolpert (scientist) criticizing Philip Kitcher (philosopher): “Once again, I have been disappointed by a philosophical analysis of the nature of science. And I am left wondering, do philosophers really have anything useful to tell scientists?”
Next few slides give examples of philosophers who have training/education in another discipline.
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Brian Leiter
Philosophy of Law
PhD, Philosophy
JD, Law
University of Chicago
http://www.philosophicalgourmet.com/
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H. Tristram Engelhardt, Jr.
Philosophy of Medicine
PhD, Philosophy
MD, Medicine
Rice University
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Lindley Darden
Philosophy of Science
PhD, Conceptual Foundations of Science
MS, Biology
MA, Philosophy
UM—College Park
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Massimo Pigliucci
Philosophy of Science
PhD, Philosophy
PhD, Botany
PhD, Genetics
SUNY—Stony Brook
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William Dembski
Philosophy of Science
Philosophy of Religion
PhD, Philosophy
PhD, Mathematics
M.Div., Theology
M.A., Philosophy
S.M., Mathematics
M.S., Statistics
B.A., Psychology
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Nobel Prize Laureates Who Were Philosophers
Henry Bergson (1927)
Bertrand Russell (1950)
Albert Camus (1957)
Jean-Paul Sartre (1964, Prize Declined)
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Distinction
Popular philosophers
Academic philosophers
Work in academic institutions
Conduct research
Write and publish articles in journals
Present papers at conferences
Serve on editorial boards
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Characteristics of (the Great) Academic Philosophers
Lost one or both parents before the age of seven.
Were ineffective in their social relationships.
Complained of social isolation and loneliness.
Were paranoid hypochondriacal.
Suffered from prolonged periods of clinical and even suicidal depression.
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Characteristics of (the Great) Philosophers
Were unmarried.
Were notoriously aggressive in contact with others.
Were quarrelsome and quick to take offense.
Were usually ineffective in practical and financial matters.
Were interested in the very things they were not good at (such as politics and ethics).
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So What Is Philosophy?
The art of wonder.
The word “philosophy” comes from two Greek words meaning “the love of wisdom.”
“Hard thinking” -- Alvin Plantinga
Analysis and critique of fundamental beliefs and concepts (Manuel Velasquez)
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“Having” a Philosophy versus “Doing” Philosophy
Everyone has a philosophy, a collection of beliefs that guide actions.
Belief Action
“Doing” philosophy is to actively think critically about beliefs.
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Why Study Philosophy?
Philosophy helps penetrate the surface of life to confront deeper questions.
Philosophy helps students explore, reflect, and think critically to enrich their lives.
Helps answer the question: “What is it all about?”
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Why Study Philosophy?
Critical thinking skills, writing skills, speaking skills
Liberation from prejudice and provincialism
Understanding society
Help with standardized tests such as the GRE.
Not usually taught before college
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Guard against propaganda
Intrinsically interesting
Helps fulfill our “self-actualization” needs (Abraham Maslow)
Expansion of one’s intellectual horizon (Fishbowl, Allegory of the Cave, and Groupthink)
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According to Maslow, self-actualized people have the following characteristics:
have thoughtfully developed moral standards
are open-minded
use reasoned argument when challenged
use reflective analysis
live their values
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Generally speaking, philosophers do not accept a statement solely on the basis of an individual’s authority, no matter how eminent.
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Example: Einstein’s expertise lies in physics--not religion, politics, or gardening.
In 1921 a rabbi sent Albert Einstein a telegram with the question: “Do you believe in God?”
Einstein’s response: “I believe in Spinoza’s God, who reveals himself in the orderly harmony of what exists, not in a God who concerns himself with the fate and the doings of mankind.”
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Fallacy of Inappropriate Authority
We base much of what we
believe on the evidence of
authority, and citing an
authority is a legitimate way
of justifying a belief.
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Fallacy of Inappropriate Authority
A fallacy, however, is committed when the authority cited is not an authority in the proper area. The expertise of the authority is thus irrelevant to the claim and provides no support for it.
Logical Fallacy: Appeal to Inappropriate Authority (Ad Verecundiam)
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The Goal of Philosophy:
Intellectual Autonomy
“The freedom of being able to decide for yourself what you will believe in by using your own reasoning abilities.” (Kant)
In other words, learn to think for yourself.
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Immanuel Kant
Enlightenment is man’s emergence from his self-imposed immaturity. Immaturity is the inability to use one’s understanding without guidance from another. This immaturity is self-imposed when its cause lies not in lack of understanding, but in lack of resolve and courage to use it without guidance from another. “Have courage to use your own understanding!”—that is the motto of enlightenment.
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Immanuel Kant
Laziness and cowardice are the reasons why so great a proportion of men . . . gladly remain in lifelong immaturity, and why it is so easy for others to establish themselves as their guardians. It is so easy to be immature. If I have a book to serve as my understanding, a pastor to serve as my conscience, a physician to determine my diet for me, and so on, I need not exert myself at all. I need not think, if only I can pay: others will readily undertake the irksome work for me.
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Bertrand Russell
A pioneer in modern logic and also wrote on politics, religion, marriage, and ethics.
Although philosophy does not give certain answers, it does show possibilities.
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Martha Nussbaum
“Philosophy should be responsive to human experience and yet critical of the defective thinking it sometimes encounters.”
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Critical Thinking as the Mean between Two Extremes
Gullible Critical Thinking Closed-Minded
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Daniel Robinson
“It helps us develop a critical perspective on our knowledge claims. We all go through life bloated with opinions and convictions. Philosophy brings discipline to that. With it, we can step back and treat our own claims as if they were served up by somebody else. They become proper objects of skeptical concern.”
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Ludwig Wittgenstein
"Philosophy aims at the logical clarification of thoughts. Philosophy is not a body of doctrine but an activity. . . . Without philosophy thoughts are, as it were, cloudy and indistinct: its task is to make them clear and to give them sharp boundaries."
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Philosophy Emphasizes Rational Arguments
Philosophers search for rationally compelling reasons for belief.
The goal is reasoned, rational, and supportable views, rather than off-the-cuff opinions.
Justifying (not Rationalizing) One’s Beliefs
To what extent is the belief supported by sound reasons and compelling evidence derived from reliable sources?
Have you subjected your beliefs to criticisms?
To what extent is the belief consistent with other beliefs you have about the world?
If I were a member of this racial group or gender, would I still endorse those beliefs?
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Manuel Velasquez
Philosophy is the critical and rational examination of the most fundamental assumptions that underlie our lives, an activity of concern to men and women of all cultures and races.
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The Price of Philosophy
Long painstaking study and careful examination and re-examination of ideas, outlooks, and assertions.
This process is ongoing.
The risk of unmasking cherished personal and cultural assumptions.
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The Need For Critical Thinking
Will Durant: “Man is an emotional animal, occasionally rational; and through his feelings he can be deceived to his heart’s content.”
Plato: We should experience/express emotions, but keep them in check.
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The Need For Critical Thinking
Lord Lytton: “The easiest person to deceive is one’s self.”
Demosthenes: “Nothing is easier than self-deceit. For what each man wishes, that he also believes to be true.”
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Becoming a Critical Thinker
A critical thinker has a knowledgeable understanding of the world, a capacity for penetrating insight and intelligent judgment, and sophisticated thinking and language abilities.
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Becoming a Critical Thinker Involves . . .
Carefully analyzing and evaluating beliefs.
Viewing situations from different perspectives.
Supporting viewpoints with reasons and evidence.
Critically evaluating the logic, relevance, and validity of information.
Asking penetrating questions at every cognitive level of complexity.
Communicating effectively through speaking and writing.
Engaging in Socratic analysis.
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Critical Thinkers Have These Qualities . . .
| Open-minded | Knowledgeable |
| Mentally Active | Curious |
| Independent Thinkers | Skilled Discussants |
| Insightful | Self-Aware |
| Creative | Passionate |
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Thinking Critically about Philosophical Issues
What is my initial point of view?
How can I define my point of view more clearly?
What is an example of my point of view?
What is the origin of my point of view?
What are my assumptions?
What are the reasons, evidence, and arguments that support my point of view?
What are other points of view on this issue?
What is my conclusion, decision, solution, or prediction?
What are the consequences?
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Critical Thinking
Education is no prophylactic against sloppy, erroneous, or misleading reasoning.
In most academic subjects, students are taught what to think, rather than how to think.
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Critical Thinking
Don’t let your ego prevent you from changing an opinion.
Otherwise, we assume an air of infallibility.
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In Search of Truth
Michael Shermer: “Let reality take precedent in your search for truth.”
Distinguish:
Is it true?
Do I want it to be true?
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Be careful of committing the confirmation bias.
We have a tendency to seek evidence that support our already-held beliefs, and ignore evidence that might counter those beliefs.
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Confirmation Bias
Smart people are prone to the confirmation bias because they’re skilled at rationalizing beliefs that they arrived at for non-smart reasons.
Purported logical arguments become rationalizations of one’s prejudices.
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What Philosophy Is NOT
It is not mere speculation.
Must offer reasons for one’s claims.
And those reasons will be subjected to peer review.
Not the same as theology.
Not psychology.
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