Article 6

Nutrition and Fitness for All Young Children

58 International

Partners

66 Thinking

Skills

78 Interactive

Reading

The journal of the National Association for the Education of Young Children

November 2014

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6 Introduction

8 Preschool. Creating the Nutri­tionally Purposeful Classroom Karrie Kalich, Dottie Bauer, and Deirdre McPartlin

14 Preschool. Healthy Choices Start Early Teresa A. Byington, Anne R. Lindsay, and Madeleine Sigman- Grant

22 Preschool Through Primary Grades. Looking at the Whole Picture: A Wellness Curric­ u lum for Young Children and Their Families Helen L. Johnson and Leigh Shebanie McCallen

28 Toddlers and Preschool. Quality Outdoor Play Spaces for Young Children Karin H. Spencer and Paul M. Wright

36 Preschool. Preventing Child­hood Obesity: Strategies to Help Preschoolers Develop Healthy Eating Habits Brent A. McBride and Dipti A. Dev

58 Internationalizing Your Early Childhood College Program Laurie R. Noe

66 Grade 1. Community Explorers: Critical Thinking Strategies for Supporting Dual Language Learners Tamara Spencer and Lisa Hertzog

72 Kindergarten Through Grade 1. Direct Versus Indirect Teaching of Number Concepts for Ages 4 to 6: The Importance of Thinking Constance Kamii

78 Preschool. Conducting Interactive Reading Experiences Kathy Barclay

84 Meet the Author. Young Children Introduces: Marla Frazee, Pat Mora, and Peter H. Reynolds Meghan Dombrink-Green

88 Toddlers Through Primary Grades. Research in Review. Too Scared to Learn: Teaching Young Children Who Have Experienced Trauma Travis Wright

Nutrition and Fitness for All Young Children

22

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Vol 69 ■ No 5 November 2014 The journal of the National Association for the Education of Young Children

Young Children November 2014

Young Children

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96 The Reading Chair. Isabel Baker and Miriam Baker Schiffer

98 Rocking and Rolling. Why Hurry? Respecting Development and Learning Linda Gillespie and Emily Adams

100 Index of Advertisers

NAEYC News 44 From Our President. Going to Con­ ference Carol Brunson Day n 46 Mak­ ing Connections. Democracy Is Not a Spectator Sport Rhian Evans Allvin n 48 NAEYC.org Highlights n 52 Higher Education Accreditation. NAEYC Early Childhood Associate Degree Accredi­ tation: Valuing the Process and the Professional Recognition Marica Cox Mitchell, Ronda Hawkins, and Michele Cunningham n 56 NAEYC Governing Board and Leadership

ONLINE EXTRAS NAEYC Affiliate Successes. The Early Learning HUB: Transforming Com­ munity Engagement Through Profes­ sional Development and PLAY! Michelle Figlar and Becky Mercatoris n Chil­ dren’s Books About Nutrition and Fitness n Resources on Nutri­ tion and Fitness for All Young Children

Journal Staff Derry Koralek, Chief Publishing Officer and Editor in Chief Amy Shillady, Journal Editor Edwin Malstrom, Director of Creative Services Patrick Cavanagh, Design and Production Catherine Cauman, Senior Editor Meghan Dombrink-Green, Denni John- son, and Steve Olle, Associate Editors Mabel Yu, Assistant Editor and Young Children Permissions Editor Lauren Baker, Assistant Editor Gail Perry, Editor, Voices of Practitioners Marlon Deang, Advertising Sales

NAEYC Executive Staff Rhian Evans Allvin, Executive Director Marica Cox Mitchell, Stephanie A. Morris, Adele Robinson, and Barbara Willer, Deputy Executive Directors The national Association for the Education of Young Children offers early childhood educators professional development opportunities designed to improve the quality of services for children from birth through age 8—the critical years of development.

Become part of a respected and growing network of more than 70,000 members and over 300 local and State Affiliates. Since its founding in 1926, nAEYC has promoted high-quality stan- dards in all programs for children, encouraged professional development, and created leader- ship opportunities at local, state, and national levels. To learn more, contact us:

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Vol 69 ■ No 5 November 2014 The journal of the National Association for the Education of Young Children

Young Children November 2014

Young Children

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T he cover girl for this issue already loves fresh vegetables. Firsthand experiences in the cabbage patch teach her how they grow, what they smell like, and how they taste. Well on her way to making her own healthy choices about nutrition, she represents what educators want

for young children—access to and enjoyment of nutritious foods that build strong bodies.

The school-agers on the opposite page are models for fitness, the other topic addressed in this cluster. They are fortunate enough to attend a school with a playground that offers physical challenges and schedules times when chil- dren can build, test, and stretch their muscles and feel proud of their accomplishments.

Promoting healthy nutrition and fitness in the early childhood years is an important focus for educators. The information and attitudes about food and exercise children acquire in these years will last throughout childhood and beyond. The authors of the articles in this cluster offer research-based and classroom-tested ideas for embedding positive messages about wellness in any early childhood classroom.

“Creating the Nutritionally Purposeful Classroom,” by Karrie Kalich, Dottie Bauer, and Deirdre McPartlin, offers much encouragement and many developmentally appro- priate strategies to help preschool teachers guide children toward making healthy dietary choices. The authors present ideas for the classroom and for communicating with fami- lies about encouraging children to eat healthy food.

Teresa A. Byington, Anne R. Lindsay, and Madeleine Sigman-Grant, authors of “Healthy Choices Start Early,” provide an overview of a successful childhood obesity pre- vention curriculum for preschoolers, their families, and their teachers. The curriculum’s 21 lessons and three family events promote healthy habits and address early learning standards through dance, music, and health and fitness activities.

In “Looking at the Whole Picture: A Wellness Curricu- lum for Young Children and Their Families,” Helen L. Johnson and Leigh Shebanie McCallen describe classroom and schoolwide wellness curricula that feature positive tone and models, holistic and contextualized perspectives, and embedded design. The authors share wellness promotion activities that take place at school and through partnerships with families.

Nutrition and Fitness

for All Young Children

Scan for resources Children’s Books About Health

Look on the Young Children web page for “Children’s Books About nutrition and Fitness” (www.naeyc.org/yc/currentissue) to find an annotated list of children’s books featuring health, food, nutrition, and fitness.

6 Young Children November 2014

Goodbye and Good Luck! For the past four years, Amy Shillady has been an out- standing leader of the Young Children editorial team. As journal editor, she has overseen numerous clusters and ensured the excellence of each issue. Organized, knowl- edgeable, and kind, she has used her administrative and editing abilities and strong people skills to calmly guide Young Children through publication time and again.

Amy is moving on to an exciting new publishing opportunity—outside NAEYC but still in the early child- hood education field. We thank her wholeheartedly for her contributions during her time at NAEYC and expect to hear of her ongoing support for the field in this new role in her professional journey.

“Quality Outdoor Play Spaces for Young Children,” by Karin H. Spencer and Paul M. Wright, outlines the con- nections between giving children opportunities to play outdoors and promoting their health and wellness. The authors share key features of well-planned outdoor play spaces and explain how they offer children varied move- ment and active play opportunities. The authors refer readers to an online survey they can use to assess and then improve their preschool programs’ outdoor play spaces.

Brent A. McBride and Dipti A. Dev, authors of “Pre- venting Childhood Obesity: Strategies to Help Preschoolers Develop Healthy Eating Habits,” focus on the ways adults’ mealtime interactions with children serve as opportunities to foster children’s healthy eating habits. The article pres- ents positive teaching strategies for encouraging children to recognize when they are hungry and when they have had enough to eat.

—Derry Koralek, Chief Publishing Officer and Editor in Chief

7November 2014 Young Children

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C hildren’s dietary habits are established early in life and shaped by family preferences, culture, and experience. Because many young children spend a substan-

tial amount of time in group care settings, early childhood professionals play an important role in guiding children’s food preferences and eating habits. Children of all ages and fitness levels can benefit from a nutritionally purposeful environ- ment. But adults need the tools to intentionally increase children’s interest in eating healthy foods through creating such an environment. They need to regularly engage children in the preparation of nutritious foods. And they need effective strategies to incorporate healthy foods and messages about nutrition into young chil- dren’s learning environments.

In the dramatic play center, Cathy, a preschool teacher, engages Grady and Jenni in a cook- ing activity. Cathy explains to the children, “My salad includes red, yellow, green, orange, and purple vegetables. I want to be sure my body gets everything it needs.” At the science table, Christopher and Danielle carefully investigate the seeds gathered from the bell peppers served for the previous day’s snack. Rodrigo is at the easel; when asked to describe his painting, he reports, “This is the squash blossom. We saw it in the garden.” Leah and Cooper are working with colorful blocks at the math table and comparing the blocks’ colors to the colors of their favorite fruits and vegetables. At circle time, the class discusses the daily menu, and Cathy reminds the children about their opportunity to help prepare and eat Whole-Grain Veggie Pizza for lunch.

Karrie Kalich, Dottie Bauer, and Deirdre McPartlin

Preschool

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Young Children November 20148

Nutrition and Fitness for All Young Children

This is just a glimpse of some day-to-day activities that occur in a nutritionally pur- poseful preschool classroom environment. Healthy foods are offered in an appropri- ate manner. That is, foods for celebrations follow nutritional guidelines, and teachers give children time, support, and multiple opportunities to try new foods. Children are involved in as many aspects of food preparation as possible. Food is respected as something that nourishes us rather than something to play with or waste. Adults model healthy eating behaviors, and families are involved in food learning experiences as much as possible. In sum, the focus is on intentionally supporting positive food behaviors in children, staff, and families.

The nutritionally purposeful classroom guides children toward making healthy dietary choices in a developmentally appropriate way. This philosophy was articulated through our experiences with the Early Sprouts Gardening and Nutrition Curriculum (Kalich, Bauer, & McPartlin 2009a, 2009b) (see “The Early Sprouts Curriculum”) and aligns with Ann S. Epstein’s concept of the intentional teacher. Epstein (2014) describes the intentional teacher as one who “aims at clearly defined learning objectives for children, employs instructional strategies likely to help children achieve the objectives, and continually assesses progress” (5). In the nutritionally purposeful classroom, intentional teachers focus on nutri- tion and health.

Home and school environments have a significant influence on young children’s dietary habits and choices. Because young children are strongly influenced by the available food and the messages about food in their imme- diate surroundings, the preschool years are an ideal time to teach healthy eating. It is much easier and more effec- tive to teach healthy behaviors about food than to undo

unhealthy ones. The nutritionally purposeful classroom approach supports teachers regardless of their background in or knowledge of nutrition.

The nutritionally purposeful philosophy The nutritionally purposeful classroom approach is de- signed to respond to three major factors that influence the dietary habits of young children.

Innate food neophobia. As it relates to food, neophobia (fear of new things) has evolutionary roots in the Paleo- lithic era. Early humans did not necessarily know whether newly encountered food sources would be nourishing or poisonous (Cashdan 1998; Cooke, Carnell, & Wardle 2006). Those who were cautious when encountering new foods were more likely to survive. As a result, the fear of un- known foods—food neophobia—is still part of our genetic makeup (Cooke, Wardle, & Gibson 2003).

Environmental and social messages about food. Starting at around age 3, many children become increas- ingly aware of environmental and social messages about food (Birch, Zimmerman, & Hind 1980; Addessi et al. 2005; Shutts, Kinzler, & DeJesus 2012). They might begin requesting foods by brand name and may be increas- ingly interested in what people around them are eating. They observe that certain foods—for example, ice cream, cake, cookies, and chips—are served and eaten during

The Early Sprouts Curriculum

The Early Sprouts Gardening and Nutrition curriculum (see Kalich, Bauer, & McPartlin 2009a, 2009b) is a seed-to-table curriculum that engages children and families through a play-yard garden and provides mul- tiple exposures to target vegetables. Each week children participate in sensory exploration of a particular vegetable, prepare and serve a snack recipe using that vegetable, and take home a Family Recipe Kit (including ingredients) to prepare the vegetable dish with their families. Research on Early Sprouts indicates that children increase their preference for and consumption of target vegetables as a result of this curriculum.

Recipes mentioned in this article are from The Early Sprouts Cookbook (Kalich, Arnold, & Russell 2012) or are included in the curriculum (Kalich, Bauer, & McPartlin 2009a, 2009b).

About the Authors Karrie Kalich, PhD, is a registered dieti- cian and professor in the Department of Health Science at Keene State College in Keene, new Hampshire. Karrie consults on health and nutrition topics and conducts community-based research to help young children develop healthy eating habits. [email protected]

Dottie Bauer, EdD, is a professor of early childhood education at Keene State Col- lege. A former preschool teacher, Dottie specializes in early childhood curriculum development and teacher preparation. [email protected]

Deirdre McPartlin, MEd, is the aca- demic program coordinator for the Child Development Center at Keene State College. Her previous experience includes preschool and kindergarten teaching, child care administration, and educator preparation. [email protected]

The nutritionally purposeful class- room guides children toward making healthy dietary choices in a develop- mentally appropriate way.

November 2014 Young Children 9

celebrations, such as birthdays and holidays. These experi- ences, coupled with many people’s natural preferences for sweet and salty foods, result in such foods becoming favorites. In contrast, young children may observe influ- ential adults’ refusal to eat green vegetables, and they may hear adult complaints about eating salad in order to manage weight. Children conclude that these (healthier) foods are less desirable choices.

Adults’ influence on food choices. Well-intentioned adults often contribute to the establishment of poor dietary choices. Foods that are beneficial to health, such as fruits and vegetables, are frequently offered to children in nega- tive or coercive ways. When food becomes a reward or a punishment, not a part of healthy living, healthy foods become less appealing (Birch & Fisher 1995; Galloway et al. 2006). Incorporating puréed vegetables into a dish to disguise them may work in the short term, but this tech- nique validates a child’s fear of new foods when the child discovers your method. Instilling healthy eating behaviors in preschool children through a positive approach supports the development of lifelong health habits that decrease the risk of obesity and other chronic diseases.

Strategies to create a nutritionally purposeful classroom environment Teachers can try a number of strategies to create a nutri- tionally purposeful classroom environment that influences the dietary choices and behaviors of young children in positive ways.

Engage children in sensory exploration. Such explo- ration provides the opportunity to focus on a new food. With guidance from an intentional teacher, children learn about a food using all their senses. Smell a cherry tomato before tasting it. Shake a bell pepper to discover what you hear inside. Examine wheat berries or corn kernels with a magnifying glass. Slice open and explore a cucumber or zucchini with the children. By discovering its characteris- tics and qualities, children develop a positive relationship with the featured food.

Provide multiple exposures to a new food. Repeated, nonthreatening opportunities to taste a new food give chil- dren the chance to move from rejection to acceptance and overcome food neophobia (Birch & Marlin 1982; Sullivan & Birch 1994; Cooke, Carnell, & Wardle 2006; Kalich, Bauer, & McPartlin 2009a). Remember, children who do not like a food the first time it is served may very well change their minds over time.

After seven years of serving the same snacks, Kelly (an adventurous eater herself) is excited about trying out her center’s new snack menu. The first time she serves the children the Banana Squash Smoothie, the children approach the snack table with extreme caution. Very few of them even consider tasting it. Kelly drinks with enthusiasm and shares her genuine fondness for the

smoothie. The following week, a few more children show interest, and now the snack is a class favorite. Share the reason behind trying new foods several times.

It will not take long before children adopt this concept. In Carol’s classroom, 4-year-old Clay is a natural leader. Clay has always told children they need to try a food at least four times. Carol is not sure where Clay’s four-times rule came from, but since it has a positive impact, she observes further. Now that Clay is 5, he has updated the rule, and everyone is encouraged to try a new food at least five times.

Involve children in food preparation and cooking. Help- ing to prepare a recipe naturally increases children’s excite- ment and curiosity about a food and boosts their likelihood of enjoying healthy foods. Additionally, through cooking children develop fine motor and literacy skills and math and science knowledge (Evenson, n.d.).

Three-year-old Lauren Elise describes making Cheesy Spinach Squares to her mother at pickup time: “First, we all washed our hands. Then I cracked the egg. We chopped a lot of spinach and grated a little bit of cheese. Next, we measured the dry ingredients, and then we each stirred it five times. We baked it and ate it. It was good.” Children are capable of doing food preparation under

the guidance and close supervision of a teacher who selects cooking tools and recipes that ensure safety and success. Young children cut soft foods using table knives with fine serrations and stir with long-handled wooden spoons. They shred carrots or cheese with a handheld grater and

Young Children November 201410

slice ingredients into small pieces using child-size kitchen scissors. They measure, mix, stir, assemble, serve, and taste foods. They safely operate a blender or food processor, and they observe the transformations that occur when foods are heated. Providing the opportunity for children to help cook recipes that use healthful ingredients, such as low-fat dairy, whole grains, healthy fats, and reduced sodium and sugar, supports the goal of developing healthy eating habits. When teachers take a little time to plan ahead for children’s involvement and supervise the process, children can en- gage in cooking on a regular basis.

Invite children to serve themselves at snack and meal- times. From a nutrition perspective, inviting children to serve themselves offers daily opportunities to develop skills in portion control and adventurousness around new foods. When adults sit at the table with children and consume the same foods and beverages, they have a built-in opportunity to model healthy food choices, positive social relation- ships, table manners, and independence. Small, lightweight containers let children pass food and scoop it easily onto child-size plates. Choose serving utensils where one to two scoops yield a child-appropriate serving. Offer water or milk in small pitchers so children can carefully pour the beverage into their own cups without spilling. When children learn to serve themselves based on their food preferences and degree of hunger, they can regulate their caloric intake.

use intentional language when talking about food. Carefully choosing our words guides children in being open-minded about, and accepting of, new foods. In the nutritionally purposeful classroom, caring adults stimulate

interest in a new food by using nonjudgmen- tal, descriptive words. For example, when we introduce red and green bell peppers to children, we use terms such as crunchy, crisp, slippery, sweet, and smooth and avoid using words that imply strong values, such as the best and the worst. Posing ques- tions such as “What is inside?” encourages children to make predictions and stimu- lates scientific exploration. Children may decide to sample green, yellow, red, and orange bell peppers and describe each one. Using descriptive language helps children understand what they see, hear, feel, taste, and smell.

You can also be intentional in the lan- guage you use when children are reluctant to try a new food. A key phrase is “You do not like it yet.” For example, when a young child tries a food and responds with “I don’t like it” or “This is yucky,” the teacher can respond with “You do not like it yet” or “The next time you try it you might like it.” These

phrases let the child know that we understand she does not like the food. They also plant the idea that she may like it the next time she tries it. Children exposed to this approach adopt the language as well. Five-year-old Hana described her thoughts about Bell Pepper Veggie Burgers to her teacher this way: “At first, I did not like the veggie burger yet. Then I liked it a little. And now I like it a lot.”

Provide only healthy food options. By providing only healthy foods, we help children listen to their own bodies and make choices that support good nutrition and their need to establish autonomy. Conflict commonly arises when an adult and a young child try to negotiate about healthy and not-so-healthy food choices, resulting in a miserable experience for both. Much of the pressure is eliminated when children have several healthy food choices so they can be responsible for what and how much they eat. Early childhood educators and families can control the diets of young children by monitoring which foods they introduce, make available, and serve rather than by engaging in power struggles.

Involve and inform families. Teachers have the oppor- tunity to support and guide families to encourage healthy food choices and overcome their own fears about new foods. Explain that many young children are naturally

When children learn to serve them- selves based on their food preferences and degree of hunger, they can regu- late their caloric intake.

November 2014 Young Children 11

hesitant to try new foods and respond to social cues and parental role modeling. Let families know that children need repeated nonthreatening exposures to new foods to develop a willingness to taste and ultimately enjoy them. Suggest that families respond to their child’s refusal to eat a new food by saying “Oh, you don’t like it yet” to remind the child that food preferences can change. Remind families that power struggles over food only create tension and negativity; their time is better spent selecting healthy foods to introduce, make available, and serve in the home.

Share healthy recipes and child-friendly cooking projects, and offer tips on involving children in the food preparation process. Invite families to events that feature healthy foods. Family events that include a trip to a farmers market, orchard, or local farm can build a positive connec- tion between a family and the source of local foods in your community. Apple- or berry-picking with young children can be fun and exciting and prompt children to eat and en- joy the fruits of their labor. By experiencing healthy foods in friendly, supportive environments, family members become positive role models.

Becoming a nutritionally purposeful teacher Nutritionally purposeful early childhood educators strive to provide as many positive social cues as possible around healthy foods. They create a classroom environment that respects food, incorporates positive ways to explore and cook with healthy foods, and avoids power struggles with children over food.

Children are quick to notice the teacher who drinks a soda during naptime, the one who runs in and out of the classroom for her morning coffee and donut, or the one who never eats a green vegetable. They are equally quick to respond to the teacher who displays enthusiasm for fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, eats bell peppers and carrot sticks at lunch, and eagerly tries each new snack recipe. Display your enjoyment of fruits and vegetables, and work to develop an interest in new foods yourself. Foods provided for lunch and snack should be nutritionally balanced. Work to increase fruit, vegetable, and whole-grain consumption and follow the principles of reduced fat, sugar, and salt in all the foods you serve. Invite children to serve themselves an amount they think they can eat, but do not expect or encourage them to finish everything. Next time you can remind them to take a smaller portion. Talk with children about how people develop a liking for new foods over time.

In the nutritionally purposeful classroom approach, we prefer not to use food as play objects. Instead, we thought- fully explore, investigate, taste, cook, and eat together. When setting up classroom learning centers, find ways to incorporate healthy eating and nutritional messages into dramatic play. Restaurant, grocery store, and housekeeping activities all offer opportunities for props that encourage children to role-play food preparation and healthy eating habits. Use plants or food items as inspiration for artwork but not as the actual painting or drawing implement; young children may not be able to distinguish between food to play with and food to eat. Equip a science area with plants, magnifying glasses, photos of gardens and foods, and materials for sensory exploration. Gardening offers the opportunity to connect nature, food, and science explora- tion (Nimmo & Hallett 2008). Foster an awareness of food sources and seasonal changes in the natural world that are appropriate for your location. Support your colleagues in accepting and modeling the same food philosophy by demonstrating an adventurous spirit and willingness to taste new foods or try new cooking activities. By providing consistency in children’s food environment, we can set the stage for a lifetime of healthy eating.

Healthy foods can be a part of everyday and celebra- tory events. By making simple changes, such as serving raw veggies and low-fat dip for snack, preparing whole-grain pizza for staff meetings, and offering homemade vegetable soup for family events, we teach children and families that everyone can learn to like new foods. Children don’t need frosting to make a cake feel special—invite a child to choose between Whole Grain Scones With Raisins or Harvest Muffins for his birthday treat. Vegetables or fruit with low- fat yogurt dip, Carrot-Oatmeal Cookies, and Sweet Potato

Let families know that children need repeated nonthreatening exposures to new foods to develop a willingness to taste and ultimately enjoy them.

Young Children November 201412

and Black Bean Quesadillas are recipes children can help prepare for special classroom events.

Creating a nutritionally purposeful classroom that supports young children’s healthy food choices helps counteract social pressures that lead to less healthy choices. Positive social environments and nutritious foods foster the development of lifelong healthy eating habits. When early childhood educators and families focus their efforts on be- ing nutritionally purposeful, everyone benefits.

References

Addessi, E., A.T. Galloway, E. Visalberghi, L.L. Birch. 2005. “Specific Social Influences on the Acceptance of Novel Foods in 2–5-Year-Old Children.” Appetite 45 (3): 264–71.

Birch, L.L., & J.A. Fisher. 1995. “Appetite and Eating Behavior in Chil- dren.” Pediatric Clinics of America: Pediatric Nutrition 42: 931–53.

Birch, L.L., & D.W. Marlin. 1982. “I Don’t Like It; I Never Tried It: Ef- fects of Exposure on Two-Year-Old Children’s Food Preferences.” Appetite 3 (4): 353–60.

Birch, L.L., S.I. Zimmerman, & H. Hind. 1980. “The Influence of Social- Affective Context on the Formation of Children’s Food Preferences.” Child Development 51 (3): 856–61.

Cashdan, E. 1998. “Adaptiveness of Food Learning and Food Aversions in Children.” Social Science Information 37 (4): 613–32.

Cooke, L., S. Carnell, & J. Wardle. 2006. “Food Neophobia and Mealtime Food Consumption in 4–5 Year Old Children.” International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 3 (14). www.ijbnpa.org/ content/3/1/14.

Cooke, L., J. Wardle, & E.L. Gibson. 2003. “Relationship Between Paren- tal Report of Food Neophobia and Everyday Food Consumption in 2–6-Year-Old Children.” Appetite 41 (2): 205–6.

Epstein, A.S. 2014. The Intentional Teacher: Choosing the Best Strategies for Young Children’s Learning. Rev. ed. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Evenson, P. n.d. “Cooking and Learning With Young Children.” 4C: Helping Communities Help Children website. www.4-c.org/articles/ cooking-learning-with-young-children.html.

Galloway, A.T., L.M. Fiorito, L.A. Francis, & L.L. Birch. 2006. “‘Finish Your Soup’: Counterproductive Effects of Pressuring Children to Eat on Intake and Affect.” Appetite 46 (3): 318–23.

Kalich, K., L. Arnold, & C. Russell. 2012. The Early Sprouts Cookbook. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf.

Kalich, K., D. Bauer, & D. McPartlin. 2009a. Early Sprouts: Cultivating Healthy Food Choices in Young Children. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf.

Kalich, K., D. Bauer, & D. McPartlin. 2009b. “‘Early Sprouts’: Establish- ing Healthy Food Choices for Young Children.” Young Children 64 (4): 49–55. www.naeyc.org/files/yc/file/Bauerforonline.pdf.

Nimmo, J., & B. Hallett. 2008. “Childhood in the Garden: A Place to En- counter Natural and Social Diversity.” Young Children 63 (1): 32–38. www.naeyc.org/files/yc/file/200801/BTJNatureNimmo.pdf.

Shutts, K., K.D. Kinzler, & J.M. DeJesus. 2012. “Understanding Infants’ and Children’s Social Learning About Foods: Previous Research and New Prospects.” Developmental Psychology 49 (3): 419–25.

Sullivan, S.A., & L.L. Birch. 1994. “Infant Dietary Experience and Ac- ceptance of Solid Foods.” Pediatrics 93 (2): 271–77.

Copyright © 2014 by the national Association for the Education of Young Children. See Permissions and Reprints online at www.naeyc.org/yc/permissions.

November 2014 Young Children 13

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“Healthy, Happy, Active, Fit: All 4 Kids; Eat Smart, Don’t Sit!” the preschoolers chant loudly. Miss Laura asks, “What does healthy mean to you?” “Be strong,” calls out Ben. “Eat apples,” says Mia. “Yes, we eat healthy foods such as apples and other fruits and vegetables because they help keep our hearts, muscles, and bones strong,” replies Miss Laura. “We have been learning how important it is to eat smart by eating healthy foods, and how important it is to be active. What are some ways you like to move your body and be active?” “Swimming,” says Jada. “Dancing,” calls out Ethan. “Good idea, Ethan. Let’s all dance.”

I n the United States today, young chil- dren live in an obesogenic environment where relatively low-cost food is readily available and daily lifestyles promote seden- tary behaviors, resulting in the increasing

incidence of overweight (see “What Is an Obe- sogenic Environment?”) (Birch & Anzman 2010; Harrison et al. 2011). Obesity is a complex issue resulting from many different factors, including genetics, cultural preferences, parental behav- iors, food consumption, media exposure, and activity level (Harrison et al. 2011). Almost one- third of US children are overweight or at risk for being overweight, which increases their prob- ability of developing chronic illnesses such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and type 2 diabetes (CDC 2012). Although a recent survey suggests a leveling off of obesity incidence (Og- den et al. 2014), data from the National Health

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Young Children November 201414

Nutrition and Fitness for All Young Children

and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1976–1980 and 2009–2010 (www.cdc. gov/nchs/nhanes.htm), shows that in the past, the prevalence of obe- sity increased for children ages 2 to 5 years from 5 percent to 12.1 percent, as measured by heights and weights and converted to body mass index (BMI) (Ogden et al. 2012). Obese children are more likely to have health concerns and become obese adults (CDC 2012). The Institute of Medicine (IOM) and others recommend that overweight preven- tion educational efforts start as early in life as possible (Gooze et al. 2010; IOM 2012).

In the preschool years children lay the foundation for future eating and physical activity behaviors (Lanigan 2011). Although families are primarily responsible for pre- schoolers’ food choices and physical activity habits, almost three-fourths of preschool-age children spend a large part of their day in care outside the home (Children’s Defense Fund 2011). Early care and education programs are impor- tant settings for obesity prevention efforts (Larson et al. 2011; Sigman-Grant et al. 2014). Thus, teachers and families often share the responsibility for teaching children about healthy eating and fitness practices during these important developmental years (Kaphingst & Story 2009).

The All 4 Kids program To address childhood obesity, a team of faculty in early childhood education, exercise physiology/physical activity, and nutrition at the University of Nevada, Reno (Coopera- tive Extension), developed All 4 Kids, a program focusing on healthy lifestyle choices.

All 4 Kids was developed in 2008. The eight-week pro- gram (meets three times a week) targets preschoolers, their families, and preschool teachers in early childhood educa- tion centers. The program is based on the assumption that many children live in an obesogenic environment, and that direct teaching for preschool-age children and engagement of families and teachers can provide information about healthy eating and active living.

All 4 Kids consists of 21 preschool lessons and three family events. The program is designed to promote healthy

habits while offering learning experiences that address Nevada State prekindergarten standards in early language and literacy, math, science, social studies/social-emotional development, creative arts, and physical development/ health (Nevada Department of Education 2010).

Rather than simply increasing active time, the program uses dance as the primary way to engage children in physi- cal activity. Original songs from three popular genres— country rock, hip-hop, and Latin music—feature lyrics about healthy snack choices, physical activity, and accep- tance of self and others at any size or shape. Preschoolers learn dance patterns with specific skills, such as crossing the midline, hopping on one foot, and balancing, to promote preschoolers’ fitness and physical skills development.

There are three main themes: Be Active, Eat Smart, and Live Healthy at Any Size. Be Active encompasses physical activity, energy balance, spatial and directional awareness, body control, strength, endurance, and healthy hearts, muscles, and bones. Eat Smart features nutrition con- cepts for healthy snack choices, hunger and fullness cues, and food categorization—GO and WHOA foods (NHLBI 2013). Live Healthy at Any Size acknowledges different body types and reinforces the message that everyone can eat healthy and be active regardless of their shape or size:

About the Authors Teresa A. Byington, PhD, is an associate professor and early childhood education specialist at Cooperative Extension at the University of nevada, Reno, located in las vegas. Her teaching and research focuses on the professional development (coach- ing and training) of early childhood profes- sionals. [email protected]

Anne R. Lindsay, MS, ACSM-HFS, is an as- sociate professor and exercise physiologist at Cooperative Extension at the Univer- sity of nevada, Reno. She has served on national and local committees related to early childhood and conducted research- based programming, curriculum, and media projects for preschoolers. [email protected]

Madeleine Sigman-Grant, PhD, RD, is the MCH-nutrition Cooperative Extension spe- cialist for the University of nevada, Reno. For more than 30 years Madeleine has educated caregivers in strategies to teach nutrition to young children.

Authors’ Note: To access the All 4 Kids curriculum online, please get in touch with the authors.

What Is an Obesogenic Environment?

An obesogenic environment is a society that promotes overeating and supports sedentary behaviors. It (a) provides easy access to inexpen-sive, high-energy, calorie-dense foods; (b) reduces energy demands in daily life activities; (c) increases sedentary leisure time; (d) limits opportunities for recreational physical activity; and (e) markets products through messages that promote eating and sedentary behaviors (Birch & Anzman 2010; Scerri & Savona-ventura 2011).

Teachers and families often share the responsibility for teaching chil- dren about healthy eating and fitness practices.

November 2014 Young Children 15

“I am unique! Kids come in all shapes and sizes, and all kids can eat healthy and be active!”

Be Active “Our favorite thing to do in All 4 Kids,” says Miss Laura, “is to dance. When we line dance to country music we use our heels; when we hip-hop we like to shrug our shoulders; and when we salsa we move our hips! Dancing is a great way to be active and use lots of energy. Today we will salsa to ‘Ven conmigo.’” As the song plays, the children sway left and then sway right, waving their scarves up and down.

The children sing along with the music: “Though we’re different, we’re all unique. Let’s take care of our bodies and be proud. Baile (dance)! No matter what you look like. Cante (sing)! Hey, hey, hey, hey!” The chil- dren salsa step forward together, and then step back together.“Ven conmigo, Ven conmigo! Baile, amigo, baile!” The children slowly spin on one foot as they wave their scarves high above their heads. The National Association for Sport and Physical

Education’s (NASPE) physical activity guidelines for preschool-age children state that children ages 3 to 5 years should engage daily in 60 minutes of structured physical activity (adult-organized play) and at least 60 minutes of unstructured physical activity (child directed) (NASPE 2009). These physical activities should be developmentally

Be Active—Teaching Tips ■n Incorporate music into movement activities. Music

may be one of the most critical pieces to inspire chil- dren to be physically active. Choose music styles that are culturally diverse and appeal to both children and adults. Encourage participation beyond the classroom and into the child’s home involving the whole family. Be sure to choose songs with appropriate lyrics for children. Songs should inspire children to move, have a strong beat, and be catchy, predictable, repetitive, and easy to follow.

■n Make active play intentional. Design daily, purposeful physical activity experiences based on specific goals. For example, have children play hopscotch to practice hopping on one foot or freeze games to practice bal- ance and body control.

■n use repetition. Children learn through repetition. For young children, short bursts of 10 to 15 minutes of repetitive physical activity are recommended over long, extended sessions (Bailey et al. 1995; nASPE 2009). Each day, review with the children the skills they learned the day before, and then teach new skills. Chil- dren can practice the new skills during daily transitions (e.g., skipping while going outside to play).

■n Incorporate gross motor skills into the daily routine. Children often spend much of their day doing activities that develop fine motor skills; therefore, it is impor- tant to develop a structured plan to incorporate gross motor skills. During brief intervals throughout the day, invite children to practice large motor skills—both locomotor (e.g., running, hopping, skipping, walking) and nonlocomotor (e.g., spinning, balancing, crossing your feet)—through repeated reinforcement of these movements. For example, have the children hop while playing Simon Says and again as a transition activity as they go outside.

■n Involve the whole body. Plan movements that engage children’s entire bodies, not just the hands and arms. A teacher might say, “Pretend to be a snake. Put your arms and elbows in front of you and move your whole body, wriggling like a snake.”

■n use visual imagery. visualization offers children numerous opportunities to use their imaginations as they pretend to sway like a tree in the wind, jump like a kangaroo, or balance on one leg like a flamingo. This visual imagery technique helps children learn dance skills more quickly and increases attention, engage- ment, and future recall (Sacha & Russ 2006).

Young Children November 201416

appropriate and happen in short bursts of time (e.g., 10 min- utes) rather than all at once (Bailey et al. 1995). Children should not be sedentary for more than 60 minutes at a time, unless they are napping (NASPE 2009). The guidelines are referenced in NAEYC publications (Sanders 2002; Copple & Bredekamp 2009).

Although increasing outdoor playtime provides many opportu- nities for physical activity, studies show that increased playtime alone may not be sufficient to increase children’s activity levels (Cardon & De Bourdeaudhuij 2008; Brown et al. 2009). More playing time does not necessarily result in more moderate to vigor- ous physical activity (Alhassan, Sirard, & Robinson 2007). There- fore, some intentional teacher- led activities, both indoors and outdoors, are critical in promoting physical activity in young children (Brown et al. 2009; Epstein 2014). (See “Be Active—Teaching Tips.”)

Eat Smart As part of the Eat Smart lesson, Miss Laura places a bowl of sliced mangoes on the table. She asks the children, “What food is this?” Benjamin says, “Peach slices.” Maria says, “No, they are mangoes; we eat them all the time in our house!” “That’s right, Maria, they are mangoes. Are mangoes a GO or WHOA snack?” All of the children shout out GO. “And why are they a GO snack?” asks Miss Laura. “Because they help keep our hearts, muscles, and bones strong,” the children reply. “That’s right, let’s eat some healthy food.” The children enjoy eating the mango slices.

Categorization of foods: GO and WHOA As part of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute’s initiative called We Can! Ways to Enhance Children’s Activity and Nutrition, foods are grouped in three categories: GO, SLOW, and WHOA (www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/public/ heart/obesity/wecan/eat-right/choosing-foods.htm). (See “Eat Smart—Teaching Tips,” p. 18.) To simplify the concepts for preschool children, the All 4 Kids program focuses only Intentional teacher-

led activities, both indoors and outdoors, are citical in promot- ing physical activity in young children.

November 2014 Young Children 17

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on GO and WHOA foods, using the following definitions:

■n GO foods are foods that can be eaten every day because they help keep our hearts, muscles, and bones strong.

■n WHOA foods are foods that should be eaten only once in a while because they do not help keep our hearts, muscles, and bones strong.

Defining healthy foods Preschoolers, who are in the concrete learning stage, have a difficult time conceptualizing abstract terms. This is especially true for describing healthy foods. To children, if a food tastes good, the food is good for them; and if a food tastes bad, it is not good for them. Describing a healthy food as being good for you doesn’t make sense to the young child since the attribute good refers to taste. After attempting several different approaches, the program creators selected the following intentional language to help preschoolers understand the concepts of healthy and unhealthy foods:

■n Healthy foods are foods that help keep my heart, my muscles, and my bones strong.

■n Unhealthy foods are foods that do not help keep my heart, my muscles, and my bones strong.

This approach also emphasizes those foods that are GO (i.e., healthy) or WHOA (i.e., unhealthy).

Hunger and fullness cues To help preschoolers visualize body hunger cues and feelings of fullness, each child receives a hungry meter —a visual to indicate hunger and fullness. Constructed with laminated cardstock and a free-moving pointer, the meter displays a sad face (hungry) and a smiley face (full). The preschoolers and teacher experiment with the hungry me- ters in the classroom, and then the preschoolers take them home to use.

Live Healthy at Any Size Miss Laura asks two children to come forward and says, “What is the same about Abby and Joey?” “They both have two eyes and a mouth.” “That is right,” says Miss Laura. “And how are they different?” “They are different sizes; Joey is tall and Abby is short.” “How does that make Joey unique?” “Joey can reach things on the high shelves.” “How does that make Abby unique?” “Abby can crawl into small places.” “Yes,” says Miss Laura. “We need friends who are different shapes and sizes to help us in our classroom.”

Eat healthy and play together at any body shape or size Children are aware of not only their own body sizes but the sizes of those around them. A majority of preschoolers pre- fer one body size—thin—over all others (Musher-Eizenman et al. 2004). It is unclear, however, whether children per- ceive overweight children as unlikeable, a threat (i.e., a bully), or something else. Regardless of the reason, because such biases exist at a very early age, it is essential to teach children that no matter what their body shape or size, all children can eat healthy and be active.

Eat Smart—Teaching Tips ■n hear, see, and move. Children benefit from receiv-

ing auditory, visual, and kinesthetic cues. To address important concepts, teachers can have children hear a phrase, such as “Go snacks”; see pictures of Go snacks, such as bananas; and move by raising their arms or jumping as they shout, “Go bananas!”

■n Explore using the senses. Teachers can introduce new fruits and vegetables (such as kiwi and kale) and let the children explore them using all five senses. Such experiences help children internalize the con- cepts being presented. For example, as preschoolers pass around a kiwi, ask them to touch the outside and describe how it feels. Have them shake the kiwi and ask them if they hear any sounds. Show them a cut kiwi and have them share what it looks like inside. Have them describe the smell of the cut kiwi. Finally, distribute small slices of kiwi for tasting, and ask if it is soft or crunchy, sweet or tart.

■n Add books about fruits and vegetables to the class- room library. Children especially enjoy looking at books when they contain pictures of familiar items. Teachers can read aloud a children’s book about food, and then engage children in a discussion about fruits and vegetables they enjoy eating or would like to try in the future.

Young Children November 201418

Children come in all shapes and sizes Preschoolers can grasp the concept that they are unique, which means, “No one else is exactly like me.” Musher- Eizenman and colleagues (2004) suggest that adults have a responsibility to educate children about diversity of body size in the same way children are taught acceptance of others, and that programs should emphasize an overweight child’s positive attributes (e.g., he is good at an activity) rather than his weight.

Teaching children to respect others who are a different shape or size simply by finding nice things to say does not always lead to acceptance. Children may use polite words to talk about overweight children but still not accept them or perceive them as friends. It’s important to teach children acceptance of others, which necessitates embracing each other’s differences, including body shape and size. (See “Live Healthy at Any Size—Teaching Tips,” p. 20.) Teachers also need to help children feel pride in their bodies. Preschoolers can engage in social opportunities to learn about acceptance through stories, play scenarios, and interactive games.

All 4 Kids family events Without family involvement, children are less apt to master physical movements or put into practice the knowledge they have acquired. Therefore, after completion of each unit, families are invited to come to the program to learn about the concepts the preschoolers are learning. Together, children and their families play games and taste foods that reflect the messages from the lessons. Family members watch the children dance and then join in. Families take home materials describing healthy eating and active living.

Teaching health concepts benefits children and their families The All 4 Kids program helps preschoolers and their families engage in healthy eating and physical activity habits. Parents have reported how much their children enjoy practicing the dances they learn in the program. One mother said that her children tell her to turn on the music so that they can dance and be active. Another parent stated that her child’s desire to be active helped the whole family be more active.

A father said that he no longer requires his child to take one more bite after she tells him she is full. The fam- ily now uses the hungry meter at dinner. Every few bites the parents ask her how full she feels, and then they move the meter from hungry toward full. The child stops eating when she is full. Another mother with two daughters in

It’s important to teach children acceptance of others, which neces- sitates embracing each other’s differ- ences, including body shape and size.

November 2014 Young Children 19

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the program said that she plays restaurant with the girls. She shows them a variety of food cards (from the program), and together they create a menu that includes GO foods. One daughter told her mother she wanted to eat a mango for dinner because it would help her be healthy. The other daughter requested jicama. During a shopping trip the daughter chose the largest jicama because it would make her “the strongest,” demonstrating her understanding that eating more of a healthy food helps keep her strong.

The program also empowers children to embrace their uniqueness. A mother of a very small preschool girl said that her daughter was constantly teased about her size by her cousins. After participating in a Live Healthy at Any Size lesson, when her cousins next teased her, the child put her hands on her hips and told them, “I am unique. There is no one else in the world exactly like me. Stop teasing me.” The cousins were stunned, and the teasing stopped. The child was proud of herself, and the mother was delighted that her daughter had the language to express her feelings.

Summary It is important for preschool children, teachers, and fami- lies to grasp specific concepts and skills related to health, nutrition, physical activity, and acceptance of physical

differences. The All 4 Kids program is a unique approach to being active, eating smart, and living healthy at any size. The use of music and dance strengthens children’s understanding of themselves, each other, and the world around them.

References

Alhassan, S., J.R. Sirard & T.N. Robinson. 2007. “The Effects of Increas- ing Outdoor Play Time on Physical Activity in Latino Preschool Children.” International Journal of Pediatric Obesity 2 (3): 153–58.

Bailey, R.C., J. Olson, S.L. Pepper, J. Porszasz, T.J. Barstow, & D.M. Cooper. 1995. “The Level and Tempo of Children's Physical Activi- ties: An Observational Study.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 27 (7): 1033–41.

Birch L.L., & S.L. Anzman. 2010. “Learning to Eat in an Obesogenic Environment: A Developmental Systems Perspective on Childhood Obesity.” Child Development Perspectives 4 (2): 138–43.

Brown, W.H., K.A. Pfeiffer, K.L. McIver, M. Dowda, C.L. Addy, & R.R. Pate. 2009. “Social and Environmental Factors Associated With Preschoolers’ Nonsedentary Physical Activity.” Child Development 80 (1): 45–58.

Cardon, G.M., & I.M.M. De Bourdeaudhuij. 2008. “Are Preschool Chil- dren Active Enough? Objectively Measured Physical Activity Levels.” Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 79 (3): 326–32.

CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 2012. Basics About Childhood Obesity. www.cdc.gov/obesity/childhood/basics.html.

Live Healthy at Any Size— Teaching Tips

■n Teach children about same and different and being unique. Demonstrate ways that children are the same and different—for example, color of clothing, eyes, skin, or hair. Guide discussions about children’s similarities and differences relative to size (tall, short) and shape (thin, round). Encourage children to talk about ways they—and others—are unique and no one else is exactly like them. Conversations can center on hobbies, favorite snacks or even ways children like to move.

■n Connect foods and physical activity to health. Children can make the connection that eating healthy foods and being active will help them be healthy and look and feel better. Teachers can scaffold children’s learning. For ex- ample, as a child learns that healthy Go snacks help keep the heart, muscles, and bones strong, the child makes the connection between eating Go snacks and being strong.

■n use empathy. Give a voice to children who are bigger than other children. Incorporate dolls of various shapes and sizes, book characters, puppets, and other figures in the classroom, and encourage all children to speak about their own size, shape, and other unique qualities. For example, the teacher could hold up two dolls and compare their shapes and sizes and talk about how each doll is unique.

Young Children November 201420

Children’s Defense Fund. 2011. “The State of America’s Children. 2011 Report.” Children’s Defense Fund. www.childrensdefense.org/child- research-data-publications/state-of-americas-children-2011.

Copple, C., & S. Bredekamp, eds. 2009. Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children From Birth Through Age 8. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Epstein, A.S. 2014. The Intentional Teacher: Choosing the Best Strategies for Young Children’s Learning. Rev. ed. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Gooze, R.A., C.C. Hughes, D.M. Finkelstein, & R.C. Whitaker. 2010. “Reaching Staff, Parents, and Community Partners to Prevent Child- hood Obesity in Head Start, 2008.” Preventing Chronic Disease 7 (3): 1–9. www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2010/may/pdf/09_0115.pdf.

Harrison, K., K.K. Bost, B.A. McBride, S.M. Donovan, D.S. Grigsby- Toussaint, J. Kim, J.M. Liechty, A. Wiley, M. Teran-Garcia, & G.C. Jacobsohn. 2011. “Toward a Developmental Conceptualization of Contributors to Overweight and Obesity in Childhood: The Six-Cs Model.” Child Development Perspectives 5 (1): 50–58.

IOM (Institute of Medicine). 2012. Accelerating Progress in Obesity Pre- vention: Solving the Weight of the Nation. Washington, DC: The Na- tional Academies Press. www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=13275.

Kaphingst, K. & M. Story. 2009. “Child Care as an Untapped Setting for Obesity Prevention: State Child Care Licensing Regulations Related to Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Media Use for Preschool-Aged Children in the United States.” Preventing Chronic Disease 6 (1). www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2009/jan/07_0240.htm.

Lanigan, J.D. 2011. “The Substance and Sources of Young Children’s Healthy Eating and Physical Activity Knowledge: Implications for Obesity Prevention Efforts.” Child: Care, Health, and Development 37 (3): 368–76.

Larson, N., D.S. Ward, S.B. Neelon, & M. Story. 2011. “What Role Can Child- Care Settings Play in Obesity Preven- tion? A Review of the Evidence and Call for Research Efforts.” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 111 (9): 1343–62.

Musher-Eizenman, D.R., S.C. Holub, A.B. Miller, S.E. Goldstein, & L. Edwards- Leeper. 2004. “Body Size Stigmatiza- tion in Preschool Children: The Role of Control Attri butions.” Journal of Pediatric Psychology 29 (8): 613–20. www.jpepsy.oxfordjournals.org/ content/29/8/613.abstract.

NASPE (National Association for Sport and Physical Education). 2009. Active Start: A Statement of Physical Activity Guidelines for Children From Birth to Age 5. 2nd ed. Sewickley, PA: Ameri- can Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance.

Nevada Department of Education. 2010. “Nevada Pre-Kindergarten Standards, Revised & Approved: 2010.” www. nsla.nevadaculture.org/statepubs/ epubs/31428003048838.pdf.

NHLBI (National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute). 2013. “Choosing Foods for Your Family.” NHLBI initiative, We Can! Ways to Enhance Children’s Activity and Nutrition. www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/public/ heart/obesity/wecan/eat-right/ choosing-foods.htm.

Ogden, C.L., M.D. Carroll, B.K. Kit, & K.M. Flegal. 2012. “Prevalence of Obesity and Trends in Body Mass Index Among US Children and Adolescents, 1999–2010.” Journal of the American Medical Associa- tion 307 (5): 483–90.

Ogden, C.L., M.D. Carroll, B.K. Kit, & K.M. Flegal. 2014. “Prevalence of Childhood and Adult Obesity in the United States, 2011–2 012.” Journal of the American Medical Association 311 (8): 806–14.

Sacha, T.J., & S.W. Russ. 2006. “Effects of Pretend Imagery on Learning Dance in Preschool Children.” Early Childhood Education Journal 33 (5): 341–45.

Sanders, S.W. 2002. Active for Life: Developmentally Appropriate Move- ment Programs for Young Children. Washington DC: NAEYC.

Scerri, C., & C. Savona-Ventura. 2011. “Lifestyle Risk Factors for Child- hood Obesity.” Childhood Obesity 7 (1): 25–29.

Sigman-Grant, M., T.A. Byington, A.R. Lindsay, M. Lu, A.R. Mobley, N. Fitzgerald, & D. Hildebrand. 2014. “Preschoolers Can Distinguish Between Healthy and Unhealthy Foods: The All 4 Kids Study.” Jour- nal of Nutrition Education and Behavior 46 (2): 121–27.

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November 2014 Young Children 21

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S ince the late 1990s, there has been a barrage of reports about the “obesity epidemic” in the United States and the effects of obesity on the health and development of

American children. As a result, substantial attention and resources have been directed toward preventing childhood overweight and obesity. There is a growing consensus, however, that these problems are best understood and addressed through a holistic wellness per- spective that considers the many interwoven factors—personal, familial, social, cultural, economic—that can affect the physical and emotional well-being of children and their families (Prilleltensky, Nelson, & Peirson 2001;

Lake 2012; Worton et al. 2014). Given the criti- cal connections between children’s physical, emotional, and cognitive functioning and learning, overweight and obesity prevention is best approached as part of broader efforts to scaffold children’s developing capacity to engage in behaviors that will enhance their well-being. This article draws on current re- search findings and responses to surveys, focus groups, and professional development work- shops we conducted with early childhood edu- cational professionals from July 2011 through May 2012. Based on our findings, we suggest strategies and resources to increase the effec- tiveness of classroom practices in promoting wellness for young children and their families.

Helen L. Johnson and Leigh Shebanie McCallen

Preschool Through Primary Grades

Looking at the Whole Picture: A Wellness Curriculum for Young Children and Their Families

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Nutrition and Fitness for All Young Children

What are educators’ responsibilities regarding children’s health? It is important for early childhood professionals to adopt a deliberate and cohesive approach to the health and well- ness issues that arise spontaneously and repeatedly in the classroom and that permeate the curriculum. In fact, there is no way to keep questions about health, nutrition, and general well-being out of the early childhood classroom, because they connect directly and concretely to children’s evolving understanding of self. Many questions children ask relate directly to wellness issues (“What makes me get big?” “What makes me feel good?” “What helps me run fast?”). Wellness activities occur often in early childhood settings, and they are a frequent theme in popular books for young children.

Wellness issues are significantly linked to children’s classroom behavior. Research indicates that the poor health of children and their parents negatively affects early school readiness and the development of children’s cognitive functioning. This is particularly true among children from families with low incomes (Janus & Duku 2007). Educators need to consider how children’s development, learning, progress, and performance are affected by how they are feeling (Weaver-Hightower 2011). Are they hungry? Did they get enough sleep last night? Are they wondering who will pick them up from school?

In the focus groups we conducted, teachers commented on their perceptions that the increasingly fast-paced lives of families with young children negatively impact children’s eating, sleeping, and general sense of well-being. This, in turn, affects children’s behavior and participation in the classroom. Commenting on how these pressures affect par- ents’ behavior, Shawna, a kindergarten teacher, said,

When you’re stressed, who has time to prepare a really good lunch or breakfast? Sometimes it’s just packaged food. The stress trickles down from emo- tional, to physical, to nutritional.

Her colleague, Gerald, also a kindergarten teacher, de- scribed the impact on children.

I had a boy tell me last week at the end of the day, “I was in the bathroom crying.” A lot of stress comes out, and everything is exhibited at school.

The connections these teachers observed between physi- cal and emotional well-being, stress, and school behavior highlight the value of taking a holistic approach.

Given the prevalence of wellness-related topics in early childhood settings and the links between children’s health

and their school performance, early childhood profession- als are ideally positioned to address wellness issues with young children and their families. Many classroom activi- ties and materials convey both explicit and implicit well- ness messages that shape children’s attitudes and behavior. By adopting a wellness curriculum, teachers connect the dots so that classroom experiences and practices reinforce messages about healthy choices.

Building a wellness curriculum In our workshops and conversations, educators and families almost unanimously agreed that wellness should be ad- dressed more thoroughly and holistically in the classroom. Most teachers reported that they were already using at least one or two practices to promote healthy choices. In this sec- tion, we draw on these responses to describe some specific activities and guidelines for building a wellness curriculum.

While the content of wellness activities varies, partner- ships with families are an essential component. Family values, routines, and resources set the parameters for children’s wellness options (Fiese & Schwartz 2008; Anderson & Whitaker 2010). Partnerships with families enable teachers to use children’s real-life experiences and connect to practices they encounter outside of school. Wellness curricula also share three key features: positive tone and models, holistic and contextualized perspectives, and embedded design. In the pages that follow, we describe classroom and schoolwide activities that demonstrate these features. Some additional activities are listed in “Wellness Promotion Activities” (p. 24).

Positive tone and models It’s important to emphasize building positive behaviors (“Eat more fruits and vegetables”) as opposed to avoiding risks (“Don’t eat fatty foods”) in the wellness curriculum. Focusing on positive behavior offers clear, direct informa- tion about healthy choices and what the behaviors look like, rather than drawing attention to negative consequences or models. These positive statements tell children what to do, instead of what not to do.

About the Authors Helen L. Johnson, PhD, is professor of child development and educational psychology at Queens College and the Graduate Center, City University of new York (CUnY). Helen teaches courses on developmental and instructional issues. She has worked extensively on resilience in underserved populations. [email protected]

Leigh Shebanie McCallen, MPhil, is a doctoral candidate in educa- tional psychology at the Graduate Center, CUnY, and research fellow at the Center for Teaching and learning, Queens College. leigh has conducted research on supportive school environments and resil- ience in early childhood. [email protected]

By adopting a wellness curriculum, teachers connect the dots so that class- room experiences and practices rein- force messages about healthy choices.

November 2014 Young Children 23

Wellness Promotion Activities

description Context and curricular

connections Family–school partnership

School Garden

■n Children, teachers, school person- nel, and family members plant, tend, and harvest a garden. Climate and available space determine what to grow. While plants grow, children can water them and monitor their growth. As a schoolwide initiative, classes and grades can share garden care respon- sibilities on a rotating basis.

■n Through whole class, small group, or learning center activities, children can research the grow- ing conditions needed by various crops when planning the garden. The whole class can produce multi media documentation of gar- den cultivation, plant growth, and yield. The inquiry and documenta- tion activities associated with the garden strongly support literacy, science, and social learning.

■n Family members can help plant, tend, and harvest. They are en- couraged to contribute informa- tion about how the foods in the garden are used in their cultures and recipes.

Physical Activity Routines

■n The daily schedule includes time for children to participate in physical activity. This is distinct from physi- cal education class: it is an activity (indoor or outdoor) embedded in the classroom routines and activities. Transitions between activities can include time for games such as Shake the Sillies out, Stand and Stretch, or Simon Says. (For suggestions on implementing these routines, see www.playworks.org.)

■n Physical activity routines can take place at the class or school level. The activities themselves can pro- mote the development of impulse control and executive function. Talking with children about the purpose of these embedded activ- ities can support the development of strategies for self-regulation.

■n Building these physical activity routines into school experiences conveys a message about the importance of being physically active throughout the day. It also models physical activity routines that work at home as well as at school. Talking with families about the routines’ goals can open up a conversation between home and school about the benefits of physi- cal activity for children.

Neighborhood Walk

■n Children walk in the school com- munity to learn about the people and places in it. As children become accustomed to walking to the fire station, library, post office, and other places, they experience a model of active civic learning and build habits that incorporate physical activity. (Mis- ter Rogers’ Neighborhood is a good model for conversations that can be part of exploring the neighborhood.)

■n neighborhood walks can focus on observing plants, visiting com- munity organizations such as the fire department, and learning to read street signs and signals. They can be incorporated into lessons on literacy, social studies, science, and math.

■n Family members can go on neigh- borhood walks or children can visit places where family members live or work to learn about family, diversity, jobs, etc. Bringing the classroom into the neighborhood is an effective way to commu- nicate interest and respect for families’ lives.

Recipe Exchange/Class Cookbook

■n Children compile and share family recipes (at class, grade, or school level). The recipe collection can relate to the Food of the Week or School Garden activities, or to holidays or a study unit (e.g., climate and growing conditions, cultural traditions).

■n Children read one another’s recipes, noting similarities and dif- ferences in the use of ingredients. The comparisons can be incor- porated in inquiry activities about climate and growing conditions and about culture.

■n Sharing recipes builds connec- tions across families and helps build a school community.

Young Children November 201424

In class. One kindergarten teacher reframed the class Valentine’s Day celebration by moving away from the traditional exchange of sweets to focus on the meaning of friendship, community, and giving. After reading aloud Shel Silverstein’s The Giving Tree (2004), she asked the class to talk about ways to show that they care about one another that do not involve giving treats. Instead of exchanging candy and cards with their classmates, children brought in canned food and walked to a donation center with the goods in wagons (another wellness aspect, because walking was involved). Upon return, the children discussed how it feels to do something to help others.

Schoolwide. The impact of positive models was ap- parent in a public elementary school in a diverse Brooklyn community, where the principal implemented a Food of the Week program. Each week, students attended grade-level assemblies during which the teachers introduced the food (usually a fruit or vegetable) and gave the children samples to taste and samples to take home to their families. The next day, children talked about their families’ reactions to the food. Was it something that the family ate regularly, and if so, how did they serve it? If it was a new food, what did family members think about it? Classes calculated and graphed reactions to different foods and studied the climates in which the foods grow and the cultures that consume them.

In addition to introducing a variety of foods to children and families, the program offered children multiple and recurring models of peers and teachers trying new foods, and it provided a starting point for recipe exchange and cookbook activities (see “Wellness Promotion Activities”). It also provided a concrete, positive basis for home–school communication about nutrition. After a few months of the program, students and families reported that they had added some of the new foods to their regular meals.

A holistic and contextualized perspective It is important to address the overlapping environments— home, classroom, school, community—that shape the options available to young children and their families to support their well-being. Through genuine partnerships with families and teachers, schools can create a wellness curriculum that is responsive to the realities of children’s lives. For example, a wellness curriculum for children living in an urban area with limited outdoor play spaces can emphasize indoor physical activities (see Head Start’s Eat, Play, Grow curriculum at www.nhsa.org/news_and_ advocacy/recent_news/eat_play_grow_curriculum).

In class. This activity uses the US Department of Agri- culture’s My Plate diagram, and can be conducted in school and at home. In the classroom, the teacher gives each child a printout of My Plate, and children fill in each section with

November 2014 Young Children 25

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appropriate foods. Younger children can do this with pictures or concrete objects; older children can write the food names. At home, children and their families can fill the plate with foods they have on hand, using either pictures or words. Children can then create a composite class plate that represents the foods that oc- cur regularly in their diets. Filling the plate with foods from home helps families relate nutritional guidelines to their own tastes and bud- gets. It also helps teachers and schools become more sensitive to the preferences and resources of the children and families they serve.

Schoolwide. This activity is easily extended across classes and grades by creating a mural or bulletin board representing the foods commonly eaten by the entire school community. Sharing this information provides a natural link to the recipe exchange and cookbook activities men- tioned earlier.

Embedded design Threading the wellness curriculum across content areas and through schoolwide initiatives related to wellness— rather than treating it as a stand-alone subject—generates multiple exposures and models for wellness concerns. This, in turn, creates a climate that reinforces individual wellness messages and activities.

In class. Ms. Quarles shared with the second-graders she teaches her plans for running in a marathon. Her preparation for and participation in the race raised study topics for math, science, and literacy. Students learned about the nutrition and science of preparing for a physical challenge (what to eat, how to build up stamina), measured and graphed their teacher’s physical training, and wrote letters about her performance in the race. After Ms. Quarles ran the marathon, some of the students were inspired to begin their own physi- cal training regimens during recess. From their teacher’s example, they had learned that engag- ing in physical challenges isn’t just good for you, it actually feels good.

Schoolwide. Ms. Quarles’s strong classroom model can serve as the basis for a schoolwide physical activity challenge. Students and teachers keep a log of the time they spend being physically active each day, with weekly recognition going

to the classes or grades that are most active or most improved. The challenge can culminate in a daylong celebration, with physical games that involve all of the children. Some schools organize these events on weekends to include families as well.

Implementing a wellness curriculum The activities described in this article share two features: they connect natu- rally to regular school and classroom routines, and they require no special materi-

als (other than food items). Also key to these activities is the opportunity each provides for building connections between home and school.

How can simple activities like these add up to a wellness curriculum? Rather than requiring specialized equip- ment or materials, starting a wellness curriculum requires thoughtful examination and organization of school and family environments and resources. Wellness issues already are threaded through early childhood classrooms, and children are learning about wellness values and behaviors through the patterns of school experiences. Long before young children can choose what or how much they eat, or when and how often they play active games, they form beliefs and attitudes that will shape the choices they make later on. By using activities such as those we’ve de- scribed to communicate consistent and constructive mes- sages, early childhood educators and the families of young children can work together to foster wellness beliefs and behaviors that will promote well-being for years to come.

Young Children November 201426

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References

Anderson, S.E., & R.C. Whitaker. 2010. “Household Routines and Obesi- ty in US Preschool-Aged Children.” Pediatrics 125 (3): 420–8. http:// pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/125/3/420.full.pdf+html.

Fiese, B.H., & M. Schwartz. 2008. “Reclaiming the Family Table: Mealtimes and Child Health and Wellbeing.” Social Policy Report. 22 (4): 3–18. www.yaleruddcenter.org/resources/upload/docs/what/ reports/reclaimingfamilytable.pdf.

Lake, A.M. 2012. “Pediatric Obesity: Preventive Measures in Early Childhood.” Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 36 (1): 76S–80S.

Janus, M., & E. Duku. 2007. “The School Entry Gap: Socioeconomic, Family, and Health Factors Associated With Children’s School Read- iness to Learn.” Early Education and Development 18 (3): 375–403.

Prilleltensky, I., G. Nelson, & L. Peirson. 2001. “The Role of Power and Control in Children’s Lives: An Ecological Analysis of Pathways Toward Wellness, Resilience, and Problems.” Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology 11 (2): 143–58.

Weaver-Hightower, M.B. 2011. “Why Education Researchers Should Take School Food Seriously.” Educational Researcher 40 (1): 15–21.

Worton, S.K., R. Caplan, G. Nelson, S.M. Pancer, C. Loomis, R.D. Peters, & K. Hayward. 2014. “Better Beginnings, Better Futures: Theory, Research, and Knowledge Transfer of a Community-Based Initiative for Children and Families.” Psychosocial Intervention 23 (2): 135–43.

Copyright © 2014 by the national Association for the Education of Young Children. See Permissions and Reprints online at www.naeyc.org/yc/permissions.

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O utdoor play is an important part of the conversation about health and wellness for young children for a variety of reasons. It is associated with greater

amounts of physical activity in children, and whole body exercise has a long-lasting influence throughout childhood (Baranowski et al. 1993; Brown et al. 2009). Children who regularly play outdoors tend to be fitter and leaner, develop stronger immune systems, play more creatively, have more active imaginations, report lower stress levels, and demonstrate greater respect for themselves and others (Fjørtoft 2004; Burdette & Whitaker 2005). When young children have access to play spaces designed with intention-

ality they can increase their physical activity (Bower et al. 2008; Brown et al. 2009).

The benefits of outdoor play are especially important in early childhood education today. Among young children ages 2 to 5 years, the prevalence of obesity has more than tripled over the past three decades to a staggering 18.4 percent in a nationally representative sample (Anderson & Whitaker 2009). Additionally, the prevalence of overweight has soared to more than 25 percent (Ogden et al. 2010). An addition- al concern is that some 60 percent of children who are overweight or obese as preschoolers continue to be so as adolescents (Johannsson et al. 2006). While reports from the Centers for Disease Control (CDC 2009, 2014) indicate that

Karin H. Spencer and Paul M. Wright

Toddlers and Preschool

Quality Outdoor Play Spaces for Young Children

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Nutrition and Fitness for All Young Children

these statistics are starting to taper, they still paint a pic- ture early childhood educators need to pay attention to.

As overweight and obesity continue into adulthood, so do a variety of associated problems, such as hypertension, type 2 diabetes, low self-esteem, and decreased quality of life. The American Academy of Pediatrics (2014) has de- clared overweight and obesity a national emergency and in- dicates that prevention is critical. We suggest that outdoor play is one prescription that is readily accessible to all!

Rate your center Head Start Body Start (HSBS) National Center for Physi- cal Development and Outdoor Play developed a survey, the Play Space Assessment (HSBS 2010), to guide early child- hood programs in assessing and creating a high-quality outdoor play space that promotes movement opportunities for children of all abilities. The tool was designed to assist Head Start centers in evaluating their outdoor play spaces; however, any early childhood program serving children ages 3 to 5 years can use it. It reflects best practice based on a review of the literature on play spaces and outdoor environments and existing tools (DeBord et al. 2005; Casey 2007; Thompson, Hudson, & Olsen 2007; Keeler 2008). Experts in the fields of early childhood education, physical activity, and movement reviewed the survey’s content for relevance and accuracy. Head Start teachers reviewed the instructions and content, and provided input to enhance the clarity of the instructions, ease of use, and appropriate- ness of the criteria.

The survey, which can be downloaded at Head Start’s Early Childhood Knowledge and Learning Center (ECKLC) website (https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov, search for Play Space Assessment), shows different levels of imple- mentation to help guide improvement plans for outdoor play spaces. It specifies 11 categories of a high-quality outdoor play space and gives examples of elements and the types of movement and play these elements support. The categories are key features, movement opportunities, flexibility and play, shelter and shade structures, natural features, welcoming atmosphere, sensory elements, acces- sibility and inclusive play, risk and challenge, surfacing, and enclosures and safety features. The assessment encourages the assessor to make connections between the elements of the play space—whether manufactured or natural—and movement opportunities. For example, if all equipment in a play space is manufactured and anchored in place, there may be fewer opportunities for children to explore and feel

connected to nature through their movement and play. The goal is to increase play and physical activity for children by being intentional in the design and use of quality outdoor environments.

In the following sections we describe a number of the Play Space Assessment categories and explain how to apply them. (For complete descriptions of all categories, refer to the instrument online.)

Key features Providing a welcoming atmosphere for children as they learn and explore outdoors is essential. Play spaces should be clean, friendly, and inviting, with appropriate storage so that materials are organized and easily used by staff and children (DeBord et al. 2005). Consider the outdoor play space as an extension of the classroom, and create a physi- cal and social environment where children feel similarly welcomed, trusted, and respected. Here, they are more apt to engage in prosocial behaviors and take risks in learning across developmental domains.

The key features of an outdoor play space include developmentally appropriate play areas that promote a range of experiences for children. Children display the highest levels of physical activity on playgrounds that have a combination of manufactured equipment and natural materials. All the materials and equipment in the play space should be age appropriate for the children who use it, to ensure safety and maximum skill development. (See “Safety Is Paramount,” p. 30.)

Multipurpose open spaces. In an open play space, children can engage in a range of gross motor activities/ skills such as running, jumping, crawling, and rolling. With manipulative equipment such as balls, beanbags, and hoops in open spaces, children have even more flexibility in their outdoor play. Adding simple toys and building materials lets children have varied movement opportunities and the chance to partake in construction play and develop fine mo- tor skills. Finally, offering props or costumes can encour- age role play and fantasy play. Open play spaces could even incorporate a simple stage or performance area.

About the Authors Karin H. Spencer, EdD, is an assistant professor and the early childhood coordinator at Shepherd University in Shepherds- town, West virginia. Karin previously served as the director for Head Start Body Start national Center for Physical Development and outdoor Play.

Paul M. Wright, PhD, is a professor and the lane/Zimmerman En- dowed Chair in the Department of Kinesiology and Physical Education at northern Illinois University. Paul served as the external evaluator for a federal grant from the office of Head Start to promote physical activity and outdoor play in Head Start centers nationwide.

Children display the highest levels of physical activity on playgrounds that have a combination of manufactured equipment and natural materials.

November 2014 Young Children 29

Anchored play equipment. Commonly found on most playgrounds, this equipment includes climbing structures, swings, slides, and spring riders (rocking toys). Imagine children sliding down a slide, climbing up a ladder, or walk- ing along a balance beam.

Natural elements. A high- quality play space incorpo- rates a variety of natural elements for children to play with, such as trees, stumps, boulders, long grass, water, and pebbles. The landscape contains natural elements such as a variety of species of trees or shrubs, nonpoi- sonous flowering plants, vines, topographic variation (i.e., mounds, terraces, slopes), and safe ground surfaces. Natural elements serve to create a welcoming and beautiful environment that provides variety, interest, and elements of perceived risk and adventure.

Risk and challenge. Children need opportunities to do things that are exciting and adventurous. We can create a sense of risk and challenge in a safe environment. Open- ended components, such as a log, balance beam, stump, or flagstone path, challenge children’s physical, social, and cognitive abilities by encouraging them to create their own challenge or obstacle course and engage in increasingly more difficult and complex activities.

Create a sense of adventure by including grass mazes or adventure pathways that present a range of obstacles or challenges with natural open-ended components like those

noted in the previous section (NWF & NLI 2012). Encour- age use of spaces where chil- dren can do things like play hide and seek behind trees, climb over logs, and jump off perches like a stump (Keeler 2008). Set up pathways with visual and textural variations, as these suggest different ways for children to move from place to place. Young children will dart quickly across an open grassy space and jump from flat stone to flat stone along a pathway. Children can experience excitement and challenge by sliding down a snow hill, climbing on a fallen tree, or using large tree branches to build.

Wheeled toys. Using tricycles, scooters, wagons, and push toys, children experience speed, negotiate pathways, cooperate with others, engage in role play, and develop large-muscle groups. Offering a variety of wheeled toys challenges children with different ability levels. Likewise, a pathway designed with a slight slope gives children an additional challenge. Include helmets to promote safety at an early age.

Manipulative equipment. Objects such as balls, jump ropes, ribbons, and hula hoops give children practice in object control skills, such as throwing, catching, retriev- ing, rolling, bowling, kicking, and batting. Adding portable equipment to play spaces promotes greater physical activity for young children than traditional anchored equipment alone (Brown et al. 2009).

Safety Is Paramount

Play space safety requires due diligence and common sense in consideration of children’s ages and skills. Adults should supervise outdoor play spaces, of course, and children should always be visible to at least one adult (see Kern & Wakeford 2007).

Plan your play spaces to meet the regulatory codes of your locale. Important information about playground safety is available from the US Consumer Product Safety Commission (www.cpsc.gov) and the national Program for Playground Safety (www.uni.edu/playground). Programs should follow local building codes and consult state child care licensing regula- tions and other applicable regulations that re- late to designing and equipping a playground.

Young Children November 201430

Sand play area. Large sand areas provide ample room for children to explore and discover the qualities of sand or mud, and they encourage peer interaction. Including dramatic play props promotes a variety of imaginative play. Elevated sand tables may make sand play accessible to chil- dren who have special needs. At a raised sand area children can sit or stand around the containers to play with the sand. In lower sand areas, children use their bodies to develop nonlocomotor skills, such as bending and squatting as they dig and play in the sand. Dirt or soil digging areas afford children a different tactile experience and the chance to discover insects and earthworms.

Water play features. With less worry about spillage and mess, outside play invites water exploration. Water play fea- tures can be permanent features, such as a water fountain or small waterfall integrated into the landscape of a yard, or temporary and portable, such as a hose, a small wading pool, a water table, or the addition of water to the sand or digging area. Children can enjoy a sprinkler, stream, or recirculating shallow-water feature (such as a small manu- factured stream or waterfall) to explore running water and learn how water moves and changes. Predicting whether objects sink or float, discovering which objects move faster in flowing water (a leaf or a stick?), and exploring how the addition of water changes materials such as dirt or sand fosters science learning. Place buckets of water outside with large paint brushes so children can “paint” concrete sidewalks or brick walls. Be sure that water does not stand for more than a few hours and is not deeper than regulatory codes for your region.

Music and movement— acoustic play area. An outdoor play space can include an area with marimbas, log drums, rain sticks, chimes, and other instru- ments. Such an area inspires children to explore natural sounds in the environment, make loud music, compose music individu- ally and collaboratively, and move expressively. Low-cost options include old pots and pans, securely closed plastic bottles filled with pebbles, aluminum garbage can lids attached to or hung from a fence, and large barrels from places such as car washes to make a big-boom drum.

Accessibility and Inclusive Play

All children need to be able to get to everything in the outdoor play space. Children across ages and abilities should have access to and enjoy the play space and the opportunities it creates with their peers. Be certain that surfacing on the play areas and sur- rounding paths are accessible: consider path width and surface texture so that walkers and wheelchairs easily traverse all areas, and provide access to mixed-use play equipment or free-standing accessible play equipment, like slides, elevated sandboxes, and spring riders.

The key features should allow opportunities for chil- dren’s various levels of physical abilities, with lesser and greater challenges provided. For example, play spaces may include lower and higher climbing areas. For chil- dren who feel anxious or overwhelmed by a busy play space, add natural features such as shrubs, plants, and trees to provide more sheltered and intimate spaces. Build a living willow hut or a nestlike structure made from tree branches (Casey 2007).

November 2014 Young Children 31

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Balance beams and stepping stones. Using these, children practice stability skills such as balancing, turning, stopping, bending, and transferring weight. Some compa- nies provide manufactured balance beams; however, tree logs also can be used as balance beams. Large, smooth stones or several small tree stumps provide excellent op- portunities to practice stability skills and to incorporate natural elements into the play space. These can create an adventurous pathway to another play area.

Play houses and other structures. Play houses and ga- zebos provide opportunities for socialization and language development. Depending on their imaginations, children may also have opportunities to use fine motor and gross motor skills. To prompt creativity, change the props you make available so that the same structure becomes a boat, a train, or a magical ship setting off to outer space.

Flower or vegetable gardens. Children can grow plants, herbs, and flowers; eat home-grown produce; and experi- ence the life cycle of plants in gardens. Plants also provide aesthetic features to the outdoor space and a variety of textures and smells for children to explore and discover. Promote family and community involvement by engaging parent and community volunteers in visiting and helping to plant the flowers or vegetables in the garden. Children of- ten develop an appreciation for eating fresh produce if they have a sense of responsibility in growing the vegetables or fruits (NWF & NLI 2012).

loose parts. Materials for building include items such as pinecones, milk crates, building blocks, and small stumps, logs, or branches. Loose parts promote construc- tive play and encourage the development of both fine and gross motor skills. Recycle, reuse, and borrow from nature to create a cache of loose parts that stimulate creativity. Children manipulate materials and experiment with building in different ways outdoors than they do with blocks indoors. Observe, and fol- low their lead!

Trees for climbing. Good climbing trees give children the opportunity to climb, balance, and transfer weight. Climbing also gives children the opportunity to take calculated risks and gain greater control over their large muscles. If your outdoor play space does not have a climb- ing tree, bring in a large tree trunk from a tree that has fallen or been cut down to give children a similar experience and sense of adventure.

Climbing and rolling mounds. Give children an opportunity to develop stability skills such as balancing, rolling, and stopping, or locomotor skills such as running, galloping, and skipping. Rolling, sliding, or running down a hill or slope lets children experience space and various forces of movement.

Percentage of Centers Implementing Categories Before

Improvement of Play Spaces This table shows the percentage of 722 Head Start centers whose outdoor play spaces mostly or fully met criteria in the survey’s 11 categories before the centers made improvements using Head Start Body Start grants.

Category Percentage of

centers already implementing category

Key features 30.2%

Movement opportunities 43.6%

Flexibility/play 22.9%

Shelter/shade structures 37.4%

natural features 9.6%

Welcoming atmosphere 16.3%

Sensory elements 17.4 %

Accessibility/inclusive play 29.4%

Risk/challenge 14.8%

Surfacing 48.3%

Enclosures/safety features 70.2%

Source: Adapted from “Head Start Centers With Survey Categories Already Implemented Before Improvements With HSBS Grant (N = 722)” (Head Start Body Start National Center for Physical Development and Outdoor Play 2010).

Young Children November 201432

Raised decks or stages. These can be gathering or wel- coming places for children. This area can be a place to read stories together, act out stories, sing, or dance. It provides a place for children to perform (Murray 2012). Try large pal- lets from a home improvement store as low cost options to a raised deck or stage (Casey 2007). Or surround a flat space with seating such as tree stumps or milk crates.

decorative elements. A high-quality outdoor play space includes decorative elements, such as banners, wind chimes, wind socks, statues, flags, cultural artifacts, or decorative objects (e.g., wreaths, fence weavings, murals, weather vanes, pinwheels, whimsical signs, garlands, or sculptures) that add visual and auditory interest and appeal (DeBord et al. 2005). Natural playscape designer Rusty Keeler (2008) suggests using the talents of local artists such as brickmasons, painters, sculptors, and craftspeople to personalize the play space, making it a welcoming and unique environment for children.

Compare your outdoor play space For early childhood educators who wish to use the HSBS Play Space Assessment to evaluate their outdoor play space, it is helpful to have a reference point for comparison. It is unlikely that you will find your current play space has fully implemented all the categories discussed in this article, and

certainly some of these are more commonly implemented than others. To help you interpret the results of your self- assessment, we provide baseline data from a national sample of Head Start centers (see “Percentage of Centers Implementing Categories Before Improvement of Play Spaces”). These data were collected from 722 HSBS grantee sites (349 in 2009 and 373 in 2010) before they began their play space improvements. In all, this sample represents Head Start centers from 49 of the 50 states.

After rating your center’s outdoor play space using the holistic rubric and five-point implementation rating scale (where 1 = Not at All and 5 = Fully) found in the survey, you can compare your results to the national norms in the table. For instance, based on these norms, you should not be surprised if you have room to improve in areas such as natural features, risk/challenge, welcoming atmosphere, and sensory elements. In fact, less than 20 percent of the Head Start centers in this national sample reported they had Mostly or Fully met the criteria in these four categories.

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It is important to keep the focus on the children and the movement opportunities you want them to have.

Conclusion Numerous practitioners have reported that the Play Space Assessment provides a comprehensive framework for thinking about the quality of outdoor play spaces for preschoolers. While having national norms as a point of comparison may help individuals interpret their play space self-assessment, we hope early childhood settings can use this tool to bring about improvements. After identifying areas for improvement, your baseline results will give you an even more meaningful reference point for gauging suc- cess in improvements over time.

Remember that as you begin to plan for changes and enhancements to an outdoor play space, it is important to keep the focus on the children and the movement opportu- nities you want them to have. We agree with Jim Green- man (2003), who stated, “Rather than beginning with catalogs and decisions about equipment and surfaces, start with what it is that children should be able to do outside, if only we could make it happen. Then decide how best to accomplish this.”

References

American Academy of Pediatrics. 2014. “Where We Stand: Obesity Prevention.” www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/ conditions/obesity/Pages/Where-We-Stand-Obesity-Prevention. aspx.

Anderson, S.E., & R.C. Whitaker. 2009. “Prevalence of Obesity Among US Preschool Children in Different Racial and Ethnic Groups.” Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 163 (4): 344–48.

Baranowski, T., W.O. Thompson, R.H. DuRant, J. Baranowski, & J. Puhl. 1993. “Observations on Physical Activity in Physical Locations: Age, Gender, Ethnicity, and Month Effects.” Research Quarterly for Exer- cise and Sport 64 (2): 127–33.

Bower, J.K., D.P. Hales, D.F. Tate, D.A. Rubin, S.E. Benjamin, & D.S. Ward. 2008. “The Childcare Environment and Children’s Physical Activity.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 34 (1): 23–29.

Brown, W.H., K.A. Pfeiffer, K.L. McIver, M. Dowda, C.L. Addy, & R.R. Pate. 2009. “Social and Environmental Factors Associated With Preschoolers’ Nonsedentary Physical Activity.” Child Development 80 (1): 45–58. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2648129.

Burdette, H.L., & R.C. Whitaker. 2005. “Resurrecting Free Play in Young Children: Looking Beyond Fitness and Fatness to Attention, Affiliation, and Affect.” Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 159: 46–50. www.childrenandnature.org/downloads/Burdette_ LookingBeyond.pdf.

Casey, T. 2007. Environments for Outdoor Play: A Practical Guide to Making Space for Children. London: Paul Chapman.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2009. “Obesity Prevalence Among Low-Income, Preschool-Aged Children—US, 1998–2008.” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 58 (28): 769–96. www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/wk/mm.5828.pdf.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2014. “Childhood Obesity Facts: Prevalence of Childhood Obesity in the United States, 2011–2012.” www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/childhood.html.

DeBord, K., L.L. Hestenes, R.C. Moore, N.G. Cosco, & J.R. McGin- nis. 2005. “Preschool Outdoor Environment Measurement Scale (POEMS): An Assessment Tool for Evaluating the Quality of Outdoor Environments in Childcare Centers for Children 3–5 Years Old.” Winston Salem, NC: Kaplan Early Learning.

Fjørtoft, I. 2004. “Landscape as Playscape: The Effects of Natural Environments on Children’s Play and Motor Development.” Chil- dren, Youth and Environments 14 (2): 21-44. www.stichtingoase.nl/ literatuur/doc/doc_76.pdf.

Greenman, J. 2003. “Are We Losing Ground?” Child Care Information Exchange March: 40–42.

Head Start Body Start National Center for Physical Development and Outdoor Play. 2010. Play Space Assessment for Preschool. Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance.

Johannsson, E., S.A. Arngrimsson, I. Thorsdottir, & T. Sveinsson. 2006. “Tracking of Overweight From Early Childhood to Adolescence in Cohorts Born 1988 and 1994: Overweight in a High Birth Weight Population.” International Journal of Obesity 30 (8): 1265–71.

Keeler, R. 2008. Natural Playscapes: Creating Outdoor Play Environ- ments for the Soul. Redmond, WA: Exchange Press.

Kern, P., & L. Wakeford. 2007. “Supporting Outdoor Play for Young Children: The Zone Model of Playground Supervision.” Young Children 62 (5): 12–18.

Murray, C.G. 2012. “A Stage for the Playground: An Outdoor Music Center.” Picturing Good Practice. TYC: Teaching Young Children 6 (1): 12–15.

NWF (National Wildlife Federation) & NLI (Natural Learning Initia- tive). 2012. Nature Play at Home: A Guide for Boosting Your Children’s Healthy Development and Creativity. www.nwf.org/~/media/PDFs/ Be%20Out%20There/NPatHome_Guidelines20120823.ashx.

Ogden, C.L., M.D. Carroll, L.R. Curtin, M.M. Lamb, & K.M. Flegal. 2010. “Prevalence of High Body Mass Index in US Children and Adoles- cents, 2007–2008.” Journal of the American Medical Association 303 (3): 242–49.

Thompson, D., S.D. Hudson, & H.M. Olsen. 2007. S.A.F.E. Play Areas: Creation, Maintenance, and Renovation. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Copyright © 2014 by the national Association for the Education of Young Children. See Permissions and Reprints online at www.naeyc.org/yc/permissions.

Young Children November 201434

For more information or to schedule a workshop, contact us at: The Miller Early Childhood Initiative of A WORLD OF DIFFERENCE® Institute Anti-Defamation League 605 Third Avenue New York, New York 10158-3560 (212) 885-7700 www.adl.org/miller-initiative [email protected]

The Anti-Defamation League, founded in 1913, is dedicated in purpose and program to combating anti- Semitism and securing justice and fair treatment for all. ADL’s A WORLD OF DIFFERENCE® Institute is a leading provider of anti-bias education and diversity training programs that help create and sustain inclusive home, school, community and work environments.

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D uring the past three decades, childhood obesity rates increased dramatically in the United States. Despite new evidence suggesting a decrease in obesity rates in 2- to

5-year-olds during recent years (Ogden et al. 2014), the prevalence of obesity in this age group remains high and is a major concern for families and early childhood educators alike.

Researchers and policy makers now recog- nize the critical role of early childhood teachers in shaping children’s eating habits through their mealtime interactions with children (Savage, Fisher, & Birch 2007). As a result, local, state, and federal entities have introduced obesity prevention programs in early childhood set-

tings. Although such programs are designed to improve children’s nutrition and increase physi- cal activity, many require considerable teacher time and training for successful implementa- tion. In this article we introduce a low-cost, feasible approach teachers can use to encourage children’s healthy eating. Through mealtime conversations, teachers help children recognize their own internal cues for hunger and satiation. Strategies to encourage healthy eating during program mealtimes are also discussed.

Childhood obesity and early childhood settings The rate of obesity among US preschool children is at an all-time high. More than 27 percent of

Brent A. McBride and Dipti A. Dev

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Preventing Childhood Obesity: Strategies to Help Preschoolers Develop Healthy Eating Habits

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Nutrition and Fitness for All Young Children

children ages 2 to 5 years are considered overweight or obese (Ogden et al. 2012). Preschoolers who are obese are at risk for serious health conditions, including type 2 diabetes and heart disease in adolescence and adulthood (Biro & Wien 2010). It’s important to note that the eating behav- iors children develop during the preschool years continue to shape their food attitudes and eating patterns through adulthood (Birch & Ventura 2009).

Early childhood education settings, including home- and center-based programs, Head Start, and pre-K, strongly influence young children and are therefore ideal places for preventing childhood obesity. Evidence sug- gests that early care and education experiences during the preschool years have a significant impact on weight status in childhood (Maher et al. 2008). More than 12 million pre- school children attend early childhood centers, where they spend most of their waking hours and consume as many as five meals and snacks a day (Larson et al. 2011). Outside of the home, there is no other setting where adults have as much continuous and intensive contact with young chil- dren (Hughes et al. 2010). Further, adults are more likely to have an influence on young children than they are on older children (Addessi et al. 2005). Therefore, early childhood teachers can play an important role in shaping children’s food intake and healthful eating habits through the foods they offer, the behaviors they model, and their interactions with children at mealtimes (Savage, Fisher, & Birch 2007).

Adult–child mealtime interactions Most early childhood teachers understand that helping children develop healthy eating behaviors and creating supportive mealtimes are among their most important re- sponsibilities (Johnson et al. 2013). Yet, when interviewed, teachers describe mealtimes as one of the most difficult parts of the program day because they feel overwhelmed by the children’s needs during these times (e.g., gauging when children are hungry, knowing how much food to provide children, managing all of the activity that occurs during meals) (Lumeng et al. 2008). The following is an overview of six specific teaching strategies that encourage pre-

schoolers’ healthful eating at mealtimes and can be easily integrated into early childhood settings.

1. Support children’s internal cues of hunger and fullness Children are born with cues for hunger and fullness that allow them to regulate how much food they eat. However, they often lose the ability to recognize these cues at an early age because many adults take over the children’s job of deciding how much to eat. Adults—both parents and teachers—often make comments such as “One more bite and you will be done.” When they do this, they are suggest- ing to children, “I don’t trust your cues.” Eventually such repeated messages cause children to no longer trust their own cues and instead to make decisions about how much to eat based on external cues or pressure from others (e.g., “You need to try the carrots,” “Clean your plate”).

In contrast, when teachers provide verbal cues such as “Are you full?” or “You can have more if you are hun- gry,” they help children pay attention to their internal signals of fullness and hunger. Offering verbal cues to help children recognize hunger and satiation supports their self-regulation of food and drinks they consume (Satter 2005) and increases the likelihood that children will make healthy eating decisions. The comments teachers make at mealtimes, along with their modeling of healthy eating hab- its, are important because of the link between these behav- iors and children’s self-regulation of the food they need to fuel their bodies. (See “Mealtime Comments to Encourage Preschoolers’ Healthy Eating,” pp. 38–39.) Self-regulation is considered part of childhood obesity prevention because it is related to children’s weight throughout childhood. When adults hinder children’s self-regulation, children are at increased risk of obesity (Sigman-Grant et al. 2008).

The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (formerly the American Dietetic Association) 2011 benchmarks recom- mend creating a mealtime environment in which teachers recognize and support children’s internal cues of hunger and fullness (Benjamin Neelon & Briley 2011). These bench- marks are based on Satter’s (2005) widely accepted model of the division and shared responsibility for child feed- ing. Under this model adult caregivers are responsible for choosing, preparing, and offering foods and for determin- ing when and where food is served. Children are responsi- ble for how much of these foods they eat and whether they eat at all. This division of responsibility reflects an authori- tative, or cooperative, feeding style and is the most effective

About the Authors Brent A. McBride, PhD, is a professor of human development and director of the Child Development laboratory at the Univer- sity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. A portion of his research program focuses on exploring the role of child care settings in obesity prevention. [email protected]

Dipti A. Dev, PhD, is an assistant professor and extension specialist for childhood health behaviors in the Department of Child, Youth, and Family Studies at the University of nebraska, lincoln. Her research and extension work focus on developing programs for improving feed- ing practices for healthy child development and preventing obesity. [email protected]

Self-regulation is considered part of childhood obesity prevention because it is related to children’s weight throughout childhood.

November 2014 Young Children 37

approach for helping children develop healthy eating habits (Satter 2005).

Gubbels and colleagues (2010) found that during meal- times in a program serving 2- to 3-year-olds, teachers could stimulate children to eat more than they wanted using directions such as “Finish your sandwich!” Such stimula- tion occurred multiple times during a meal. The same study noted that among the social factors in early childhood set- tings, teachers’ mealtime practices were highly associated with children’s dietary intake (e.g., staff talking with the children about healthy foods was associated with children’s increased consumption of dietary fiber). This evidence under scores the importance of the comments teachers make during mealtimes.

To help children recognize their hunger and fullness cues, educators can

■n Teach children vocabulary to express their hunger and fullness signals.

■n Ask questions such as “Are you still hungry?” and “Are you full?” Make statements such as “You’re taking care of your body by noticing that your tummy is full.”

■n Model and talk about their own feelings of fullness by saying, for example, “I’m full, so I’m not going to eat any more apple slices.”

■n Respect children’s cues once expressed. For example, if a child tells you she is full, stop talking to her about food and converse about something else.

■n Discuss hunger signals, such as rumbling in tummies. Talk about signs of fullness; have children place their hands on their stomachs to feel how their stomachs extend after eating. Help children focus on feeling a little full rather than very full. If they wait until they are very full to stop eating (e.g., their tummy is extended), they will have overeaten.

2. Avoid controlling feeding practices Feeding practices are the specific behaviors parents and teachers use to control what, how much, and when children eat. Adults often use them to encourage children to eat a greater amount of food or more healthy foods. But practices such as pressuring children to eat and restricting access to certain foods or groups of foods—saying, for example, “You can’t eat the applesauce until you try the green beans” or “You need to finish all the vegetables on your plate before you can have more fruit”—have negative long-term out- comes both for children’s weight and for their eating habits.

Pressuring children to eat and restricting certain foods can lead to picky eating and cause children to overeat when they are not hungry, which can result in obesity. Research suggests that highly restrictive feeding practices are consis- tently associated with child weight gain (Clark et al. 2007). For example, one study found that greater restriction of certain foods at age 5 predicted greater weight gain at age 7

Refer to hunger and fullness while talking to children during meals to help them recognize their internal cues.

use this Instead of this

“Are you full?” “Are you done?”

“If your tummy is full, you can put your plate back on the cart, wash your hands, and then play.”

“You should eat until your tummy feels full, and then you can play.”

“When you play with your cup, you’re showing me you are done.”

“If you are still hungry, you can have some more.”

“Do you want some more?”

“Does it make your tummy happy?”

“let’s see you make a happy [clean] plate.”

“Does your body have what it needs?”

“Hurry up, it’s time to go. lunchtime is over.”

“When we run out of bread, if you’re still hungry you can try some green beans and fruit.”

“Eat your green beans and fruit now. You had enough bread already.”

“Start with one scoop, and if you are hungry later you can have more.”

“Don’t take two scoops. Take one scoop, okay?”

“It is okay to not eat if you are full. But you should eat now if you are hungry.”

“You did not eat anything, and you will be hungry later. Eat something now.”

“If you are full, you don’t need to keep eating now. We have a lot of food in the kitchen for everyone. We will also have snacks soon, so if you’re hungry later you can eat during snack time.”

“You ate a lot. Your tummy will hurt if you eat more.”

Even if there is food on your plate, gently push the plate away and tell children, “I am full, and my tummy is happy. I don’t want to eat more.”

“I don’t like this food.”

“We should eat when we are hungry, and we can stop eating when our tummy is full. It is okay to stop eating if you are full, even if there is food left on your plate.”

“We cannot waste food by leaving any on our plates. let’s make a happy [clean] plate.”

Mealtime Comments to Encourage Preschoolers’ Healthy Eating

Young Children November 201438

among children considered at low risk for obesity (defined as children having mothers who are not overweight) (Faith et al. 2004).

Restricting foods—for example, allowing desserts only on special occasions—also sends the contradictory message that it is okay to eat unhealthy foods on happy occasions (Johnson & Krebs 2009). If children are allowed to eat desserts only on these special occasions, the food eventu- ally becomes associated with the “happy” or “feel-good” emotional response. This then increases the likelihood that children will turn to these feel-good foods to satisfy their emotional needs as opposed to eating to satisfy their hun- ger. As a result, children are actually more likely to eat more of the restricted foods in later years. Thus, the child who is seldom allowed sweets may become an adult who overeats cookies and candy. In contrast, research shows that when children are provided with but not pressured to eat certain foods, such as soup or vegetables, they consume more of these healthy foods and have fewer negative reactions to them (Galloway et al. 2006).

Like parents, early childhood teachers sometimes attempt to control children’s food choices and portions, stating the order in which food may be eaten (e.g., trying vegetables before fruit) and exhibiting attitudes and beliefs that can encourage children to overeat (e.g., insisting that children finish their food before they leave the table, mak- ing the children eat foods the teacher thinks are good for them) (Freedman & Alvarez 2010). Teachers may do this because they want to be sure children get enough food, since they may be experiencing food insecurity (i.e., not having reliable access to affordable, nutritious foods) at home (Lumeng et al. 2008). Although understandable, such practices are not healthy for children in the long run.

Following are some strategies for avoiding controlling feeding practices:

■n Eat meals together with children

■n Let children decide whether they want a second helping

■n Let children decide how much to eat

■n Let children choose the foods they want from what is offered

3. Communicate with families In some settings, families may pressure early childhood teachers to make sure their children eat well—that is, the children eat healthy foods and get enough of them. These instances are great opportunities to engage families and share information about their children’s eating habits. If needed, teachers can talk with families about the im- portance of helping children learn whether to eat and to choose how much to eat in order to self-regulate their food intake. Teachers can also discuss how pressuring children to eat may lead to unhealthy eating habits and obesity. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics benchmarks for child

use this Instead of this

Gently encourage children to try new foods without pres- suring them. Give children repeated exposure to new foods. Model healthy eating by trying each food yourself.

“You can touch and smell the section of orange first to see if you might like to try it. You don’t have to eat it. You can try it next time.”

‘‘Can you put a little tiny bit on your plate? Just try it, please.’’

Try some of the food yourself and comment on its taste: “Yummy! The yogurt and ber- ries taste sweet. Would you like to try some?”

“Even if you do not want to eat it, you need to take a no- thank-you bite.”

Give children choices. Ask them to choose between two healthy choices they have not tried yet: “Would you like to have carrots and dip or cheese and apple slices?”

“You have not touched the salad; you need to try some.”

Avoid praising children for finishing the food on their plates.

“You ate all your vegetables; you must have been hungry. If you are still hungry, you can have more milk.”

“Sarah ate all her veg- etables. Good girl!”

“That’s great! You cleaned your plate! Mommy will be happy today.”

Educate children about nutrition outside of mealtime to avoid pressuring children to eat.

Find free resources for nutrition education activities—such as games, books, posters, and brochures—on these and other websites: www. fns.usda.gov/tn/child-care- providers, www.fns.usda.gov/ tn/resource-library.

“Drink your milk; it will make you strong.”

“vegetables are good for you.”

Avoid restricting foods.

Keep offering a variety of foods. Model by eating new foods yourself so children become more familiar with them.

“You need to eat your veggies before I give you some fruit.”

Remind children that if there is a particular food they really like, you will always have it again.

“You won’t get more crackers if you don’t eat your veggies.”

Mealtime Comments to Encourage Preschoolers’ Healthy Eating (cont.)

November 2014 Young Children 39

care settings recommend that teachers engage families in the program’s nutrition education to ensure that children receive consistent nutrition messages at home and at the program (Benjamin Neelon & Briley 2011). Drawing from these benchmarks, educators decide what is offered and continue to serve children a variety of foods while also com- municating with families their reasons for this approach.

To help educators communicate better with families, they can

■n Include clearly articulated policies regarding food ser- vice in parent handbooks that include explanations for the policies

■n Develop clear guidelines for meals brought from home that are based on best practices for children’s nutrition

4. Model healthy eating behaviors Children learn about food and nutrition from messages conveyed by the important adults in their lives, including teachers (Hughes et al. 2007). Modeling is an important tool to convey these messages and encourage children’s healthy eating behaviors. When teachers sit down with children, they can show them how to try new foods, eat a variety of foods, and self-regulate their eating. Because children are more likely to eat the foods they see adults eating, modeling is an effective way to increase children’s healthy eating behavior. Teachers also model self-regula- tion by eating when they are hungry and stopping when they are full, pushing their plates away even when food is still left. Teachers and families can discuss how modeling healthy eating is a more effective strategy than using pres- sure to encourage children to try new foods.

Following are some strategies teachers can use to model healthy eating behaviors for children:

■n Sit with the children during meals and try the foods yourself. Even if you don’t like a food, put it on your plate and show children that you are taking a bite.

■n Make enthusiastic comments about food: “These grapes look so sweet and juicy. I can’t wait to taste them!” and “Mmm, the lettuce in this salad tastes fresh and crunchy.”

■n Engage children’s senses by describing the color, tex- ture, and taste of the foods: “These pears are soft and juicy,” “The pineapple is tangy and sweet,” and “The apple slices we had for snack yesterday were crisp and crunchy, but when Miss Anna cooked some apples today, they turned soft!”

■n Ask questions about the food: “This fruit blend is so colorful and yummy! What colors do you see?” “How do these beans taste to you? I like the way they are a little bit soft and a little bit crunchy.”

5. Let children serve themselves Serving meals family style can help children self-regulate their energy intake. During family-style eating, children serve themselves from bowls and platters of food with help, as needed, from teachers who sit and eat the same foods with them and engage them in conversations. Children learn over time to take the right amount of food, based on their internal cues of hunger and satiety (John- son & Krebs 2009). They tend to take smaller amounts of food than when adults serve them, and they eat more of what they take. When children receive preportioned food, such as crackers in a snack pack, they lose the op- portunity to recognize for themselves their hunger cues and understand what an appropriate amount of food is. In centers that use a preportioned food service, teachers need to help children recognize their needs at mealtime. Such centers might serve at least one meal a day family style, with teachers using verbal cues to support children’s self-regulation and sitting with children to model healthy eating (Benjamin Neelon & Briley 2011). (See “Family-Style Dining Strategies.”)

Family-style meal service is widely recommended as best practice in early childhood settings, yet teachers often struggle with how to implement it. Drawing from the voices of teachers, Dev and colleagues (2014) identify several prac- tical strategies for overcoming common barriers that limit the use of family-style meal service:

■n Teach children self-help skills during playtime that can transfer to the mealtime setting

■n Use verbal cues that help children recognize and trust their internal signals that guide the selection of accurate portion sizes

Young Children November 201440

■n Use child-size serving utensils, cups, and plates

■n Start early in practicing family-style meal service—even as young as 2 years of age

6. Encourage children to try new foods without pressure A number of early childhood settings have a “no-thank-you bite” rule that says children must try at least one bite of all the foods on the table. The goal is to encourage children, particularly those who eat only a few foods and refuse to try others, to eat a variety of foods. We discourage this practice because children are very subtly being forced to eat some- thing they don’t like, which reinforces their dislike for that food. Adults might succeed in the short term to get the chil- dren to eat, but not in the long term (Galloway et al. 2006).

It is important to understand that hesitancy to try new foods is a stage that most children go through. Teachers can successfully encourage many children to try new foods by modeling or trying the foods in front of the children, helping them understand that healthy foods help them grow, continuing to offer a variety of foods, and providing repeated exposure to new foods. In addition to making comments to accompany such strategies, teachers can help children try new foods by engaging their senses at meal-

times. Smelling and touching new foods may encourage children to try them. It often takes 8 to 15 times offering a food before children accept it, so teachers should be patient and continue to offer foods that children have rejected.

Family-Style Dining Strategies ■n Start with family-style snack time before using this

approach with main meals. Help children acquire self-help skills such as scooping, pouring, and pass- ing bowls by

● Providing tools for practicing these skills when playing with clay, water, and sand

● Using ladles and child-size dishware at mealtimes

● Modeling how to scoop and pour foods and drinks

■n Accept that messes are a part of learning—help chil- dren learn to clean up any messes or spills

■n Engage children in every aspect of mealtime, such as setting the table, serving themselves, passing the food, and cleaning up after the meal

November 2014 Young Children 41

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The following strategies can be used to encourage chil- dren to try new foods without pressure:

■n Provide repeated exposure to new foods.

■n Encourage touching and smelling foods as a step toward tasting them.

■n Talk with children about ways healthy foods help their bodies and brains.

■n Offer the same foods in different forms or in different combinations.

■n Make trying new foods fun by, for example, eating three different crunchy vegetables and determining which ones crunch the loudest.

■n Have children help with cooking or preparing foods. Handling and smelling the foods during these processes may make children curious about what they taste like.

Conclusion Using these six adult–child mealtime strategies, teachers help shape children’s food habits and encourage them to develop healthful eating patterns that will ultimately aid in reducing the alarming rates of overweight and obesity in children.

References

Addessi, E., A.T. Galloway, E. Visalberghi, & L.L. Birch. 2005. “Specific Social Influences on the Acceptance of Novel Foods in 2- to 5-Year- Old Children.” Appetite 45 (3): 264–71.

Benjamin Neelon, S.E., & M.E. Briley. 2011. “Position of the American Dietetic Association: Benchmarks for Nutrition in Child Care.” Posi- tion statement. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 111 (4): 607–15.

Birch, L.L., & A.K. Ventura. 2009. “Preventing Childhood Obesity: What Works?” International Journal of Obesity 33: S74-S81. www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov/pubmed/19363514.

Biro, F.M., & M. Wien. 2010. “Childhood Obesity and Adult Morbidi- ties.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 91 (5): 1499S–1505S. http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/91/5/1499S.long.

Clark, H.R., E. Goyder, P. Bissell, L. Blank, & J. Peters. 2007. “How Do Parents’ Child-Feeding Behaviours Influence Child Weight? Impli- cations for Childhood Obesity Policy.” Journal of Public Health 29 (2): 132–41. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17442696.

Dev, D., K.E. Speirs, B.A. McBride, S.M. Donovan, & K. Chapman- Novakofski. 2014. “Head Start and Child Care Providers’ Motivators, Barriers, and Facilitators to Practicing Family-Style Meal Service.” Early Childhood Research Quarterly 29 (4): 649–59.

Faith, M.S., R.I. Berkowitz, V.A. Stallings, J. Kerns, M. Storey, & A.J. Stunkard. 2004. “Parental Feeding Attitudes and Styles and Child Body Mass Index: Prospective Analysis of a Gene-Environment Interaction.” Pediatrics 114 (4): e429–36.

Freedman, M.R., & K.P. Alvarez. 2010. “Early Childhood Feeding: Assessing Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices of Multi-Ethnic Child- Care Providers.” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 110 (3): 447–51.

Galloway, A.T., L.M. Fiorito, L.A. Francis, & L.L. Birch. 2006. “‘Finish Your Soup’: Counterproductive Effects of Pressuring Children to Eat on Intake and Affect.” Appetite 46 (3): 318–23.

Gubbels, J.S., S.P. Kremers, A. Stafleu, P.C. Dagnelie, N.K. DeVries, & C. Thijs. 2010. “Child-Care Environment and Dietary Intake of 2- and 3-Year-Old Children.” Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 23 (1): 97–101.

Hughes, C.C., R.A. Gooze, D.M. Finkelstein, & R.C. Whitaker. 2010. “Barriers to Obesity Prevention in Head Start.” Health Affairs 29 (3): 454–62.

Hughes, S.O., H. Patrick, T.G. Power, J.O. Fisher, C.B. Anderson, & T.A. Nicklas. 2007. “The Impact of Child Care Providers’ Feeding on Chil- dren’s Food Consumption.” Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics 28 (2): 100–107.

Johnson, S.L., & N.F. Krebs. 2009. “Internal Versus External Influences on Energy Intake: Are Disinhibited Eaters Born or Created?” The Journal of Pediatrics 155 (5): 608–609.

Johnson, S.L., S. Ramsay, J.A. Shultz, L.J. Branen, & J.W. Fletcher. 2013. “Creating Potential for Common Ground and Communication Between Early Childhood Program Staff and Parents About Young Children’s Eating.” Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior 45 (6): 558–70.

Larson, N., D.S. Ward, S.E. Benjamin Neelon, & M. Story. 2011. “What Role Can Child-Care Settings Play in Obesity Prevention? A Review of the Evidence and Call for Research Efforts.” Journal of the Ameri- can Dietetic Association 111 (9): 1343–62.

Lumeng, J.C., M. Kaplan-Sanoff, S. Shuman, & S. Kannan. 2008. “Head Start Teachers’ Perceptions of Children’s Eating Behavior and Weight Status in the Context of Food Scarcity.” Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior 40 (4): 237–43.

Maher, E.J., G. Li, L. Carter, & D.B. Johnson. 2008. “Preschool Child Care Participation and Obesity at the Start of Kindergarten.” Pediat- rics 122 (2): 322–30.

Ogden, C.L., M.D. Carroll, B.K. Kit, & K.M. Flegal. 2012. “Prevalence of Obesity and Trends in Body Mass Index Among US Children and Adolescents, 1999–2010.” Journal of the American Medical Associa- tion 307 (5): 483–90.

Ogden, C.L., M.D. Carroll, B.K. Kit, & K.M. Flegal. 2014. “Prevalence of Childhood and Adult Obesity in the United States, 2011–2012.” Journal of the American Medical Association 311 (8): 806–14.

Satter, E. 2005. Your Child’s Weight: Helping Without Harming—Birth Through Adolescence. Madison, WI: Kelcy Press.

Savage, J.S., J.O. Fisher, & L.L. Birch. 2007. “Parental Influence on Eating Behavior: Conception to Adolescence.” The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 35 (1): 22–34

Sigman-Grant, M., E. Christiansen, L. Branen, J. Fletcher, & S.L. Johnson. 2008. “About Feeding Children: Mealtimes in Child-Care Centers in Four Western States.” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 108 (2): 340–6.

Copyright © 2014 by the national Association for the Education of Young Children. See Permissions and Reprints online at www.naeyc.org/yc/permissions.

Young Children November 201442

November 2014 Young Children 43

NAEYC News

¡G uau! ¡Ya viene otro Congreso y Exposición Anual de NAEYC! Y al hojear los talleres y eventos pro- gramados para celebrarse en Dallas (Texas) del 5

al 8 de noviembre, se me recuerda lo importante que ha sido el Congreso Anual para mí.

Recuerdo los sentimientos de entusiasmo y anticipación. En aquellos tiempos, cuando el programa preliminar tenía más páginas que un número de Young Children, me llenaba de emoción simplemente al ver que habían llegado al buzón. Dejaba inmediatamente cualquier cosa que hacía para abrir y leerlo; me ansiaba ver lo que contenía porque todos los nom- bres importantes y grandes del campo profesional siempre estaban allí. Sería mi oportunidad de conocerlos “de cerca y en persona”: Lilian Katz, Ella Jenkins, Edward Zigler, Marian

Wright Edelman, Sue Bredekamp y Louise Derman-Sparks. Y luego, la Sala de Exhibición. ¡Ah, la magnífica Sala de

Exhibición! Pasillo tras pasillo de los más nuevos y brillosos equipos, muebles y juguetes disponibles para ambientes de educación infantil, además de noticias acerca de materiales y servicios para niños, familias y profesionales. Un mercado donde podía oír las canciones de músicos para niños, oler y to- car las texturas de los últimos materiales de artes y aparatos para programas infantiles, trepar por túneles y encima de blo- ques, y ver con detenimiento todos—absolutamente todos— los libros multiculturales y títulos profesionales más nuevos sobre el cuidado y educación infantil. Y todo el tiempo, jun- tando folletos y fotos y bolsas y plumas e imanes y chucherías de todo tipo, muy cargada de más para llevar a casa que me

in Dallas, Texas, on November 5–8, I am reminded of how important an event the Annual Conference has been to me.

I remember the feelings of enthusiasm and anticipa- tion. In the days when the preliminary program had more pages than an issue of Young Children, I would feel a rush of excitement just to see it arrive in the mailbox. Immedi- ately stopping whatever I was doing to open and read it, I couldn’t wait to see what was inside, because all the impor- tant and big names in the field were always there. It would be my chance to meet them “up close and personal”—Lilian Katz, Ella Jenkins, Edward Zigler, Marian Wright Edel- man, Sue Bredekamp, Louise Derman-Sparks.

And then there was the Exhibit Hall. Oh, the mag- nificent Exhibit Hall! Aisle after aisle of the latest, shini- est equipment and furniture and toys available for early education settings, and news about materials and services for children, families, and professionals. A marketplace where I could hear the songs of children’s musicians, smell

and feel the texture of the latest art sup- plies and gadgets for children’s programs, climb through tunnels and across blocks, and peruse all— absolutely all—the newest multicultural children’s books and professional titles in early education and care. All the while collecting brochures and photos and tote bags and pens and magnets and trinkets of all sorts, weighting myself down with more to take home than would fit into my suitcase. I was filled with ideas about new and exciting ways to rejuvenate myself and my classroom or the college coursework I was teaching.

As an annual ritual, coming to Conference was my professional travel priority. Even when no travel funds were available from my employer and I had to scramble to pay costs myself, I tried to be there because I got so much from the Conference experience that I could not have gotten

D E N u E S T R A P R E S I D E N T A

Asistir al congreso Carol Brunson Day

F R O M O u R P R E S I D E N T

Going to Conference Carol Brunson Day

W ow! Another NAEYC Annual Conference and Expo is upon us! And as I look through the workshops and events scheduled to take place

(continuando en påg. 49)

44 Young Children November 2014

NAEYC News

anywhere else. I learned what the world of early childhood education was like outside the place where I worked and the city where I lived. It made me feel important and valued when attending a workshop or a talk by an early childhood superstar or holding a conversation with the author of an article I had read or of a textbook I had used in school— someone “famous”! I remember telling my dad that I had met Mr. Rogers, and my dad saying, “You’ve come a long way, baby!”

Conference was the place where I met and developed lifelong bonds with the group I call my “professional posse,” who over the years became my go-to colleagues whenever I needed advice and support. How did we man- age to go to every workshop we wanted to attend and still squeeze in time for socializing and exchanging stories? We did it because it was one of the main reasons for being there together. We gathered after the sessions ended, retreated to some isolated space, and had the most memorable and fun discussions about all things early childhood. Between complaining about too many people at Con- ference, not enough room in the sessions, and too much walking in the exhibit hall to see absolutely everything, we shared our deepest thoughts, fears, and ambitions. We sought out and found support for our next professional moves, and we sorted through ideas about how NAEYC might improve and what we could do to help. We laughed and cried and planned and schemed and solidified our bonds with each other and our commitment to the field.

Someone said recently that those were the glory days of Con- ference, perhaps gone forever be- cause the event isn’t as relevant in today’s world of Internet conven- ing. But I worry not, because the essence of why we gather remains the same—to connect with one another, learn about new research and practices, and exchange information and viewpoints. The Conference themes themselves—

this year’s is Delivering on the Promise of Early Learning— continue to offer a professional provocation to make us wonder, “What will I learn by being there?” But even with Facebook and Skype, it seems that the face time one spends with colleagues is such a unique and precious experience— an opportunity to become lifelong comrades through the attachment developed by sharing a common Conference experience.

So, should you be planning to come to Annual Confer- ence, think about meeting up with the people you have met at Annual Conferences past and spending quality time with them. And be sure to make some new friends and colleagues and make a pledge to keep up with them—that you’ll meet again next year, same time, same place, to share your triumphs and trials, to recommit to volunteer efforts to serve the Association, and to agree to cajole other col- leagues into joining you.

45November 2014 Young Children

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novice in the Commonwealth of Virginia. Getting to know the political landscape—the key issues, the candidates, the budget situation—has been fascinating. What haven’t changed are the core tenets of candidates’ motivation to ad- vocate for public investment in early childhood education:

■n Knowing that their constituents hold them accountable for their track record on early learning

■n Following the polls (thankfully, the polls I have seen place voters squarely on the side of young children— across political ideologies)

■n Knowing that parents, teachers, and other early child- hood stakeholders turn out on Election Day

For the past 20 years I have been involved in electoral advocacy on behalf of young children in a state known for its conservative ideologies. I have seen and been a part of candidate races and ballot initiatives. I have felt the thrill of victory and the agony of defeat. At times we early childhood advocates may be too quick to anticipate failure, lamenting the lack of support and the frustration of competing with

special interest groups. While effecting any type of social change is really hard work—it sometimes feels like rolling a boulder uphill that might never reach the top—we hold a lot of untapped power and potential. Examining a few myths about the politics of early childhood education may motivate you.

MYTH: Early learning is a liberal issue. FACT: Ensuring that every child can reach her full

potential is a core American value. Conservative or liberal, Republican or Democrat, we have a collective moral obliga- tion to give children a fair start in life. Irrefutable research in neuroscience confirms that the first five years of life have a decisive, long-lasting impact on children’s cognitive, linguistic, social-emotional, and physical development.

M A K I N G C O N N E C T I O N S

Democracy Is Not a Spectator Sport Rhian Evans Allvin

T his year, for the first time ever, I am voting in a state other than Arizona. Steeped in the politics of the great Southwest for 25 years, I am a political

E ste año, por primera vez en la vida, voy a votar en un estado aparte de Arizona. Después de pasar 25 años inmersa en la política del gran Suroeste, soy novata

política en la Commonwealth de Virginia. Ha sido fascinante informarme de los asuntos clave, los candidatos y la cuestión del presupuesto en el panorama político. Lo que no ha cam- biado son los principios centrales que motivan a los candida- tos a abogar a favor de una inversión pública en la educación de los niños pequeños:

■n Saber que sus electores los hacen responsables de su histo- rial respecto al aprendizaje infantil

■n Estar al tanto de los sondeos (afortunadamente, los son- deos que yo he visto colocan a los votantes de toda ideolo- gía política firmemente al lado de los niños pequeños)

■n Saber que los padres, maestros y otros interesados en la primera infancia se presentan el día de las elecciones Llevo 20 años involucrada en la abogacía electoral de

parte de los niños pequeños en un estado conocido por sus ideologías conservadoras. He visto y participado en cam- pañas de candidatos e iniciativas de votación. He sentido la emoción de la victoria y la agonía de la derrota. A veces los defensores del campo de la primera infancia tal vez

F O R M A R C O N E x I O N E S

La democracia no es deporte espectáculo Rhian Evans Allvin

(continuando en påg. 50)

46 Young Children November 2014

NAEYC News

MYTH: Candidates across political parties and ide- ologies will never come to agreement on early learning.

FACT: Red and blue states alike have signed on for the US Department of Education’s Race to the Top—Early Learning Challenge funding; applied for federal preschool development and expansion funds; and passed significant appropriations for early childhood investments. Our job as early childhood advocates is to create an environment in which candidates compete to present and support bold early childhood agendas.

MYTH: The early childhood community isn’t power- ful enough to affect election outcomes.

FACT: Just as powerful as financing is the sheer num- ber of constituents who care about early learning. They need to be energized, organized, and empowered. There are one million people employed in early childhood centers and school classrooms. Add to those family child care providers, home visitors, coaches, before- and after-school program staff, specialists, and other stake- holders, and the number exceeds three million. Assume that many of them vote. Assume that they all are willing to convince two other people to vote. That is what we call a movement.

MYTH: There is no way we can pay for the electoral advocacy activities we want to organize.

FACT: As the saying goes, facts are negotiable but perceptions are rock solid. Early childhood advo- cates may not have the resources that special interest groups have, but well-placed grassroots tactics can be equally powerful. During the fight in Arizona to stop the repeal of the First Things First ini- tiative, early childhood advocates organized months of phone banks. Through this effort, volunteers called all registered independents who had voted in the last several election cycles with a message to vote no on the proposition. Tens of thousands of voters were reached,

and the costs were negligible. This is an example of mini- mal funds and powerful outcomes.

NAEYC is piloting electoral advocacy efforts with three Affiliates this year. The goal is to steadily increase the Association’s support of Affiliate strategies to promote a variety of nonpartisan election activities on behalf of young children.

For decades there have been great debates, successful and failed efforts, and political mudslinging about election reform. Whether it is campaign spending limits, soft mon- ey, or voter identification, figuring out how to open wide the gates of democracy is a critical topic. What is essential is the need for you, as an advocate for young children, to make the greatest contribution you can—to cast your vote on Election Day and to convince two friends to cast their votes too. We owe it to the young children and families we dedicate our lives to serving.

47November 2014 Young Children

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Member spotlight Meet NAEYC members

Reginald Harrison Williams, early childhood teacher and program educator in Orangeburg, South Caro- lina. NAEYC member since 2004. 

“Being a member has allowed me to deeply and broadly develop in ways that have helped me positively affect others. If it was not for my NAEYC membership, I would not have been able to gain a vast knowledge of accredited early childhood community college and baccalaureate training programs.”

Pamela Briggs, professor, McLennan Community College Child Studies and Education Pro- gram, in Waco, Texas. NAEYC member since 1993.

“I consider the relationships and resources major NAEYC benefits! The relationships begin with the local and state Affiliate groups; NAEYC provides professional sup-

port at each level. Having the support of a large professional organization helps as we look to the future and continue to build better futures for all young children.”

Read more from Reginald and Pamela, then share why a member you know deserves recognition for work- ing with or on behalf of young children. www.naeyc.org/ membership/memberspotlight

From the NAEyC blog Supporting diverse Young Children Takes a diversity Team Karen N. Nemeth

Supporting the cultures and languages of diverse chil- dren and families in early childhood education programs can be a challenge. Many programs meet that challenge successfully by bringing together a diversity team— interested volunteers, staff, and family members—to ensure that families of all backgrounds feel welcome.

What does a diversity team do? Members of a diversity team can read translated mate-

rial to make sure it is appropriate for families in your pro- gram. The team can help build relationships with families and community members who speak different languages. They can help locate culturally and linguistically appro- priate books, music, and other learning materials for your

classrooms. They can provide information to build under- standing of different cultures and lifestyles. Most impor- tant, having an active, engaged diversity team is like a circle of support for all children, families, and staff.

Who should be on the team? Many programs start with a small group of interested

staff. Including family members, board members, and com- munity members will broaden the scope and effectiveness of the team. Aim for a core group of 10–15 people who are likely to attend regular meetings. As needed, sign on addi- tional people who would share their contact information in case their particular language or expertise might be help- ful. Remember that speaking a different language is not the only asset needed to make your team’s volunteers effective in facilitating early learning.

Read more from this blog post: www.naeyc.org/blogs/ supporting-diverse-young-children-takes-diversity-team

Write for the NAEYC blog Do you have a timely story to share with NAEYC

members? Think about submitting your idea to the NAEYC blog. The blog engages the public in thought and discus- sion about topics and themes related to NAEYC’s mission. www.naeyc.org/publications/forauthors/writeblog

To share with families have a Concern About School? Tips for Talking to Your Child’s Teacher Angèle Sancho Passe

Here are some tips to address concerns about your child’s care and education with teachers. Unless it is an urgent safety issue, it is okay not to react immedi- ately. Take some time to collect your thoughts. Ask yourself: “What do I want to see happen?” and “Why is it important for my child?” Write down your ideas if that helps you think them through.

Arrange a time to talk face-to-face (or by phone if in- person communication isn’t possible). Avoid using email to present your concerns. It’s best to have a conversation so you and the teacher can exchange your feelings and ideas at the same time.

http://families.naeyc.org/learning-and- development/child-development/tips-talking-teacher

48 Young Children November 2014

NAEYC News (De nuestra presidenta, cont.)

cabía en la maleta. Me llenaba con ideas sobre maneras nuevas y emocionantes de revitalizarme y hacer lo mismo a mi aula, o sobre los cursos universitarios que daba.

Como rito anual, asistir al congreso era mi prioridad de viaje profesional. Hasta cuando no había fondos de viaje disponibles de mi empleador y me veía en apuros para pagar los costos sin ayuda, trataba de estar allí porque sacaba tanto de la experiencia del congreso que no podía haber sacado en ninguna otra parte. Aprendía cómo era el mundo de la educa- ción infantil fuera del lugar donde trabajaba y la ciudad en que vivía. Me sentía importante y apreciada cuando asistía a algún taller o presentación de un superestrella del campo infantil o conversaba con el autor de un artículo que había leído o de un libro que había usado en la escuela—¡alguien “famoso”! Recuerdo contarle a mi papá que había conocido al Mr. Rogers, y que mi papá me dijo, “¡Has llegado muy lejos, chica!”.

El congreso era el lugar donde conocí a y desarrollé lazos para toda la vida con el grupo de personas a quienes llamo mi “pandilla profesional”, quienes tras los años han sido mis colegas asesoras siempre y cuando necesito consejos y apoyo. ¿Cómo lo hacíamos para estar en todos los talleres a que queríamos asistir y todavía hacer un hueco para socializar e intercambiar cuentos? Lo hacíamos porque era una de las ra- zones principales por estar allí juntos. Nos reuníamos después de las sesiones, nos retirábamos a algún espacio aislado y teníamos las conversaciones más memorables y divertidas sobre todo lo relaciona- do con la primera infancia. Entre quejarnos de demasiada gente en el Congreso, una falta de espacio en las sesiones y demasiado caminar en la sala de exhibición para ver absolutamente todo, compartíamos nuestros pensamientos, temores y ambiciones más profundos. Bus- cábamos y hallábamos apoyo para nuestros siguientes cambios profe- sionales y analizábamos ideas sobre cómo se podría mejorar NAEYC y qué podríamos hacer nosotros para ayudar. Nos reíamos y llorábamos y planificábamos y conspirábamos y solidificábamos nuestros lazos mu- tuos junto con nuestro compromiso con el campo profesional.

Alguien dijo recientemente que aquellos eran los días de gloria del Congreso, que quizás hayan quedado atrás para siem- pre porque el evento no es tan relevante en el mundo actual de reunirse por Internet. Pero no me preocupo para nada, ya que la esencia del por qué nos reunimos sigue igual: conectarnos uno con el otro, informarnos sobre investigaciones y prácticas nuevas, e intercambiar información y perspectivas. Los temas mismos del congreso —el de este año es Cumplir con la prome- sa del aprendizaje infantil— siguen ofreciendo una provocación profesional que hace que nos preguntemos, “¿Qué aprenderé estando allí?”. Pero aun con Facebook y Skype, parece que el tiempo cara-a-cara que se pasa con los colegas es una experien- cia única y preciosa, una oportunidad de llegar a ser compa- ñeros para toda la vida mediante la conexión desarrollada por medio de compartir la experiencia común del congreso.

Entonces, si usted está pensando ir al Congreso Anual, piense en reunirse con las personas a quienes ha conocido en Congresos Anuales pasados y en pasar tiempo valioso con ellas. Y asegúrese de conocer a nuevos amigos y colegas, y haga la promesa de seguir en contacto con ellos; que se verán de nuevo el próximo año, a la misma hora y en el mismo lugar, para compartir sus triunfos y dificultades, para volver a com- prometerse con prestarse a servir la Asociación y para consen- tir en persuadir a otros colegas para que los acompañen.

49November 2014 Young Children

NAEYC News

anticipamos demasiado pronto el fracaso y lamentamos la falta de apoyo y la frustración de competir con grupos de pre- sión. Aunque es extremadamente difícil efectuar cualquier tipo de cambio social —a veces parece subir rodando cuesta arriba una roca grande que quizás nunca llegue a la cima— tenemos una gran cantidad de poder y potencial sin explotar. Puede ser que el análisis a continuación de algunos mitos sobre la política de la primera infancia lo motive a usted:

MITO. El aprendizaje infantil es asunto de liberales. HECHO. El asegurar que todo niño pueda alcanzar todo

su potencial es un valor estadounidense central. Los conser- vadores y liberales, republicanos y demócratas tenemos la obligación moral colectiva de ofrecer a los niños un comienzo justo en la vida. La investigación irrefutable en neurocien- cias confirma que los primeros cinco años de la vida tienen un impacto decisivo y duradero en el desarrollo cognitivo, lingüístico, social-emocional y físico de los niños.

MITO. Los candidatos de diferentes partidos políticos e ideologías jamás llegarán a un acuerdo sobre el aprendi- zaje infantil.

HECHO. Tanto estados rojos como azules han pedido subvención del programa Race to the Top—Early Learning Challenge del Departamento de Educación de Estados Unidos; han solicitado fondos federales para el desarrollo y expansión preescolar; y han aprobado asignaciones impor- tantes para inversiones en la primera infancia. El trabajo que tenemos los defensores de los niños pequeños es el de crear un ambiente en que los candidatos competan para presentar y apoyar agendas audaces a favor del cuidado y educación infantil.

MITO. La comunidad de la primera infancia no es lo suficientemente poderosa como para afectar resultados de elecciones.

HECHO. Es igual de poderoso que el financiamiento el número absoluto de votantes a quienes les preocupa el aprendizaje infantil. Deben ser energizados, organizados y fortalecidos. Un millón de personas trabajan en centros y aulas escolares de cuidado y educación infantil. Si se suma a esta cifra los proveedores de cuidado infantil en casa, visitantes a hogares, mentores, el personal de programas antes y después del día escolar, especialistas y otros interesados, el número excede los tres millones. Hay que suponer que

muchos de estos millones votan. Hay que suponer que todos están dispuestos a convencer a dos personas más de votar. Esto es lo que llamamos un movimiento.

MITO. No hay ninguna manera de pagar por las activi- dades de abogacía electoral que queremos organizar.

HECHO. Así como va el dicho, los hechos son negociables pero las percepciones son tan sólidas como una piedra. Los defensores del campo de la primera infancia tal vez no ten- gamos los recursos de los grupos de presión, pero las tácticas bien utilizadas de las bases populares pueden ser iguales de poderosas. Durante la lucha en Arizona por evitar la revoca- ción de la iniciativa First Things First (Primero lo primero), los defensores del campo organizaron meses de esfuerzos por teléfono. Los voluntarios llamaron a todos los independientes registrados que habían votado durante los últimos varios ciclos de elecciones con el mensaje de votar en contra de la proposición. Alcanzaron a decenas de miles de votantes y los costos eran insignificantes. Esto es un ejemplo de fondos mínimos y resultados poderosos.

Este año, NAEYC está conduciendo esfuerzos de abogacía electoral con tres Afiliados. La meta es aumentar a un ritmo constante el apoyo que ofrece la Asociación a las estrategias de los Afiliados para fomentar diversas actividades de elec- ción políticamente imparciales a favor de los niños pequeños.

Desde hace varias décadas hemos vistos grandes deba- tes, esfuerzos exitosos y fracasados y difamación política relacionados con la reforma electoral. No importa si trata los límites de gastar fondos durante campañas, las contribucio- nes indirectas o la identificación de votantes, el idear cómo abrir bien las puertas a la democracia es un tema crítico. Lo esencial es la necesidad de que usted, como defensor de los niños pequeños, contribuya lo más que pueda; dé su voto el día de las elecciones y persuada a dos amigos a que den los su- yos también. Lo debemos a los niños pequeños y las familias a quienes dedicamos la vida a servir.

(Formar conexiones, cont.)

NAEYC is pleased to announce that Young Children articles from 1945 to 2010 are now available through JSToR. JSToR—a digital library containing thousands of academic journals—helps researchers, students, and scholars find articles. Available by subscription to colleges and universi- ties throughout the country, JSToR can help early childhood students, educators, and teacher trainers find the articles they need.

learn more about Young Children and JSToR at www.jstor.org/action/ showPublisher?publisherCode=naeyc.

50 Young Children November 2014

Now is the time for early childhood programs to address early childhood obesity and wellness. Turn-Key Training gives early childhood educators the knowledge base and practical strategies they need to cause change that will benefit young children and their families for the rest of their lives.

This comprehensive, self-contained professional development resource is comprised of 14 lessons that capture the insights of over 60 experts in pediatrics, nutrition, movement, child development, and adult education, as well as scenes of appropriate practice gathered from over 30 innovative early childhood classrooms across the country. Included are discussion questions, extension activities, for each lesson.

Help young children live longer, happier lives.

Now is the time to make a difference, to cause change.

Child obesity is not a problem. It is a crisis.

To find out more and to view sample footage, visit www.ChildCareExchange.com or call 800-221-2864.

NAEYC News H I G H E R E D u C A T I O N A C C R E D I T A T I O N

NAEYC Early Childhood Associate Degree Accreditation: Valuing the Process and the Professional Recognition Marica Cox Mitchell, Ronda Hawkins, and Michele Cunningham

T he demand for early childhood educators with specialized knowledge and skills continues to grow. Higher staff qualification requirements for early learning programs serving young children—

particularly programs receiving public funding—often necessitate the hiring of educators and administrators with early childhood higher education degrees. As one can imag- ine, there are variations in quality across degree programs. For example, some degree programs provide limited oppor- tunities for their students to connect theory and practice, while others provide a variety of rich and intentionally planned field experiences to help students gain competence in specific areas. The early childhood education industry, like nursing and social work, can leverage higher education accreditation as a tool to support quality assurance and improvement in higher education.

NAEYC launched the Early Childhood Associate Degree Accreditation (ECADA) system in 2006 to promote excellence in early childhood teacher education. ECADA provides a valid and objective external evaluation of these programs as a service to the public, prospective students, and the profession. Accredited associate degree programs present evidence to illustrate that they (1) are responsive to their students and local community, (2) design and facilitate learning experiences so their students can obtain the knowledge and skills (defined by NAEYC Standards for Early Childhood Professional Preparation) needed to

be effective early childhood professionals, and (3) system- atically assess their students’ knowledge and skill levels. Gathering evidence requires programs to undergo a trans- formative self-study process that sheds light on strengths and areas needing improvements. It is not uncommon for faculty engaged in self-study to uncover significant re- dundancies, inconsistencies, and gaps. For these and other reasons, the accreditation process and the product (i.e., professional recognition) are equally beneficial.

Since 2006, 161 institutions of higher education in 31 states have associate degree programs that have earned accreditation from ECADA. We would like to congratulate the following colleges and universities, particularly their early childhood faculty and staff, for their commitment to continuous quality improvement and transparency.

AlABAMA n Jefferson State Community College

ARIZoNA n Central Arizona College n Paradise valley Community College n Pima Community College

About the Authors Marica Cox Mitchell is the deputy executive director of early learn- ing systems at nAEYC. Ronda Hawkins is the early childhood program coordinator at Sandhills Community College (SCC) in Pinehurst, north Carolina. The associate of applied science (AAS) degree in early childhood education at SCC was among the first programs to earn initial accreditation in 2006 and earned renewal accreditation in 2012. Michele Cunningham is a preschool teacher at West End Elemen- tary School in West End, north Carolina. She graduated with an AAS in early childhood education from SCC in 2011 and earned a bachelor’s degree in human development and family studies (birth– kindergarten licensure concentration) from the University of north Carolina at Greensboro in 2014.

A Faculty Perspective—Ronda Hawkins “Accreditation keeps us focused on what we want our students to know and be able to do upon graduation. The nAEYC Standards for Early Childhood Professional Preparation—which is the heart of the accreditation process—provide linkage between courses, and cre- ate a common vision among students and faculty. It enables our profession to define, assess, and discuss what we do and why.”

A Student’s Perspective—Michele Cunningham “Attending an nAEYC-accredited associate degree program provided many opportunities for me to gain the competency necessary to enter the teaching profession. I was encouraged to continuously focus on enhancing my professional practice. This led me to pursue and complete a bachelor’s degree in human development and family studies.”

52 Young Children November 2014

NAEYC News

ARKANSAS n Pulaski Technical College n Southeast Arkansas College n University of Arkansas Community

College at Morrilton

CAlIFoRNIA n De Anza College

ColoRAdo n Aims Community College n Arapahoe Community College n Colorado Mountain College n Front Range Community College n otero Junior College n Pikes Peak Community College n Pueblo Community College n Red Rocks Community College n Trinidad State Junior College

CoNNECTICuT n Asnuntuck Community College n Capital Community College n Gateway Community College n Goodwin College n Housatonic Community College n Manchester Community College n Middlesex Community College n naugatuck valley Community College n northwestern Connecticut Community

College n norwalk Community College n Quinebaug valley Community College n Three Rivers Community College n Tunxis Community College

FloRIdA n Miami Dade College n Seminole State College of Florida

IdAho n Idaho State University

IllINoIS n Black Hawk College n Harold Washington College n Harper College n Harry S. Truman College—City Colleges

of Chicago n Kennedy-King College n Malcolm X College n olive-Harvey College n Richard J. Daley College

INdIANA n Ivy Tech Community College at

Bloomington n Ivy Tech Community College at Central

Indiana (Indianapolis)

n Ivy Tech Community College at Columbus/Franklin

n Ivy Tech Community College–East Central

n Ivy Tech Community College at Evansville

n Ivy Tech Community College at Gary n Ivy Tech Community College at Kokomo n Ivy Tech Community College at lafayette n Ivy Tech Community College at

northeast/Fort Wayne n Ivy Tech Community College at

Richmond n Ivy Tech Community College at

Southern/Sellersburg n Ivy Tech Community College at

Terre Haute

IoWA n Indian Hills Community College

KANSAS n Johnson County Community College

KENTuCKY n Henderson Community College

MARYlANd n Montgomery College

MASSAChuSETTS n Cape Cod Community College n Greenfield Community College n Massachusetts Bay Community College n Massasoit Community College n Middlesex Community College n north Shore Community College n northern Essex Community College n Quinsigamond Community College

MIChIgAN n Baker College n Delta College n Grand Rapids Community College n Kellogg Community College n lansing Community College n Macomb Community College n Mott Community College

MISSouRI n Metropolitan Community College–Penn

valley

NEBRASKA n Metropolitan Community College n Southeast Community College

NEVAdA n Truckee Meadows Community College

NEW hAMPShIRE n Manchester Community College

NEW JERSEY n Atlantic Cape Community College

NEW YoRK n Cayuga Community College n Hudson valley Community College n onondaga Community College (SUnY) n Schenectady County Community

College n State University of new York Agricultural

and Technical College at Cobleskill

NoRTh CARolINA n Asheville-Buncombe Technical College n Blue Ridge Community College n Caldwell Community College n Cape Fear Community College n Central Piedmont Community College n Craven Community College n Davidson County Community College n Fayetteville Technical Community

College n Forsyth Technical Community College n Gaston College n Guilford Technical Community College n Martin Community College n McDowell Technical Community College n Mitchell Community College n Richmond Community College n Robeson Community College n Rockingham Community College n Rowan-Cabarrus Community College n Sampson Community College n Sandhills Community College n South Piedmont Community College n Surry Community College n vance-Granville Community College n Wake Technical Community College n Wayne Community College n Western Piedmont Community College

ohIo n Central ohio Technical College n Columbus State Community College n Cuyahoga Community College n Edison Community College n owens Community College

oKlAhoMA n langston University n oklahoma City Community College n oklahoma State University–oklahoma

City n Tulsa Community College n Western oklahoma State College

53November 2014 Young Children

NAEYC News

oREgoN n Portland Community College n Southwestern oregon Community College

PENNSYlVANIA n Clarion University of Pennsylvania n Community College of Allegheny County n Delaware County Community College n Harcum College n Harrisburg Area Community College n lehigh Carbon Community College n Montgomery County Community

College n northampton Community College n Pennsylvania College of Technology

SouTh CARolINA n Aiken Technical College n Central Carolina Technical College n Denmark Technical College n Greenville Technical College n Horry-Georgetown Technical College n Midlands Technical College n orangeburg-Calhoun Technical College n Piedmont Technical College n Spartanburg Community College n Technical College of the lowcountry n Tri-County Technical College n Trident Technical College n Williamsburg Technical College n York Technical College

TENNESSEE n Dyersburg State Community College n nashville State Community College n northeast State Community College n Roane State Community College n Southwest Tennessee Community College n volunteer State Community College n Walters State Community College

TEXAS n Austin Community College District n Collin College n Eastfield College n Grayson College n Houston Community College n San Antonio College–Central Campus n San Jacinto College n St. Philip’s College n Wharton County Junior College

WISCoNSIN n Milwaukee Area Technical College

Thank You nAEYC would like to thank those who help make this accreditation system relevant to the field and efficient in its process, including the following:

Associate degree Early Childhood Teacher Educators—ACCESS to Shared Knowledge and Practices (ACCESS): ACCESS was a key stakeholder in the development of ECADA and continues to pro- vide organizational input. To learn more about ACCESS, visit www.accessece.org.

Commissioners: The nAEYC Commission on Early Childhood As- sociate Degree Accreditation develops accreditation standards and policies, reviews evidence, and makes accreditation decisions, with full autonomy granted by the nAEYC Governing Board. To learn more about the commission, please visit www.naeyc.org/ecada/about.

Peer Reviewers: There are currently 190 active volunteer peer reviewers in the Early Childhood Associate Degree Accreditation system. These reviewers offer their time and expertise to review programs’ reports and conduct site visits. We encourage eligible faculty to join this pool of reviewers. visit www.naeyc.org/ecada/ reviewer to learn more about the duties and qualifications required to serve as a peer reviewer.

Did you know? NAEYC works with the Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP), previously the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE), to recognize early childhood programs at the baccalaureate and graduate levels. Currently, there are approximately 260 institutions in 38 states with NAEYC-recognized baccalaureate and graduate programs. Visit www.naeyc.org/ncate for more information.

Need more information? Do you want to support accreditation efforts in your state?

Phone: 800-424-2460, ext. 8862 Email: [email protected] Website: www.naeyc.org/accreditation

H I G H E R E D u C A T I O N A C C R E D I T A T I O N

Note: This listing is current but not static. To review the most up-to-date listing, which also includes the names of the accredited degree programs at these colleges, please visit www.naeyc.org/ecada/ecada_programs.

54 Young Children November 2014

i t ’ s a b i g s t e p f o r w a r d i n p r o t e c t i n g l i t t l e o n e s

Preschool-age children of working mothers

spend an average of 35 hours a week

in some kind of non-parental child care,

according to a 2005 U.S. Census Bureau

report. That means many childhood

injuries and illnesses happen on the child

care facility’s watch. To help make

sure staff members are prepared to deal

with these emergencies, most states

include CPR and first aid training as a licensing

requirement for child care centers.

The Pediatric First Aid CPR AED Course includes both general content, such as the Four Steps of Pediatric

First Aid, and specific instructions for a wide spectrum of serious injuries and illnesses. It also offers

instructions for pediatric CPR, AED and choking, as well as a Child and Infant Safety Checklist and tips

for interacting with children in medical emergencies.

www.heart.org/safekids

Parents and caregivers are essential decision-makers when it comes to the nutrition, physical activity and health

needs of their children. Help your child develop healthy habits early in life that will bring lifelong benefits.

www.heart.org/healthierkids

©2014, American Heart Association. 9/14DS8463

HEARTSAVER® PEDIATRIC FIRST AID CPR AED

DS-8463 Ped FACPR_NAFCC Mag Ad_7.375x9.5.indd 1 9/22/14 2:15 PM

NAEYC News N A E y C G O V E R N I N G B O A R D A N D L E A D E R S H I P

Meeting Agenda and Minutes NAEYC members may submit recommendations in writing to the Governing Board at any time. For recommendations to be placed on the January 2015 meeting agenda, they must be submitted to NAEYC Headquarters by November 14, 2014. All recommendations should include a statement of concern and possible ways to address the concern.

Minutes of the April 2014 Governing Board meeting are now officially approved and available online in the Members Only area (www.naeyc.org/memberlogin), or to members upon written request.

Slate of Candidates for 2015 NAEYC Governing Board Election Candidate information and statements with photographs, along with video presentations by each candidate, will be posted on NAEYC’s website at www. naeyc.org/memberlogin by early January 2015.

Everyone who is an NAEYC mem- ber by December 1, 2014, will receive an email ballot notification in early January 2015 that will include infor- mation directing members to a secure website to cast their votes. The voting period ends March 2, 2015.

Any member may request an elec- tion ballot by postal mail, by emailing [email protected], or by calling 800-424-2460, option 4. Requests must be received at NAEYC Headquar- ters no later than December 5, 2014.

The following NAEYC members have been nominated as candidates for the 2015 Governing Board election.

President-Elect (one member to be elected to a one-year term as President- Elect, a two-year term as President, and a one-year term as Past President)

n■Deborah J. Cassidy, Professor, Human Development and Family Stud- ies, University of North Carolina at Greensboro

n■Sherri Killins, Consultant, and Director of Systems Alignment and Integration, BUILD Initiative, New Haven, Connecticut

governing Board Members at large (three members to be elected to four-year terms)

n■Iliana Alanís, Associate Professor, Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Department of Interdisciplinary Learning and Teaching, College of Education and Human Development, University of Texas at San Antonio

n■Betsy Carlin, Early Childhood Consultant, and Teacher, Pumpkin Patch Preschool, Wilson, Wyoming

n■Vincent J. Costanza, Executive Director, Race to the Top—Early Learning Challenge, Trenton, New Jersey

n■Marquita Furness Davis, Executive Director, Jefferson County Committee for Economic Opportunity, Birming- ham, Alabama

n■Krista Murphy, Coordinator, Early Childhood Instruc- tional Programs, Orange County Department of Education,

Costa Mesa, California

n■Margie Wallen, Director of Policy Part- nerships/National Policy, The Ounce of Prevention Fund, Chicago, Illinois

Additional nominations may be pro- posed in a petition signed by a minimum of 714 NAEYC members. Anyone planning to submit a petition should call NAEYC (800- 424-2460, ext. 8835) for special instructions on how to submit signatures for verification. Petition signatures must be verified prior to December 1, 2014, for a candidate to qualify for the 2015 election ballot.

Nominations for the 2016 NAEYC Governing Board Election Beginning January 1, 2015, the Nominating Panel will accept applications from members interested in being considered as potential candidates for the two Members at Large seats available in the 2016 NAEYC Govern- ing Board election. Potential candidates for the Affiliate Liaison pathway seat will be determined by the NAEYC Affiliate Council.

Information about serving on the Governing Board and application forms are available at www.naeyc.org/getinvolved or by calling 800-424-2460, ext. 8835. The application deadline is June 30, 2015.

Deborah J. Cassidy

Iliana Alanís

Vincent J. Costanza

Krista Murphy

Sherri Killins

Betsy Carlin

Marquita Furness Davis

Margie Wallen

56 Young Children November 2014

NAEYC News N A E y C G O V E R N I N G B O A R D A N D L E A D E R S H I P

NAEYC Governing Board Carol Brunson Day, President /  Retired / Consul­ tant, Silver Spring, MD Gera Jacobs, Past President /  University of South Dakota, Vermillion Ida Rose Florez, Vice President  /  Center for Child and Family Studies, West Ed, San Diego, CA Susan Perry-Manning, Secretary  /  The North Caro­ lina Early Childhood Foundation, Raleigh, NC William H. Isler, Treasurer  /  The Fred Rogers Com­ pany, Pittsburgh, PA Lorraine Cooke  /  Egenolf Early Childhood Center, Elizabeth, NJ Chad Dunkley  /  New Horizon Enterprises, Plymouth, MN Cristina Gillanders  /  University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Kelly Hantak  /  Missouri First Steps, Lindenwood University, St. Peters, MO Jim Lesko  /  AEM Corporation, Lewes, DE Nili Luo  /  Southwestern College, Winfield, KS Carl Mack Jr.  / Alliant International University, Sacramento, CA Tammy Mann  /  The Campagna Center, Alexandria, VA Amy O’Leary  /  Early Education for All, Strate­ gies for Children, Boston, MA Jan Stevenson  / Georgia Department of Education/Division for Special Education, Atlanta, Georgia Ginger Marie Swigart  /  Sacramento County Office of Education, CA Ann McClain Terrell  /  Milwaukee Public Schools, WI Rhian Evans Allvin, Ex Officio  /  NAEYC Executive Director, Washington, DC

NAEYC Consulting Editors Panel Lawrence Balter  /  New York University Bonnie Blagojevic  /  The University of Maine Teresa Byington  /  University of Nevada, Reno Karen Burger Cairone  /  Education Develop­ ment Center, Inc., Learning and Teaching Division, Newtown, PA Eun Kyeong Cho  /  University of New Hamp­ shire, Durham Dong Hwa Choi / Park University, MO Lisa Cranston  /  Greater Essex County District School Board, Windsor, Ontario, Canada Angela Eckhoff  /  Old Dominion University, VA Deborah Fitzwater-Dewey  /  Principal Con­ sultant, FitzDew Consulting Jeanne Galbraith  /  State University of New York, Cortland Margaret Gillis / University of North Carolina at Greensboro H. Sophia Han / University of South Florida, Tampa Kathleen Harris  /  Seton Hill University, PA

Lynn Hartle / Pennsylvania State University, Brandywine Rebecca Isbell  /  East Tennessee State University Marla Susman Israel  /  Loyola University, Chicago, IL Kristen Kemple  /  University of Florida, Gainesville Bernadette Laumann / University of Illinois, Urbana­ Champaign Ji-Eun Lee  /  Oakland University, Rochester. MI Sandra Linder / Clemson University, SC Julia Luckenbill  / University of California, Davis Sue Mankiw / William Paterson University, Wayne, NJ Marian Marion  /  Governors State University, Valparaiso, IN Gayle Mindes  /  DePaul University, Chicago, IL Meir Muller  /  University of South Carolina Karen Nemeth  /  Language Castle LLC, New­ town, PA Jennifer Palma  /  Cerritos College, Lakewood, CA

Gretchen Reynolds / Algonquin College, Ottawa, ON Laurie Lee Richter  /  University of New Orleans, LA Dawn Rouse  /  University of Wisconsin, La Crosse Holly Seplocha  / William Paterson University, Wayne, NJ Susan Stacey  / Halifax Grammar School, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada Linda Taylor  /  Ball State University, Muncie, IN Christy Tirrell-Corbin / University of Maryland, College Park Kelley Walters  /  Northcentral University Alyson Williams  /  Virginia Commonwealth University

Research in Review Editors Mary Benson McMullen  /  Indiana University, Bloomington Sharon K. Ryan  /  Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ Travis Wright  /  University of Wisconsin, Madison

Submitting Cluster Articles for Young Children The editors of Young Children strive to represent both bedrock issues in early

childhood education and current topics in this ever-evolving field. Below are future Young Children cluster topics, along with submission deadlines. Cluster article submissions require a proposal. If the proposal is accepted, the author will then be invited to submit the full article.

Issue date Young Children cluster topic Proposal due Article due date

March 2015 Blocks: Great learning Tools From Infancy Through the Primary Grades

n/a n/a

May 2015 leadership: Supporting a new Gener- ation of Early Childhood Professionals

n/a December 1, 2014

July 2015 Social Studies: From a Sense of Self to a Sense of the World

n/a February 1, 2015

September 2015

Editor’s Choice n/a n/a

november 2015

It Takes a Team: Collaborating With Colleagues in Related Fields

February 1, 2015

June 1, 2015

March 2016 Topics and Issues in Urban Education June 1, 2015 october 1, 2015

May 2016 21st Century Teaching and learning August 1, 2015 December 1, 2015

July 2016 Ensuring Best Practice: local, State, and Federal Quality Improvement Initiatives

october 1, 2015

February 1, 2016

September 2016

Editor’s Choice n/a n/a

november 2016

The Uniqueness of the Kindergarten Year

February 1, 2016

June 1, 2016

57November 2014 Young Children

The children at the Housatonic Community College Early Childhood Laboratory School in Bridgeport, Con- necticut, excitedly open the package they have been waiting for. They jostle to see the photos from another preschool thousands of miles away—pictures of the children of Semane Preschool in Phokeng, in the North- west Province of South Africa. These unlikely pen pals are just beginning to learn about each other and the world outside their immediate communities. But this is more than a story about pen pals.

B ridgeport, Connecticut, is a small city of densely populated neighborhoods with old apart- ment buildings and crowded schools. It struggles with one of the largest achievement gaps between students from families who are economically ad-

vantaged and disadvantaged in the United States (Connect- icut Commission on Children 2014). Talk to the experts and you will hear lots of reasons for this. A large dual language population and the high number of families with low in-

comes are among the most cited reasons. Much of the early childhood workforce is undereducated, with 84 percent of assistant teachers and 44 percent of teachers reporting less than an associate degree (Connecticut Charts-a-Course, n.d.). This may be due to low wages, large turnover in the field, and a recent change in educational requirements for child care teachers. This dynamic adds to the difficulties in breaking the cycles of poverty and illiteracy.

Halfway around the world, another community struggles with similar issues. Unlike Bridgeport, the Royal Bafokeng Nation in the Northwest Province of South Africa is rural. Villages are spread out across miles of flatlands. There are no apartment buildings. Yet families with low incomes, a population with multiple languages, and an undereducated early childhood workforce are conditions this area also faces. Both communities need to do some- thing to turn the tide. The collaboration between Housa- tonic Community College (HCC) and the early childhood community of the Royal Bafokeng Nation is helping to do that for Bridgeport and for the young children attending

Laurie R. Noe

58 Young Children November 2014

Internationalizing Your Early Childhood College Program

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preschool in the town of Phokeng, South Africa. Although the Royal Bafokeng Nation sits on some of the richest plati- num mines in the world, many of the families who live and work near those mines are not beneficiaries of that wealth.

There are many communities around the world that would love to collaborate with US early childhood teacher preparation programs, laboratory schools, and commu- nities. Here is the story of how one community in Con- necticut is taking early childhood practices to Africa and bringing Africa to a US community college early childhood program and to professors, students, and lab school teach- ers and young children.

Partnerships The story starts with partnerships and collaborations, and it continues to rely heavily on those partnerships for many types of support. Well before this project began, Bridgeport’s early childhood community saw the need for cooperation, coordination, and collaboration among the myriad agencies and programs that were serving the same population of families with young children. The Bridge- port Alliance for Young Children (BAYC) was formed. Some member agencies of this alliance are the local United Way of Eastern Fairfield County, the Bridgeport Housing Authority, Bridgeport Family Resource Centers, HCC, and several area early childhood programs.

Alliance participants meet regularly to tell each other what they are doing, assist others with their projects, and elicit help with their own. It is a much better scenario than when members of the early childhood education commun- ity all worked in silos, not knowing what anyone else was doing. BAYC has reduced the duplication of services, thereby helping all members become more efficient. An ex- ample of this was the decision to bring all early childhood education training needs and interests to the alliance, so events could be planned and announced to include all com- munity members who were interested instead of planning for each individual agency’s needs. BAYC is the entry point for groups or individuals interested in serving in or joining with Bridgeport’s early childhood community.

An international partnership A group of visitors from South Africa, on a Rotary Interna- tional (RI) tour of Connecticut, was looking for a US early childhood community interested in establishing a con-

nection with the early childhood programs in their area of South Africa. They chose Bridgeport because of the similar demographics and its history of collaboration with pro- grams and services for young children and their families. The Rotarians from South Africa, one of whom works for the Royal Bafokeng Nation, returned to their country with a commitment from the Bridgeport community to work with them.

A group of planners, comprising representatives from both communities, spent the next six months cocreating a proposal to enable each community to send a vocational training team to visit the other and learn about its early childhood practices and challenges, an exchange that RI agreed to fund. The traveling delegates would focus on one idea—improving early childhood education in the two com- munities.

The plan and goals The planning group, made up of early childhood educators from both Bridgeport and Phokeng, began by discussing the project’s ultimate goal. They agreed that it was to be “a cultural and professional exchange that will lead to a long-term relationship for the purpose of enhancing the early childhood communities in Bridgeport and the Royal Bafokeng Nation,” according to the proposal to Rotary International.

To reach that goal, the Rotary International district representatives planned an exchange of early childhood professionals from each country to visit the other for three-week stays. The HCC Distance Learning office cre- ated an online bulletin board so HCC and Royal Bafokeng Nation early childhood professionals could post questions, discuss issues, and connect to articles about early child- hood practices. I designed two online credit courses for any early childhood students in Connecticut and Phokeng to take together. These students were all practicing early childhood educators. The first course was Introduction to Early Childhood Education; the second was Child Develop- ment. An HCC professor would teach the courses using a distance learning model combined with reflective practice on personal experience.

Through the use of technology, the US-based students gained a global perspective of early care and education and the South African early childhood educators who were liv- ing in isolated geographic areas received an academic view of the early childhood field. “Although educational technol- ogy is not the panacea for [South Africa’s] educational chal- lenges, it does leverage and extend traditional teaching and learning activities in certain circumstances and hence has

About the Author Laurie R. Noe, EdD, is a professor and coordinator of the Early Childhood Inclusive Education Program at Housatonic Commu- nity College (HCC), in Connecticut. She is a speaker at national, regional, and local educational conferences, and has recently added lima, Peru, to HCC’s early childhood connections. [email protected]

Author’s Note: Bafokeng is used to refer to the tribal group and the land its members inhabit.

The traveling delegates would focus on one idea—improving early childhood education in the two communities.

59November 2014 Young Children

the potential to impact learning outcomes” (Jaffer, Ng’ambi, & Czerniewicz 2007).

Bafokeng visits The Bridgeport team—which included a kindergarten teacher, two early childhood college professors (myself being one), the executive director of the regional YMCA, a speech pathologist, and a parent educator from the Parent Leadership Training Institute—traveled first. In South Africa our gracious Rotarian hosts showed us early child- hood programs, orphanages, schools, and health centers in a few of the rural areas within the Northwest Province. We also visited Sun City Casino and Resort, Pilanesburg Na- tional Park, and the platinum mines outside of Rustenburg.

We visited early childhood classrooms that had no books, no materials, and no furniture. The child–teacher ratios were sometimes as high as 50 children to one teacher. The teachers had no training beyond high school and no mentor teachers to learn from. They made the best of what they had. They worked with no regulations or standards to guide them and very little money for equipment or materi- als. Teachers functioned in facilities in desperate need of basic repairs—broken windows, toilets that did not work, and ceilings that were falling down around the children.

But we saw the amazing dedication and commitment of the teachers. This included strong support of their cultural strengths in communicating through music and story. We watched teachers telling stories in the classrooms with no books. Oral storytelling is a rich cultural tradition by which people pass down history and values. However, storytell- ing was not their only strategy. Teachers often used music in a call-and-response fashion—similar to African Ameri- can church practices—to convey information and ensure understanding.

We left South Africa with a respect for the challenges of the early childhood teachers and for their successes with such limited resources. We are all aware of the plentiful resources available to most of the early childhood centers we work with at home, even in the poorest communities. Even so, for many different reasons, there are still early childhood teachers in some US communities struggling to provide meaningful experiences for young children. We had a lot to think about.

Our Bafokeng visitors Then the South African professionals came to visit early childhood programs in Bridgeport. The team included classroom teachers, the director and assistant director of early childhood development for the Bafokeng region, and a retired principal. We showed them community-based sites, Head Start programs, and NAEYC-accredited programs, in- cluding HCC’s Early Childhood Laboratory School. We held workshops and discussions about cultural distinctions, class sizes, teacher–child ratios, environmental plans, early learn-

ing standards, observation and assessment of young children, and curriculum planning for differentiated instruction.

As an introduction to US culture we showed the South African visitors snow, the local zoo, many pizza places, and New York’s Times Square. By the time they left, they were talking about the US obsession with safety, the abundance of materials, and the community’s diversity. They were surprised to see so many children who looked different from each other and spoke different languages. Their ex- pectation had been that most of the children would speak English when, in fact, in the Bridgeport area residents speak more than 60 languages and children come from dozens of countries.

Follow-up With the two initial exchange visits behind us, the teams, plus some additional partners, began communicating via the online bulletin board. Occasionally, I videoconferenced with a group of Bafokeng early childhood educators who convened in a classroom for professional development. We shared articles on child development, and discussed how to implement some of the ideas the teams generated while visiting each other.

In the HCC Early Childhood Laboratory School, the staff began to look at the outdoor areas and use more natu- ral materials than before. The teachers and children of the lab school fully participated in International Mud Day in June and created a mud pie kitchen in which the children

60 Young Children November 2014

“baked cakes” and stirred “soups” for each other and their teachers. The lab school teachers focused on including more storytelling without books, which had been excit- ing for us to watch in South Africa. The early childhood education club at HCC decided to sell beaded bracelets made in South Africa to support the work of United Against Malaria. The HCC early childhood education faculty began discussing other ways to connect to our South African col- leagues and their communities, using photos, videos, phone calls, and text messaging.

In the Bafokeng Nation, the administrators found ways and means in all 16 of the area’s preschools to set up book centers stocked with picture books written in Setswana, the children’s first language, and in English. They began rearranging the few furnishings they had to make more accessible spaces for children to play in. They purchased textbooks for the first of the two online classes that they would be taking with early childhood education students from the United States. As the first course began, concerns emerged almost immediately.

Material, logistical, and cultural challenges The shipment of textbooks the South Africans ordered from the United States was lost, and the South Africans had to repurchase the textbooks. Other issues confronted the

Bafokeng teacher-students. They each worked in their own preschools, which were spread out over a large area of the Northwest Province. Most of the students had no comput- ers and no Internet service. So that they could participate in the online classes, the Royal Bafokeng Institute (the governmental, cultural, and business organization of the area’s ethnic peoples) supplied laptop computers, a physical location for training, and Internet access along with organi- zational, logistical, and educational support services.

Twice a week two vans drove two hours to pick up the teachers at their schools and bring them to the central loca- tion to discuss weekly readings and required assignments. Then the 13 students logged on to the distance learning site to post comments, participate in course discussions, and upload their assignments, with the help of the Royal Bafokeng Institute’s early childhood development director and assistant director. The vans traveled another two hours to take the teachers home.

61November 2014 Young Children

We shared articles on child develop- ment, and discussed how to implement some of the ideas the teams generated while visiting each other.

For more information and to make a contribution, please visit www.naeyc.org/legacy or contact Kathleen Cassidy Donato at NAEYC: phone 800-424-2460, ext. 8824, or email [email protected].

Your leadership development gifts

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Donations to NAEYC’s Building a Lasting Legacy Campaign support scholarships, fellowships, professional development initiatives, public affairs initiatives, resource material development, and Affiliate services.

Thank you. Your contributions can influence early childhood forever.

Communication between the two communities was challenging because of disparities in each culture’s relationship with time and timing, language and idioms, context, and infrastructure. On the American side, profes- sors sent email messages to South Africa and waited for responses that might not come for days. The South Afri- cans often felt overwhelmed with all the requests for infor- mation and conversation we Americans bombarded them with. When we got responses we were not always sure what they meant. On the South Africans’ part, there were many ways English could be misunderstood. Americans are rather direct compared to South Africa’s high-context culture: “The explicitness with which they [Americans] communicate can often cause offence and resentment” (Rutledge 2011).

When trying to get together for a videoconference, the parties have to factor in a six-hour time difference that of- ten finds American instructors in their pajamas when South Africans are beginning their coursework. An appointment to meet online is considered a contract of sorts in the United States, while it is more like a good idea in South Africa. This is due to the difference in each culture’s relationship with time. Americans reflect traits that are monochronic—tend- ing to “organize their lives around time by relying heavily on timekeeping instruments. . . . They emphasize schedules,

the segmentation of time, and promptness,” according to Samovar, Porter, and McDaniel (2012, 313) in the introduc- tion to “Monochronic and Polychronic Time,” by Edward T. Hall. South Africans reflect traits that are more polychronic: “They do many things simultaneously, are more concerned with people and the present moment than with schedules, and believe that they are in command of time rather than being controlled by it” (313).

One of the biggest challenges occurred when it became clear that the South African early childhood teachers would not be able to do the course’s required fieldwork. There were no model early childhood settings within several hours’ drive of the Bafokeng teachers. After some brainstorming, HCC professors were able to establish an alternate experience. The US cohort videotaped observa- tions of several early childhood programs in Bridgeport and uploaded them to the distance learning class.

Successes The Bafokeng students successfully completed the first online course in 2011. In a video response about the educa- tion she has been receiving from HCC, Bertha Mohube, a South African student said, “It is a blessing for the children because we did not know what we were doing, but now there is light.”

In exploring the possibilities for innovative instruc- tion, the Royal Bafokeng Nation cohort made it clear that they would need face time with their college instructors. One year after my first trip with the Rotary International travel team, I again traveled to Phokeng to teach a course in Creative Experiences for Young Children, and I brought with me Wai Fun Chow, an HCC early childhood education

Resources for Participating in International Partnerships

■n Collegial relationships with local colleges and university early childhood programs can lead to collaborative efforts to connect with global partners.

■n Your local United Way may be helpful for funding and making contacts.

■n local Rotary Clubs have worldwide connections. www.rotary.org/en/partners

■n The Fulbright visiting Scholar Program can help you connect with scholars from around the world to visit your school. Also apply to the Fulbright Specialist Program to become eligible for finan- cial support to visit a higher education institution overseas. www.cies.org/program/fulbright- specialist-program

62 Young Children November 2014

An appointment to meet online is considered a contract of sorts in the United States, while it is more like a good idea in South Africa.

student from Connecticut who had been studying online with the South African students. She shared her own experiences working in an early childhood classroom and compared and contrasted them with teachers’ experiences in South Africa. “I think we have more resources than they do in the classroom, but more isn’t always better,” Chow said. “I think we plan more than they do, but they are more flexible than we are.”

A teacher from South Africa came to Housatonic Commu- nity College’s graduation cere- mony in May 2013 to accept a certificate for herself and her Bafokeng colleagues who had successfully completed the first three early childhood education courses (two online and one in a classroom in Phokeng). Her

63November 2014 Young Children

Spotlight on Young Children Supporting Dual Language Learners Meghan Dombrink-Green & Holly Bohart, eds., with Karen N. Nemeth

Covering infancy to third grade, the articles in this collection offer practical ways of supporting children who are dual language learners, their families, and staff. Included are suggestions for using technology as a teaching tool, pairing children and using projects to support development, and addressing challenging behaviors. In addi- tion, there is a professional development guide.

Item 2210 List $20 Member $16 (20% savings)

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experience was enhanced by a two-week intensive field placement at the HCC Early Childhood Laboratory School. She observed the teachers, interacted with children, and participated in parent events, which are an important part of the lab school experience.

More recently, another professor traveled from Bridge- port to Phokeng to present a course in science and math for young children. An HCC early childhood education student accompanied her to take the course with the South African students. By using locally accessible and culturally relevant materials, the Bafokeng students learned how to take advantage of the available resources and environment to intentionally plan a math and science curriculum for young children.

The potential We hope for many more student exchanges in both direc- tions across the Atlantic. Seeing other parts of the world and interacting with people from other countries awakens a deep cultural understanding that cannot happen through pictures and stories alone. But pictures and stories are a place to start. The HCC Early Childhood Laboratory School is planning new projects with Semane Preschool—for example, more photo and video exchanges. The children may write books about themselves and their schools to share with their counterparts, and classroom teachers in both countries may share traditional children’s music. HCC college faculty members are reviewing ways of making

The children may write books about themselves and their schools, and teachers in both countries may share traditional children’s music.

Suggestions for Internationalizing your Program

We learned the following from our experience:

■n Connect with local organizations that have the same goals as you do, such as your local board of education and other educational institutions, so that when an op- portunity arises, you are aware of it.

■n look for opportunities. Know your local funders and community organizations, and let them know what your goals and interests are. Go to meetings, make friends, and help other people and groups achieve their goals, whenever possible. They will be more inclined to help you when the time comes.

■n Be prepared to create opportunities for your program. They will not always find you first.

Coaching With Powerful Interactions A Guide for Partnering With Early Childhood Teachers Judy Jablon, Amy Laura Dombro, and Shaun Johnsen

This interactive, enhanced ebook with embedded video is a guide for coaches and other professionals who support the work of teachers.

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64 Young Children November 2014

online instruction more meaningful and interactive for this diverse population of learners. The early childhood communities in Connecticut and in the Bafokeng region are looking for ways to fund the partnership’s continuation.

For now we participants in Bridgeport continue to share as much information, reflection, and passion for this project as possible with whoever will listen. We continue to establish, maintain, and improve partnerships with local organizations and our South African contacts, knowing that our partners will find ways to help us with internation- al exchanges. In fact, with the help of a community activist I met through BAYC, I traveled to Lima, Peru, in August to work with early childhood educators at the Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru. And I continue to look to the world to help HCC’s Early Childhood Inclusive Education Program improve early childhood practices and cultural awareness for our students and our faculty.

References

Connecticut Charts-a-Course. n.d. “Connecticut’s Early Care and Edu- cation Workforce Report.” www.ctcharts.org/docs/ccac_report.pdf.

Connecticut Commission on Children. 2014. “The Achievement Gap.” www.cga.ct.gov/coc/achievement_gap.htm.

Jaffer, S., D. Ng’ambi, & L. Czerniewicz. 2007. “The Role of ICTs in Higher Education in South Africa: One Strategy for Addressing Teaching and Learning Challenges.” International Journal of Educa- tion and Development Using Informational Communication Technol- ogy. http://ijedict.dec.uwi.edu/viewarticle.php?id=421.

Rutledge, B. 2011. “Cultural Differences—High Context Versus Low Context.” http://thearticulateceo.typepad.com/my-blog/2011/08/ cultural-differences-high-context-versus-low-context.html.

Samovar, L.A., R.E. Porter, & E.R. McDaniel. 2012. Introduction to “Monochronic and Polychronic Time,” by E.T. Hall. In Intercultural Communication: A Reader, eds. L.A. Samovar, R.E. Porter, & E.R. McDaniel. Boston: Wadsworth.

Resources

Koller, D. “What We’re Learning From Online Education.” Filmed 2012. TED video, 20:40. www.ted.com/talks/daphne_koller_what_we_re_ learning_from_online_education.html.

Peace Corps Information Collection and Exchange. 2012. Culture Mat- ters: The Peace Corps Cross-Cultural Workbook. Peace Corps Infor- mation Collection and Exchange. files.peacecorps.gov/multimedia/ pdf/library/T0087_culturematters.pdf.

Copyright © 2014 by the national Association for the Education of Young Children. See Permissions and Reprints online at www.naeyc.org/yc/permissions.

65November 2014 Young Children

SAVE THE DATE!

NAEYC’s 2015 National Institute for Early Childhood Professional Development The Early Childhood Profession We All Want: What Will It Take to Get There? June 7–10, 2015 New Orleans, Louisiana

S ave the date and join us for exciting workshops, hands-on training sessions, and networking opportunities with your colleagues.

For more information about the 2015 National Institute, visit www.naeyc.org/institute.

Jackson Square, New Orleans

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“¿Como ayuda a la gente?” (How do you help people?), first-grader Alexa asks a pharmacist and then atten- tively records the pharmacist’s response. Huddling around the interviewee with clipboards in hand, young reporters inquisitively probe as to the nature of her work, the skills required for this work, and the benefit in helping those who are ill. Much preparation has gone into this field trip, even though the destination is only a block away from school. These young reporters ask thick questions—questions that require the speaker to extend beyond a yes-or-no response. The pharmacist fluidly switches between Spanish and English—much like the children do. She enthusiastically answers each question, taking time from her busy workday to share her knowledge and enthusiasm with children from her community.

D ual language learners (DLLs)—children who arrive at school acquiring more than one language—represent one of the fastest growing populations in US public schools (NCES 2014). However, all too often longstanding miscon-

ceptions about children’s dual language development (Puig 2010) can prevent the use of practices that promote critical thinking among bilingual children. These myths include the assumption that children automatically learn a second language by being in a dual language environment, the belief that conversational language is the equivalent of academic language, and the misconception that there are limited opportunities to integrate home languages into the everyday curriculum. However, teachers have opportuni- ties to debunk these myths, fostering children’s bilingual- ism and problem-solving skills through experiential and

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Community Explorers

Critical Thinking Strategies for Supporting Dual language learners

social learning opportunities. In this article Lisa, a first grade teacher (and this article’s second author) effectively applies research-based strategies to promote critical think- ing practices with young DLLs. She helps the children cre- ate a bilingual inquiry community, rich with new ideas and content worthy of exploration and problem solving.

Viewing bilingualism as a resource Critical thinking in early childhood goes hand in hand with oral language development; it is through language and communication that children develop the intellectual disposition to explore new ideas (Genishi & Dyson 2009). Dual language learners’ literacy development flourishes in classrooms that provide abundant opportunities to read and write in their home languages and English. Read- ing and writing informational texts and exploring real- world knowledge give DLLs opportunities to explore and communicate about complex ideas. Teaching vocabulary and grammar in isolation, with an emphasis on language proficiency, can alienate young learners. Instead, teachers can create an environment that positions literacy as a social meaning-making process, a place to explore printed text in a vibrant and diverse linguistic community. When young children’s bilingualism is viewed as a resource (Ruíz 1984), educators support instruction that fosters critical thinking, allowing DLLs to grapple with rich content knowledge and broaden their language use and capacities.

A major principle of dual language learning is that lan- guage knowledge transfers: “If a child learns how to read in one language, that child knows how to read, and that general ability will facilitate learning to read in another language” (Krashen 1996, 23). Regardless of language back- ground, teaching children to ask questions and communi- cate with one another as they encounter new information is central to teaching critical thinking skills (Salmon 2010; Whittaker 2014). Teachers can design curricular tasks wor- thy of deep exploration even when children are learning more than one language.

Tapping into the children’s funds of knowledge—the accumulation of a child’s cultural, linguistic, and historic background knowledge (González, Moll, & Amanti 2005)— can uncover new ways to promote children’s critical thinking and inquiry. Teachers can build on children’s prior knowledge and primary language experiences, creating new opportunities for rich, purposeful engagement with language and literacy. Young children tend to communicate more readily in social environments that effectively build

on their funds of knowledge. For example, children who regularly take public transit might be well versed in reading maps, observing patterns and behaviors, reading environ- mental print, and engaging in language about transporta- tion. Thus, teachers can use children’s personal experiences to create opportunities that bring children’s everyday practices and knowledge into the classroom.

using content to support critical thinking and literacy skills The joint position statement on literacy from the Interna- tional Reading Association (IRA) and NAEYC (1998) states, “Young children especially need to be engaged in experi- ences that make academic content meaningful and build on prior learning” (2). Therefore, rich and meaningful content in which children feel invested provides the platform for com plex thought, reasoning, and discussion. In order to develop critical reading and writing skills, DLLs need environments that provide ample room for them to talk. It is through a learning community that supports and relies on children’s oral expression that children are prepared to gen- erate authentic questions. Teaching critical thinking and lit- eracy skills through hands-on experiences in content areas such as science, social studies, and math builds on young children’s natural curiosity about the world around them. By attending to multiple content areas, teachers also provide continuity with the types of reading and writing experiences that promote skills required for later success in school.

Teachers can help children gain knowledge of unfa- miliar content in their home languages as a way to bet- ter understand and communicate new ideas in English (Goldenberg 2008). For example, in the opening vignette young children learned to interview a specialist while also developing new vocabulary (in two languages), such as drugstore/la farmacía, prescription/la receta médica, patient/el paciente, and measure/medir. Teachers can use multiple methods to convey new concepts—visual, audi- tory, and textual clues that maximize the child’s ability to conceptualize, analyze, and apply new content. In this situ- ation, the teacher and children immediately transformed

About the Authors Tamara Spencer, EdD, is an associate professor in the Depart- ment of Early Childhood, Elementary, and literacy Education at Montclair State University, in Montclair, new Jersey. Her current research analyzes the intersections of curricular policy and early literacy development. [email protected]

Lisa Hertzog, EdD, is senior director of design at the office of Teacher Effectiveness for the new York City Department of Education. At the time of this article, lisa was in her seventh year as a national Board Certified Teacher in early education.

Reading and writing informational texts and exploring real-world knowledge give DLLs opportunities to explore complex ideas.

67November 2014 Young Children

the dramatic play area into a pharmacy after the field trip, creating a space for the young children to actively rehearse and use related vocabulary they recently learned.

The approach to supporting DLLs’ critical thinking and language skills is universal: all young children thrive when teachers view them as capable language users, build curriculum that taps into the children’s funds of knowl- edge, and develop curriculum that allows them to wonder about new information.

The setting This article showcases Lisa’s first grade classroom that supported the development of dual language learners. Lisa, a National Board Certified Teacher, was in her seventh year of teaching. She taught at a dual language school in an urban northeastern city, where instruction alternated between English one day and Spanish the next. The majority of students were from families with low incomes and participated in the federally funded lunch program. Located in a part of the city known for its racial and linguistic diversity, the school’s administrators, teachers, students, and families viewed bilingualism as a linguistic asset and necessity in today’s global society. Nearly all of the 20 children Lisa taught were Latinos whose families originated largely in the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, and Cuba. Most of the children were DLLs, coming from bilingual or Spanish-speaking homes, with various levels of English fluency.

Community Explorers/Los exploradoros de nuestra comunidad In early spring, Lisa and the class embarked on a two- month study of the people in the school’s neighborhood by

visiting and interviewing the employees at the local bike shop/la tienda de bicicletas, post office/la oficina de correos, food pantry/la despensa de alimentos, and drugstore/la farmacía (highlighted in the opening vignette). Drawing on the research of Hong (2001), this social studies curriculum and community inquiry integrated children’s language and literacy and critical thinking skills. The children used knowledge in real-life situations to help them think criti- cally. Focusing on the children’s own community offered them an opportunity to step into a familiar adult world, experience the life of their neighborhood, and think about the roles of reading and writing in two languages in every- day interactions. From the time the unit was announced, the children drew on their funds of knowledge to locate them- selves and their stories within the context of their com- munity. For example, the children were eager to contribute to a discussion on the school’s broader community, noting important landmarks, key individuals, popular parks and meeting areas, and transportation hubs. Relying on their background knowledge, children also mentioned familiar professions like el bombero/firefighter and el medico/doctor. By seeking and valuing the children’s ideas as an important part of the curriculum, Lisa emphasized the depth of their knowledge and the contributions they made to the group’s learning while also fostering their dual language learning.

The process Field trips provided real-world applications of ideas and created authentic opportunities for children to generate questions and write regularly. To prepare for the trips, the students listed all the questions they wanted to ask Ph

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the workers. Then they voted for the top six questions. This selection involved much critical thinking as, prior to voting, they categorized the questions, grouped similar questions, and considered which ones would elicit the most information. They also discussed questioning techniques and using thick questions, as illustrated in the opening vignette. Unbeknownst to them, these young learners were themselves digging deep, comparing questions to distinguish basic ones from those that required inferen- tial and higher-order processing skills. For example, they recognized that questions like “Is your job fun?” provided less detail from the respondent then asking “Why do you like your job?” The children took ownership of the ideas and had a vested interest in seeking out the answers. In the end, these questions focused on employees’ career selec- tions and qualifications, job responsibilities, interactions with others, and their lives outside of their jobs. Asking the children to reflect deeply on their questions helped them develop their abstract thinking skills, which transferred across languages.

The following day, they translated their questions into English (as the previous day was taught in Spanish) so they could communicate with all the community members, many of whom were bilingual. Lisa created a two-sided handout with the questions—one side in Spanish and the other English—and the children used the template throughout the unit. The handouts provided a model for asking questions and promoting thinking and inquiry skills. Regardless of the target language for the day’s lesson, students still had (a) the means to fully participate in the learning activity, (b) a template for asking questions in both languages, and (c) a tool to extend their thinking through the duration of the study.

Building on the children’s and the community’s funds of knowledge As they took on the role of researchers, the first-graders built on their cultural and linguistic knowledge—as well as the community’s—as they had authentic purposes for speaking, listening, reading, and writing. To practice in- terviewing, children selected family members to interview in the language of their choice. Posing the questions to an adult with whom they had a warm relationship helped the children comfortably practice the tone, fluency, and de- meanor needed to later engage in a more formal interview. Throughout this study, the day would begin or end with the children reading aloud their findings about their family members’ careers, which affirmed the diversity of careers represented in the families of the class. For example, Rafaela shared that her mother worked as a hospital ad- ministrator; Kenny proudly explained that his father drove a bus around the city; and Luisa said that her mother taught third grade at a school down the street. Sharing their interview results with one another, the children extended,

elaborated on, and revised their initial under standing of conducting interviews and the overall process.

In the next part of the study, Lisa and the class ventured out to visit local businesses and witness the expertise of the community members. The investigation began with a visit to Julio’s Bike Shop. Many students pass the shop on their way to and from school and had admired the new bicycles displayed in the window. As they interviewed Manuel, one of Julio’s employees, the children were surprised to learn that the bike shop was not only a place to buy a new bike but also where they could bring a bike that needed repair. They were fascinated as Manuel showed them a bike chain he was replacing during the visit. These first-graders learned that Manuel’s job responsibilities included both fixing bicycles and tending the store’s counter.

This curriculum honored the children’s and the com- munity’s bilingualism, as many of the field trips used Spanish and English. The first-graders observed that many people in the community were bilingual, with a large popu- lation having immigrated from the Dominican Republic and other Spanish-speaking countries. In the community, the children easily switched to the language most comfort- able to the person they were interviewing. As a result, their bilingualism emerged through authentic interactions, pro- viding an opportunity to pick up on linguistic cues when communicating with new people. For example, in discus-

In the community, the children easily switched to the language most comfortable to the person they were interviewing.

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sions they noted intonation, body language, and follow-up questioning as valuable ways to enhance conversations. Their bilingualism became a source of pride, a resource they relied on to represent new and evolving ideas about the community and the people in it.

Reading and writing in two languages The children’s literacy development flourished due to their abundant opportunities to read and write in both languages (see “Select English and Spanish Children’s Literature”). Through the alternating daily instruction in Spanish and English, they learned complex content in their home language and transferred that knowledge to English. For example, in the post office visit, Lisa and the students followed the process of mailing a letter: writing a letter, buying a stamp, placing the letter in the mailbox, following it through the sorting process, and finally seeing the letter make it to the mailroom where mail carriers took it in their wheeled bags to its final destination. Later, Lisa and the children charted this process in a flowchart, first in Spanish and the following day in English. Through this process they created a chart of critical vocabulary words (in Spanish and English) that served as a visual resource for children who were dominant in one language. The vocabu- lary that emerged through the field trips demonstrated how cognates—words with common origins—provide a powerful way for them to use their knowledge in both languages. For example, the verbs for sort—clasificar and ordenar—helped them know the English words classify and put in order.

Offering children choices In preparation for the last field trip of the unit, each child selected a primary focus for the drugstore investigation— interviewing the store manager or pharmacist, making a list of the items in the store, or drawing a map of the store.

Providing choices allowed the children to reflect on the ideas they were interested in and take ownership of their learning. Since DLLs benefit from teachers modeling lin- guistic and problem-solving processes, Lisa began by work- ing with the children who had chosen to draw a map of the store. She encouraged them to draw it from a bird’s-eye view, imagining that they were flying high above the store. Lisa introduced spatial reasoning—a complex and critical skill—at the beginning of the unit by having the children build a model of the classroom with blocks. Now the chil- dren could expand on this logic, applying and transferring their knowledge of mapping to a new scenario.

Conclusion The children understood that they were members of a com- munity of inquiry. After each of the field trips, the students returned to the classroom to report back on all that they had discovered. Gathering on the rug, each group reported their findings to the class as the other children added to their notes. Throughout the neighborhood investigations, the children wondered at the diversity of the careers, prod- ucts, and services available in the surrounding community.

Select English and Spanish Children’s Literature

■n Los bomberos (Personas de la comunidad/People in the community) (2008), by Diyan leake

■n The Post Office Book: Mail and How It Moves (1986), by Gail Gibbons

■n Bus Drivers/Conductores de autobuses (2010), by Jac- queline laks Gorman

■n Un dia en la vida de un bombero (2006), by linda Hayward

■n A Day in the Life of a Builder (2001), by linda Hayward

■n Jobs Around My Neighborhood/Oficios en mi vecindario (2002), by Gladys Rosa-Mendoza

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The Community Explorers unit was based on the assumption that all young children—including dual lan- guage learners—thrive when provided with a learning environment where they can ponder and question while experiencing a creative, complex, and developmentally appropriate approach to early literacy. Lisa built on the chil- dren’s natural curiosity while also prompting them to think critically by engaging them in purposeful activities and learning experiences. As a result, these young children took ownership of their learning and developed the intellectual dispositions to reflect on and grapple with new information in two languages, thus increasing fluency in both.

References

Genishi, C., & A.H. Dyson. 2009. Children, Language, and Literacy: Diverse Learners in Diverse Times. New York: Teachers College Press; Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Goldenberg, C. 2008. “Teaching English Language Learners: What the Research Does—and Does Not—Say.” American Educator 32: 8–23, 42–44. www.aft.org/pdfs/americaneducator/summer2008/ goldenberg.pdf.

González, N., L.C. Moll, & C. Amanti., eds. 2005. Funds of Knowledge: Theorizing Practices in Households, Communities, and Classrooms. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Hong, M. 2001. Teaching First Grade: A Practical Guide. A Mentor Teacher Shares Insights, Strategies, and Lessons for Teaching Reading, Writing and Math—and Laying the Foundation for Learning Success. New York: Scholastic.

IRA (International Reading Association) & NAEYC. 1998. “Learning to Read and Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Young Children.” Joint position statement. www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/ positions/PSREAD98.PDF.

Krashen, S.D. 1996. Under Attack: The Case Against Bilingual Education. Culver City, CA: Language Education Associates.

NCES (National Center for Educational Statistics). 2014. “English Language Learners.” The Condition of Education. Washington, DC: US Department of Education. http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/ indicator_cgf.asp.

Puig, V.I. 2010. “Are Early Intervention Services Placing Home Languages and Cultures ‘At Risk’?” Early Childhood Research and Practice 12 (1). http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v12n1/puig.html.

Ruíz, R. 1984. “Orientations in Language Planning.” NABE: The Journal for the National Association of Bilingual Education 8 (2): 15–34.

Salmon, A.K. 2010. “Tools to Enhance Young Children’s Thinking.” Young Children 65 (5): 26–31. www.naeyc.org/tyc/files/tyc/file/ V4N5/Tools%20to%20Enhance%20Young%20CHildren's%20 Thinking.pdf.

Whittaker, J.V. 2014. “Good Thinking! Fostering Children’s Reasoning and Problem Solving.” Research in Review. Young Children, 69 (3): 80–89. www.naeyc.org/yc/article/fostering_childrens_reasoning_ whittaker.pdf.

Copyright © 2014 by the national Association for the Education of Young Children. See Permissions and Reprints online at www.naeyc.org/yc/permissions.

71November 2014 Young Children

• • • 18 • • •

ollage is an ideal way to introduce preschool chil-

dren to basic art concepts. You’ll also give them an

engaging open-ended art experience. To ensure

success, choose materials wisely, model how to use glue, and

don’t make a sample collage. When teachers make samples,

children tend to want to make one just like it. Three of our fa-

vorite collage ideas begin on page xxx.

Getting Started Put glue into a recycled plastic pint container with a foam

brush or a tongue depressor. Also provide paper clips, tape, and

a stapler, to offer multiple ways to fasten materials together.

During collage making, use lots of rich vocabulary to dis-

cuss children’s creations. When they say to you “Look what I

did!” or “See what I made!” ask open-ended questions to en-

courage conversations about the work. You could post a list of

questions and prompts in your art center to remind you what to

ask (see “Questions to Ask Children About Collage” on p. xx).

Using Collage to Encourage Creativity, High-Level Thinking, and Conversation! Triada Samaras and Janis Strasser, With Michele J. Russo

C

Cretivity in preschool.indb 18 7/2/14 3:03 PM

• • • 19 • • •

Torn Paper Collage This type of collage is the easiest for children to create.

1. Provide white glue and two different colors or types of

paper (black and white construction paper work very

well, or newspaper with black construction paper as a

background).

2. Model tearing paper into unusual shapes. Encourage

children to use a pincer grip with their fingertips.

3. Sing this tearing song to the tune of “Frere Jacques”:

Tearing, tearing Tearing, tearing 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 What’s it going to be now? What’s it going to be now? Wait and see . . . Wait and see . . .

4. Demonstrate gluing one piece on the paper and hold-

ing it until it sticks.

5. Tear another shape and repeat. Ask some of the

open-ended questions from the list.

6. Give children plenty of time to tear pieces of different

sizes and shapes.

7. After children have torn plenty of paper, provide the

glue. Give each child one page for attaching pieces.

Cretivity in preschool.indb 19 7/2/14 3:03 PM

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When kindergarten teacher Ms. Taylor asks Janie to count five randomly arranged chips, Janie counts some objects more than once, overlooks others, and announces that there are 12. Ms. Taylor then models counting the chips by moving them one by one while saying “One, two, three . . .”

M any 5-year-olds can imitate the teacher but then return to their own way of counting the same objects more than once and overlooking the others. Why is it so hard for young children to count five ob-

jects? The answer lies in the nature of logico-mathematical knowledge that Piaget studied scientifically for more than 50 years.

Three kinds of knowledge Piaget made fundamental distinctions among three kinds of knowledge, according to their sources: physical knowledge, social-conventional knowledge, and logico- mathematical knowledge (Piaget [1945] 1951; [1967] 1971).

Physical knowledge This is knowledge of objects in the observable world. Knowing that marbles roll but counters don’t is an example of physical knowledge. Knowing that paper tears easily but cloth does not is also an example of physical knowledge. Physical knowledge is acquired through actions on objects and observation.

Social-conventional knowledge An example of social-conventional knowledge is language— for example, understanding the words one, two, three or uno, dos, tres. Knowing about the Thanksgiving holiday is also an example of social knowledge. Social-conventional knowledge’s ultimate source is conventions that people create over time.

Logico-mathematical knowledge While physical and social-conventional knowledge have sources in the external world, the source of logico- mathematical knowledge is inside each person’s mind. If I show you a red counter and a blue counter, you will probably agree that the two counters are different. In this

Kindergarten Through Grade 1

Constance Kamii

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72 Young Children November 2014

The Importance of Thinking

Direct Versus Indirect Teaching of Number Concepts for Ages 4 to 6

situation, the difference between the counters might er- roneously be believed to be observable. But the difference does not exist in the observable world and is therefore not observable. The same two counters can also be said to be similar—because they have the same shape, are made of the same material, and are the same size. However, similarity and difference are mental relationships—they exist only in the minds of the people who think about the objects as be- ing similar or different. A third mental relationship we can create between the red and blue counters is the numerical relationship “two.” When we think about the counters as “two,” the counters become “two” for us at that moment.

The redness of one counter and blueness of the other are examples of physical knowledge, and the labels red and blue are social-conventional knowledge. But the difference between the counters, and their similarity and twoness, do not exist in the external world; they are examples of logico- mathematical knowledge. Only when we think about the counters as two do they become two for us at that moment. And if two must be mentally created by each individual, all the subsequent numbers (three, four, five, ten, one hun- dred) must also be created by each individual in his or her mind. Piaget went on to say more specifically that number is the synthesis of two kinds of logico-mathematical, men- tal relationships—hierarchical inclusion and order.

Hierarchical inclusion and order If you line up five counters on a table and ask a 4-year-old how many there are, she might count them and answer “Five.” If you then say, “Show me five,” she might point to the last counter in the line and say, “It’s this one” (see figure 1.1). This response shows the absence of hierarchical inclusion—the ability to mentally include one in two, two in three, three in four, and four in five, hierarchically. For this child, saying “one, two, three” is like saying “Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday”—for her, one is the name for the first object, two is the name for the second object, and so on. By contrast, when a child has constructed the number five, he mentally includes one in two, two in three, three in four, and four in five (see figure 1.2). This is why, when asked to show five, adults show all five of the objects rather than just the fifth object counted.

If you randomly arrange five counters (as in figure 2) and ask a 4-year-old to count them, she might count the same objects more than once and overlook others, as stated earlier. This behavior reveals the absence of order. Older children and adults find exactly five objects because they mentally put them in an ordered relationship and know

which have been counted and which remain to be counted. Number names can be taught directly because they are

part of social-conventional knowledge, but number con- cepts are part of logico-mathematical knowledge—which each child must construct, or create, from within. Number concepts cannot be taught directly, because it is impossible to directly teach hierarchical inclusion and order. However, it is not necessary to teach hierarchical inclusion or order because children are able to construct (create) them from within (Piaget & Szeminska [1941] 1965; Piaget 1942; Greco et al. 1960). This construction from within can be helped by indirect teaching, which consists of encouraging children to think (logico-mathematically).

Many educators have a tendency to think that if we want children to learn this, we must teach this, and if we want them to learn that, we must teach that. Piaget, however, advocated encouraging children to think in daily experiences, as seen in the statement below. Piaget is saying here that adults can teach number concepts to children indirectly by encouraging them to think in daily living.

The child may on occasion be interested in seriat- ing [ordering] for the sake of seriating, in classifying for the sake of classifying, but, in general, it is when events or phenomena must be explained and goals at- tained through an organization of causes that opera- tions [logico-mathematical knowledge] will be used [and developed] most. (Piaget [1971] 1974, 17) An example of a phenomenon that needs to be explained

in daily experiences is wondering how a cup has been bro- ken. The child might think, “There were only two people in the house when the cup was broken. Since I did not break it,

About the Author Constance Kamii, PhD, is a professor of early childhood educa- tion at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. She studied under Jean Piaget for 15 years on a half-time basis, doing research at the International Center of Genetic Epistemology.

“Five”“Five”

Figure 1.2 “Five” uttered to

represent all five elements.

Figure 1.1 “Five” uttered to

represent the last element only.

Figure 2. Knowing which object(s) have been counted and which one(s) remain to be counted

by putting them into relationship of order.

73November 2014 Young Children

my dad must have broken it.” This is an example of a child who thinks actively in daily life. An example of a goal that must be attained is finding out that a jar is impossible to reach because it is high up on a shelf. The child might think about how to reach it, such as bringing a chair to stand on. This child, too, is thinking actively in everyday living. Many other children are mentally passive because adults seldom ask for their opinions.

Encouraging children to think in daily living Social interaction is crucial for the development of logico- mathematical knowledge (Piaget [1947] 1950). When a teacher introduces games, children usually look to her to tell them who goes first. But the teacher can turn to the group and ask, “Can you think of a rule for deciding who goes first?” The rules they suggest might not work, but rules can always be changed if they don’t make sense. In- cluding children in decision making is one of the best ways to encourage them to think.

In deciding who goes first, children make the logico- mathematical relationships that appear in figure 3. This framework shows the five main mental relationships Piaget studied:

■n Classification (Inhelder & Piaget [1959] 1964)

■n Seriation (Inhelder & Piaget [1959] 1964)

■n Numerical relationships (Piaget & Szeminska [1941] 1965)

■n Spatial relationships (Piaget & Inhelder [1948] 1956)

■n Temporal relationships (Piaget [1946] 1969)

“Who goes first?” requires classifying the children into “the one who goes first” and “all the others.” It requires numerical thinking because there can be only one person who goes first. First here involves a temporal relationship, and if the players are sitting in a circle, the clockwise order that follows involves spatial relationships. Children who are encouraged to make all these logico-mathematical re- lationships can be said to be taught indirectly to construct number concepts.

To cite another example of getting children to think in daily experiences, after the teacher comforts a crying child, she might ask the class, “Why do you think Lupita was cry- ing?” After children have offered possible explanations, the teacher may ask, “What can we do next time this happens to avoid making Lupita—or anyone else—cry?” Children have to think to respond to such questions. All the logico- mathematical relationships children make in response to such questions contribute to their development of number concepts.

Table 1. Number of Conservers Before and After Kindergarten

Teacher Year No. in class

Conservers

Fall Spring

C 1997–1998 25 0 17 (68%)

1998–1999 26 0 23 (88%)

1999–2000 29 4 18 (62%)

2000–2001 26 0 20 (77%)

2001–2002 29 0 25 (86%)

2002–2003 19 2 16 (84%)

P1 1997–1998 24 4 18 (75%)

J 1998–1999 25 0 17 (68%)

1999–2000 27 2 18 (67%)

v 1997–1998 26 0 0 (0%)

1998–1999 26 0 9 (35%)

1999–2000 26 0 5 (19%)

P2 2000–2001 23 0 4 (17%)

E 2000-2001 20 1 5 (25%)

2001–2002 23 0 0 (0%)

S 2002–2003 20 0 11 (55%)

n 2002–2003 17 1 7 (41%)

Source: Kamii, Rummelsburg, & Kari 2005. Reprinted with permission from Kamii 2013. Copyright © Emerald Group Publishing Ltd.

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Making rules Pick-Up Sticks Jenga

Figure 3. The logico­mathematical framework necessary for the construction of physical and

social­conventional knowledge.

74 Young Children November 2014

Evidence about the importance of thinking Two sets of data in this section show that children con- struct number—that is, they develop number concepts— when teachers encourage them to think. The first set (table 1) is about kindergartners’ construction of number; the second set (table 2, p. 76) is about first-graders’ con- struction of addition.

Kindergarten data The kindergartners in table 1 were in a Title I school in a California neighborhood of families with low incomes. (For more information about the data, refer to Kamii, Rummels- burg, and Kari [2005].) Table 1 shows the percentages of kindergartners who were able to conserve number at the beginning and end of the school year. Conserve here means to show evidence of having constructed number. In the conservation task, the teacher asked each child to set out in a row the same number of counters as the eight he had lined up (figure 4.1). Next, the teacher told the child to “watch what I am going to do,” and he lengthened one row and shortened the other (figure 4.2). The question he then asked each child was, “Are there still as many in this row as in that row, or are there more here [top row] or more here [bottom row]?” The children who responded that the numbers in the two rows were still the same and gave a logical justification are said to be conservers (Kamii, Rum- melsburg, & Kari 2005).

In table 1, the first column shows the different teachers who taught kindergarten during the years listed in the sec- ond column. The third column shows the number of chil- dren each teacher had in the classroom during each school year. The last column, Conservers, is divided into two parts, Fall and Spring, indicating the number of children who showed conservation at the beginning of the school year and at the end of the school year.

While in many of the classes no child could conserve number in the fall, in all but two classes the percentages increased by the end of the school year. These percentages varied greatly—from 0 to 88 percent. Teacher C consis- tently produced high percentages, ranging from 62 to 88 percent. By contrast, teacher V, in 1997–1998, and teacher E, in 2001–2002, started the year with 0 percent conservers and ended it with 0 percent.

All the teachers vaguely remembered having heard about conservation in college, and none of them tried to teach it. All taught kindergarten in their own ways as they thought they were expected to teach. However, at the end of the school year it is clear that teachers C, P1, and J interacted with children differently than teachers V, P2 , and E. What were the differences in the teachers’ practices? A look at researchers’ work with two groups of children in first grade helps answer the question (Kamii, Rummelsburg, & Kari 2005; Kamii & Rummelsburg 2008). The first-graders in one group were indirectly encouraged to think by being given physical-knowledge activities for half of the school year.

Figure 4.1

Figure 4.2

Figure 4. Two lines of eight counters in one­to­one correspondence (4.1) and the two lines after their

lengths have been changed (4.2).

75November 2014 Young Children

First grade data The data in table 2 show the results of research in mental arithmetic for two groups of first-graders, a Constructiv- ist group and a Comparison group. The Constructivist group included 26 children who entered first grade with no logico-mathematical knowledge of number. These children attended the same Title I school as the children in table 1. The Comparison group had 20 children from a nearby Title I school that followed the state-approved curriculum.

As can be seen in table 2, the children in both groups were asked to answer 17 mental-arithmetic questions at the end of the first grade year. The children in the Construc- tivist group fared better on 16 of the 17 mental-arithmetic questions (Kamii, Rummelsburg, & Kari 2005; Kamii & Rummelsburg 2008).

Instruction given to the two groups The children in the Comparison group stayed in their heterogeneous classes during the math hour and used a state-approved textbook and workbook. The textbook and workbook were supplemented with activities recommend- ed by Burns and Tank (1988) and Richardson (1999).

In the primary grades at the Constructivist school, a group of seven first-, second-, and third grade teachers worked together. Each teacher categorized her students as low, regular, or advanced, according to performance levels. The children were then pooled and reorganized into math groups called Just Right groups. The 26 first-graders without any number concepts were divided between two of the seven teachers. The other five teachers had an advanced group (one teacher), regular group (two teachers), or low group (two teachers). The teachers and researchers engaged 13 of the 26 first-graders without any number concepts in physical-knowledge activities. In physical-knowledge activities, children act on objects to produce a desired effect. The activities included Pick-Up Sticks (figure 5), Jenga, and a bowling game. In Pick-Up Sticks, children try to pick up one stick at a time without making any other stick move. In Jenga, they try to remove a block without making the tower fall. Physical-knowledge activities especially motivate chil- dren to think because they can tell immediately when they

are unsuccessful, and they must think hard to be successful the next time. It is this thinking that indirectly results in children’s development of number concepts.

Table 2. Two Groups of First­Graders Giving the Correct Answer Within 3 Seconds in Mental

Arithmetic at the End of First Grade (in Percent)

Constructivist (26 students)

Comparison (20 students)

difference (%)

2 + 2 100 90 10 n.s.

5 + 5 92 90 2 n.s.

3 + 3 77 85 –8 n.s.

4 + 1 88 65 23.05

1 + 5 88 70 18 n.s.

4 + 4 88 65 23.05

2 + 3 81 40 41.01

4 + 2 58 25 33.05

6 + 6 50 40 10 n.s.

5 + 3 58 35 23 n.s.

8 + 2 69 45 24.05

2 + 5 62 40 22 n.s.

4 + 5 42 30 12 n.s.

5 + 6 24 5 19.05

3 + 4 38 15 23.05

3 + 6 38 10 28.05

4 + 6 35 20 15 n.s.

Source: Kamii, Rummelsburg, & Kari 2005. Reprinted from Journal of Mathematical Behavior 24 (1), C. Kamii, J. Rummelsburg, & A. Kari, “Teaching Arithmetic to Low­Performing, Low­SES First Graders,” 39–50, 2005, with permission from Elsevier. www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/07323123.

76 Young Children November 2014

Constructivist Group and Comparison Group In the Constructivist school (the same school as in table 1), 26 of the 100 or so children entering first grade had no logico-mathematical concept of number. We found this out by giving the students a hiding task and the conservation task described earlier. For the hiding task, we asked each child to count out four counters. After they had put the four counters out, we hid some under a hand and asked, “How many am I hiding?” If they gave random numbers like eight, we concluded that these first-graders did not know what four meant.

For the 20 children in the Comparison group, four first grade teachers identified, in their respective classes, about six children each with low-level classroom per- formances. The children in the Comparison group and those in the Constructivist group were all at the same low level at the beginning of first grade, as indicated on a test published by Houghton Mifflin (2002). This test was given to all the first-graders in the Title I schools in the district. The mean scores for the two groups were 79.35 and 78.6, respectively.

With Pick-Up Sticks, children first find the easiest stick to pick up by classifying the sticks into “those that are not touching other sticks” (the easiest) and “those that are touching one or more sticks.” After picking up the easi- est sticks, they seriate (order) the sticks from “the next easiest” to “the hardest.” By making a spatial and temporal relationship, they first pick up the sticks that are on top of other sticks. Children must make numerical relationships when they decide on these sticks. Many other examples of physical-knowledge activities can be found in Kamii and DeVries (1993), and Kamii (2013) gives more details about how children think in a physical-knowledge activity. However, it is not the activity itself that is important; what is important is that children think.

After the winter break, the two teachers of the 26 chil- dren in the Constructivist group introduced easy addition games to find out which students were ready for arithmetic. If a child played a game easily and eagerly, she went on to arithmetic with math games and word problems (for ex- amples, see Kamii 2000). In other words, these first-grad- ers were not asked to do arithmetic until they showed their readiness for it. By February, most of the 26 low-performing first-graders were doing arithmetic.

Note that the teachers of the Constructivist group did not give worksheets to the students. Worksheets involve naked numbers rather than meaningful content (like counters), and children fill them out to satisfy the teacher, who judges the correctness of the answers. Instead of judg- ing the correctness of an answer, the Constructivist group teachers asked the group, “Does everybody agree with Tim’s answer?,” which encouraged the exchange of ideas among children. By listening to other’s arguments, children often conclude that somebody else’s thinking makes bet- ter sense than theirs. Encouraging the exchange of ideas among children is an example of indirect teaching.

The teachers and researchers had the children in the Constructivist group play games instead of completing worksheets, because children play games for themselves and are motivated to play well. When they learn arithmetic by playing math games, the learning is indirect.

Conclusion In conclusion, I emphasize the desirability of indirect instruction that encourages children to think. Physical- knowledge activities are important because they encourage children to think. In addition, games are more beneficial than worksheets because games teach arithmetic more indirectly than worksheets. Indirect teaching is more en- gaging not only in kindergarten and first grade but also in the primary grades and the rest of elementary school.

References

Burns, M., & B. Tank. 1988. A Collection of Math Lessons From Grades 1 Through 3. Math Solutions series. Sausalito, CA: Math Solutions.

Greco, P., J.-B. Grize, S. Papert, S., & J. Piaget. 1960. Problèmes de la construction du nombre [Problems in constructing number]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.

Houghton Mifflin. 2002. Readiness Test (Grades 1–5: California Standards-Based Assessment). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Inhelder, B., & J. Piaget. [1959] 1964. The Early Growth of Logic in the Child. Trans. E.A. Lunzer & D. Papert. New York: Harper & Row.

Kamii, C. 2000. Young Children Reinvent Arithmetic: Implications of Piaget’s Theory. Early Childhood Education series. 2nd ed. New York: Teachers College Press.

Kamii, C. 2013. “Physical-Knowledge Activities: Play Before the Dif- ferentiation of Knowledge Into Subjects.” In Advances in Early Education and Day Care, Vol. 17: Learning Across the Early Childhood Curriculum, eds. L.E. Cohen & S. Waite-Stupiansky, 57–72. Bingley, UK: Emerald.

Kamii, C., & R. DeVries. 1993. Physical Knowledge in Preschool Educa- tion: Implications of Piaget’s Theory. New York: Teachers College Press.

Kamii, C., & J. Rummelsburg. 2008. “Arithmetic for First Graders Lacking Number Concepts.” Teaching Children Mathematics 14 (7): 389–94.

Kamii, C., J. Rummelsburg, & A. Kari. 2005. “Teaching Arithmetic to Low-Performing, Low-SES First Graders.” Journal of Mathematical Behavior 24 (1): 39–50.

Piaget, J. 1942. Classes, relations et nombres. Paris: Vrin.

Piaget, J. [1945] 1951. Play, Dreams and Imitation in Childhood. Trans. C. Gattegno & F.M. Hodgson. London: Heinemann.

Piaget, J. [1946] 1969. The Child’s Conception of Time. Trans. A.J. Pomer- ans. New York: Basic.

Piaget, J. [1947] 1950. The Psychology of Intelligence. Trans. M. Piercy & D.E. Berlyne. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Piaget, J. [1967] 1971. Biology and Knowledge. Trans. B. Walsh. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Piaget, J. [1971] 1974. Understanding Causality. Trans. D. Miles & M. Miles. New York: Norton.

Piaget, J., & B. Inhelder. [1948] 1956. The Child’s Conception of Space. Trans. F.J. Langdon & J.L. Lunzer. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Piaget, J., & A. Szeminska. [1941] 1965. The Child’s Conception of Num- ber. Trans. C. Gattegno & F.M. Hodgson. New York: Norton.

Richardson, K. 1999. Developing Number Concepts: Counting, Compar- ing, and Pattern. White Plains, NY: Seymour.

Copyright © 2014 by the national Association for the Education of Young Children. See Permissions and Reprints online at www.naeyc.org/yc/permissions.

Figure 5. Ten Pick­Up Sticks that have been scattered.

77November 2014 Young Children

T here is certainly value in reading a book from cover to cover to allow children to enjoy a complete story. However, research shows that engaging preschool children in interactive reading experiences is more effective in promot-

ing children’s language and literacy learning than simply reading books aloud to them (Morrow, Freitag, & Gambrell 2009; Wasik & Iannone-Campbell 2013). Using particular strategies or interactive behaviors while reading aloud with children builds their skills in specific areas. When sharing books individually with children, or in large or small groups, adults can make minor adjustments in their approach that have a big impact on children’s language understanding. As stated by Justice and Pence, “The object of book-reading sessions should not be to get through the book or only to read the words on the page but rather to create an enjoyable, high-quality, and sensitive interaction” (2005, 12).

What is interactive reading? In interactive book reading, adults and children are active participants in a conversation, or dialogue, about the book. Adults plan the experience to support, challenge, and extend children’s literacy skills. Three essential character- istics of high-quality reading interactions are (1) adult sen- sitivity and responsiveness, (2) child engagement, and (3) repetitive reading (Justice & Pence 2005). As sensitive and responsive adults, teachers sit face-to-face with children to form a physical and emotional connection during the read- ing experience. They observe children’s verbal responses, facial expressions, body posture, and eye gaze to determine engagement, motivation, and understanding. Teachers are patient, giving children plenty of time to form and deliver their responses. And teachers are good listeners, paying close attention to what children say so they can respond appropriately and extend the conversation.

Kathy Barclay

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Preschool

Conducting Interactive Reading Experiences

To maximize children’s engagement during a read- aloud, teachers let children set the pace of interactions, pause to look at pictures, talk about the characters and events in stories, and explore related topics of interest, in- cluding children’s own experiences. When teachers encour- age children to label and discuss pictures and to ask and answer questions during reading, they help children take ownership of the text.

In interactive reading experiences, effective teachers read aloud the same books again and again—perhaps daily during a single week. Multiple readings create a sense of fa- miliarity for children, helping them become more confident in their knowledge of books and print, and fostering their learning of new concepts and skills in a well-known context.

Choosing books To nurture young children’s interest in books and reading, teachers need to communicate through actions and words that reading and sharing books are enjoyable and highly valued experiences. It is important for teachers to think carefully about book choices since “the type of book that is read aloud influences the nature of the discussion that follows” (Morrow & Gambrell 2004, 4). To locate the best books to share, explore a variety of high-quality fiction and informational books designed especially for children ages 3 to 5. Keep in mind timeless topics of universal appeal for most children—friendship, growing up, animals, weather— and the interests, languages, cultures, families, and com- munities of the individual children in your setting.

Simple picture books with large print lend themselves to discussions about concepts of print, alphabet knowl- edge, and phonological awareness. Storybooks containing a well-developed plot, interesting characters, and a clear sequence of events all promote conversations that foster children’s growing narrative abilities. Informational books make excellent read-aloud choices as research shows that reading aloud nonfiction books tends to result in more ex- tended dialogue (Justice & Pence 2005; Price, van Kleeck, & Huberty 2009; Swanson et al. 2011). (See www.naeyc.org/ yc/columns/readingchair for The Reading Chair column’s archive, 2005–2014.)

Supporting language and literacy skills Interactive reading experiences provide an opportunity to expand children’s receptive (hearing) and expressive (speaking) vocabularies, their emergent reading and writ- ing abilities, and their interests. The following sections offer suggestions and activities for fostering children’s

narrative, word, print, and alphabet knowledge, and phono- logical awareness. Although the strategies are effective during read-aloud experiences with the whole group, reading with small groups and individuals leads to greater and more meaningful interactions and learning because children have a greater opportunity to share their thinking about the story. At the same time, adults are more able to informally assess children’s understanding and adjust their presentation of, and questions about, the story to better meet individual children’s language and literacy needs.

Narrative knowledge Young children’s narrative skills—their ability to convey a story or retell a familiar event in logical order and with sufficient detail—are linked to social and academic success (Spencer & Slocum 2010; Colozzo et al. 2011). As chil- dren listen to, talk about, and retell stories they’ve heard repeatedly, they develop the ability to tell and retell real or imaginary events in their own past, present, or future. Over time, children’s narratives move from a simple relating of events or ideas to better organized and more detailed stories. During read-aloud experiences, teachers can lead children in talking about basic story elements: characters, setting, and order of events (Morrow, Freitag, & Gambrell 2009; Swanson et al. 2011).

Interactive reading experiences begin with a focus on building narrative knowledge as children talk about and make predictions about a new book, listen to prove or dis- prove their predictions, and discuss questions that promote language and thought. Teachers can ask questions before, during, and after story reading. While it is common to ask comprehension questions to determine whether children have listened to the story, carefully constructed higher- level questions prompt children to develop more thoughtful responses, to speak about feelings and ideas, and to observe story events, details, and relationships that they might otherwise have missed. For example, after reading the books Elmer (1989), by David McKee, and The Hippo-NOT- amus (2004), by Tony and Jan Payne, the teacher prompts children to consider and talk about similarities and differ- ences between the two stories, including the characters, by asking questions such as, “How are Elmer, the patchwork elephant, and Portly, the hippopotamus, alike?” and “How are they different?”

It’s important to practice reading a book aloud before reading it to children. This prepares teachers to read with greater expression (so they sound like the characters in the

About the Author Kathy Barclay is the professional development manager for Rowland Reading Foundation, a nonprofit organization devoted solely to early literacy. She is coauthor of The Everything Guide to Informational Literature, K–2: Best Texts, Best Practices. [email protected]

79November 2014 Young Children

Simple picture books with large print lend themselves to discussions about concepts of print, alphabet knowledge, and phonological awareness.

story) and identify appropriate places to pause in the read- ing so children can ask questions, talk about events in the story, and make predictions about what might happen next. Such conversations help children build understanding and gain language skills.

For example, a teacher might read Kitty Cat, Kitty Cat, Are You Waking Up? (2008), by Bill Martin Jr. and Michael Sampson, to support children’s narrative development. Large illustrations accompany bold, large print on each

page. Kitty Cat’s mother gently prompts him as he slowly follows the morning routine—awakening, getting dressed, eating breakfast, then getting into the car to go to school. (See “Promoting Narrative Knowledge.”)

Word knowledge Studies show that children’s literature contains rich words and sentence structures that are not found in most of the conversations that happen at home or in the classroom (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan 2013). In addition, when adults talk with children during book readings, they often use more complex sentences and diverse vocabulary than in their other language interactions with children (Justice & Pence 2005; Wasik & Iannone-Campbell 2013). By intro- ducing children to as many new words as they can, teachers boost children’s listening and speaking vocabularies and subsequent comprehension and composition abilities. To help children gain word knowledge during book-sharing experiences, keep in mind that children are ready to learn new words if they understand the underlying concepts. For example, if children demonstrate their understanding of the concept big, then teachers know they are ready to learn synonyms such as large, huge, and gigantic.

Children learn new words more readily when they hear them repeatedly in meaningful contexts. Share a book in which new words occur several times throughout the story, and conduct multiple readings of the same book. After reading, return to particularly interesting parts of the text or to a new word that appeared in the story. Discuss it in greater depth, helping the children make connections between the book and their lives. “Using the words deliber- ately with children throughout the day, such as in conversa- tions and activities, provides repeated exposure and helps develop meaning across contexts” (Collins 2012, 69).

Promoting Narrative Knowledge Ms. harn: We have a new book to read today. (Pointing to different book cover elements.) The title of the book is Kitty Cat, Kitty Cat, Are You Waking Up? look at the picture on the cover of the book. Where do you think Kitty Cat is?

harrison: In bed.

Ms. harn: I think you’re right. This does look like it could be a bed. Who do you think might be asking “Kitty Cat, Kitty Cat, are you waking up?”

Maria: His mommy.

Ms. harn: Good idea. Who wakes you up in the morning? (Ms. Harn allows time for children’s responses.) let’s listen carefully to find out who is asking Kitty Cat if he is waking up, and what Kitty Cat does when he gets up. (Ms. Harn shows the picture on page one.) Were you right?

Children: Yes!

Ms. harn: (Ms. Harn then shows the next page.) What is Kitty Cat doing now?

da’Sean: He’s sitting up in his bed.

Ms. harn: If we were there, what would we hear Kitty Cat doing when he is “practicing his purr”? Have you ever heard a cat purr? What does that sound like? (Ms. Harn pauses for children’s responses and then turns the page.) What do you think Kitty Cat is going to do next?

Erebka: He’s going to get dressed.

Ms. harn: What makes you think that?

Ashley: I see his clothes.

Ms. harn: Yes, you can see the clothes in the picture. Do you get dressed after you get out of bed? (Ms. Harn pauses for responses from children.)

Children: Yes!

Ms. harn: Kitty Cat says he’s looking for his socks. What do you think he will put on after he puts on his socks?

da’Sean: His shoes!

Ms. harn: let’s see if you are right. (Ms. Harn turns the page.) What do you see in this picture? Is he putting on his shoes?

Children: Yes!

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The steps in “Rereading to Promote Word Knowledge” demonstrate a plan to help young children make connec- tions and build word knowledge through an interactive rereading of The Big Storm: A Very Soggy Counting Book (2009), by Nancy Tafuri. In the book 10 little woodland animals hurry to find shelter in a storm and spend all night huddled together in the hollow of a tree. After the initial book-reading, the teacher then returns to the book at that time or later in the day to help children expand their vocab- ularies through in-depth discussions of specific words.

Print knowledge Sharing books is a natural way to build children’s interest in, and knowledge about, the print in books and in their environment. When conducting read-alouds, teachers can intentionally help children understand the print conven- tions of left-to-right directionality and the spacing that appears between words and between lines of text. When teachers point to each word as they read it aloud, children learn to track print; that is, they learn to associate spoken and written words. They begin to recognize familiar let- ters, understand that letters are used to form words, and recall some words that appear frequently in print.

To help children develop print knowledge, point to the print and ask questions or make comments about specific

Rereading to Promote Word Knowledge

1. Read the first page of The Big Storm: A Very Soggy Counting Book. Point to the opening in the hill and ask, “Do you remember what this is called?” (It is a hollow.) Explain that a hollow is an open place, a place with nothing in it. Talk about other items shown on the page that may be unfamiliar to the children.

2. Read the first line of print on the next page: “leaves started to swirl.” Ask, “What are the leaves doing? What do you think is making them swirl?” Invite the children to stand and swirl like the leaves.

3. After reading “10 critters huddled together, tight and snug,” mention that the author refers to the animals as critters. Ask children to look at the way the animals are pictured on the page. Point out that they are huddled together, standing or sitting very close to one another. Ask the children to huddle together. Then ask them to recall whether the animals get wet from the rain. (no.) Point out that the author said they are snug—they are dry and warm in the hill hollow. Talk about where chil- dren might feel snug, such as in their beds.

81November 2014 Young Children

Experiencing Nature With Young Children Awakening Delight, Curiosity, and a Sense of Stewardship

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letters, words, and sentences. Point out the front cover, back cover, print, and illustrations. Use print-related vocabulary to call attention to the way books are organized: cover, title, author, illustrator, letter, word, sentence, front, back, begin- ning, and end. (See “Sample Interactive Reading: Print Knowledge.”)

Alphabet knowledge Children’s understanding of letters and the sounds they make is greatly affected by the number of book-sharing ex- periences they have had before entering kindergarten and first grade. Many children with higher levels of alphabet knowledge who have had more experiences with the alpha- bet across genres, or types, of literature—fiction, nonfiction, poetry—are better able to benefit from phonics instruction, and they leave kindergarten better prepared for first grade (Snow, Burns, & Griffin 1998; Turnbull & Justice 2012). Interactive reading experiences that focus attention on the alphabet help children understand that there are uppercase and lowercase letters and that letters stand for sounds. Through repeated exposure they begin to recognize more and more letters and to match letters with their most com- mon sounds. (See “Sample Interactive Reading: Alphabet Knowledge.”)

Phonological awareness This skill involves understanding that words are made up of a sequence of sounds. While reading aloud any book extends children’s sensitivities to the sound structure of oral language, reading aloud predictable books that contain rhythm and rhyme is especially well suited to develop- ing phonological awareness. Before children can benefit from phonics instruction in kindergarten and first grade, they need to acquire specific phonological and phonemic awareness skills, the latter of which involves the ability to blend, segment, and manipulate individual sounds in words. The ability to (1) rhyme, (2) recognize when words have matching beginning or ending sounds (dog/door, bat/ boot),

Sample Interactive Reading: Alphabet Knowledge

A lesson following an interactive reading of Kitty Cat, Kitty Cat, Are You Waking Up? might include some-thing like the following: Ms. harn: let’s look at the title of this book (pointing to each word as it is read): Kitty Cat, Kitty Cat, Are You Wak- ing Up? I see two big Ks in this title (pointing to each one).

I see two Cs in the title. Who can find one and point to it? (Calling on a volunteer.) Another? (Calling on another volunteer to find the second C.) As we read the book, let’s watch for these letters.

Sample Interactive Reading: Print Knowledge

An interactive reading of Kitty Cat, Kitty Cat, Are You Waking Up? might begin this way: Ms. harn: The name of the book is Kitty Cat, Kitty Cat, Are You Waking Up? The name of the book is called the title.

Here are the words in the title (pointing to each word as she reads it): Kitty Cat, Kitty Cat, Are You Waking Up? I heard the words Kitty and Cat two times. look, here’s Kitty (pointing to the word) and here it is again (pointing to the second time the word Kitty appears). And here’s the word Cat (point- ing to the word) and here it is again (pointing to the second time the word cat appears).

The names of the authors are Bill Martin Jr. and Michael Sampson. They wrote the book, so they are the authors. Their names are right here (pointing to the names on the cover).

There is another name on the cover (pointing to the illustrator’s name)—laura J. Bryant. She is the illustra- tor, the person who drew the pictures.

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(3) segment words into syllables (kit-ty, but-ter-cup), and (4) blend and segment individual sounds in simple one-syllable words (/c/ /a/ /t/ = cat; cat = /c/ /a/ /t/) are important prerequisites for both reading and spelling (Snow, Burns, & Griffin 1998; Yopp & Yopp 2009; Schickedanz & Collins 2013).

Adults can engage children in language-play games using key words and sentences from familiar books. For example, before playing the game Up and Down, remind the children that Kitty Cat didn’t want to get out of bed, so he stood on his head. The words bed and head sound alike because they both have -ed, so we say they rhyme. Hold up two pictures and ask the children to stand up if they rhyme and to remain seated if they do not rhyme. Call out pairs of words from the book (socks/blocks; bed/shoes) and observe closely to see who can and cannot quickly identify whether the two words rhyme. (For more games, see “Extending the Phonological Awareness Activity.”)

Conclusion The interactive reading experience goes beyond the adult reading and the child listening. While just reading books with children is certainly beneficial, adults can use the strategies presented during their read-aloud experiences

to maximize children’s literacy learning. Through interac- tive readings, teachers help children develop knowledge of print and books, expand their vocabularies and sentence structures, build alphabet knowledge and phonological awareness, and increase their understanding of and ability to talk about story elements and to retell events in sequen- tial order. So, what will you do with a good book?

References

Beck, I.L., M.G. McKeown, & L. Kucan. 2013. Bringing Words to Life: Robust Vocabulary Instruction. 2nd ed. New York: Guilford.

Collins, M.F. 2012. “Sagacious, Sophisticated, and Sedulous: The Im- portance of Discussing 50-Cent Words With Preschoolers.” Young Children 67 (5): 66–71.

Colozzo, P., R.B. Gillam, M. Wood, R.D. Schnell, & J.R. Johnston. 2011. “Content and Form in the Narratives of Children With Specific Language Impairment.” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hear- ing Research 54 (6): 1609–27. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC3793011.

Justice, L.M., & K.L. Pence. 2005. Scaffolding With Storybooks: A Guide for Enhancing Young Children’s Language and Literacy Achievement. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Morrow, L.M., E. Freitag, & L.B. Gambrell. 2009. Using Children’s Literature in Preschool to Develop Comprehension: Understanding and Enjoying Books. 2nd ed. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Morrow, L.M., & L.B. Gambrell. 2004. Using Children’s Literature in Pre- school: Comprehending and Enjoying Books. Newark: International Reading Association.

Price, L.H., A. van Kleeck, & C.J. Huberty. 2009. “Talk During Book Sharing Between Parents and Preschool Children: A Comparison Between Storybook and Expository Book Conditions.” Reading Research Quarterly 44 (2): 171–94.

Schickedanz, J.A., & M.F. Collins. 2013. So Much More Than the ABCs: The Early Phases of Reading and Writing. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Snow, C.E., M.S. Burns, & P. Griffin, eds. 1998. Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children. Report of the National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nap.edu/ openbook.php?record_id=6023&page=R1.

Spencer, T.D., & T.A. Slocum. 2010. “The Effect of a Narrative Interven- tion on Story Retelling and Personal Story Generation Skills of Preschoolers With Risk Factors and Narrative Language Delays.” Journal of Early Intervention 32 (3): 178–99.

Swanson, E.A., J. Wanzek, Y. Petscher, S. Vaughn, J. Heckert, C. Cava- naugh, G. Kraft, & K. Tackett. 2011. “A Synthesis of Read-Aloud In- terventions on Early Reading Outcomes Among Preschool Through Third Graders At Risk for Reading Difficulties.” Journal of Learning Disabilities 44 (3): 258–75. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC3319370.

Turnbull, K.L.P., & L.M. Justice. 2012. Language Development From Theory to Practice. 2nd ed. Boston: Pearson.

Wasik, B.A., & C. Iannone-Campbell. 2013. “Developing Vocabulary Through Purposeful, Strategic Conversations.” The Reading Teacher 66 (2): 321–32.

Yopp, H.K., & R.H. Yopp. 2009. “Phonological Awareness Is Child’s Play!” Young Children 64 (1): 12–21. www.naeyc.org/files/yc/ file/200901/BTJPhonologicalAwareness.pdf.

Extending the Phonological Awareness Activity

Once children are able to hear likenesses and differences in words that rhyme, they are ready to play odd one out. Begin the game by saying, “now I’m going to hold up three pictures and you tell me which one doesn’t belong. Which one doesn’t rhyme with the other two? (1) cat/hat/ dish, (2) dish/fish/cat.” Continue in this manner using other pictures from the book.

Teachers can also use games to help children build phonemic awareness—for example: “let’s play a word game. I’ll stretch out the sounds in a word, like a rubber band, and you tell me what word I’m saying: /b/ /e/ /d/ (bed); /f/ /ur/ (fur); /s/ /l/ /ee/ /p/ (sleep).”

There are other ways to use the book Kitty Cat, Kitty Cat, Are You Waking Up? to develop phonological awareness.

■n After reading the first page, say, “There are two words on this page that rhyme. listen: up/butter- cup. They rhyme because they both have /up/.”

■n After reading the third page, ask, “What is Kitty Cat doing now? (Practicing his purr.) Purr rhymes with another word on this page. What other word has /ur/ in it? (Fur.)”

Copyright © 2014 by the national Association for the Education of Young Children. See Permissions and Reprints online at www.naeyc.org/yc/permissions.

83November 2014 Young Children

Lyrical language, unique stories, and stunning illustrations are just a few characteris- tics of the works from Marla Frazee, Pat Mora, and Peter H. Reynolds. They are speaking at NAEYC’s 2014 Annual Con- ference & Expo in Dallas.

Marla Frazee

Marla Frazee has illustrated several books for young children, including All the World and The Seven Silly Eaters. She is illustrator and author of The Boss Baby and A Couple of Boys Have the Best Week Ever, a Caldecott Honor Book.

Meghan Dombrink-Green: All the World is lovely, but the text alone is so spare. How did you first approach illustrating this story? Marla Frazee: The most important thing I try to do when I’m working on a book is to figure out the emotion that I want to communicate. With All the World, I jumped right in before I found it. I didn’t do the usual thumbnails and charac- ter studies. I didn’t do a lot of preliminary drawing. I began with a full-scale dummy. There were so many threads, and I needed to figure out who these people were and where they lived. But what hap- pened was that I lost the key emotional thread, so I had to dump my first effort and begin all over again.

I spend a lot of time on sketches to understand the rhythm of the pictures and to figure out where the major beats are. With All the World there is this very beauti- ful rhythmic text, and I determined early on that the last line of each stanza would open up to double-page spreads. That became the touchstone for the structure of the book. Meghan: How do you figure out what a character looks like? Marla: Almost always, I start with what is actually a

really bad drawing—very typical, fairly generic, not in- teresting. Then I keep drawing it over and over again, or I try different things until I finally get to know whatever or whoever this character is.

I teach a children’s book illustration class at Art Center College of Design in Pasadena, California, where I went to school. I tell my students it’s a matter of getting to know the characters, like when you meet a new neigh- bor. You might have an initial impression of her, but after a few more conversations you start to think of her in a slightly different way.

I do the illustrations for the Clementine books by Sara Pennypacker. The seventh and last in the series is coming out next spring. This series was the first time I had done pen-and-ink, black-and-white illustrations for longer chapter books. I love the process because it’s very different from illustrating a picture book. The illustrations punctuate the events rather than tell their own story. Meghan: Your newest book, The Farmer and the Clown, has a very specific use of colors. Can you talk about the color in your illustrations? Marla: I wanted to make the circus train and clown the most colorful part of the landscape. I painted the sky the same dusty color as the land so that the circus train could stand out.

Color is one way of building emotion in a book. There are many things that we as illustrators can do to enhance the emotional experience of the reader— composition, scale, the placement of the entire piece on the double-page spread, whether it takes up the whole space, whether smaller pictures dance around the page. When illustrators pay attention to impacting readers with whatever emotion we want them to have before

Young Children Introduces: Marla Frazee, Pat Mora, and Peter h. Reynolds

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they take in the content, that’s when a picture really works. Meghan: It’s a wordless book. What made you decide to make it wordless? Marla: I didn’t set out to do a wordless book. I wanted to tell a particular story, and it didn’t click until I thought about both a little clown and a farmer. Once I had these two characters, I really wanted to tell a story about why they were together. I knew that my story would be about a farmer who was not as grumpy as he appeared and a clown who was not as happy as he appeared, and this would be revealed as we went through the story. When I started to draw, it was clear that narration of any kind was going to get in the way of the revelations.

One of the most compelling things about working on picture books is that children are really, really good at read- ing pictures. They’re better at it than grown-ups are. Adults concentrate on the word story more; but kids see every single nuance, every secondary story, any kind of detail in the picture story.

If the illustrator has been able to control the picture story in a way that makes sense to a child, children will fol- low it. They spend more time on it. They have more focus. The book carries them away, and they get more out of the picture narrative than an adult usually does. I love that. Meghan: In your books you often connect with basic prob- lems that babies and children have, like walking or picky eating. What do you think adults forget about the chal- lenges of being a child? Marla: I think adults minimize the emotional life of children a lot. I had a loving family and a secure life and a neighborhood of friends—but I remember how hard everything still was for me. In my books, whether it is the baby learning to walk in Walk On! or the scared girl on the roller coaster in Roller Coaster, I want the story to have a larger meaning. With Walk On! even very young children understand the book as an extended metaphor for whatever it is they are nervous about doing. No matter how old we are, we’re all nervous about doing something!

Pat Mora

Pat Mora has written several books for young children, including I Pledge Allegiance, Book Fiesta, and ¡Marimba! Animales From A to Z. She received a National Endowment for the Arts Creative Writing Fellowship in poetry in 1994.

Meghan Dombrink-Green: You’ve written a number of children’s books in English and Spanish, and several of your books focus on Mexican stories and traditions. How do you think culture and heritage have influenced you as a poet and a writer? Pat Mora: I’m so fortunate to have grown up bilingual. Both of my parents were bilingual, but my grandparents didn’t speak English. My experience is like those of some of the Latino population, although it is a very diverse com- munity. Culture is a big inspiration for my writing, as are the desert and the fact that I’m female. Culture, nature, and family are strong values in my work. I have also written a lot about the fact that I was an avid reader and that my mother was an avid reader.

When I talk to parents, particularly parents who speak only Spanish, I talk about how important reading is. Par- ents don’t have to speak English to support their children’s literacy. When I speak to children, I say to them, “I want you to be able to read, write, and speak English well. If you are lucky enough to know another language, be that Span- ish or Polish or Chinese, I want you to be able to read, write and speak that well, too, because that’s such an advantage.” Meghan: How did growing up bilingual affect your writ- ing and your use of language? Pat: When I look back, I think about how lucky I was that my mother was a reader, how lucky I was that she took

my sister and me to the summer reading club at the public library. Teachers, parents, and caregivers can forget what a dramatic impact they have on children’s reading habits. It’s important to use diverse books during story time and to

invite parents into the classroom to help read, whether in Spanish, Korean, or another language. This is validating for everybody.

Many times parents— particularly parents who don’t speak English or who may have limited economic resources—feel a bit embarrassed about going to the library or going to the school. We need to be their coaches and say,

“Sit with your children every night. I can show you how to do it, I can model it, but I’m not at your house, I’m not at your trailer, I’m not at your apartment.” Meghan: On your website you have a poster, “Growing a Nation of Readers: Creating a Bookjoy Family.” What in- spired you to create this list of family reading suggestions? Pat: I didn’t plan to be a writer. I had never seen or heard of a writer who was bilingual. I feel so blessed because of the role of books in my life. I believe that for all young people to have a fair opportunity to succeed, they need to be readers—and not just because teachers say so. They need to learn to enjoy books for pleasure. Hence the word bookjoy. Meghan: You recently wrote a book with your daughter, Libby Martinez. What was working with her like? Pat: We’ve done two books together. Libby is a lawyer by training. She’s my older daughter, and she has a great sense

85November 2014 Young Children

of humor. Five or six years ago Libby said we should write the story that became the book I Pledge Allegiance. It is about Lobo, an aunt of ours, becoming a US citizen late in her life. Lobo means wolf, and our aunt chose the name, our mother wolf. Libby and I worked via email and phone. We started playing with the text, and then we worked with a terrific editor. I have a special gift from the book’s illustrator—the scene of Lobo, Libby, and me all enjoying a big hug. I can look at that all day long. Meghan: You are a great literacy advocate; you founded Día—El día de los niños/El día de los libros (Children’s Day/Book Day). What do you hear about people celebrat- ing Día? Pat: I want April to be a month for celebrating children and books. I want it celebrated in all different languages. Many times people celebrate Día near April 30, and there are hundreds of celebrations across the country.

Many of them include free books for children. I have seen Día celebrations in parks where materials were donated. Community businesses, grocery stores, grocery chains, and restaurants have been incredibly supportive. Many times we just have to ask them to donate. I have seen fabulous Día celebrations as part of story time, as part of having a book acted out at school. It just takes inventiveness. Meghan: How would you like teachers to use your books? Pat: My hope is that teachers will be excited about the books they share. A teacher’s own excitement about a book is what excites children. I can write a book, and I can put a lot of myself into it, but I am not going to be in those child care centers, kindergartens, schools. I’m really relying on teachers, librarians, and parents to interest children in what I write. We are partners.

Peter H. Reynolds

Peter H. Reynolds has written and illustrated several books for young children, including Sky Color, I’m Here, and So Few of Me. His books have received numerous awards and starred reviews.

Meghan Dombrink-Green: How did you get started illustrating and writing children’s books? Peter H. Reynolds: I suppose I just never stopped imagining, drawing, and writing as a child. Of course, having a daughter helped. Born in 1986, Sarah was my best audience for my stories. By the mid-1990s, I decided I was ready to start sharing my stories in a big way. My first published book, The North Star, got the ball rolling and led to my illustrating Megan McDonald’s Judy Moody series for Candlewick Press and the release of The Dot and Ish. Meghan: International Dot Day, which is celebrated every September 15, started with your book The Dot. What is International Dot Day about, and how can teachers and children participate? Peter: Dot Day was started by a teacher, Terry Shay, who decided to celebrate the themes of the book: cour- age, creativity, and collaboration. It has snowballed into a global event. This year, almost two million children and educators around the world participated in Interna- tional Dot Day. There are many ways to celebrate, from drawing and painting to community service projects. To learn more, visit www.thedotclub.org. Meghan: How do you make the Judy Moody world so alive and engaging? Peter: I draw on my childhood. Those books remind me of my own romping around the neighborhood with my gaggle of friends. I sketch quickly and try to get the gestures right. The details come later, when I ink. Meghan: How do you and your twin brother, Paul, fuel each others’ creativity, from when you were children to now as adults?

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Meet the Authors at nAEYC’s Annual Conference & Expo in Dallas, Texas! November 5–8, 2018

n■■Marla Frazee, Author and Illustrator n■■Pat Mora, Author n■■Peter H. Reynolds, Author and Illustrator n■■Holly Seplocha, Moderator, William Paterson University Attend “Meet the Authors and Illustrators: Children’s literature at nAEYC,” a lively and fascinating featured session on great children’s books. www.naeyc.org/conference

Peter: Being born a twin automatically gives you the ad- vantage of having a partner. Not all twins leverage that re- lationship, but Paul and I were in total sync from the start. Paul is amazingly encouraging about my work, and I finally have gotten him to start writing and creating with me. Going Places, released earlier this year, was our first book together. Our second book is volume one of the Sydney and Simon series, which features—no surprise—twin mice! Meghan: Many of our members are teachers or teacher educators. Can you talk about a time when a teacher im- pacted your life? Peter: I have had a few teachers who made a huge differ- ence. I often talk about my seventh grade math teacher, who encouraged me to teach math using my art and sto- rytelling. I also have to thank my media teachers, Jim and Jean Morrow, who taught in Chelmsford, Massachusetts. They both inspired me by showing what creative, passion- ate people look like. They lived it. Outside of school they were doing their craft. They treated me like a fellow media colleague, not a student. They both inspired me to be a storyteller and make that my life’s mission. No test invented could assess how they influenced me during those years in the mid-1970s.

Meghan: You’re a busy guy. You have more than just the books going on, yes? Peter: Yes, I own a book and toy store in my hometown of Dedham, Massachusetts. I opened it 11 years ago when I noticed our town had no independent bookstore. I also founded FableVision Learning, a company focusing on cre- ativity in the classroom through books, media, and technol- ogy. We champion innovation in learning. We’re busy right now on a software tool that will allow elementary school students to learn digital fabrication. It’s really exciting to see how new tools let children engage, learn, and show what they know in a wide spectrum of ways. Visit us online at www.fablevisionlearning.com. Meghan: Now that your daughter is 28, who will be your inspiration? Peter: Henry Rocket Reynolds, my son, is 3 1/2. He is a fountain of joy and imagination. I look at him and marvel at how much he looks as though he were one of my drawings come to life. Pure magic.

Meghan Dombrink-Green is an associate editor at nAEYC.

Copyright © 2014 by the national Association for the Education of Young Children. See Permissions and Reprints online at www.naeyc.org/yc/permissions.

87November 2014 Young Children

Submit Your Conference Proposal!

2015 NAEYC Annual Conference & Expo November 18–21, 2015 Orlando, Florida

Submit a proposal to share your knowledge and expertise with thousands of your peers!

Proposal Submission Deadline: Wednesday, January 14, 2015

The proposal criteria for the 2015 Annual Conference will be available online at www.naeyc.org/conference in mid-December. Be sure to visit our website for instructions and details. If you are selected to present, you can register for the Annual Conference at a reduced rate!

NAEYC looks forward to seeing you in Orlando for the nation’s largest gathering of early childhood professionals!

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Three-year-old Trina often uses challenging behav- ior in her preschool classroom, including biting, hitting, spitting, and not respecting her classmates. However, Trina is a different child at home—quiet, nervous, and always close to her mother’s side. Often wetting her bed and crying out in her sleep, Trina is haunted by memories of the nightly abuse she and her mother endured.

Six-year-old Shawn used to love going to school. He danced through the hallways, drew pictures for his teachers, and enjoyed playing with friends. Since being injured in his family’s automobile accident, Shawn spends most days staring out the window, unable to complete his work or pay attention. Though they fear he may be slipping from their reach, Shawn’s teachers are hesitant to push him too hard.

When 5-year-old José began Head Start, he had difficulty making friends, connecting with his teachers, participating in activities, and staying on task. Though he is too young to remember the violence in his home country or the night that his family fled, the fear surrounding those experiences lingers, making it difficult for him to reach out to new people. His inability to trust others is reinforced by his parents’ reminders that his family will be de- ported if anyone discovers that they did not legally immigrate to the US. José worries that his family will not survive if forced to return.

T hough the details of each event are dif- ferent, their impact is the same—Trina, Shawn, and José are too afraid to learn. Saddled with traumatic memories, these children are trapped in fear, reliving their worst experiences or

running from previous events. Children who live in such tumultuous worlds find mistrust is more protective than trust, and fear is more powerful than hope. It is difficult to convince children who experience trauma that monsters live only in their imaginations. Those children who would benefit most from school are often too scared to embrace it. Acknowledging the impact of trauma on children’s development is critical for providing the support and understanding necessary for their healing.

understanding trauma: A world turned upside down Trauma is not an event itself but a reaction to extremely stressful life circumstances. Trauma occurs when an external event overwhelms the ability to cope, leaving one temporarily helpless (Terr 1991). Traumatic events are typically unexpected and uncontrollable, fill victims with terror, and force them to confront their fragil- ity (Terr 1991; Van der Kolk 2005). Events that occur once—suddenly and unexpectedly—are often referred to as short-term or Type I traumatic events (Terr 1991). Included in this category are natural disasters (e.g., tornados, hurricanes, earthquakes), accidents (e.g., motor vehicle accidents, fires, explosions, dog bites, falling), and tragic human-made events (e.g., bombings, shoot- ings, rape, kidnappings, robbery, industrial accidents). Type II traumatic events (Terr 1991) typically involve chronic, repeated, or ongoing exposure, such as chronic illness, child abuse, child maltreatment, domestic abuse, and imprisonment. Increasingly, trauma researchers recognize that stress associated with chronic poverty and ongoing exposure to neighborhood violence may result in symptoms consistent with posttraumatic stress (Nikulina, Widom, & Czaja 2011). The constant strain caused by Type II trauma can make it difficult for some children to imagine a positive future and cause them to lose hope that their circumstances might improve (De Bellis & Van Dillen 2005).

The impact of trauma on a young child is influenced by the nature and severity of the traumatic experience (Weissbecker et al. 2008), characteristics of the child (Ingram 2011), and the way the family, school, and com- munity respond (Bonanno et al. 2010). Given that trauma is determined by one’s response to an event, remember that what may be traumatic to one child may not be trau- matizing to another. Though traumatic experiences affect each child differently, there are a number of symptoms common to traumatized children (see “Signs and Symp- toms of Traumatic Stress,” p. 90). Repetitive behaviors, vivid recurring memories, trauma-specific fears, and neg- ative attitudes about life and people in general are the four most consistent signs of childhood trauma (De Bellis & Van Dillen 2005). Children who are traumatized are likely to frighten easily, experience anxiety in unfamiliar situa- tions, and be clingy, difficult to soothe, aggressive, and/or impulsive (Van der Kolk 2005). They may experience trouble sleeping, anxiety when trying to fall asleep, night- mares, bedwetting, loss of recently acquired developmen-

Too Scared to Learn Teaching Young Children Who have Experienced Trauma

Travis Wright

Toddlers Through Primary Grades

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tal skills, and regression to more immature functioning and behaviors (Blank 2007). Unfortunately, there is no peace of mind for a child living in a state of such hypervigilance— and far less energy for learning, thinking, and developing. However, being aware of these common symptoms can help teachers support these children and their families.

Trauma, children’s development, and the early childhood classroom Trauma frequently affects the way children see themselves and shapes what they expect from other people and the world around them. In the midst of traumatic circumstances, children’s sense of security and safety may be undermined, replaced by anxiety, anger, or fear (Swann & Bosson 2010). Especially when a parent is the source of trauma, an adult’s unpredictable and abusive behavior may lead a child to develop relationships characterized by fear and insecurity and have difficulty forming positive personal attachments (Fearon et al. 2010). If a child thinks that the world is out to get him or that his guardians are unable to keep him safe, growing up becomes very scary indeed.

The stress response system Though it is possible for children to recover from traumatic experiences through intervention and support, research on traumatic response suggests that traumatized children’s be- havior is not always under their control (Van der Kolk 2004; Bremner et al. 2008). Increasingly, researchers are learning that the body’s stress response system dictates traumatic responses (Bremner et al. 2008). The stress response system is the body’s most basic and instinctual control mechanism. When in stress response mode, the body refocuses all its available energy toward getting out of trouble and finding a safe resting place (De Bellis 2005).

This stress response system is hardwired to respond to trauma in one of three ways—fighting, freezing, or fleeing (Van der Kolk 2004). That is, sometimes children demon- strate these responses through physical violence, refusal to move, or running out of the classroom. Other times these responses express themselves less obviously. For example, rather than physical violence, a child might fight teachers by refusing assistance, dismissing feedback, or breaking class- room rules (Ford et al. 2000). Freezing often results in chil- dren appearing inattentive or falling asleep in class (Cohen

et al. 2006). And, though physically present, children may be fleeing in their minds, distracted by traumatic flashbacks or consumed by fear. Consequently, many children who are traumatized may seem off-task, unsure of instructions, or disorganized in their thinking (Briere & Scott 2012).

When the stress response system is activated, the brain usually pauses on higher-order tasks, such as learning math, thinking critically, or considering how one’s actions make others feel, and instead diverts extra energy to survival tasks (De Bellis 2005). That is why traumatized children may find it difficult to sit down and pay attention (De Bellis & Van Dillen 2005)—even when they are trying their best—and are more likely to struggle academically (Shonk & Cicchetti 2001; Thompson Jr. & Massat 2005) and socially (Kim & Cicchetti 2010). The stress response system responds first and asks questions later, which often leads children to seem impulsive or out of control (Alink et al. 2012). Likewise, as their traumatic experiences have taught them to be on guard and suspicious, such children are less likely to give new situ- ations or relationships the benefit of the doubt (Daignault & Hébert 2009). As a result, new or unexpected stimuli—a book banged loudly on a table, an adult who raises her voice, or chaotic transitions between activities—might trigger the stress response system. For most individuals, these stimuli retreat into the background of life; but for the child living in fear, each stimulus could signal the beginning of another negative experience.

Trauma and child development For children who have experienced trauma, the stress response system can take over every part of their lives, even having an impact on brain development (Beers & De Bellis 2002). When children operate in overwhelming states of stress, the stress response system may become the normal mode of functioning (Bremner & Vermetten 2001). Conse- quently, when actual dangers are not present, children may still react to the world as if they are (Siegel 2012). Unable to control their heightened levels of emotional response and arousal, traumatized children simply cannot turn off the survival strategies their brains employ (Van der Kolk 2006). Over time, the notion that one constantly must be on guard becomes internalized, with many traumatized children coming to school every day in survival mode—watching their backs, ready to run at the first sign of danger, or sitting qui- etly in the corner, trying to remain invisible (Kim & Cicchetti 2003). They anticipate that the classroom environment will be threatening, and spend their days scanning for warnings of danger (Van der Kolk 2005). Though these traumatic responses are meant to be protective (Wright 2014), they can impact the key skills involved in learning, such as attention, organization, comprehension, memory, the ability to produce

About the Author Travis Wright, EdD, is an assistant professor of early child- hood education at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and a licensed mental health counselor. Travis’s research focuses on teaching children who are developing in the midst of challeng- ing circumstances. [email protected]

About the Editor Sharon K. Ryan, EdD, is a professor of early childhood education at Rutgers, The State University of new Jersey. Sharon has worked in the early childhood field as a preschool teacher, consultant, curriculum advisor, and special educator. She uses a range of qualitative and mixed methods designs to research early childhood teacher educa- tion and professional development, curriculum, and policy.

If a child thinks that the world is out to get him or that his guardians are unable to keep him safe, growing up becomes very scary indeed.

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work, engagement in learning, and trust (Streeck-Fischer & Van der Kolk 2000), and are frequently viewed in the classroom as behavior problems or as developmental deficits (McFarlane et al. 2003; Van der Kolk 2005). In fact, teachers describe traumatized children as less ready to learn in school (Alisic 2012) and more likely to demonstrate poor work hab- its (Nikulina, Widom, & Czaja 2011) than children who are not traumatized.

However, the classroom environment, and the opportu- nity to interact with additional supportive adults and peers, can provide a buffer against the negative effects of trauma (Wentzel et al. 2010). Research indicates that children who remain resilient in the midst of traumatic experiences tend to enjoy school, even though they may not exhibit strong academic performance (Bergin & Bergin 2009). In contrast, when children are punished at school for using their survival strategies, their fears that the world is out to get them are confirmed—and school becomes one more dangerous place where they need to protect themselves. The children whose behaviors make them the most difficult to warm to frequent- ly receive the least sympathetic treatment from peers and adults (Wright 2010; Vlachou et al. 2011).

Reframing perspectives on traumatized children To engage traumatized children more meaningfully, emerg- ing research suggests that reframing the way we think about them is a critical step in building supportive, emotionally responsive relationships (Wright 2010, 2014). Rather than viewing such children as being “at risk” or labeling their

responses to trauma as challenging behaviors, it is impor- tant to recognize that these behavioral adaptations may be keeping children safe in other situations (Swadener & Lubeck 1995; Wright 2007). For example, young children who have experienced abuse often “disappear” in the classroom, avoid- ing attention at all costs. While this behavior may decrease the support the child receives and isolate him from peers and teachers, it is a protective adaptation in a home environment where he could be targeted for violence at any moment.

Rather than devaluing the trauma response skills that children bring to the classroom, we should honor these ways of responding as strengths in other parts of their lives. For example, some children who are traumatized have good reason to be suspicious of strangers. Consequently, they may avoid visitors or be wary of new members to the classroom community. Rather than forcing such children to interact or punishing them for their behavior, teachers can explain, “It just takes some of us a little longer than others to feel comfortable with new people.” Likewise, classrooms might be structured to provide children with opportunities for independent and cooperative work. This flexibility honors children who may be afraid to trust or are overwhelmed by feelings of closeness, while allowing them space and time to practice connecting with others.

Failure to respond in an understanding and validating way can confuse and shame children, pushing them farther from embracing school as a safe and emotionally protective space. Through reframing our perceptions of traumatized children, it is possible to recognize them as individuals who are fighting to live, as opposed to failing to thrive (Wright

Signs and Symptoms of Traumatic Stress

Children ages 0–2 may . . . Children ages 3–6 may . . .

■n Act withdrawn ■n Demand attention through both posi-

tive and negative behaviors ■n Demonstrate poor verbal skills ■n Display temper tantrums ■n Exhibit aggressive behaviors ■n Exhibit memory problems ■n Exhibit regressive behaviors ■n Experience nightmares or sleep dif-

ficulties ■n Fear adults who remind them of the

traumatic event ■n Have a poor appetite, low weight,

and/or digestive problems ■n Have poor sleep habits ■n Scream or cry excessively ■n Show irritability, sadness, and anxiety ■n Startle easily

■n Act out in social situations ■n Act withdrawn ■n Demand attention through both

positive and negative behaviors ■n Display an excessive temper ■n Be anxious and fearful and

avoidant ■n Be unable to trust others or

make friends ■n Be verbally abusive ■n Believe they are to blame for

the traumatic experience ■n Develop learning disabilities ■n Exhibit aggressive behaviors ■n Experience nightmares or sleep

difficulties ■n Experience stomachaches and

headaches

■n Fear adults who remind them of the traumatic event

■n Fear being separated from parent or caregiver

■n Have difficulties focusing or learning in school

■n Have poor sleep habits ■n Imitate the abusive or traumatic event ■n lack self-confidence ■n Show irritability, sadness, and anxiety ■n Show poor skill development ■n Startle easily ■n Wet the bed or self after being toilet

trained or exhibit other regressive behaviors

Adapted with permission from the National Child Traumatic Stress Network (2014).

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2010). Rather than trying to save or change these children, teachers can support the children’s inherent strengths. As teachers begin to see these strengths more clearly in each child, the children become more aware of them as well. When children feel understood, valued, and accepted for who they are, they feel good about themselves and become more confident—important ingredients for well-being. (Wright 2007; Wright 2010). In this way, expectations for children living with fear become higher, as do levels of support, both of which are important to fostering resilience (Masten 2001).

Helping children heal There are no shortcuts to building trusting relationships and safe classroom environments that allow traumatized children to heal. Trust is lost much more quickly than it is re- covered. However, fostering positive relationships, support- ing children’s transition to school, and creating a supportive learning environment might eventually make a difference.

Fostering positive relationships Positive, supportive relationships with teachers are critically important for children living with trauma, who frequently may display early academic and behavior problems and may have difficulty forming trusting relationships (Kim & Cicchetti 2010). As children who have experienced trauma become more trusting, they frequently become more outwardly focused and less temperamental, and they demonstrate more positive emotions (Wright 2010). They may then receive more positive attention from their teach- ers and peers, resulting in the children’s building additional social-emotional skills through these increased positive interactions (Howes 2000). As teachers begin to see these children differently, they often enjoy them more, gain the children’s trust, and feel like they are making a difference. These important relationships sustain a support network for them—greatly improving their prospects for the future. The following strategies help teachers build positive relationships with traumatized children:

■n Recognize the self-protective and adaptive function of children’s behaviors

■n Show interest in children’s lives by asking questions and remembering details about their likes, dislikes, families, and activities outside of school

■n Engage regularly in warm, caring, one-on-one interac- tions

A critical task of early childhood is mastering the ability to establish positive peer relationships, which are highly predictive of subsequent adjustment during adulthood (Masten & Coatsworth 1998). Because of their focus on self- preservation, children who have experienced trauma tend to be less skilled socially (Darwish et al. 2001) and are rated less well-liked by peers (Shaffer 2008). Frequently, these children demonstrate challenges in understanding social situations, assume that other children are “out to get them” (Dodge, Coie, & Lynam 2006), and experience higher rates of behav-

ior problems and aggression (Jaffee et al. 2004). Teachers can support traumatized children’s peer relationships by

■n Structuring the daily schedule to include opportunities for group and individual play

■n Creating quiet spaces in the classroom where children can take a break, when needed, throughout the day

■n Modeling strategies and using role-playing to help children join in play and resolve conflicts

■n Recognizing and naming moments when children have positive social interactions with peers

These approaches benefit all children but are especially helpful for children who may be afraid to trust others or who are overwhelmed by feelings of closeness. These strategies give them opportunities to practice connecting with others and provide occasions for respect and interdependence to emerge.

Supporting children’s transition to school Outside of their immediate family, early childhood settings are often the most stable institutions in the lives of children who are traumatized. However, such children may struggle to differentiate between the classroom and less predictable areas of their lives. Thus, the transition from the home envi- ronment to the school environment is often difficult (Shonk & Cicchetti 2001). Teachers can help ease children’s transi- tions and minimize the traumatic response by

■n Talking about new people and places in advance

■n Helping children predict what will be happening next

■n Maintaining a predictable routine and adhering to a class- room schedule

■n Posting an age-appropriate classroom schedule at chil- dren’s eye level

A primary developmental task of early childhood is honing the ability to monitor, understand, and manage one’s emotions in stimulating situations, such as those occurring during transitions. However, the impulsive nature of the body’s stress response system makes it difficult for trauma- tized children to regulate their emotions (Cloitre et al. 2005). Given the complexity of their emotions, they often struggle to understand and communicate their feelings (Van der Kolk 2006). This makes it difficult for these children to develop an appropriate response to their feelings, which may lead to outbursts, withdrawing, or other behaviors that are deemed inappropriate. Additionally, trauma can negatively impact young children’s capacity for creative play, an important way for children to cope with problems in their everyday lives (Streeck-Fischer & Van der Kolk 2000). Teachers can offer emotional supports to students with experiences of trauma by

■n Teaching children how to identify and discuss their feel- ings by naming and validating emotions in the classroom

■n Selecting books that showcase a variety of feelings

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■n Allowing children time and a safe space to calm down

■n Advocating for additional mental health, special educa- tion, and family support services when appropriate

Creating a supportive learning environment Trauma greatly influences children’s attitudes about school and approaches to learning. Developing classroom struc- tures and practices that allow children to engage mean- ingfully in classroom learning opportunities is critical to their recovery from traumatic circumstances and positive long-term prospects.

Establishing clear rules and incentives. The stress response system may cause traumatized children to respond to various stimuli in unpredictable and unexpected ways. Many adults mistakenly believe that traumatized children should be able to control these behaviors and simply make better choices. However, aggression, tantrums, clinging, inattention, withdrawing, irritability, and difficulty following directions are symptoms of traumatic stress that are some- times beyond a child’s control. Similarly, some traumatized children come from homes or communities where adults reinforce behavior through power and violence rather than rules and incentives. Adults may inconsistently and unclearly communicate their expectations. It is important for children who live in such environments to learn the difference be- tween rules and discipline. Teachers can apply the following strategies to create a consistent and predictable classroom environment:

■n Discuss, rehearse, and frequently revisit rules, expecta- tions, and rewards

■n Discuss the reasons why certain rules, expectations, and positive outcomes are important

■n Avoid threats, intimidation, and battles for control

■n Reinforce the understanding that the classroom is a non- violent and safe place, both physically and emotionally

■n Teach children how to keep themselves safe and how to use conflict resolution skills to resolve differences

organizing information. Learning requires attention, organization, comprehension, memory, the ability to produce work, engagement in learning, and trust (Greenwald O’Brien 2000). Not surprisingly, traumatic experiences can negative- ly impact these skills by undermining language learning and vocabulary development and by compromising the ability to complete learning tasks, making it difficult to organize and remember new information. Because traumatic circumstanc- es are often unpredictable, traumatized children sometimes have difficulty understanding cause-and-effect relationships, recognizing sequences, and making predictions (Masten & Obradovic 2008). The following strategies support academic development for traumatized children:

■n Emphasize cause-and-effect relationships during class- room conversations and help children learn to make predictions

■n Provide step-by-step instructions for tasks to help chil- dren feel less overwhelmed and more capable of meeting expectations

■n Present information in multiple ways (e.g., oral, written, visual) so children are more likely to gain the information they need and to lessen the anxiety they experience when uncertain about classroom expectations

■n Provide concrete examples, as traumatized children often struggle to think abstractly, and use visual cues, physi- cal movement, and recall activities to help children stay focused and engaged

■n Use graphic organizers to help children absorb new information

■n Create opportunities for children to repeat and rehearse instructions after you have reviewed them

■n Offer ongoing support and encouragement to help chil- dren stay on task and succeed

Conclusion For many children, traumatic experiences have negative consequences for their identity development, attitudes about learning, and the way they engage in relationships. How- ever, simply understanding where traumatized children are coming from, or making excuses for their behavior or lack of academic success, is not enough. We must reach out and intentionally engage the children so they are able to develop the skills, attitudes, and beliefs that will allow them to flour- ish. Building positive, respectful relationships with children who live with trauma is essential in engaging them more fully in the classroom. Reframing the work of teaching from labeling and rescuing students to recognizing and building on their inherent strengths is a first step in helping children with traumatic backgrounds to experience success and feel pride.

References

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Alisic, E. 2012. “Teachers’ Perspectives on Providing Support to Chil- dren After Trauma: A Qualitative Study.” School Psychology Quarterly 27 (1): 51–59.

Beers, S.R., & M.D. De Bellis. 2002. “Neuropsychological Function in Children With Maltreatment Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.” American Journal of Psychiatry 159 (3): 483–86.

Bergin, C., & D. Bergin. 2009. “Attachment in the Classroom.” Educa- tional Psychology Review 21 (2): 141–70.

Blank, M. 2007. “Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Infants, Toddlers, and Preschoolers.” British Columbia Medical Journal 49 (3): 133–38.

Bonanno, G.A., C.R. Brewin, K. Kaniasty, & A.M. La Greca. 2010. “Weighing the Costs of Disaster: Consequences, Risks, and Resil- ience in Individuals, Families, and Communities.” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 11 (1): 1–49. www.pacificdisaster.net/ pdnadmin/data/original/APS_2010_weighing_costs.pdf.

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Bremner, J.D., & E. Vermetten. 2001. “Stress and Development: Behavioral and Biological Consequences.” Development and Psychopathology 13 (3): 473–89.

Briere, J.N., & C. Scott. 2012. Principles of Trauma Therapy: A Guide to Symptoms, Evaluation, and Treatment. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Cloitre, M., R. Miranda, K.C. Stovall-McClough, & H. Han. 2005. “Beyond PTSD: Emotion Regulation and Interpersonal Problems As Predictors of Functional Impairment in Survivors of Childhood Abuse.” Behavior Therapy 36 (2): 119–24.

Cohen, J.A., A.P. Mannarino, L.K. Murray, & R. Igelman. 2006. “Psycho- social Interventions for Maltreated and Violence-Exposed Children.” Journal of Social Issues 62 (4): 737–66.

Daignault, I.V., & M. Hébert. 2009. “Profiles of School Adaptation: Social, Behavioral, and Academic Functioning in Sexually Abused Girls.” Child Abuse and Neglect 33 (2): 102–115.

Darwish, D., G.B. Esquivel, J.C. Houtz, & V.C. Alfonso. 2001. “Play and Social Skills in Maltreated and Non-Maltreated Preschoolers During Peer Interactions.” Child Abuse and Neglect 25 (1): 13–31.

De Bellis, M.D. 2005. “The Psychobiology of Neglect.” Child Maltreatment 10 (2): 150–72.

De Bellis, M.D., & T. Van Dillen. 2005. “Childhood Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Overview.” Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 14 (4): 745–72.

Dodge, K.A., J.D. Coie, & D. Lynam. 2006. “Aggression and Antisocial Behavior in Youth.” In Handbook of Child Psychology, vol. 3, eds. W. Damon, N. Eigenberg, & R.M. Lerner, 719–88. New York: Wiley.

Fearon, R.P., M.J. Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.H. Van Izendoorn, A.-M. Lapsley, & G.I. Roisman. 2010. “The Significance of Insecure Attach- ment and Disorganization in the Development of Children’s Externaliz- ing Behavior: A Meta-Analytic Study.” Child Development 81 (2): 435–56.

Ford, J.D., R. Racusin, C.G. Ellis, W.B. Daviss, J. Reiser, A. Fleischer, & J. Thomas. 2000. “Child Maltreatment, Other Trauma Exposure, and Posttraumatic Symptomatology Among Children With Oppositional Defiant and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders.” Child Maltreat- ment 5 (3): 205–17.

Greenwald O’Brien, J.P. 2000. “Impacts of Violence in the School Environ- ment: Links Between Trauma and Delinquency.” New England Law Review 34 (3): 593–97.

Howes, C. 2000. “Social-Emotional Classroom Climate in Child Care, Child-Teacher Relationships, and Children’s Second Grade Peer Rela- tions.” Social Development 9 (2): 191–204.

Ingram, B.L. 2011. Clinical Case Formulations: Matching the Integrative Treatment Plan to the Client. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley.

Jaffee, S.R., A. Caspi, T.E. Moffitt, & A. Taylor. 2004. “Physical Maltreat- ment Victim to Antisocial Child: Evidence of an Environmentally Medi- ated Process.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 113 (1): 44–55.

Kim, J., & D. Cicchetti. 2003. “Social Self-Efficacy and Behavior Problems in Maltreated and Nonmaltreated Children.” Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 32 (1): 106–17.

Kim, J., & D. Cicchetti. 2010. “Longitudinal Pathways Linking Child Mal- treatment, Emotion Regulation, Peer Relations, and Psychopathology.” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 51 (6): 706–16.

Masten, A.S. 2001. “Ordinary Magic: Resilience Processes in Develop- ment.” American Psychologist 56 (3): 227–38.

Masten, A.S., & J.D. Coatsworth. 1998. “The Development of Competence in Favorable and Unfavorable Environments: Lessons From Research on Successful Children.” American Psychologist 53 (2): 205–20.

Masten, A.S., & J. Obradovic. 2008. “Disaster Preparation and Recovery: Lessons From Research on Resilience in Human Development.” Ecol- ogy and Society 13 (1): 9.

McFarlane, J.M., J.Y. Groff, J.A. O’Brien, & K. Watson. 2003. “Behaviors of Children Who Are Exposed and Not Exposed to Intimate Partner Violence: An Analysis of 330 Black, White, and Hispanic Children.” Pediatrics 112 (3): 202–207.

National Child Traumatic Stress Network. n.d. “Symptoms and Behaviors Associated With Exposure to Trauma.” www.nctsn.org/trauma-types/ early-childhood-trauma/Symptoms-and-Behaviors-Associated-with- Exposure-to-Trauma.

Nikulina, V., C.S. Widom, & S. Czaja. 2011. “The Role of Childhood Ne- glect and Childhood Poverty in Predicting Mental Health, Academic Achievement, and Crime in Adulthood.” American Journal of Commu- nity Psychology 48 (3–4): 309–21.

Shaffer, D.R. 2008. Social and Personality Development. Stamford, CT: Cengage.

Shonk, S.M., & D. Cicchetti. 2001. “Maltreatment, Competency Deficits, and Risk for Academic and Behavioral Maladjustment.” Developmental Psychology 37 (1): 3–17.

Siegel, D.J. 2012. The Developing Mind: How Relationships and the Brain Interact to Shape Who We Are. 2nd ed. New York: Guilford.

Streeck-Fischer, A., & B.A. Van der Kolk. 2000. “Down Will Come Baby, Cradle and All: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Implications of Chronic Trauma on Child Development.” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 34 (6): 903–18.

Swadener, B.B., & S. Lubeck. 1995. “The Social Construction of Children and Families ‘At Risk’: An Introduction.” In Children and Families “At Promise”: Deconstructing the Discourse of Risk, eds. B.B. Swadener & S. Lubeck, 1–6. New York: SUNY Press.

Swann, W.B., & J.K. Bosson. 2010. “Self and Identity.” Chap. 16 in Handbook of Social Psychology, vol. 1, eds. S.T. Fiske, D.T. Gilbert, & G. Lindzey, 589–628. New York: Wiley.

Terr, L.C. 1991. “Childhood Traumas: An Outline and Overview.” American Journal of Psychiatry 148 (1): 10–20.

Thompson Jr., T., & C.R. Massat. 2005. “Experiences of Violence, Posttrau- matic Stress, Academic Achievement and Behavior Problems of Urban African-American Children.” Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal 22 (5–6): 367–93.

Van der Kolk, B.A. 2004. “Psychobiology of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.” Chap. 11 in Textbook of Biological Psychiatry, ed J. Panksepp, 319–44. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Liss.

Van der Kolk, B.A. 2005. “Developmental Trauma Disorder: Toward a Rational Diagnosis for Children With Complex Trauma Histories.” Psychiatric Annals 35 (5): 401–8.

Van der Kolk, B.A. 2006. “Clinical Implications of Neuroscience Research in PTSD.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1071 (1): 277–93.

Vlachou, M., E. Andreou, K. Botsoglou, & E. Didaskalou. 2011. “Bully/ Victim Problems Among Preschool Children: A Review of Current Research Evidence.” Educational Psychology Review 23 (3): 329–58.

Weissbecker, I., S.E. Sephton, M.B. Martin, & D.M. Simpson. 2008. “Psy- chological and Physiological Correlates of Stress in Children Exposed to Disaster: Current Research and Recommendations for Intervention.” Children Youth and Environments 18 (1): 30–70.

Wentzel, K.R., A. Battle, S.L. Russell, & L.B. Looney. 2010. “Social Supports From Teachers and Peers as Predictors of Academic and Social Motiva- tion.” Contemporary Educational Psychology 35 (3): 193–202.

Wright, T. 2007. “On Jorge Becoming a Boy: A Counselor’s Perspective.” Harvard Educational Review 77 (2): 164–86.

Wright, T. 2010. “Learning to Laugh: A Portrait of Risk and Resilience in Early Childhood.” Harvard Educational Review 80 (4): 444–64.

Wright, T. 2014. “Revisiting Risk/Rethinking Resilience: Fighting to Live Versus Failing to Thrive.” In Reconceptualizing Early Childhood Care and Education, eds. M. Block, B. Swadener, & G.S Canella, 183–92. New York: Peter Lang.

Copyright © 2014 by the national Association for the Education of Young Children. See Permissions and Reprints online at www.naeyc.org/yc/permissions.

93November 2014 Young Children

In a classroom of 4-year-olds Stephon, Andrus, and Voshon play “fireman,” using the climber for the fire station and the dramatic play area for the house on fire. Stepping onto the climber, Charlene tries to join the play, but Stephon tells her, “You can’t be a fire- man ’cause you’re a girl. Only boys can be firemen.” Charlene scowls and nevertheless tries to join them on the climber, but the boys yell at her. Charlene sits on the floor and looks mad. Teacher Maya, who has seen the incident, sits down next to Charlene and puts her arm around her. “You look upset, Charlene.”

With tears in her eyes, Charlene exclaims, “I want to play too! Girls can put out fires.”

“Yes, they can, Charlene,” Maya responds. “You are right. Both girls and boys can be firefighters. Let’s talk to the boys.”

They move to the climber, and Maya says, “Hey, guys, do you remember the book we read about fire- fighters? Men and women fight fires together. That’s why we call them firefighters instead of firemen.”

Stephon replies, “But this game is for boys, OK, Teacher?” Maya maintains an even, friendly tone in refuting this statement: “Our classroom agreement is that girls and boys play together. Charlene is un- happy that you don’t want her to play with you. How can Charlene help you fight this fire?”

Stephon looks at the other two fire crew members and shrugs: “Charlene can steer on the back of the truck, ’cause you gotta steer there too. Look, a fire!” The four children race to the wooden bench that is the fire truck. Voshon hands Charlene a helmet. Charlene steers from the back, grinning.

While they are fighting the fire, Charlene notices two dolls, picks them up, and carries them to the fire truck. “I’m saving the babies,” she calls out. “Charlene saved the babies!” the other firefighters shout. On the way back to the fire station, Charlene sits in the middle of the fire truck, proudly holding the babies she has saved. The four firefighters play together until cleanup time.

After cleanup, Maya has a quiet talk with Charlene and then with the three boys. The teacher reminds the children that women as well as men are fire- fighters. She compliments Charlene for thinking to save the babies and encourages the three boys to remember next time that girls and boys play together at school, including as firefighters.

The follow-up Maya talked with her coteacher, Margo, and the aide, Darius, about the incident. She told them how she had intervened when the boys wanted to exclude Charlene because she was a girl. The team agreed that the use of firm but friendly guidance in gender equality matters is important. Margo suggested that they discuss exclusion based on gender with the rest of the class. They decided to talk about it at group meeting the next day. Darius gave Maya contact information for a firefighter friend—a woman who had visited the school in the past.

The following week the female firefighter visited the preschoolers. She arrived in street clothes and, with the class’s participation, discussed, put on, and demon- strated her firefighting gear. The teacher took a picture of the class with the firefighter. The team put it up in the library corner, along with featured gender-balanced books about community helpers. That same day, Maya noticed Charlene and Della playing firefighters with two boys. The teacher was pleased that her guidance had helped girls gain entry into boys’ play and helped boys accept girls in their play.

The strategy Both Charlene and the boys needed, and Maya provided, assistance in resolving the archetypical girl–boy conflict in determining membership in the firefighters’ group. Maya supported Charlene by recognizing her frustra- tion, listening to her, acknowledging her feelings and views, and modeling creative problem solving. She used the occasion to affirm Charlene’s feelings that she was capable and strong and to validate Charlene’s expecta- tion that she would not be excluded, especially based on her gender.

Maya guided Stephon, Andrus, and Voshon by not accepting the assumption that it was OK to exclude girls from firefighting play while helping them to consider a new perspective. Through her leadership, Maya was teaching the three boys (and good guidance is always teaching) to move beyond stereotypes, manage their emotions, and be inclusive in their play.

By inviting a female firefighter to talk to the children, the teaching team followed up with a planned learning experience reflecting gender equality in adult life. Adult visitors who work in non-gender-typical careers, such as female dentists and male nurses, can counter children’s early prejudices about what women and men can do. The

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teaching team also became more intentional about using gender-inclusive displays in the classroom and introducing literature focusing on gender equality.

The interactive nature of spontaneous and planned teaching activities can be powerful tools for helping young children learn fundamentals of civil living both within and beyond the learning community (Derman-Sparks & Olsen Edwards 2012). In addition, this series of events illustrates the practice of emergent curriculum—the planning and use of curriculum ideas generated through the teaching team’s awareness of spontaneous experiences significant to the children (Copple & Bredekamp 2009).

It is important for early childhood professionals to remember that 4-year-olds have fewer than 60 months of life experience in learning high-level social skills: gaining acceptance—and accepting others—in groups, managing strong emotions, and solving problems creatively (Gartrell 2012). Through their leadership in everyday situations, teachers need to be conscious and intentional about what and how they contribute to young children’s understand- ings about gender (Manaster & Jobe 2012). In using guid- ance, teachers work with girls and boys together while keeping in mind the unique needs of each child. Maya supported Charlene’s tenacity and Stephon’s developing leadership skills by the way in which she mediated the children’s conflict.

Past Guidance Matters columns have examined the challenges many young boys and girls face in early child- hood environments that do not accommodate children’s need to be physically active (Gartrell 2006; Gartrell & Son- steng 2008). Because Maya allowed active firefighter play, she could move past this widespread “classroom decorum” issue and focus her leadership on another enduring early childhood challenge: guiding children to move beyond

nascent gender prejudices. Teachers using guidance set the expectation and lead children to understand that gender does not limit opportunities. Girls and boys both can fight fires, save lives, tame lions, and care for babies. Early child- hood professionals teach boys to accept girls in traditional “boy play” and support girls in recognizing the array of role choices they have in the early childhood classroom and in life (Manaster & Jobe 2012).

For additional reading, consider the Research in Review article, “Using Queer Theory to Rethink Gender Equity in Early Childhood Education,” by Mindy Blaise and Affrica Taylor, in the January 2012 issue of Young Children.

References

Copple, C., & S. Bredekamp, eds. 2009. Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Programs Serving Children From Birth Through Age 8. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Derman-Sparks, L., & J. Olsen Edwards. 2012. Anti-Bias Education for Young Children and Ourselves. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Gartrell, D.J. 2006. “Boys and Men Teachers.” Guidance Matters. Young Children 61 (3): 92–93. www.naeyc.org/files/yc/file/200605/ GuidanceBTJ.pdf.

Gartrell, D.J. 2012. Education for a Civil Society: How Guidance Teaches Young Children Democratic Life Skills. Washington, DC: NAEYC

Gartrell, D.J., & K. Sonsteng. 2008. “Promote Physical Activity—It’s Proactive Guidance.” Guidance Matters. Young Children 63 (2): 51–53. www.naeyc.org/files/yc/file/200803/BTJ_Guidance.pdf.

Manaster, H., & M. Jobe. 2012. “Bringing Boys and Girls Together: Sup- porting Preschoolers’ Positive Peer Relationships.” Young Children 67 (5): 12–17. www.naeyc.org/yc/files/yc/file/201211/Manaster.pdf.

Layna Cole, PhD, is an associate professor of early childhood education in the School of Teaching and learning at Minnesota State University Moorhead. Dan Gartrell, EdD, is emeritus professor of early childhood and foundations education at Bemidji State University in northern Minnesota. Dan is the author of several Young Children articles and primary author of the Guidance Matters column. Two of Dan’s books, published by nAEYC, are The Power of Guidance: Teaching Social-Emotional Skills in Early Childhood Classrooms and Education for a Civil Society: How Guidance Teaches Young Children Democratic Life Skills.

Guidance With Girls: Other Dimensions

Additional Guidance Matters columns in Young Children (www.naeyc.org/yc/columns/ guidance) about good guidance with girls: ■n “Democratic life Skill Three: Solving Problems

Creatively—Independently and in Cooperation With others,” July 2013

■n “Democratic life Skill Two: Guiding Children to Express Strong Emotions in nonhurting Ways,” March 2013

■n “Children Who Have Serious Conflicts—Part 2: Instrumental Aggression,” July 2011

■n “Competition: What Place in our Programs?,” March 2007

Copyright © 2014 by the national Association for the Education of Young Children. See Permissions and Reprints online at www.naeyc.org/yc/permissions.

The Guidance Matters column is taking a hiatus. nAEYC thanks Dan Gartrell for his many contributions to Young Children and to the early childhood field. All the columns are available on nAEYC’s website at www.naeyc.org/yc/columns/guidance. visit nAEYC’s online store at www.naeyc.org/store to purchase Dan’s books.

95November 2014 Young Children

Baby Bear Sees Blue, by Ashley Wolff. 2014. Board book edi- tion. New York: little Simon. 42 pp.

Backseat A-B-See, by Maria van lieshout. 2014. Board book edition. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. 30 pp.

Dim Sum for Everyone!, by grace lin. 2014. Board book edi- tion. New York: Knopf Books for Young Readers. 24 pp.

No Two Alike, by Keith Baker. 2014. Board book edition. New York: little Simon. 36 pp.

Rah, Rah, Radishes! A Vegetable Chant, by April Pulley Sayre. 2014. Board book edition. New York: little Simon. 34 pp.

We’re Going on a Bear Hunt, by Michael Rosen. Illus. by helen oxenbury. 2014. lap book edition. New York: little Simon. 36 pp.

All books above: Ages birth to 3. These favorite titles are being released in board book format for the first time. Converting hardcover books into board book editions is becoming more and more popular. A favorite hardcover book often makes an excellent board book. If the language is simple enough and the illustra- tions aren’t too complex, it makes sense to publish the story in a smaller, sturdier format for infants and toddlers. Rah, Rah, Radishes! offers a rollicking, rhyming feast of vegetables with clear photos and simple content, pleasing to even the youngest ears and supporting young children as they learn to eat real foods. We’re Going on a Bear Hunt features rhythmic text and a straightforward plot that toddlers will enjoy, and the new format (an oversized board book, called a lap book) makes the illustrations more accessible. Each book in the list above is appropriate in board edition for similar reasons.

But be careful when choosing other board book edi- tions of your favorite hardcovers. If you wouldn’t read the original hardcover to infants or toddlers, don’t read the board book edition, either. Avoid titles that are text heavy or that have intricate illustrations that would be better suited to a full-size page.

Blizzard, by John Rocco. 2014. New York: hyperion. 40 pp. Ages 3 to 8. Based on a true story from the famous 1978 Northeast blizzard, this is the tale of a boy who makes the most of a huge snowstorm. First, he watches with anticipation as it develops. The snow keeps on coming down! Then, the waiting begins. As his family waits for the snowplows to dig them out, the boy and his sister dig tunnels and secret rooms under the pileup. They sip hot cocoa with their parents around the fireplace. It’s as if time stands still for them, and they’re trapped in a magic world. Being snowbound gets old fast, though, especially as food starts running low. Thankfully, the boy has been browsing his Arctic Survival guide every day, and he comes up with a plan. He fashions snowshoes out of tennis rackets and trudges atop the snow to the store to buy staples for his family and his neighbors. Kick off the winter with this wonderful tale of childhood bravery and adventure!

The Farmer and the Clown, by Marla Frazee. 2014. San diego: Beach lane Books. 32 pp. Ages 3 to 8. This stunning wordless story is as stirring as it is silent. When a travelling circus passes through on a train, a toddler clown falls out the back and is rescued by a lonely farmer who isn’t sure what to do with him. The situation is almost comical given the wide clown grin painted on the toddler’s face. But when the paint washes off in the bath, the farmer discovers a very different face under- neath—that of a scared and confused tot. Suddenly, this absurd story feels very real. The farmer tries his hardest to comfort the boy.

Readers will experience a range of feelings for each of the characters in the book. Both the farmer and the toddler are at points lonely and abandoned, yet both find themselves rescued by love and companionship. In the end, the clown family returns for its little one, and the farmer finds a companion, too, resulting in a satisfying ending. Frazee’s masterful illustrations are made with clean lines, packed with depth and emotion.

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I Pledge Allegiance, by Pat Mora and libby Martinez. Illus. by Patrice Barton. 2014. New York: Knopf. 36 pp. Ages 4 to 8. Learning the Pledge of Allegiance is a family affair for young Libby and her aunt, Lobo, who just passed her citi- zenship test and will recite the pledge at her swearing-in ceremony. At the same time, Libby’s class is learning the pledge, too. Together, Libby and Lobo practice and talk about what it means to put your hand to your heart and speak those words. With pride, Lobo also tells Libby the story of how she came to America, sprinkling in Spanish words as she recounts her journey from Mexico.

Inspired by their own aunt’s immigration story (de- scribed in a note at the back), authors Mora and Martinez craft a wonderful story that will encourage children to learn this pledge of patriotism and understand what it means to arrive from another country and become an American—like so many Americans have. This book is prac- tical and inspirational.

Tumbleweed Baby, by Anna Myers. Illus. by Charles Vess. 2014. New York: Abrams. 32 pp. Ages 4 to 8. The Upagainstit Family is just that—up against it. They don’t have much: just a falling-down house in a barren spot in Nowhere, Texas. But when a wild child rolls in on a tumbleweed, their abundant generosity shines. The siblings try to calm the rambunctious girl. When it looks like they’re better off giving her up, they find a silver lining: “Chasing after her will make me faster for recess races,” says a brother, and “getting her to like stories will be good practice for being a teacher when I grow up,” says a sister. Mama and Papa can’t see letting her go.

Each child in the family is heard, including the young- est daughter, who wishes the Tumbleweed Baby would go away. Her resentment adds just enough sourness to make the story real, not saccharine.

The premise of the book is original and strange, yet the way the characters are rendered makes the tale believable. It’s a beautiful adoption story—if an abstract one—about unconditional love and finding a family that can’t help but want you.

Isabel Baker, MAT, MlS, is president of The Book vine for Children, a national company dedicated to getting good books into the hands of young children and their teachers. Isabel has worked as a children’s librarian and is currently a presenter on early literacy and book selection.

Miriam Baker Schiffer, MFA, is a writer in Brooklyn, new York. She consults on book selections for The Book vine, in McHenry, Illinois.

The Reading Chair is available at www.naeyc.org/yc/columns.

Copyright © 2014 by the national Association for the Education of Young Children. See Permissions and Reprints online at www.naeyc.org/yc/permissions.

Order online at www.naeyc.org or call 800-424-2460 option 5

Supporting Students, Meeting Standards Best Practices for Engaged Learning in First, Second, and Third Grades Gera Jacobs and Kathy Crowley

F illed with research-based strategies, this book describes best practices for pro- moting learning and de- velopment while helping primary grade students meet learning standards. This book is a Compre- hensive Member Benefit.

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97November 2014 Young Children

T hree-month-old Derrick lies on his back on a blanket. His caregiver, Paola, sits near him and watches him play. Derrick brings his hands toward one another. Sometimes the hands connect and he

grasps them, while other times they seem to just be waving near each other. He does this for a few mo- ments while Paola observes, noting this movement and sometimes commenting on the discoveries he is making. She notices when his eyebrows go up, and she imitates that facial expression. When Derrick says “gaa-aaa,” she repeats it back to him. When his hands connect with each other she says, “Oh, you got your hands together! Do you feel that? Both of those hands are yours!”

More is better? In the first three years of life, infants and toddlers learn and develop at an astonishing rate. What we can see (physical growth, achievement of motor milestones, and children’s ability to talk) is matched by the fast-paced development that occurs in the brain. For example, in the opening vignette Derrick is bringing his hands together. Paola knows this matters—it signifies a milestone in brain development called crossing the midline that is demon- strated by a baby’s ability to reach his hand from one side of his body to the other. This seemingly simple act tells Paola that the two sides of Derrick’s brain are begin- ning to connect and communicate with each other. This important aspect of brain development will continue and eventually help Derrick to read across the page of a book. The rate of this development depends on Derrick’s genetic makeup as well as the rich interactions and expe- riences he has now and in the future.

There is a lot of pressure on parents and teachers to have children ready for school. Families are inundated with a barrage of information from websites, television commercials, and well-meaning friends about buying or doing certain things so that their children will be suc- cessful. Teachers are being pushed to make sure they are instructing children, even babies, in the skills they need to be “ready” for the next step, whether it is preschool or kin- dergarten or reading. However, David Elkind (1987) states,

No authority in the field of child psychology, pe- diatrics, or child psychiatry advocates the formal instruction, in any domain, of infants and young

children. In fact, the weight of solid professional opinion opposes it and advocates providing young children with a rich and stimulating environment that is, at the same time, warm, loving, and sup- portive of the child’s own learning priorities and pacing. It is within this supportive, nonpressured environment that infants and young children ac- quire a solid sense of security, positive self-esteem, and a long-term enthusiasm for learning. (8–9) Development is not and should not be a race. Push-

ing infants and toddlers to learn skills too early takes them away from the very experiences that prepare their brains and bodies to be ready to learn those skills when the developmentally appropriate time comes. With such experiences not only will they learn the skills faster, but they will also be more motivated to learn them because their brains and bodies are ready and able to master these concepts and abilities.

Learning takes time. Development unfolds in predict- able ways and time frames, but there is great variation among children. Some children say their first word at 8 months while others don’t say words until around 12 or 15 months. Anything within that range is considered to be typical. A baby cannot say words until she is develop- mentally ready to speak. The muscles in her tongue and face need to be strong enough to shape the words of her language; she needs to hear conversations that expose her to her language or languages; and her brain needs to develop the capacity to understand the meaning of words and the rules of conversation. Development in each area is complex and is dependent on development in other areas.

Understanding infant and toddler development is the key to being a competent teacher of infants and toddlers. Knowledge of development shapes teachers’ interactions with children. It influences both the physical and emotion- al environments they create. So if development isn’t a race, what can we do to make sure babies develop optimally?

Slow it down Watch, wait, and wonder are the first three steps toward slowing it down. This approach is about understanding and responding to a baby’s individual development and identifying the rich and varied experiences he needs in order to learn and develop optimally. It respects chil- dren’s unique temperaments, personalities, language, culture, and interests:

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■n Watch. Observe which skills babies have mastered and which they are working on. Notice a baby’s interactions with the people and objects around her. What is the baby interested in? What does the baby do to show you what she already knows?

■n Wait. Intentionally decide when to interact and when to just be present, supporting the baby with your eyes and facial expressions. For example, a baby on his tummy trying to reach a toy might feel frustrated that the object is just out of reach. Rather than hand him the toy, wait for a moment and encourage him with a smile that says, “You can do this.” You might both be surprised that he can, in fact, reach that toy!

■n Wonder. Ask yourself, what does this mean? What is the baby learning through this interaction? How can the learning in this moment be enriched?

■n Engage. Play follow the leader, with the baby leading. For example, when a baby says “Da!” you can echo her and say “Da!” This back-and-forth can go on for many turns. Babies love to have opportunities for practicing conversations.

■n Extend the learning. Offer just enough help, such as describing what you see a child doing, modeling a new way of playing, or adding another prop to help the child

discover new challenges to master. These actions keep children engaged and interested just a little bit longer, thus extending their attention span. Gentle interven- tions like this also help children cope with periods of frustration, which will increase their persistence.

In their first three years of life, infants and toddlers learn an astounding amount about their environment, their own abilities, and ways to relate to adults and peers. Infants and toddlers don’t need adults pushing them to learn; rather, young children are naturally eager to seek out experiences and interactions that support their learning. When adults slow down and see the baby as an individual learner with her own goals and ideas, they encourage this motivation.

Think about it ■n How do you believe young children learn? How do you

use this information when interacting with infants and toddlers?

■n Think about a time when you let a baby lead the inter- action. How did that feel to you? How do you think it felt to the baby?

■n How might you help parents who are feeling pressure to have their baby ready for school understand develop- ment and learning?

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99November 2014 Young Children

Try it The next time your impulse is to interact with a child who is already engaged—maybe mouthing a rattle or handling a book—instead, try watching, waiting, and wondering, and then responding.

■n Play follow the leader, and allow the baby to be the leader.

■n Learn more about when typical milestones emerge so that you can help parents under- stand what to expect at different ages and stages.

■n Observe babies to understand what they already know and what skills they are working on, which will help you further promote their development.

■n Check out these trusted websites for more information on development:

■● www.zerotothree.org

■● http://developingchild.harvard.edu

A final thought from Elkind (2007): “Hurrying children into adulthood violates the sanctity of life by giving one period priority over another. But if we really value human life, we will value each pe- riod equally and give unto each stage of life what is appropriate to that stage” (221).

References

Elkind, D. 1987. Miseducation: Preschoolers at Risk. New York: Knopf.

Elkind, D. 2007. The Hurried Child: Growing Up Too Fast Too Soon. 25th ann. ed. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo.

Linda Gillespie, MS, of ZERo To THREE, has worked in the field of early childhood with a specific focus on infants and toddlers for the past 40 years. [email protected]

Emily Adams, MA, is a senior writing and training specialist at ZERo To THREE. She has spent her career in Early Head Start working with infants, toddlers, and their families and supporting teachers and home visitors. [email protected]

Rocking & Rolling is written by infant and toddler specialists and contributed by ZERo To THREE, a nonprofit organization working to promote the health and development of infants and toddlers by translating research and knowledge into a range of practical tools and resources for use by the adults who influence the lives of young children. Rocking and Rolling columns are available at www.naeyc. org/yc/columns.

Copyright © 2014 by the national Association for the Education of Young Children. See Permissions and Reprints online at www.naeyc.org/yc/permissions.

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