module 3 discussion
Bella edwards
myersep11e_lectureslides_ch09.pptxThinking, Language, and Intelligence
Chapter 9
EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY
DAVID G. MYERS | C. NATHAN DEWALL
Chapter Overview
Thinking
Language and Thought
Intelligence and Its Assessment
Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence
Thinking (part 1)
Cognition
All mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Concept
Mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
Simplifies thinking
Prototype
Mental image or best example of a category
Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories
Thinking (part 2)
Categorizing faces influences recollection. Shown a face that was 70 percent Caucasian, people tended to classify the person as Caucasian and to recollect the face as more Caucasian than it was. (Recreation of experiment courtesy of Olivier Corneille.)
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Thinking (part 3)
Problem solving: strategies
Trial and error
Algorithm: Methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
Heuristic: Simple thinking strategy that often allows efficient judgments and problem solving
A heuristic is usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm.
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Thinking (part 4)
Insight
Sudden realization of a problem’s solution
Contrasts with strategy-based solutions
A burst of right temporal lobe activity accompanied insight solutions to word problems (Jung-Beeman et al., 2004). The red dots designate EEG electrodes. The light gray lines show the distribution of high-frequency activity accompanying insight. The insight-related activity is centered in the right temporal lobe (yellow area).
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Thinking (part 5)
Problem solving: obstacles
Confirmation bias: Tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
Fixation: Inability to adopt to a fresh perspective
Mental set: Tendency to approach problems with a mindset of what has worked previously
Thinking (part 6)
Forming good (and bad) decisions and judgments
Intuition: Effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
Representativeness heuristic
Estimating likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes
May lead us to ignore other relevant information
Availability heuristic
Estimating likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
If instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
Thinking (part 7)
The fear factor
Humans fear
What ancestral history has prepared us to fear
What cannot be controlled
What is immediate
What is most readily available in memory (availability) heuristic
We often fear the wrong things!
Thinking (part 8)
Overconfidence
Challenging
Tendency to overestimate accuracy of personal knowledge and judgments
Leads to overestimation of future leisure time and income (planning fallacy)
Can encourage political views, and lead to inflexibility and closed-mindedness
Adaptive
May boost self-confidence, make difficult decisions more easily, and seem competent
Thinking (part 9)
Belief perseverance
Tendency to cling to beliefs in the face of contrary evidence
Often uses motivated reasoning
Framing
Presentation of an issue
Can nudge attitudes and decisions
Thinking (part 10)
Smart intuition
Recognition born of experience
Usually adaptive, enabling quick reactions
Plays a huge role
Smart thinkers
Are deliberate and aware of intuitive option, but know when to override it.
Thinking (part 11)
Thinking creatively
Creativity: Ability to produce new and valuable ideas
Convergent thinking: Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
Divergent thinking: Expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions
Thinking (part 12)
Components of creativity (Sternberg and colleagues)
Expertise
Imaginative thinking skills
Venturesome personality
Intrinsic motivation
Creative environment
Strategies for boosting the creative process
Allow incubation time
Set aside time for the mind to roam freely
Experience other cultures and ways of thinking
Do Other Species Share Our Cognitive Skills?
Nonhuman animals, including all mammals and birds, have neural networks that generate consciousness (Low et al.)
Using concepts and numbers
Displaying insight
Transmitting culture
Other cognitive skills
Animal talents. (a) One male chimpanzee in Sweden’s Furuvik Zoo was observed every morning collecting stones into a neat little pile, which later in the day he used as ammunition to pelt visitors (Osvath & Karvonen, 2012). (b) Crows studied by Christopher Bird and Nathan Emery (2009) quickly learned to raise the water level in a tube and nab a floating worm by dropping in stones. Other crows have used twigs to probe for insects, and bent strips of metal to reach food.
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Language and Thought (part 1)
Language structure
Language
Phoneme
Morpheme
Grammar
Semantics
Syntax
Language: Spoken, written, or signed words and the ways these are combine to communicate meaning.
Phoneme: Smallest distinctive sound unit.
Morpheme: Smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word.
Grammar: System of rules that enables communicate with and understanding of others.
Semantics: Set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds.
Syntax: Set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.
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Language and Thought (part 2)
Language acquisition and development
Chomsky
Unlearned human trait
Universal grammar
Ibbotson and Tomasello (and others)
World languages are more structurally diverse than the universal grammar system
Grammar is learned from the distinct patterns heard
Universal grammar: Built-in predisposition to learn grammar rules.
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Language and Thought (part 3)
Brought together as if on a desert island (actually a school), Nicaragua’s young deaf children over time drew upon sign gestures from home to create their own Nicaraguan Sign Language, complete with words and intricate grammar.
What does this tell us about language?
Our biological predisposition for language does not create language in a vacuum. Instead, activated by a social context, nature and nurture work creatively together (Osborne, 1999; Sandler et al., 2005; Senghas & Coppola, 2001).
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Language and Thought (part 4)
Receptive language
Recognition of differences in speech sounds
Preference for face–sound match
Human infants come with a remarkable capacity to soak up language. But the particular language they learn will reflect their unique interactions with others.
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Language and Thought (part 5)
Productive language
Babbling stage
One-word stage
Two-word stage
Telegraphic speech
Babbling stage: Beginning around 4 months, the stage of speech development in which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.
One-word stage: Stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.
Two-word stage: Beginning about age2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements.
Telegraphic speech: Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—“go car”—using mostly nouns and verbs.
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Language and Thought (part 6)
| Month (approximate) | Stage |
| 4 | Babbles many speech sounds (“ah-goo”) |
| 10 | Babbling resembles household language (“ma-ma”) |
| 12 | One-word speech (“Kitty!”) |
| 24 | Two-word speech (“Get ball.”) |
| 24+ | Rapid development into complete sentences |
Language and Thought (part 7)
Critical periods
Language development follows a sequence
Childhood represents a sensitive period for mastering certain language aspects
The ability to master any language is lost around age 7, if exposure to spoken or signed language does not occur
Prelingually deaf children born to hearing–nonsigning parents typically become linguistically stunted
Language and Thought (part 8)
Our Ability to Learn a New Language Diminishes with Age
Ten years after coming to the United States, Asian immigrants took an English grammar test. Although there is no sharply defined critical period for second- language learning, those who arrived before age 8 understood American English grammar as well as native speakers did. Those who arrived later did not. (Data from Johnson & Newport, 1991.)
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Language and Thought (part 9)
The brain and language
The brain divides mental functions into subfunctions to process language; parallel processing occurs.
Damage to any of several cortical areas can produce aphasia.
Damage to left frontal lobe (Broca’s area): Can sing familiar songs and comprehend speech; struggle with speech production
Damage to left temporal lobe (Wernicke’s area): Can speak only meaningless words; unable to understand speech of others
Language and Thought (part 10)
Language and Thought (part 11)
Do other species have language?
Some animals display basic language processing
Gardner and Gardner (Washoe) (1960s)
Savage-Rumbaugh and colleagues (Kanzi) (1993; 2009)
Skeptics
Simple, ape vocabularies are limited
Learning may be mimicry, not language
Perceptual sets are not clearly seen
Rules of syntax are not evident
Language and Thought (part 12)
Linguistic determinism
Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think
Linguistic relativism
Language has influence on the way we think
Words define mental categories
Perceived differences grow and change with different assigned names (colors)
Different personality profiles may exist in bilingual individuals; bilingual advantage
Language and Thought (part 13)
Language and Perception
When people view blocks of equally different colors, they perceive those with different names as more different. Thus the “green” and “blue” in contrast A may appear to differ more than the two equally different blues in contrast B
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Intelligence and Its Assessment (part 1)
What is intelligence?
Intelligence: Ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
General intelligence (g): According to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
Intelligence and Its Assessment (part 2)
Theories of multiple intelligence
Gardner’s multiple intelligences
Eight (later nine) relatively independent intelligences
Intelligence domains include multiple abilities that come in various configurations
Savant syndrome
Sternberg’s three intelligences
Analytical (academic problem-solving) intelligence
Creative intelligence
Practical intelligence
Gardner and Sternberg differ in some areas, but they agree on two important points: Multiple abilities can contribute to life success, and differing varieties of giftedness bring both spice to life and challenges for education. After being trained to appreciate such variety, many teachers have applied multiple intelligence theories in their classrooms.
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Intelligence and Its Assessment (part 3)
Gardner’s Eight Intelligences
Gardner has also proposed existential intelligence (the ability to ponder deep questions about life) as a ninth possible intelligence.
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Intelligence and Its Assessment (part 4)
Criticisms of multiple intelligence theories
Factor analysis confirms the existence of the general intelligence factor (g)
Extremely high cognitive-ability scores predict exceptional achievements
Expert performance and the 10-year rule
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Intelligence and Its Assessment (part 5)
Emotional Intelligence
Critical part of social intelligence
Includes four abilities
Perceiving emotions
Understanding emotions
Managing emotions
Using emotions
Gardner includes interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence
Social intelligence is the know-how involved in understanding social situations and managing yourself successfully (Cantor, Kihlstron, Thorndike, & Goleman).
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Intelligence and Its Assessment (part 6)
| Theory | Summary | Strengths | Other Considerations |
| Spearman’s general intelligence (g) | A basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied academic areas. | Different abilities, such as verbal and spatial, do have some tendency to correlate. | Human abilities are too diverse to be encapsulated by a single general intelligence factor. |
| Gardner’s multiple intelligences | Our abilities are best classified into eight or nine independent intelligences, which include a broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts. | Intelligence is more than just verbal and mathematical skills. Other abilities are equally important to our human adaptability. | Should all our abilities be considered intelligences? Shouldn’t some be called less vital talents? |
| Sternberg’s triarchic theory | Our intelligence is best classified into three areas that predict real-world success: analytical, creative, and practical. | These three domains can be reliably measured. | These three domains may be less independent than Sternberg thought and may actually share an underlying g factor. |
| Emotional intelligence | Social intelligence is an important indicator of life success. Emotional intelligence is a key aspect, consisting of perceiving, understanding, managing, and using emotions. | These four components predict social success and emotional well-being. | Does this stretch the concept of intelligence too far? |
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Intelligence and Its Assessment (part 7)
Assessing intelligence
Intelligence tests: Assess mental aptitudes and compare them with those of others, using numerical scores
Achievement tests: Intended to reflect what is learned
Aptitude tests: Intended to predict ability to learn some new skill
Intelligence and Its Assessment (part 8)
What do intelligence tests take?
Binet: Predicting school achievement
Same course of intellectual development; rate differs
Mental age
Terman: Measuring innate intelligence
Numerical measure of intelligence (Standard–Binet); relative to average performance
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
Intelligence and Its Assessment (part 9)
What do intelligence tests take?
Wechsler: Tests separate strengths
Yields overall intelligence score and separate scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed
Versions
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISCI); preschool version
2008 WAIS subsets
Similarities
Vocabulary
Block design
Letter–number sequencing
Intelligence and Its Assessment (part 10)
Three tests of a “good” test
Standardized
Normal curve
Reliable
Split-half
Test-retest
Correlation
Valid
Predictive validity
Scores on aptitude tests tend to form a normal, or bell-shaped, curve around an average score. For the Wechsler scale, for example, the average score is 100.
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Intelligence and Its Assessment (part 11)
Extremes of intelligence
Low extreme (Intellectual disability)
Apparent before age 18
Criteria for diagnosis
Intelligence test score indicating performance in lowest 3 percent of general population, or about 70 or below
Difficulty adapting to normal demands of independent living
Conceptual
Social
Practical
Intelligence and Its Assessment (part 12)
Extremes of intelligence
High extreme
Terman’s high-scoring children; IQ over 135; high levels of education attained
Lubinski’s high math SAT scores at age 13; top 1 percent; 1650 patents by age 50
Kell and others high verbal aptitude 13-year-old; professors or doctorates at age 38
Intelligence and Its Assessment (part 13)
Intelligence across the life span
Before age 3: Modest prediction of future aptitudes from casual observation and intelligence tests
By age 4: Intelligence tests begin to predict adolescent and adult score
By ages 11 to 70: Impressive stability, independent of life circumstances
The consistency of scores over time increases with the age of the child.
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Intelligence and Its Assessment (part 14)
When Ian Deary and his colleagues retested 80-year-old Scots, using an intelligence test they had taken as 11-year-olds, their scores across seven decades correlated +0.66, as shown here. (Data from Deary et al., 2004.) When 106 survivors were again retested at age 90, the correlation with their age 11 scores was +0.54 (Deary et al., 2013).
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Intelligence and Its Assessment (part 15)
Why do children and adults who are more intelligent tend to live healthier and longer lives?
Intelligence facilitates more education, better jobs, and a healthier environment.
Intelligence encourages healthy living: less smoking, better diet, more exercise.
Prenatal events or early childhood illnesses can influence both intelligence and health.
A “well-wired body,” as evidenced by fast reaction speeds, may foster both intelligence and longevity.
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Thinking Critically About Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Studies
Researchers using the cross-sectional method study different groups at one time. They have found that mental ability declines with age.
Researchers using the longitudinal method study and restudy the same group at different times in their life span. They have found that intelligence remains stable, and on some tests it even increases.
Intelligence and Its Assessment (part 16)
Aging and Intelligence
Cohort
Crystallized intelligence
Fluid intelligence
Intelligence and Its Assessment (part 17)
Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence (part 1)
Heredity and intelligence
Heritability: Portion of variation among people in group that is attributed to genes
Heritability of intelligence: Varies from study to study
Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence (part 2)
The most genetically similar people have the most similar intelligence scores. Remember: 1.00 indicates a perfect correlation; zero indicates no correlation at all. (Data from McGue et al., 1993.)
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Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence (part 3)
Environment and intelligence
Several studies suggest that a shared environment exerts a modest influence on intelligence test scores.
Adoption from poverty into middle-class homes
Adoption of mistreated or neglected children
Intelligence scores of “virtual twins”
Genetic influences become more apparent as life experience is accumulated.
Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence (part 4)
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Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence (part 5)
Gene–environment interactions
Epigenetics: Microbiology study of nature–nurture nexus
Genes shape experiences that can shape us in positive and negative ways
Severe deprivation and brain development
Impact of early intervention
Growth mindset
Focus on learning and growing; belief that intelligence is changeable
Ability + opportunity + motivation = success
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Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence (part 6)
Group differences in intelligence test scores
Gender similarities and differences
Men estimate own intelligence as higher than do women
Actual differences are minor; influence may be related to social expectations and opportunities
During school
Girls outpace boys in spelling, verbal fluency, and locating objects; increased sensitivity to emotions, touch, taste, and color
Boys outperform girls on complex math problems, spatial ability tests; more low and high extremes
Little gender difference in math computation and overall math
Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence (part 7)
Racial and ethnic similarities and differences: Scientifically agreed-upon facts
Racial and ethnic groups IQ test score differences
High-scoring people (and groups) are more likely to attain higher education and income levels
Group differences provide little basis for judging individuals
Might racial and ethnic gaps be environmental?
Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence (part 8)
Are intelligence tests biased?
Depends on which definition of bias is used
Scientific meaning based on test validity
Everyday language considers fairness or unfairness of a test
Test-taker expectations
Stereotype threat
