Impact of music on consumer behaviour

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The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research

ISSN: 0959-3969 (Print) 1466-4402 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rirr20

The Effects of Background Music on Consumer Responses in a High-end Supermarket

Irena Vida , Claude Obadia & Michelle Kunz

To cite this article: Irena Vida , Claude Obadia & Michelle Kunz (2007) The Effects of Background Music on Consumer Responses in a High-end Supermarket, The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research, 17:5, 469-482, DOI: 10.1080/09593960701631532

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09593960701631532

Published online: 09 Nov 2007.

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The Effects of Background Music on Consumer Responses in a High-end Supermarket

IRENA VIDA*, CLAUDE OBADIA** & MICHELLE KUNZ{

*University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia, **ADVANCIA, Graduate School of Entrepreneurship,

Paris, France, {Morehead State University, Morehead, USA

ABSTRACT This study examines the effects of in-store background music valence (liking) and music fit with the overall store image on consumer evaluative and behavioural responses in the context of a high-end supermarket chain. Based on the previous body of work, a conceptual model is developed to examine music valence on customer appraisal of store offering and personnel, and on the length of shopping time and the value of purchase. The influence of the perceived music fit with the overall store image on shopping time is also assessed in the model. The hypothesized re- lationships are examined via covariance analysis using store-intercept consumer data. Implica- tions of the structural analyses results for management of retail store brands and for future research on music as an element of store atmospherics are discussed.

KEY WORDS: Atmospherics, music valence, store image, appraisal of retail offering, appraisal of sales personnel

Introduction

Service and retailing organizations increasingly recognize that their outlets provide a powerful medium to build their firms’ image, increase customer and staff satisfaction and lead to greater productivity. While Philip Kotler was the first to introduce the term ‘atmospherics’ in the context of retailing, the definition of atmospherics has later been expanded to refer to ‘. . . the tailoring of the designed environment to enhance the likelihood of desired effects or outcomes’ (Greenland and McGoldrick, 1994: 2). Various elements and forms of atmospherics such as lighting, colours, music, scents, and visual communications are employed by retailers to induce emotions in shoppers and to influence shopping behaviour (Machleit and Mantel, 2001; Levy and Weitz, 2004). In the past decade, music in particular has become a major element in the design of atmospherics, and one of the most studied ‘general interior cues’ (Turley and Milliman, 2000; Garlin and Owen, 2006). Music appears to be a central strategic lever in store atmospherics because of its proven effects on

Correspondence Address: Irena Vida, Associate Professor & Department Chair, University of Ljubljana,

Faculty of Economics, Department of Marketing, Kardeljeva ploš�cad 17, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia. Tel.: þ386-1-561-8291; Fax: þ386-1-5892-698; Email: [email protected]

Int. Rev. of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research Vol. 17, No. 5, 469 – 482, December 2007

ISSN 0959-3969 Print/1466-4402 Online/07/050469-14 � 2007 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/09593960701631532

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consumers as well as the relatively low costs involved in music selection and implementation in the retail setting. While retailers generally express their commitment to the use of music as an integral component of the store environment (Anonymous, 2004, 2005), its specific effects on customer behavioural responses in the store are complex and often misunderstood, and its effects on brand equity underestimated (Beverland et al., 2006).

Research investigating music in the retail environment has analysed music elements such as tempo, volume, type of music and consumer preferences, along with their effects on shoppers’ behaviour, their emotional responses, temporal effects and consumer spending patterns. However, the divergence of the findings across studies examining a range of retail settings (for example, retail banking, dining facilities and various retail formats) suggests our understanding of the workings of the atmospheric music on shoppers’ affective and behavioural responses is still somewhat scant. Many studies, particularly those focusing on music pleasure effects, employ experimental designs in laboratory settings and limit their investigations to the effects of pleasant vs. unpleasant music (Dube and Morin, 2001; Garlin and Owen, 2006). This article addresses these gaps in the literature in that it examines the effects of in-store background music valence (liking) and music fit with the overall store image on consumer attitudes and behavioural response in an emerging retail market. More specifically, the first objective of this research was to assess the impact of music valence on customer appraisal of store offering and on appraisal of the sales personnel, and subsequently on the length of shopping time and the value of purchase. Second, the influence of perceived music fit with the overall store image on the time spent in the store is examined in the context of a high-end retail chain.

With these objectives in mind, we structure the article as follows: we first briefly discuss the theoretical conceptualizations in studying relationships between environmental cues and consumer behaviour in the context of service and product providers. On this basis and existing empirical work, we advance a conceptual framework and develop a set of research hypotheses. Research methods with respect to construct measures, data collection and analyses are presented next. The findings of hypotheses testing via covariance analysis are then discussed, and conclusions are drawn relating our results to previous work in the field. Finally, we discuss the limitations of the study, provide directions for future research efforts and offer implications for retail brand managers.

Theoretical Background on the Environment-Behaviour Relationship

The most commonly used theoretical paradigm in the existing body of empirical research addressing the impact of atmospherics (including music) stems from environmental psychology (Garlin and Owen, 2006) and focuses on relationships between environmental stimuli, emotional reaction and individuals’ behavioural responses. This premise was introduced by Mehrabian and Russell (1974) who developed the M-R model examining individuals’ reactions to environmental cues through mediating non-verbal responses related to three dimensions: Pleasure, Arousal and Dominance (PAD). The first two dimensions simply refer to the extent that a specific environmental cue is enjoyable vs. not enjoyable, and to the extent that it stimulates the individual, that is, it results in approach vs. avoidance behaviours

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(for example, the length of time a shopper spends in the store). A number of studies conducted in a retail setting (and reported in this review in subsequent sections) confirm that shopper behaviours are, in fact, linked to measures of pleasure and arousal, but not necessarily to dominance. This third dimension in the M-R model relates to whether a person feels ‘in’ control vs. ‘under’ control in the environment. WhileWard and Barnes (2001) conclude that dominance is not a redundant dimension of emotional reaction to the environment, Yalch and Spangenberg (2000: 140) state that ‘it remains unclear whether difficulties in identifying behaviours associated with dominance reflect its small influence on behavior or the need for improved measurement’.

Some of the first researchers to test the M-R model in a retail setting were Donovan and Rossiter (1982), who confirmed that the dimensions of pleasure and arousal were significant mediators between environmental stimuli and consumer responses. They also identified difficulties in measuring the effects of store atmospheric elements, claiming that the atmospherics primarily induce transient emotional states which are difficult to recall and articulate, and tend to influence behaviours in the retail facility itself rather than affect other choices, such as store selection decisions. Since then, a number of studies delving into affective outcomes of designed product and service retail settings have utilized the PAD approach, including those investigating music effects in the context of virtual stores (for example, Herrington, 1996; Hui and Dube, 1997; McGoldrick and Pieros, 1998; Mattilla and Wirtz, 2001; Menon and Kahn, 2002; Chebat and Michon, 2003; Greenland and McGoldrick, 2005; Spangenberg et al., 2006).

Another model examining the overall impact of the physical environment on individuals’ behavioural responses in service organizations is offered by Bitner (1992). The author proposes that a person’s perception of environmental conditions such as ambient physical characteristics, space layout and furnishings as well as symbols and artefacts used will affect physiological, cognitive and emotional responses of both customers and staff alike, and in turn affect their attitudes and behaviours in service settings. For example, based on the premise that in-store music leads to the activation of relevant knowledge structures, North et al. (1999) examined the effect of stereotypically French and German music played in the alcohol beverage section of a supermarket on consumers’ selection of wines from these two countries. They found that, indeed, music from a specific country led to higher sales of wines from that country, but added that the effects of musical fit on product selection were not necessarily consciously recognized by the shoppers.

Building on existing environment-behavioural response models, Greenland and McGoldrick (1994) develop the ‘indirect effects’ model and empirically apply it to the retail financial services sector. They view environmental effects on consumer behaviour as ‘involving a complex relationship between the branch environment, its staff and its customers, as well as their emotional responses to their environment, their evaluation of it along various design dimensions and their assessment of core service aspects’ (Greenland and McGoldrick, 1994: 4). In their model, they also account for individuals’ characteristics such as socio-demographics and experience with the provider. Furthermore, having investigated the effects of multiple environmental cues specifically in a product retailing setting, Baker et al. (2002) proposed that design, ambient and social dimensions of the store environment and

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consumer perceptions of service quality, merchandise, value, effort and psychic cost (that is, store choice criteria) affect store patronage decisions.

Conceptual Framework for the Study: The Effects of Music in Retail Settings

Using the aforementioned theoretical frameworks, a number of contemporary empirical studies explore the impact of background music elements on affective and behavioural variables. For instance, in the context of an Italian restaurant in Scotland, Caldwell and Hibbert (2002) found that both music tempo and music preference were significantly related to the time spent in a restaurant when each was examined independently. However, only music preference was significant when tempo and preference were analysed together. The researchers concluded in this study that only the time spent in the restaurant had a significant effect on the total amount the customer spent. Yalch and Spangenberg (2000) found that customers incorrectly reported that they shopped longer when exposed to familiar music; they actually shopped longer when they were exposed to unfamiliar music. They surmised the shorter actual shopping time in the familiar music situation was linked to an increased arousal. Using an experimental research design, these researchers found no statistical significance in the liking of the music, only in familiarity. Moreover, the subjects reported a great sense of dominance when listening to unfamiliar music as compared to familiar music. Similarly, a study by Ward and Barnes (2001) found that customers who had a higher sense of control in the retail service environment reported pleasanter feelings, and being more aroused and involved in the encounter, as compared to customers who had a lower sense of control.

A number of studies report on the effects of music dimensions (for example, volume, tempo, rhythm) on individuals’ behavioural responses. For instance, a Ronald Milliman study conducted in the 1990s (Bogomolny, 2003) found that fast-tempo songs helped with turnover in a restaurant and that diners ordered three more drinks when medium-tempo music was played. Another 1999 study commissioned by the Ivanhoe CDP Group, Montreal, determined that mall shoppers lingered longer and paid more attention to merchandise when slow background music was played. On the other hand, in a study exploring the effects of background music in a supermarket environment, Herrington (1996) found that tempo and volume of the music did not significantly influence the shopping time or the purchase amount. Rather, the amount of time and money spent in the store were positively related to the shoppers’ level of preference for the music. Hence, shopping time and expenditure increased with the level of preference for the music, regardless of the tempo or volume.

In the body of work focusing on shoppers’ emotional responses, Hui and Dube (1997) examined the effect of background music on the perceived wait time and found that music valence (liking) had a positive effect on emotions, even though the subjects tended to report longer perceived waiting times. Using an experimental research design in the context of banking services, the study found that, overall, the music ameliorates emotional evaluation of the services environment which in turn leads to a stronger approach behaviour towards the service organization. In a study on background music pleasure intensity in a field setting (for example, a mall outlet of a specialty apparel chain), Dube and Morin (2001) determined that attitude toward the servicescape (that is, retail environment), attitude toward sales personnel

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and overall store evaluation were more positive in the high-pleasure intensity scenario. The findings of this study suggested that intense pleasure induced a more positive attitude toward sales personnel and strengthened the relationship between consumers’ attitudes towards sales personnel and store evaluation. Other studies also suggest that the feelings of pleasure derived from background music can enhance shoppers’ evaluation of the store and its elements (for example, Gorn et al., 1993; Oakes, 2000; Yalch and Spanenberg, 2000; Matilla and Wirtz, 2001).

Against this theoretical and empirical work, we propose the following five research hypotheses, which are then summarized and discussed in the conceptual framework for the study (see Figure 1):

H1: Music valence (liking) has a positive influence on a) a shopper appraisal of the store offering, and b) a positive influence on a shopper appraisal of store personnel.

H2: A shopper appraisal of the store offering has a) a positive influence on the time spent in the store, and b) a positive influence on the money spent in the store.

H3: A shopper appraisal of sales personnel has a) a positive influence on the time spent in the store, and b) a positive influence on the money spent in the store.

H4: The time spent in the store has a positive influence on the money spent.

H5: The perceived fit of the music with the overall store image has a positive influence on the time spent in the store.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework for the study

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As shown in Figure 1, the conceptual model suggests that music valence (liking) will have a positive effect on shoppers’ appraisal of store offering (H1a) and on their appraisal of sales personnel (H1b). Music valence refers to the hedonic quality of a stimulus and its positive affective experience that is reflected in the mood of a respondent. Indeed, a recent study supports the extant research on the positive effects of music liking on consumers’ mood (Beverland et al., 2006). We expect the pleasure or displeasure derived from the background music will result in the positive (negative) reinforcement of evaluative judgements of the retailer’s offering and its service personnel. This is consistent with dominant paradigms discussed in the theory section and existing empirical work (for example, MacInnis and Park, 1991; Gorn et al., 1993; McGoldrick and Pieros, 1998; Oakes, 2000; Dube and Morin, 2001).

Further, we posit (Figure 1) that both shoppers’ appraisal of store offering and appraisal of sales personnel will subsequently have a positive and significant effect on the time shoppers spent in the retail store (H2a and H3a), and a positive and significant effect on the amount of money shoppers spent in the shop (H2b and H3b). In line with these two assertions (H2 and H3), we then expect that the longer the shoppers linger in the store, the more money they will tend to spent (H4). This set of hypotheses reflects the previous body of work on effects of pleasure and arousal on customer approach/avoidance behavioural responses to environmental cues (for example, Baker et al., 2002; Herrington, 1996; Caldwell and Hibbert, 2002; Chebat and Michon, 2003; Greenland and McGoldrick, 2005).

Lastly, we expect that the greater the perceived music fit with the retailer’s overall image, the more time the shoppers will spend in the store (H5). Music fit with store image refers to congruency between music and other atmospherics and retail image variables in the minds of consumers (D’Astous, 2000; Baker et al., 2002; Bitner, 1992; Garlin and Owen, 2006). For example, based on the premise that consumers perceive ambient stimuli holistically, Mattila and Wirtz (2001) manipulated the effects of scent and music in a specialty store setting. They offered evidence that only when the two environmental cues match in terms of their arousing qualities, they can enhance consumers’ evaluations of and behaviours in the shopping experience, and encourage impulse shopping. In discussing the effects of music misfit in retail facilities, Beverland et al. (2006: 988) conclude: ‘. . . misfit triggers counterfactual thinking about the brand and the store, potentially leading to discomfort, exit, or non-entry’. Conversely, the perception of music fit with the overall store image may result in a positive experience for consumers who, as a result, should spend more time in the retail facility. In their qualitative study of in-store music-brand fit, Beverland et al. (2006) advance a conceptual model, whereby they specifically account for the effect of the degree of music fit with the store/product brand perception on the customers’ cognitive and emotional processes and subsequently on their attitudinal/behavioural outcomes, including the amount of time spent in the store, satisfaction, willingness to pay and purchase intention.

Research Methodology

The proposed hypotheses were tested in a natural setting using the store-intercept method as customers were leaving the checkout counter at two large supermarkets in the capital city of a new European Union member state. Background music in this

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high-end retail chain was played at the same moderate volume throughout the data collection period, which took place over the course of a week at different times during the day. Trained interviewers invited shoppers to participate in the study of music and customer satisfaction; 332 shoppers declared having paid attention to the background music in the store and were willing to complete the questionnaire (response rate of 54.8 percent). These shoppers then represented the study sample with a mean age of 31.4 years (SD of 12.8). Other demographic characteristics (shown in Table 1) indicate the sample consisted of 65.1 percent females, over 60 percent with at least a high school level of education, and over 55 percent employed or self-employed.

The mean time spent in the store (a self-reported measure) was 21.5 minutes and the mean amount of money spent in the store (based on the checkout receipt) was e16.60. No statistically significant differences were observed in the focal variables of this research as a function of the day in the week, time of the day or the data collection site. In addition to questions related to demographics and the time and money spent, our research instrument consisted of 5-point semantic differential scales measuring the constructs identified in our conceptual model. Construct measures have been derived from existing literature (Bitner, 1992; Herrington, 1996; Dube and Morin, 2001; Baker et al., 2002) and have been adapted based on preliminary discussions with consumers and market research professionals. Following a series of pre-tests, our research instrument was modified to accommodate the necessary changes in the wording of the items. While we provide more information on our measures in the subsequent section, the constructs included in the research instrument consisted of music valence (two items related to liking vs. disliking, positive vs. negative affect on mood), appraisal of the store offering (three items related to merchandise selection, quality of merchandise, product layout in the store), appraisal of sales personnel (four items related to availability, appearance, competence and helpfulness) and music fit with the elements of store image (calculated as an index, that is, unweighted average of items scores), which included items such

Table 1. Sample characteristics

Total sample N¼ 332

Gender Female 65.1% Male 34.9%

Level of education Primary school or less 12.0% High school 48.5% Some college 15.4% University degree or higher 24.1%

Current employment status High school or university students 36.7% Employed or self-employed 55.2% Retired 5.4% Unemployed 3.0% Works in household 0.6%

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as fit with merchandise assortment and quality, pricing, visual merchandising, advertising, store personnel and an overall atmosphere in the store (McGoldrick, 2002; Levy and Weitz, 2004).

Analyses and Findings

Hypotheses were tested via a Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) method using AMOS 4 software. The Maximum Likelihood estimation technique was adopted because of its robustness to potential violations of the strict assumptions of SEM (Byrne, 2001). Following Anderson and Gerbing’s (1988) recommendations, the analysis was conducted in two steps. A measurement model was analysed first, followed by the evaluation of a structural model in order to assess the hypothesized relationships among the constructs.

An exploratory factor analysis showed that all the latent constructs were unidimensional. All the indicators displayed characteristics that did not challenge the assumption of normality (Bollen, 1989). We then proceeded with a confirmatory factor analysis. The final measurement model included three first-order reflective constructs and the nine indicators used to measure them. The fit statistics of the model indicate a very good fit to the data (w2¼ 31.8, d.f. 24, p¼ 0.13; GFI¼ 0.979; NFI¼ 0.966; NNFI¼ 0.987; CFI¼ 0.991; RMSEA¼ 0.031). Table 2 indicates, for

Table 2. Measures and scale properties

Scale properties and items

Items standardized loadings

Music valence rf¼ 0.71 rvc¼ 0.55 1. How would you evaluate the music playing in the store today? 0.72

Like it very much : : : : : Dislike it completely

2. To what extent has the music in the store affected your mood during your visit in the store today?

0.76

Very positively : : : : : Very negatively

Appraisal of store offering rf¼ 0.75 rvc¼ 0.49 Based on your experience in this store, how would you evaluate the

following characteristics of this store: Excellent : : : : : Very poor

1. Merchandise selection 0.72 2. Quality of merchandise 0.71 3. Product layout 0.68

Appraisal of sales personnel rf¼ 0.83 rvc¼ 0.55 Based on your experience during your visit in this store, how would you evaluate the following characteristics of the sales personnel:

Exceptional : : : : : Very poor 1. Availability 0.74 2. Competence 0.69 3. Helpfulness 0.82 4. Appearance 0.73

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each construct, the measurement items used with the standardized loading of each indicator, the composite reliability index -rf (Gerbing and Anderson, 1988) and the variance extracted rvc (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). All measures exhibit indices very close or superior to the reference values of rf¼ 0.6, rvc¼ 0.5 (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988).

Next, the discriminant validity of each latent construct was assessed by conducting three w2 difference tests where latent variables where evaluated two at a time. First, their correlation was constrained to be equal to one. Then, this model was compared to a second model where this constraint was released. A difference of w2 superior to 3.84 (d.f.¼ 1) indicated discriminant validity. All three scales passed this test easily with w2 differences of 47.9, 54.5 and 75.7. Once the construct reliability, convergent validity and discriminant validity were established, the structural model was evaluated in order to test the hypothesized relationships between constructs. The fit indices indicate an outstanding conformance of the model to the data (w2¼ 47.3, d.f. 38, p¼ 0.14; GFI¼ 0.974; NFI¼ 0.957; NNFI¼ 0.987; CFI¼ 0.991; RMSEA¼ 0.027). The model explains 32.6 percent of the variance in the dependent variable (money spent in the store). Table 3 summarizes the results of hypotheses testing for the baseline model (hypotheses H1–H4). While hypotheses H1a, H1b, H2a and H4 are verified, support was found for neither the relationship between shoppers’ appraisal of store offering on money spent (H2b) nor for the relationship between shoppers’ appraisal of sales personnel on time and on money spent in the store (H3a, H3b).

In order to test hypothesis H5 related to the influence of music fit with the store image on time spent in the store, we opted for a two-group analysis. This method has two advantages: 1) there is no need to assume any correlation between the variable music fit with the store image and the other exogenous variables in the model; and 2) it is possible to calculate the actual supplement of time that shoppers will spend in the store when they perceive a good music fit with the store image. Hence, the

Table 3. Baseline model results: hypotheses 1–4 testing

Hypo- thesis Antecedent

Criterion variable

Standardized regression coefficient T value* Result

H1a Music valence Appraisal of store offering

0.593 5.53 Supported

H1b Music valence Appraisal of sales personnel

0.445 5.32 Supported

H2a Appraisal of store offering

Time spent in the store

0.365 3.29 Supported

H2b Appraisal of store offering

Money spent in the store

0.105 1.13 Not supported

H3a Appraisal of sales personnel

Time spent in the store

70.071 70.71 Not supported

H3b Appraisal of sales personnel

Money spent in the store

70.089 71.07 Not supported

H4 Time spent in the store

Money spent in the store

0.549 11.14 Supported

Note: *Significant at p� 0.05 if jtj � 1.96.

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variable was dichotomized around the median. The two-group analysis consisted of constraining the parameter to be evaluated (the intercept of the variable time spent) to be equal between the two groups. Then, the w2 of this model was compared with a model where this constraint had been released. A significant difference in w2 of 114.5 indicated very strong support for the hypothesis tested (significant at p� 0.05 if Dw24 3.84 with a difference in d.f.¼ 1). Specifically, the difference in time spent in the store between the respondents who perceived a good music fit with the retail store image and those who did not was 22 minutes.

Discussion of Findings and Conclusions

The results of our structural analyses indicate that shoppers’ liking of the music in the natural retail setting and the perceived music fit with the store image positively affected the length of shopping time, which, in turn, indirectly influenced consumers’ expenditure. The finding that the music valence does not influence shoppers’ behaviours directly (it does so only through the intermediation of the store offering appraisal) is consistent with the theoretical premise of the M-R model. That is, the effects of pleasure/displeasure (music valence) on approach/avoidance responses (shopping time) are mediated through evaluative judgements—in our case, evaluation of the store offering and evaluation of the sales personnel.

However, our analyses failed to confirm that the shoppers’ appraisal of sales personnel affected either the time or the money spent in the store. These results may be attributed to the fact that this research was conducted in a large supermarket setting (although at a high-end, service-oriented retail chain) rather than in the smaller specialty store context, as was the case in previous studies (for example, Dube and Morin, 2001; Mattilla and Wirtz, 2001). Task-oriented shopping environments offer fewer opportunities for observation and interaction with store personnel as compared to retail outlets patronized for recreational purposes. Our results seem to support the Greenland and McGoldrick (1994) ‘indirect effects’ model of the designed environment whereby the authors identify a moderating role of proxy indicators such as reliability, approachability and flexibility of staff, but claim that these tend to be most influential within service environments where customers lack direct experience with the tangible characteristics of their product offerings.

Contrary to our expectations, we found no effect of music valence (through the store offering appraisal) on the money spent in the store, but only an indirect effect through the time spent in the store. Thus, unlike other studies that used alternative research designs and analytical techniques to evaluate the effect of background music on attitudinal, temporal and expenditure dimensions (Herrington, 1996; Caldwell and Hibbert, 2002), our research clearly identified shopping time as the only direct determinant of the amount of money spent in the store.

In response to the call for more research focusing on relationships between store music and other elements of atmospherics and retail branding in recent literature (Dorsey, 2005; Beverland et al., 2006; Garlin and Owen, 2006), this study delved not only into the role of music valence, but also highlighted the impact of the perceived music fit with the store image on the length of time shoppers spent in the store. In our research, the perceived fit of the music lengthened the shopping time by 22

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minutes. This clearly indicates the need for adequate fit of the music with the various elements of the store image, including merchandise assortment and quality, pricing, visual merchandising, advertising, store personnel and overall atmosphere. While research on store music fit with other elements of store atmospherics or retail image seems scant, prior work in retailing and advertising underlines the need for match between music and commercial messages (MacInnis and Park, 1991; Chebat et al., 2001). Our findings provide evidence that the background music not only induces positive feelings in shoppers, but also plays an important role as an intrinsic element of the store atmospherics and retail branding.

Future Research and Managerial Implications

In conducting this research, considerable efforts have been undertaken to employ a sound conceptual basis when applying existing knowledge to a novel research context, to select an adult sample of shoppers, and to utilize solid measures and relevant analytical methods to test the model. However, a few limitations still apply, which, in turn, open questions for future research agenda. In the subsequent section we also discuss several managerial implications that emerge from our findings.

While clearly offering some advantage over laboratory settings, our data collection was performed in an actual retail context whereby influences other than the music itself may have affected the respondents’ evaluation of the store offering and sales personnel. As environmental psychologists have long postulated, previous studies also confirm that people tend to respond to environmental cues holistically (Bitner, 1992; Mattila and Wirtz, 2001). We attempted to account for effects of other environmental stimuli in the retail setting by including the perception of music fit with the overall store image in our conceptual model. Nevertheless, future studies may wish to explore and measure simultaneously various environmental cues as drivers of in-store evaluations and behaviour. In discussing complexities inherent in empirical research on environment–behaviour relationships, Greenland and McGoldrick (1994: 3) note that: ‘. . . many attributes making up an environment exert their effects at or below the conscious level of awareness, which can lead to inaccuracies and misinterpretation of findings’. Clearly, given the objectives of this research, our data collection was limited to the conscious effects of atmospheric music, as respondents had to notice the music in order to respond to our measures of music valence and music fit with the store image.

The findings of this study are somewhat generalizable to high-end supermarkets using moderate volume background music. Future studies would do well to examine linkages advanced in our conceptual model in other retail formats using background and/or even foreground music, which is intended to be heard and enhance the view of the product (Rubel, 1996; Dorsey, 2005; Wilson, 2005). In light of our results, it would be particularly interesting to investigate the impact of sales personnel appraisal on behavioural responses in a high service context (for example, specialty retail store, travel agent) where delivering excellent interpersonal performance represents a major source of enduring competitive advantage.

Considering the aim of this study was to examine not only music valence but also, for the first time, the effects of music fit on shopper behavioural responses, our

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conceptual model has not accounted for individual characteristics of shoppers and their shopping motives which could have affected the music pleasure effects on subsequent variables. Previous studies have shown that individuals’ response moderators determine consumers’ perceptions of Servicescapes (Bitner, 1992). Since the literature in the field (for example, McGoldrick and Pieros, 1998; Machleit and Mantel, 2001; Mattila and Wirtz, 2001; Morschett et al., 2005) also emphasizes that consumption-related goals influence the impact of environmental stimuli on consumer evaluation of shopping experience, future examinations ought to include these variables to gain further insights into the validity of our model.

With respect to the return on investment from the use of music in a retail environment, findings in this study suggest that the only behaviour to be influenced by the music valence and by the music fit with the store image is the propensity to shop longer. Given the significant effect of temporal dimensions on shopping expenditure identified in our study, three important implications emerge. First, if store managers wish to retain shoppers in their facilities, they should carefully select background music to closely match tastes and preferences of their core clientele. While this may be challenging due to the highly idiosyncratic nature of musical tastes and broadly defined target segments that task-oriented retail formats (for example, supermarkets) tend to serve (Turley and Milliman, 2000), managers should keep in mind that ‘. . . an emotionally taxing environment can negatively impact patronage even more than price considerations’ (Garlin and Owen, 2006: 755).

Second, managers should choose music not only to reflect preferences of their core clientele, but should also make sure their music selection matches and complements the other atmospheric stimuli utilized in their outlets as well as the overall store image. Our results with respect to the effects of music fit clearly indicate that music needs to co-create and correspond to a retailer’s positioning in the market. This finding reiterates previous work stating that mismatch between elements of atmospherics, staffing and processes may not only result in irritating shopper experience but also weaken the positive effects of individual variables (D’Astous, 2000; Mattila and Wirtz, 2001; Beverland et al., 2006).

Finally, this research delving into music valence and music fit raises the question about the actual cognizance of the managers regarding the effects of atmospheric music on shoppers’ evaluative and behavioural responses, and their ability to manipulate this and other sensory stimuli in different retail types of stores and in different situations. With a few exceptions (for example, Areni, 2003), there is a dearth of research examining the perspective of retail management. Nonetheless, existing evidence suggests that in selecting and monitoring the effects of music as an atmospheric tool, managers still tend to take a somewhat random approach (Dube and Morin, 2001; Garlin and Owen, 2006). Our findings clearly reaffirm that if managers want the time spent in their facilities converted into an enhanced sensory experience for their shoppers and ultimately into sales performance, the selection of music should be based on systematic customer research rather than on employees’ personal tastes. This knowledge, alongside a clear understanding of the music fit, can secure adequate positioning of their brand with the target market and avoid deterioration of brand equity and unintended repositioning (Beverland et al., 2006).

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