Muhumed_150343.docxRunning head: MODELS AND DIPLOMATIC APPROACHES 1
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Decision-Making Models and Diplomatic Approaches Comment by Johnathan: Hi, Abdirahim! Welcome to the Online Writing Center (OWC). My name is Johnathan, and I will be your OWC tutor. Thank you for giving me the opportunity to help you further develop your writing skills. I count it a great privilege to help you in your academic journey. Please note that I will not edit (or revise) the paper for you. I will, however, make some helpful suggestions and point out errors that you may use as an indication of what areas to focus on during the revising and editing phase. Rather than commenting on every instance of a particular error, I will use the phrase “apply throughout” on the first appearance of that particular error when a pattern of error has been noted. You should then look for reoccurrences of that error and revise as needed. When applicable, I will also provide you with links to helpful resources. Be sure to review the Turabian Quick Guide before submitting your paper for final grading. Thank you for using the OWC, Johnathan Disclaimer: Remember that the OWC is not an editing service. Our comments and suggestions are not exhaustive. Our service is designed to help you recognize and correct your writing so that you can become a better writer. Unless otherwise noted, formatting suggestions follow the 9th edition of A Manual for Writers by Kate L. Turabian and should conform to the NOTES-BIBLIOGRAPHY format (unless otherwise instructed). If in doubt about whether to use the 9th edition, please consult your professor.
Student’s Name
Institutional Affiliation
Course Name and Number
Instructor’s Name Comment by Johnathan: This is a nice attempt on the title page, but it needs just a bit of revision. An example of the standardized Turabian title page can be found on the sample paper that is on the .
Date Comment by Johnathan: Unlike APA format, Turabian does not use a running head. For additional assistance, see the OWC Turabian Format Quick Guide. Comment by Johnathan: Any front matter is numbered with lowercase Roman numerals centered in the footer. The title page is considered front matter, and thus, it is considered page i. However, the title page does not receive a page number. The body of the paper begins on page 1, using Arabic numbers (1,2,3, etc.) in the right-hand side of the header (Turabian A.1.4). For additional assistance, see the OWC Turabian Format Quick Guide. The following link also may be helpful: Pagination.
Decision-Making Models and Diplomatic Approaches Comment by Johnathan: Unlike APA format, Turabian format does not include the title of the paper on the first page of the paper. For additional assistance, see the OWC Turabian Format Quick Guide.
Policy-Making Models
Policy-making models are analytical tools that serve as a simplified representation of reality. The five main examples of policy-making models include; the rational actor model, prospect theory, the bureaucratic politics model, the small group pluralism, and the elite theory. Comment by Johnathan: In Turabian formatting, the text of the paper is to be aligned to the left, not “justified” (Turabian A.1). Apply throughout. For additional assistance, see the OWC Turabian Format Quick Guide. Comment by Johnathan: Semicolons are used to link independent clauses (complete sentences) not joined by coordinating conjunctions. Semicolons should join only those independent clauses that are closely related in meaning. Apply throughout. Ex.: The pastor read the passage; preached for an hour. This is incorrect because the underlined section is not an independent clause. Revised: The pastor read the passage and preached for an hour. Comment by Johnathan: A paragraph is typically three or more sentences. The first sentence is the topic sentence that introduces the topic of the paragraph. The remaining sentences describe and detail the topic of the paragraph. Consider developing this paragraph a bit further. The following resource may be helpful: Paragraph Construction. Comment by Johnathan: This is a nice start to the introduction. An introduction introduces the topic (what are we reading about?), explains briefly the significance of the study (why does it matter), gives an overview of the main points (where are we going?), and offers a thesis statement (what will be argued, proven, explained, or refuted?). The following link may be helpful: The Introduction.
The rational actor model entails an action-reaction process in which foreign policy is viewed as a calculated response to the actions of other actors. In this case, the state carrying out the calculation is perceived as rational and unitary since it responds to external events with a single voice. Under this model, objectives are clearly stated and ordered according to priority, the parties consider all the options and critically assess the consequences of each option so that they can arrive at a value-maximizing and robust decisions.[footnoteRef:1] There are two main approaches of the rational actor model; inductive and deductive which are employed in diplomatic histories and military strategies respectively. Comment by Johnathan: This sentence is a Run-On Sentence caused by a comma splice. When two or more independent clauses are joined by a comma without a coordinating conjunction or a joining word that is not a coordinating conjunction, the result is a comma splice. Fixing a run-on sentence can be accomplished in one of five different ways: 1. Separate the clauses into separate sentences. 2. Replace the comma or conjunction with a semi-colon. 3. Replace the comma or coordinating conjunction with a subordinating conjunction--after, although, before, unless, as, because, even though, if, since, until, when, while. 4. Replace the comma or coordinating conjunction with a semi-colon and transitional word--however, moreover, on the other hand, nevertheless, instead, also, therefore, consequently, otherwise, as a result. 5. For severe run-on sentences, combine the previous methods. Ex.: The dog wagged his tail, it made the cat angry. Revised: The dog wagged his tail, and it made the cat angry. Comment by Johnathan: The indefinite article must agree in number with the noun it is modifying and may not be required for plural nouns. On the other hand, the plural indefinite article “some” may be used for plural nouns. For example, instead of “A cars drove down the street,” the correct alternative would be “A car (singular) drove down the street,” or “Cars (plural) drove down the street,” or “Some cars (plural) drove down the street.” There is an excellent presentation on articles on the OWC website at https://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Articles.pdf Comment by Johnathan: The following are general guidelines for formatting footnotes (see Turabian 16.3.4.1) (apply throughout): When formatting a footnote, indent only the first line of your footnotes the same amount as the first line of the paragraphs within your paper (generally .5 inches). The indentation should be before the superscripted footnote number. Insert one space after the superscript number before the first word of the footnote. The footnotes should be single-spaced, and there should be a single blank space between each footnote. The footnotes should be in 10-pt. Times New Roman font. The author’s name should be in the First Last name format (John Doe), not the Last, First Name order (Doe, John). For additional assistance, see the OWC Turabian Format Quick Guide. Comment by Johnathan: There is not enough information in the citation to determine what kind of source this is. Thus, I cannot comment on how to cite this source. Comment by Johnathan: Commas are used to separate restrictive and nonrestrictive elements. Restrictive elements are words, phrases, and clauses that are essential to the overall meaning of the sentence. Nonrestrictive elements are words, phrases, and clauses that are not essential to the overall meaning of the sentence. When a sentence contains a nonrestrictive element, a comma or set of commas is needed to set that element apart. Apply throughout. Ex.: The manager who happens to be Jill’s father resigned on Tuesday. The manager resigned on Tuesday leaving the store understaffed. The manager resigned on Tuesday which was Halloween. Revised: The manager, who happens to be Jill’s father, resigned on Tuesday. The manager resigned on Tuesday, leaving the store understaffed. The manager resigned on Tuesday, which was Halloween. For more assistance with commas, see Commas. Comment by Johnathan: There should not be extra spaces between paragraphs (Turabian A.1.3). Using MS Word’s “Paragraph” tab under the “Home” section makes formatting easier. Change the spacing before and after to “0” and check the box that says “Don’t add extra spaces between paragraphs” box. Apply throughout. For additional assistance, see the . The following video may also be helpful: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X7Cu-o2Io_c [1: Chris, Alden. “Critiques of the rational actor model and foreign policy decision making.” (2017).]
One of the main advantages of the model and the reason it is attractive as a policy-making model is that it places few informational demands on observers. It remains a powerful analytical model if policy makers appreciate its theoretical background and how they can apply them to various situations.[footnoteRef:2] However, it tends to assume that important events have important causes and thus downgrades the vitality of coincidences in foreign affairs. Another risk is that the model’s informational processing demands exceed human capabilities and thus goals are rarely stated clearly and ordered according to priority.[footnoteRef:3] Some critics also argue that the limitations to the human rationality in the process of making decisions significantly derails its applicability to international politics. As a result, the model sometimes fails to fully evaluate policy options and their consequences. Comment by Johnathan: There is not enough information in the citation to determine what kind of source this is. Thus, I cannot comment on how to cite this source. Comment by Johnathan: Turabian 17.2.1 gives the following guideline for journal articles (Apply throughout): 1 First Last Name(s), “Article Title,” Journal Title volume number, no. issue number (publication date): page number. Ex.: 1 Klaus D. Issler, “Inner Core Belief Formation, Spiritual Practices, and the Willing-Doing Gap,” Journal of Spiritual Formation & Soul Care 2, no. 2 (2009): 181. Note that only the page number from which the information came is to be cited, not the entire page range of the article. For additional assistance, see the OWC Turabian Format Quick Guide. Comment by Johnathan: An infinitive is a “to” + the base form of the verb. For example, “to eat” in the sentence “The dog waited three days to eat” is an infinitive. Avoid splitting infinitives. In speech, Americans tend to insert adverbs between “to” and the verb in an infinitive. Because this tendency has existed for a long time, it sounds correct to most people. Ex.: Be sure to carefully write. Revised: Be sure to write carefully. See GrammarBook.com for more information. [2: Sadra, Shahryarifar. “A Defence on the Prominence of Rational Actor Model within Foreign Policy Analysis.” (2016).] [3: John, Doces, A., & Amy Wolaver. “Are we all predictably irrational? An experimental analysis.” Political Behavior, 43(3), 1205-1226. (2021). https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11109-019-09579-0 ]
The prospect theory is advanced by critics of the rational actor model as a decision-making model that argues that individuals value what they have more than the things that they do not have. The people prefer the status quo and thus prefer to be risk-averse when it comes to benefitting from a decision and risk-accepting when it comes to losses. The decision-making model, therefore, implies that leaders would rather defend the international position of their states than improving the situation.
The bureaucratic politics model views policymaking as a political process that is dominated by the resolution of conflicts rather than problem-solving. It further argues that politics is at the center of policymaking since the individuals who share power tend to disagree on the paths that the government should take regarding policy decisions. According to the model, not all participants in the policy-making process have the same power to influence the outcome of the bargaining process, and even the rules that exist to regulate the process favor others and disadvantage others.
One advantage of the model is that it encourages policymakers to accept decisions that will enable all sides to claim partial victory. This is because policymakers are committed to their positions and desire an agreement at the same time. Also, the model significantly highlights the organizational and political nature of policymaking and thus is committed to exhaustively discussing policy problems. However, it is criticized for its emphasis on bargaining, compromise, and standard operating procedures which make it difficult to assign decision-making responsibility.[footnoteRef:4] It is also too complex and thus violates the fundamental rule that all things being equal, simple is better than complex. Comment by Johnathan: Avoid beginning sentences with also, plus, besides, though, then, now, so, soon, still, today, and next in formal academic writing because doing so tends to give the writing an informal tone. Consider rewording. There is an excellent resource on sentence construction here: Sentence Construction. [4: Jie, Yu. "The belt and road initiative: domestic interests, bureaucratic politics and the EU-China relations." Asia Europe Journal 16, no. 3 (2018): 223-236.]
The small-group decision-making model focuses on the dynamics of decision-making from a small-group perspective rather than from individual or large bureaucratic forces. The small groups may include informal groups that regularly meet yet lack an institutional base, ad hoc groups that are created to address a specific problem and stop functioning once the task is complete, and permanent small groups with an institutional base and created to perform a series of functions. Comment by Johnathan: Turabian 22.2.1 notes that words and phrases from other languages are to be italicized. This is a Latin term. For additional assistance, see the .
There are several advantages of the small-group decision-making model. From a policy maker's perspective, the model offers a free and open exchange of ideas among members since there are no organizational interests to protect. The model also encourages experimentation and innovation and enhances the possibility of maintaining secrecy in policymaking. However, it rarely arrives are effective or rational decisions thus leading to policy failures. This disadvantage is in part due to strong in-group pressures on members to conquer in the decision-making process. Comment by Johnathan: Sentence Structure. This part of the sentence is a bit unclear. Consider revising to communicate your idea clearly.
Elite theory is a policy-making model that focuses on the identities of individuals who take part in foreign policy as well as in the dynamics of national power, class interests, and social myths. It stresses the ties rather than the forces that divide policymakers. As a result, the model argues that policy is formulated as a response to demands that are generated by the political and social system. One of the main disadvantages of the model is that some policy proposals fail to attract serious attention since they are orchestrated by the elite rather than independent thinkers.[footnoteRef:5] Comment by Johnathan: Turabian 17.1.8.3 gives the following guidelines for essays or articles cited in an anthology (Apply throughout): 1 First Last Name of author of article/essay, “Article or Essay Title,” in Book Title, ed. First Last Name (City, State: Publisher, year), page number. Ex.: 1 Sergius Bulgakov, “The Virgin and the Saints in Orthodoxy,” in Eastern Orthodox Theology: A Contemporary Reader, ed. Daniel B. Clendenin (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1995), 33. For additional assistance, see the OWC Turabian Format Quick Guide. [5: Mangset, Marte, Fredrik Engelstad, Mari Teigen, and Trygve Gulbrandsen. "The Populist Elite Paradox: Using Elite Theory to Elucidate the Shapes and Stakes of Populist Elite Critiques." In Elites and people: Challenges to democracy. Emerald Publishing Limited, 2019. ]
Approaches to Diplomacy
Shuttle diplomacy is a component of multilateral diplomatic undertaking that occurs when the political distance between two states is so wide that cannot engage in face-to-face negotiations. As a result, a trusted third party attempts to help them end the diplomatic stalemate. A classic example of shuttle diplomacy occurred during the 1973 Yom Kippur War between Syria and Egypt. Henry Kissinger the then National Security Advisor flew to Egypt as the third party to help the two nations end the stalemate.[footnoteRef:6] John Kerry also engaged in shuttle diplomacy in 2013 in the middle east although his efforts to encourage both sides to restart negotiations failed. Comment by Johnathan: Proper nouns are specific people, places, or things and are capitalized. Titles of world regions are considered proper nouns. The OWC has a great resource on Capitalization. [6: Jackson, Galen, and Marc Trachtenberg. "A Self-Inflicted Wound? Henry Kissinger and the Ending of the October 1973 Arab-Israeli War." Diplomacy & Statecraft 32, no. 3 (2021): 554-578.]
Summit diplomacy is another approach in which heads of state meet personally with one another at summit conferences to establish personal relationships and to discuss the diplomatic constraints of operating in each other’s backyard. This diplomatic approach may however result in an inaccurate reading of the enemies' character as was the case in 1961 between Kennedy and Khrushchev in Vienna where Khrushchev misread that Kennedy could be intimidated.[footnoteRef:7] In 2018, misreading intentions led to the failure of the US-North Korea agreement. Trump came out of the meeting optimistic that he had established a bond with Kim Jung-un. Comment by Johnathan: There is not enough information in the citation to determine what kind of source this is. Thus, I cannot comment on how to cite this source. [7: Edward, Batchelder, F. “The Chief Executive: Kennedy, Crisis, and Decision-Making.” (2020). ]
Conference diplomacy stems from the logic that some issues in international politics affect several states and thus they cannot be resolved unilaterally, bilaterally, or multilaterally. There are three main forms of conference diplomacy; conferences based on operations by formal international organizations; regularly scheduled meetings of states that share a common concern and irregularly scheduled meetings that address a common problem. A classic example of irregularly scheduled meetings is evident in former President Bush's creation of a collation to support the Iraq war. Comment by Johnathan: Remember that a semicolon is used to join two or more independent clauses. The semicolon should not be used to join items on a list unless they are all independent clauses or have commas within each element of the list. Ex.: The dog went to the tree to sniff, to the river to drink, and to the house to eat. The bus stops in Tullahoma, Tennessee; Huntsville, Alabama; and Pensacola, Florida. Jack went to the store; he returned home; and he took a nap. The OWC has an excellent resource on Semicolons.
Public diplomacy consists of actions of leaders that are aimed at influencing public opinion in other countries. It is characterized by a set of programs, practices, and institutions that are designed to inform the world about U.S. policy, represent the beliefs and values of the American people and explain to the world that democracy produces opportunity, stability, and prosperity. In contrast to classic diplomacy that emphasizes confidential bargaining and secrecy, it sells America’s policies to the world. A good example is former president Clinton’s who took America’s political atmosphere to his trips abroad thus influencing many foreign publics to take his side.[footnoteRef:8] Comment by Johnathan: A comma is to precede the conjunction that is used before the final item in a list or series. Ex.: For dinner, Barb wanted fish, broccoli and sweet potatoes. Revised: For dinner, Barb wanted fish, broccoli, and sweet potatoes. See the OWC’s resource on commas here: Commas. Comment by Johnathan: “President” is capitalized when referring to the “President of the United States,” or when referring to a specific president, like “President Roosevelt.” It is not capitalized when referring to the office or the position, as in, “I want to be president” or “the president will address Congress.” The titles of foreign leaders are not capitalized, except when used in direct address, as in “President Putin of Russia.” The OWC website has a presentation on capitalization here: https://www.liberty.edu/casas/academic-success-center/wp-content/uploads/sites/28/2019/04/Capitalization.pdf Comment by Johnathan: The apostrophe is used to indicate possession or the omission of one or more letters. It is unclear why there is an apostrophe and -s here. You may want to check this. [8: Christina, La Cour. “The evolution of the ‘public’ in diplomacy.” Place branding and public diplomacy, 14(1), 22-35. (2018).]
The political use of force is another important instrument of diplomacy in the United States. Although it is rarely used or referenced in diplomatic discussions, it is one of the approaches that heighten U.S. prestige and provides importance to its diplomatic proposals. The fact that there is public knowledge of the U.S. conventional and military tactics in international crises significantly influences the positions taken by other states and how policymakers approach issues. Comment by Johnathan: When crafting a sentence, a verb must agree with its subject in number. If the subject is plural, the verb should take the plural form; if the subject is singular, the verb should take the singular form. Many singular forms of the verb require “s” at the end of the verb. In this sentence, this verb is plural, but its subject (“one”) is singular. Thus, the subject and verb do not agree. Ex.: The professor announce the test date. This is incorrect because the subject (professor) is singular, but the verb (announce) is in the plural form. Revised: The professor announces the test date. The OWC has a wonderful resource that may be helpful : Subject-Verb Agreement.
Coercive diplomacy is another example of the use of conventional military force for political purposes by the United States.[footnoteRef:9] There have been several instances in which the U.S. used military force, and even after the end of the Cold War, it did not stop using military force for political purposes. For instance, the Trump administration engaged in coercive diplomacy in the South China Sea dispute to convince rather than defeat China to give up its position. [9: Christer, Jönsson. "Coercive Diplomacy." The Encyclopedia of Diplomacy (2018): 1-13. ]
Closely related to the political use of force and coercive diplomacy is nuclear diplomacy which involves the use of conventional weapons to compel other states to action. A classic example was in 1969 when U.S. nuclear forces were put on alert to respond to a possible confrontation by the Soviet Union. These actions were designed to stampede the Soviet Union to be more receptive to diplomatic solutions to end the war.
From a Christian worldview (CWV), shuttle diplomacy, summit diplomacy, and conference diplomacy would be the most preferred since they seek a peaceful resolution that does not undermine any side. It would also prefer public diplomacy since it can advance Christian beliefs of peace instead of violence.[footnoteRef:10] A CWV would not privilege the use of political force and its elements such as coercive and nuclear diplomacy since they are against biblical teachings of peace and tolerance. A CWV advances a higher and more lasting concept of peace which cannot be realized through the use of political force. It is instead based on the concept of lasting morality which ensures that parties in disagreement solve their grievances amicably. Comment by Johnathan: This paper appears to be missing a conclusion. A conclusion usually follows a basic pattern. A conclusion restates the thesis (though not verbatim), summarizes the main points, and wraps up the paper. Some assignments may require you to include an application, a recommendation, or other elements in the in the conclusion. The following link may be helpful: The Conclusion. [10: Shafiee, N., & Fallahi, E. (2018). The Church and Religious Diplomacy in Russia’s Foreign Policy. Journal of Iran and Central Eurasia Studies, 1(1), 93-105. ]
Bibliography Comment by Johnathan: The following are some general guidelines regarding the bibliography (Turabian 16.2 and A.2.3.5) (apply throughout): Use the term Bibliography for your final list of bibliographic entries and center it at the top of the page. Other terms such as References or Works Cited are not acceptable. Bold the title, center it, and begin a new page with normal page numbering. The bibliography, like the rest of the paper, is to be aligned to the left, not “justified.” Use a one-half inch hanging indention. Microsoft Word will do this automatically if your paragraph parameters are set properly. The following link may help with this: Hanging Indents. Use single-spacing with one blank line between each entry. Arrange sources in alphabetical order based on author last name. For additional assistance, see the OWC Turabian Format Quick Guide.
Alden, Chris. "Critiques of the rational actor model and foreign policy decision making." (2017). Comment by Johnathan: Just as in the body of paper, there is not enough information in the entry to determine what kind of source this is. Thus, I cannot comment on how to cite this source.
Batchelder, Edward F. "The Chief Executive: Kennedy, Crisis, and Decision-Making." (2020). Comment by Johnathan: Just as in the body of paper, there is not enough information in the entry to determine what kind of source this is. Thus, I cannot comment on how to cite this source.
Doces, John A., and Amy Wolaver. "Are we all predictably irrational? An experimental analysis." Political Behavior 43, no. 3 (2021): 1205-1226. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11109-019-09579-0 Comment by Johnathan: Turabian 17.2.1 gives the following guideline for journal articles (Apply throughout): Last, First Name(s). “Article Title.” Journal Title volume number, no. issue number (publication date): page range of entire article. URL or DOI. Ex.: Issler, Klaus D. “Inner Core Belief Formation, Spiritual Practices, and the Willing-Doing Gap.” Journal of Spiritual Formation & Soul Care 2, no. 2 (2009): 181-201. If the journal article was retrieved from a URL, the words, “Retrieved from” are not included in the entry. Additionally, note that the journal article title uses headline-style capitalization (Turabian 22.3.1.1). For additional assistance, see the OWC Turabian Format Quick Guide.
Jackson, Galen, and Marc Trachtenberg. "A Self-Inflicted Wound? Henry Kissinger and the Ending of the October 1973 Arab-Israeli War." Diplomacy & Statecraft 32, no. 3 (2021): 554-578.
Jönsson, Christer. "Coercive Diplomacy." The Encyclopedia of Diplomacy (2018): 1-13.
la Cour, Christina. "The evolution of the ‘public’ in diplomacy." Place branding and public diplomacy 14, no. 1 (2018): 22-35.
Mangset, Marte, Fredrik Engelstad, Mari Teigen, and Trygve Gulbrandsen. "The Populist Elite Paradox: Using Elite Theory to Elucidate the Shapes and Stakes of Populist Elite Critiques." In Elites and people: Challenges to democracy. Emerald Publishing Limited, 2019.
Shafiee, N., & Fallahi, E. (2018). The Church and Religious Diplomacy in Russia’s Foreign Policy. Journal of Iran and Central Eurasia Studies, 1(1), 93-105.
Shahryarifar, Sadra. "A Defence on the Prominence of Rational Actor Model within Foreign Policy Analysis." (2016). Comment by Johnathan: Just as in the body of paper, there is not enough information in the entry to determine what kind of source this is. Thus, I cannot comment on how to cite this source.
Yu, Jie. "The belt and road initiative: domestic interests, bureaucratic politics and the EU-China relations." Asia Europe Journal 16, no. 3 (2018): 223-236. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10308-018-0510-0 Comment by Johnathan: Thank you for allowing me to review your assignment today. You have done a wonderful job with overall grammar. As you move into the revision process, you will want to focus on the introduction, the conclusion, comma usage, and Turabian formatting. Reading your paper aloud may help you identify issues you may have missed in the writing processes. Additionally, the following video may be helpful with formatting: https://watch.liberty.edu/media/t/1_qfhjjqik I hope my comments have been helpful. Keep up the hard work! I am praying for you as you work through your courses. “May the Lord bless you and protect you; and may the Lord make his face shine on you and be gracious to you; may the Lord look with favor on you and give you peace.” (Numbers 6:24-26, CSB). Please be sure to complete the anonymous Student Satisfaction Survey located at the bottom of your completed request email. If you have any additional questions, please contact the OWC at the OWC email address. If you desire further assistance with this assignment, you may schedule a Skype appointment by using the Skype request form, or you may use our live chat feature. Finally, you may avail yourself of our many writing aids on the OWC website.
