Management final paper

MOTIVATION

Content Theories of Motivation

Looks at what energizes behavior. Examples: Maslow’s-five-level need hierarchy; Alderfer-three-level hierarchy (ERG); Herzberg-two major factors called hygiene and motivators; McClelland-three learned needs acquired from the culture (achievement, affiliation and power needs). Managerial Application – Mangers needs to be aware of differences in needs, desires, and goals because there is uniqueness among individuals.

Reasons to study content theories

1. Determine what needs trigger desired performance, group, and personal behaviors.

2. Be able to offer meaningful rewards that help the employee satisfy needs.

3. Know when to offer appropriate rewards to optimize performance behavior.

4. Not assume that a person’s need deficiencies will repeat themselves in a regular pattern. People change because of experiences, life events, aging, cultural and environmental change, and other factors.

Content Theories

1. What are needs? Answer: Energizers – because of a perceived deficiency.

2. How are needs acquired?

a. Primary – innate, inherited, biological (e.g. hunger, thirst, sleep, and avoidance of negative stimuli, species maintaining –procreational, maternal?)

b. Secondary – Psychological – based, learned after primary needs satisfied

B1. Power

B2. Authority

B3. Self-actualization

B4. Social

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy. Indicates there are five levels of needs including:

1. Physiological (org. example – wages, restrooms, ventilation, comfort, and temperature.)

2. Safety and security (org. example – grievance system, and pension plan.)

3. Belongingness, social and love (org. example – friendship and friends in work group)

4. Esteem – (org. example – status-job title, choice of offices, awards, and merit pay.)

5. Self-actualization – (org. example – achievement and a challenging job).

Basic rules:

· Lower order needs need to be satisfied before higher order needs

· Once a need has been met it is no longer motivating

· Indicates lower order needs are more likely to be taken care of by the company than higher order needs.

Comments and review of theory:

1. Best at generating a general framework of needs

2. Not supported by field research

a. many individuals simultaneously pursue several needs.

3. Does explain aspects of human behavior in our society but not good at individual level.

4. Measures of the theory’s need variables are often inadequate

5. Self-actualization is fuzzily defined and therefore difficult to measure

6. Individual differences render exceptions to the theory

7. Does a need ever become fully satisfied?

ALDERFER ERG THEORY

1. Extends and refines Maslow’s’ theory

2. Places needs in a hierarchy with 3 levels

Existence – these needs are satisfied by such factors as food, air, water, pay, and working conditions

Relatedness – these needs are satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal relationships.

Growth – satisfied by an individual making creative or productive contributions

Existence = Maslow’s physiological and safety

Relatedness = belongingness, social and love category

Growth = unfulfilled needs are predominant, next level not activated to others

fulfilled

3. Also has satisfaction progression principle (as one level of needs are satisfied move upward) but in addition has frustration/regression principle which suggests that if higher order needs cannot be satisfied the person will try to get more of his/her lower-order needs met. For example, if an employee is unable to achieve recognition on the job, then employee goes home and eats twice as much as usual.

4. Also, Alderfer accepts that more than one type of need is pursued at the same time.

Review of theory

1. More support for than Maslow, probably best version of need hierarchy. Still does not give specific prescriptions of how to deal with employees.

2. Limited research to date.

Note: both Maslow’s and Alderfer’s ERG theory are still popular because they attribute freedom to individuals in going after goals and are simple and easily expressed.

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

Also an extension or modification of Maslow

· Note: It was controversial when introduced because it said salary is not a motivator

· Its introduction was good because it stimulated research and managerial interest in worker motivation and job design.

Two Factors:

Extrinsic Factors: Hygiene factors (lower order needs). Job context factors: they do not motivate; but are needed to maintain no dissatisfaction. According to theory example of hygiene factors are: salary, job security, working conditions, status, interpersonal relationships, company procedures, and quality of supervision.

Intrinsic Factors: Motivators (higher order needs). Job content factors: they build strong levels of motivation when present, but do not create dissatisfaction if not present. For example, motivators include such things as achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, and advancement and growth.

So if you are satisfied with the motivators present on the job according to this theory, you will have high job satisfaction. If you are not satisfied you will have low job satisfaction. If you are happy with the hygiene factors, you will have low job dissatisfaction and if you are unhappy you will have high job dissatisfaction. Note: according to this theory all the hygiene factors in the world will not make an employee satisfied, rather it will make him/her simply not dissatisfied.

Problems with Herzberg’s theory:

1. Based on sample of accountants and engineers and therefore may not represent general population.

2. Satisfaction is not the same thing as motivation. In addition, satisfaction has been found to have more than two dimensions.

3. A number of factors have been found to be both motivators and hygiene factors

4. Individual differences are downplayed

5. There has been little effort directed toward testing the motivational and performance implications of the theory.

6. No explanation is given by the theory of why various extrinsic and intrinsic job factors should affect performance or why various job factors are important.

7. Methodology – retrospective critical incidents unreliable.

McClelland’s THREE NEED THEORY

Cites 3 needs acquired from culture:

· Need for achievement – the drive to excel to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. People high in NACH are good at running their own business and sales.

· Need for power – the needs to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. People with this need enjoy being in charge, strive to influence others, like competition, like status-oriented situations, are often more concerned with gaining influence over others and prestige than with effective performance.

· Need for affiliation – the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.

Characteristics of High-need achievers (only 10% of the population)

· Set moderately difficult goals

· Want immediate and specific feedback

· Assume personal responsibility

· Preoccupied with task

· Frequently good as entrepreneurs

· Frequently take job in sales, where you get almost immediate feedback

· Avoid jobs in such areas as research and development

· Volunteer for extra duties and find it difficult to delegate

· Tend to move up, but not make top management – where feedback is slow and there is a need to delegate and be more or less risky.

· High NACH person like to be responsible for solving problems

· McClelland assumes you can teach this need

Suggestions for teaching and encouraging high NACH

1. Arrange tasks so they receive periodic feedback on performance. This provides information that enables them to make modifications or corrections.

2. Seek good models of achievement – they should search for achievement heroes, the successful people, the winners, and use them as models. *Use models/organizational performers to which others can identify

3. Modify their self-image; High NACH people seek moderate challenges and responsibilities.

4. Control their imagination. They should think in realistic terms and think positively about how they accomplish goals.

Problems with using NACH

· Test used to determine if you are high/low on this need is unreliable

· Theory doesn’t work well with female subjects

· There is a question about whether needs are acquired outside of childhood and whether NACH is permanently acquired.

The need for affiliation – need for human companionship. Not much on research on. High’s want reassurance and approval from others, concerned with others’ feelings and act and behave as expect others to. People high in need of affiliation seek out work where there is a lot of interpersonal contact.

The need for power – desire to control one’s environment including financial resources, material resources; information, and other people. High’s can make good manager if:

1. Seek power for the betterment of the organization rather than own interests

2. Have a low need for affiliation

3. Need plenty of self-control – so they can curb when necessary

Despite the conceptual similarities, all content theories share an inherent weakness. They do an adequate job of telling us what factors motivate behavior, but they tell us very little about the actual processes of motivation. That is, two people may pursue quite different paths to satisfy those needs.

PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Looks at how/why behavior directed. Examples: Vroom – an expectancy theory of choices; Skinner – reinforcement theory concerned with the learning that occurs as a consequence of behavior; Adams – equity theory based on comparisons that individuals make; Locke – goal-setting theory that conscious goals and intentions are the determinants of behavior. Managerial Application – Managers need to understand the process of motivation and how individuals make choices based on preferences, rewards and accomplishments.

Process Theories

1. Reinforcement Theory

Basic motivation questions: 1. What causes arousal? 2. Question of choice.

Why is reinforcement theory important to managers?

· Employers intuitively use rewards and resort to environmental changes in their attempts to modify and influence behavior, but their efforts often produce limited results because the methods are used improperly, inconsistently, and ineffectively.

· Reinforcement principles provide useful insights in how to effectively design and modify the work environment and reward structure of an organization to affect changes in behavior.

Basic Tenets:

1. Assumes that properly reinforced, the likelihood of desired behavior can be reduced.

2. Emphasis is on objective, measurable behavior.

3. Behavior is learned and is the result of its environmental consequences.

In order to understand, predict and control behavior you need to look at:

1. The occasion upon which a response occurs,

2. The response itself

3. The reinforcing consequences

(How 1, 2, 3 interact are referred to as contingencies of behavior).

Reinforcement – done to increase frequency of desired behavior.

2 forms:

1. Positive reinforcement: desired behavior is followed by desirable outcome (e.g. study hard>>>get “A”)

2. Negative reinforcement: study hard>>>>to not get F

Drive speed limit>>>>to not get ticket

Extinction/Punishment: decrease frequency of undesirable behavior.

3. Extinction: Undesirable behavior is followed by no outcome (+ reinforcement is canceled) (e.g. complaining employee>>>don’t get special treatment, speak up to get attention>>>no outcome). *Note: Although for the test and in most cases extinction should be thought of this way (decreasing the frequency of an undesirable behavior, if no outcome follows positive behaviors in most cases those positive behaviors will cease occurring).

4. Punishment: Undesirable behavior is followed by undesirable outcome (e.g. do not study>>>get an “F”).

Schedules of Reinforcement

Two broad classifications of reinforcement schedules:

1. Continuous – behavior is reinforced each time it occurs.

2. Intermittent – when a reinforcer is given after some instances of the employee’s behavior, but not after each instance.

2A. Intermittent ratio – outcomes follow a certain number of occurrences of the (un) desired behavior.

2a1. Fixed Ratio – a constant number of occurrences are needed to get an outcome. E.g. Person gets $5 for every ten radios she/he assembles or gets a commission on every 10th sale.

2a2. Variable Ratio – the number of occurrences of behavior needed to elicit outcomes is not constant but averages to a certain number. E.g. Person gets $5 bonus on average after every ten radios he/she assembles or gets recognition on average after so many suggestions. * Most powerful of all schedules in sustaining motivated behavior in individuals.

2B. Interval – the outcomes occurs after a certain length of time.

2B1. Fixed Interval – receive reward after a set period of time e.g. promotion every six months when perform well, or a weekly paycheck.

2B2. Variable Interval – outcome is administered depending on the passage of time, but the time varies around some average (e.g. promotion occurs on average of every 6 months).

In all 4 schedules theory suggests:

1. The shorter the time interval, or reinforcement schedule, between the employee’s response (performance) and the administration of the reinforcer (reward or consequences), the greater the effect the reinforcer will have on the behavior.

2. The greater the reinforcer’s value and size to the individual, the greater the effect on subsequent behavior. *Variable ratio best at keeping steady rate of responding. Continuous reinforcement is the fastest method of teaching or changing behavior but it once you stop behavior falls off very quickly.

Lessons for using Operant (reinforcement) conditioning techniques:

1. Lesson 1: Don’t reward all people the same. Acknowledge differences in performance.

2. Lesson 2: Failure to respond has reinforcing consequences.

3. Lesson 3: Be sure to tell a person what he/she can do to get reinforced…and reward accordingly (otherwise workers will be forced to search for the “true” contingencies).

4. Lesson 4: Be sure to tell a person what he is doing wrong. A. May top behavior, or B. Lets he/she know how to change the behavior.

5. Lesson 5: Don’t punish in front of others. A. Worker may retaliate, B. Work group may misunderstand may modify their own behavior in ways not intended by the supervisor.

6. Lesson 6: Make the consequences equal to the behavior.

· A manager can do two things to insure the contingencies of reinforcement are designed to support the individuality of the worker: 1. He/she can strive to hire the worker who desires the rewards offered by the firm. 2. She/he can change the contingencies – letting the employees design their own reward structures within the limits set by the organization.

· It may be necessary to use each of the various schedules in different circumstances. For example, you could offer promotions and raises on a variable interval schedule; recognition of above average performance with piece-rate plan (fixed ratio) and supplementary bonuses.

Application – Behavior Modification

Generally research findings suggest that positive reinforcers are more effective than are negative reinforcers in achieving changes in behavior (although negative reinforcement can be effective in causing the short-term elimination of undesired behavior).

Typical Behavior Modification Program: A. Job analysis, B. Defining performance measure, C. Setting goals, D. Measurement of actual behavior, E. Reinforcement schedules applied, F. Program evaluated. Use shaping as necessary.

Typical OB Modification Program: 1. Identify performance-related behavioral events (behaviors, performance, org. consequences); 2. Measure: baseline the frequency of response; 3. Identify existing behavioral contingencies through function analysis (look at antecedents, behavior and consequences); 4. Develop an intervention strategy considering environmental variables which might be causing or contributing to performance or events (e.g. organizational structure, process, technology, group tasks etc.); 5. Apply appropriate strategy (positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, extinction, or combination: modeling and shaping); 6. Chart the frequency of response after intervention; 7. Evaluate if problem is solved if not start over it yes; 8. Develop procedures to maintain desirable behavior; and, 9. Evaluate for performance improvement.

OB modification results: Works but not all of the time; manager may be limited in what kind of meaningful reinforcement they can provide; some argue manipulation of worker and resent it; most research is in the lab so not sure how they will do in the real world; effects may wear off as people get used to consequences.

Limits to theory and problems with reinforcement theory:

1. Need to be able to specify rewardable behaviors.

2. Union compensation negotiations and compensation system often create a separation of performance and rewards.

3. To do behavior modification correctly need constant supervision, which is very hard to do.

4. Ignores for the most part the reinforcing characteristics of social groups, which sometimes rewards counter-productive behavior.

5. Reinforcement doesn’t recognize that people “think.”

Final Comment: If punishment doesn’t work so well (e.g. doesn’t tell person what they can do better, may create negative side effects) why do you think it is used so often? Answer: It is very reinforcing for the manager to be able to yell and punish the employee.

Training Example

Social Learning Theory: Combines some elements of other motivation theories.

Follows behavior modification:

1. Emphasis on observable behavior

2. Recognition of the impact that contingent consequences have on performance

3. Recognition that positive reinforcement is more effective than punishment when managing employees

4. Agrees that reinforcement theory has shown a demonstrated causal effect on the bottom-line performance of employees working in a wide variety of organizations.

Argues however, we do not blindly react to environmental stimulation.

Says motivated behavior depends on: 1) symbolic processes (verbal/mental representations of what must be done, goals); 2) vicarious learning of reinforcement patterns and how to perform tasks, learning of efficacy etc.; and, 3) self-control – need to get employee to rely on cognitive supports and manage relevant environmental cues and consequences (self manage by providing and teaching employee to ask for feedback information and formulate how to reward self or adapt when not meeting their goals.

In addition, says that managers need to focus on three types of cues for motivate behavior:1) Goal Cues – set goals and encourage their people to set their own performance goals. Then teach people to look for cues in environment concerning whether they are meeting their goals. Often employees have no idea how they are doing until the supervisor tells them. 2) Social Cues – etc., 3) Task and structural cues – make sure employees have a good idea of what is expected of them built into task and job.

Overall, situational cues enhance goal acceptance, raise efficacy and outcome expectations, and personalize causal attributions. Final point for class, get employee self-observing data, remove distracting or competing cues (e.g. role ambiguity prevents goal directed behavior) and encourages self-contracts.

Remember, that process theories are interested in understanding, predicting and controlling behavior.

Equity Theory

1. Inputs are everything a person brings to an exchange, e.g. effort, performance, skills, quantity of production, quality of production.

2. Outcomes are the rewards and punishments that result from inputs

3. Person – one whose motives are being considered

4. Reference other – person, group to whom comparison is made

What equity theory says is that people compare themselves to referent others (people who are perceived to be similar to them in come way) and decide based on perceived inputs if they are getting fair (equity) treatment. Note: The person does not have to get the same as the reference person to be considered fair. If the other person is perceived to be more experienced, a better performer than it is considered ok that they other person gets more. People want fair relationships.

A state of equity exists when Op/Ip = Oo/Io

Note:

1. Op (the outcomes of the person making the observation)

2. Ip (the inputs of the person making the observation)

3. Oo (the outcomes of the reference person or group)

4. Io (the inputs of the reference person or group)

Inequity exists when Op/Ip > Oo/Io this is an overpayment condition OR

Op/Ip < Oo/Io this is an underpayment condition

When equity exists the person is motivated to maintain current situation.

When inequity exists this produces tensions in person, which motivates them to equalize or change situation so that equity once again exists.

The theory says that there are a number of strategies, which the person making the observation may use to produce equity. These include:

1. Change inputs – work harder, less hard, more or less quality or quantity of production, sabotage etc.

2. Change outputs – ask for raise, change in benefits, time off….

3. Changing attitude – if you are overpaid you may decide that the quality or quantity of your work is actually better than other person or any other type of rationalism to make it seem fair to that person. Although overpayment does motivate people to work a little harder most people do not seem to have trouble rationalizing why they make more or get better schedules etc…In underpayment condition person may take a second look at reference person and rationalize that person is in company longer, does better work or use some other mental math to change situation in their head to seem fair.

4. Changing the reference person – person may decide that they are comparing themselves to the wrong person and change reference person. (This can occur when person realizes that there are differences in seniority, education, department, geographical location, industry etc.).

5. Change the inputs or outputs of other person – e.g. if comparison other is underpaid you may give them a salary raise, if they are overpaid you may give them more responsibility.

6. Change the situation – e.g. quit, transfer, vamoose, get outta there, tell them to take the job and ….., etc.

Linkages of equity theory to reinforcement theory:

In some ways arguing the same point

Equity = contingent reward and punishment

Inequity = non-contingent rewards and punishment

Problems with the Equity Theory:

· Ignores potential of internal standards (e.g. perhaps the person does not use a reference other, perhaps they compare their outcomes/inputs to other situations they have experienced.

· Does not identify specific strategies for reducing tension. In other words, the theory does not indicate specifically which of the six strategies the person is likely to use.

· The theory is not sure what factors are compared in respect to inputs and outcomes.

· The theory does not specify or predict who the reference person will be.

More on evaluation of equity theory. Past studies indicate:

1. Women are more interested in equality than equity

2. Men are most mad when another man may cheat them

3. Women least mad when another woman cheats them

4. There is support for theory overall especially in underpayment condition. For piece rate seems to work for under and overpayment conditions. For salary works most for underpayment and less so for overpayment.

SO WHAT…WHAT ARE THE MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS OF EQUITY THEORY?

Three messages for managers:

1. Everyone in the organization needs to understand the basis for rewards.

2. People tend to take a multifaceted view of their rewards; they perceive and experience a variety of rewards.

3. People base their actions on their perceptions of reality. That is, people respond on what they perceive to be reality and not on what is actually reality. Therefore, whenever decisions are made you should explain the reasons for these decisions. The appearance of impropriety is damaging even if no impropriety actually exists. If you tell people how and what is rewarded and punished early in the game you can avoid many of the perceptions of inequity. Finally, it is probably not a bad idea to have a grievance system where a person and go to resolve a perceived inequity. In many cases perceptions of unfairness are based on misunderstandings and assumptions.

EXPECTANCY THEORY

Tenants:

1. Individual and environment determine behavior

2. People make decisions about behavior

3. People have different types of needs, desires and goals

Overall motivation greatest when:

1. The individual believes that the behavior will lead to outcomes (performance-outcome probability), e.g. Person asks himself/herself, “If I perform at the desired level, what will happen?”

2. The individual believes outcomes are positive. E.g. Person asks themselves “How do I feel about those things that will happen if I do or do not perform at the desired level?”

3. The individual believes they can perform at the desired levels. E.g. Person asks himself/herself, “Can I perform at that level if I try?”

Overview of theory

Motivation = E x I x V, where

E = Expectancy - effort to perform probability (0-1)

Based on question “Can I perform at that level if I try?”

I = Instrumentality – performance to outcome probability (0-1). “If I achieve the desired performance levels what are me chances of attaining a given outcomes.” Note: That more than one outcome may occur with performance or nonperformance of a task (e.g. raise, promotion, transfer etc. and the perceived probability of the occurrence of these events usually varies.)

V = Valence – expected desirability of a given outcome (-1 to +1) “Is the outcome desirable? Do I want to attain it? How badly?”

Why is expectancy theory good?

Most useful theory available because it:

· Accounts for individual differences

· Sum’s multiple rewards

· General, adaptable model

Downside of the theory:

1. People do not make decisions in as complex manner as described by theory (cognitive limitations).

2. Does not tell where (V), (I), (E) perceptions come from.

3. Assumes that people are rational and maximize (not always true)

4. Does not tell what outcomes are relevant to a particular individual in a situation

5. Assumes that all motivation is conscious

Overall the theory suggests that people allocate their behavior according to anticipated consequences of actions.

Research on expectancy theory

The theory works best for predicting job choice, and only “ok” for turnover and performance (performance in organizations often dependent on more things than just motivation). The theory does least well at predicting absenteeism. The reason for this is that some absenteeism is not voluntary and in other cases there are no perceived consequences for missing a single day.

SO WHAT…WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS?

1. Figure out what outcomes each employee values

a. Use questionnaires

b. Observe employee’s reactions to different situations or rewards

c. Ask what kinds of rewards they want

2. Determine what kinds of behavior you desire

a. Really need to operationalize and have adequate indicators of performance (quantity, quality, etc…)

3. Make sure desired levels of performance are reachable

a. Otherwise expectancy = 0

4. Link desired outcomes to desired performances

5. Look for negative consequences – instrumentalities associated with different options offered to employees

6. Make sure outcomes are large enough

a. Rewards must be large enough to motivate behavior. With a multiplicative model, any if any element in expectancy is zero, motivation is zero.

7. Check for equity (if outcome seen as inequity then valence for that outcome will be low). Remember the Porter-Lawler Extension, which says performance leads to satisfaction, which in turn can affect valence perceptions.

Goal Setting and Rewards

A goal is simply a desirable objective to be achieved.

Goal setting theory suggests that when a goal is set and accepted by an individual it affects performance through one of four mechanisms:

First, a goal attracts attention to what must be accomplished. If a person does not have a goal then how do they know what to aim for or attempt to accomplish.

Second, when a goal is set it stimulates effort.

Third, when a person has a goal they tend to show persistence. When a person has a goal they tend to keep trying to accomplish it.

Fourth, when someone forms a goal it encourages the development of strategy to accomplish a goal is more likely to succeed than someone who approaches the task in a haphazard manner.

Goal setting theory acknowledges that performance is also affected by ability, knowledge and organizational constraints. When a person does not achieve a goal, they have attempted to accomplish or has not accomplished the goal to the extent to which they wish she/he can either change the goal, try harder, or change a strategy or lower their perceived self efficacy and decide the goal is too difficult for them. Feedback is essential according to the theory to accomplishing goals. It tells you when you are off-target and allows one to readjust.

According to the theory goal-oriented effort is a function of:

· Goal difficulty – is the extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort. The theory assumes that people work harder for hard goals as long as they are seen as obtainable.

· Goal specificity – refers to how specific is the target goal. The theory says the more specific the better.

· Goal acceptance – extent to which an employee accepts the goal as his/her own.

· Goal commitment – extent employee is personally interested in reaching goal.

Factors, which have been found to help with goal acceptance and goal commitment, are realistic goals, participation, and instrumentality expectations.

Research on goal setting indicates that goal difficulty and specificity are closely related to performance with repeat after me, “Hard, specific goals being better than no goals, easy goals or do your best goals.”

In terms of acceptance and commitment research is still working on how to induce, helps if workers participate in goal setting.

Problems with theory: and remember no theory can do it all:

1. Doesn’t tell how multiple rewards are combined

2. Not really sure how goals are set

3. No means for capturing individual differences.

Summary

1. Performance can be seen as a combination of both ability and motivation. Both aspects are probably necessary for good performance to occur.

2. Motivation is important in terms of two major questions: “What gets one started or aroused?” What process determines the direction in which one chooses to go?”

3. Theories of individual needs and classification systems of needs focus on the question of arousal. One major conclusion is that different people want different rewards from their job.

4. The need classification systems brought recognition of the importance of higher-level needs. Most employees today are more concerned with belonging, esteem, and actualizing needs than physiological or safety needs.

5. The process theories of motivation are attempts explain the choice of behavior. Most of them suggest some sort of underlying rational system that determines what people will do.

6. Both expectancy theory and operant conditioning place their emphasis on contingency relationships. The most important factors for motivation are the direct link between appropriate behavior and rewards and the value of the reward itself. Operant techniques can be used to suggest when, how much, and how frequently rewards should be administered.

7. Equity theory calls attention to the fairness of the reward system. People are often motivated by comparison with their co-workers. One must conclude that fair, equitable rewards are a necessity.