Case Study- 2 pages

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Noe, R. A. (2020). Employee training and development (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education. https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781260140279

Chapter Four

Learning and Transfer of Training

Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to

1. Discuss the five types of learner outcomes.

2. Explain the implications of learning theory for instructional design.

3. Incorporate adult learning theory into the design of a training program.

4. Describe how learners receive, process, store, retrieve, and act upon information.

5. Discuss the internal conditions (within the learner) and external conditions (learning environment) necessary for the trainee to learn each type of capability.

6. Discuss the implications of open and closed skills and near and far transfer for designing training programs.

7. Explain the features of instruction and the work environment that are necessary for learning and transfer of training.

Energizing Training Means Better Learning and Transfer of Training

Boring lectures, lack of meaningful content in e-learning, training that doesn’t give employees the opportunity to practice and receive feedback, training that takes too long to complete—all demotivate trainees and make it difficult for them to learn and use what they have learned on the job. However, many companies are using innovative instructional methods to make training more interesting and accessible to help trainees learn and apply it to their work.

Bankers Life, an insurance company, revised its training program for new sales agents to appeal to the way millennials want to learn and use new technology. It segments learning into small modules that build on each other. Each module includes online coursework, a debriefing, role play, and training in the field.

Intermedia, a business services company, uses virtual instructor-led training including video, e-learning modules, lab activities, and role play to train its agents. Agents are able to access any of the training content after they are back in the field, which helps them review what they have learned and keep their skills updated.

page 160To prepare employees to perform technical installation and maintenance roles, Verizon uses training labs with live circuits and equipment and a practice field with telephone poles. To maintain and update learning, small chunks of learning content and questions are sent to learners’ computers or smartphones. Correct answers to the questions are reinforced and incorrect answers require the learner to review the learning content. Using a social media platform, employees can share learning, ask questions, connect with other trainees, and access resources.

SuperValu, a supermarket chain, uses web-based training that emphasizes microlearning or breaking training content into small chunks of information that employees can easily commit to memory. Training might include a short video or brief online modules that employees can work on at their own pace.

Sources: Based on “Top 125 2018 Rankings 46–55, Bankers Life,” training (January/February 2018), pp. 60–61; “Training Top 125 2018 Rankings 111–115, Intermedia Inc.,” training(January/February 2018), pp. 80–81; “Verizon: Emergency Work Assignment Training,” training (January/February 2016), p. 56; A. Paul, “Microlearning 101,” HR Magazine (May 2016), pp. 36–42.

INTRODUCTION

Although they use different methods, the purpose of the training at the four companies just described is to help employees learn so they can perform their jobs successfully. Regardless of the training method, certain conditions must be present for learning to occur and for employees to use what they have learned on the job. These include (1) providing opportunities for trainees to practice and receive feedback (i.e., information about how well people are meeting the training objectives), (2) offering meaningful training content, (3) identifying any prerequisites that trainees need to complete the program successfully, (4) allowing trainees to learn through observation and experience, and (5) ensuring that the work environment, including managers and peers, supports learning and the use of learned skills on the job. For example, feedback from trainers is provided during the role plays used by Bankers Life and Intermedia. The meaningfulness of what is being learned is enhanced at Verizon by having learners work on equipment that is identical to what they will use on the job. Bankers Life and SuperValu deliver training content to match trainees’ preferences about how they want to learn.

As you may have recognized by now, this chapter emphasizes not only what has to occur during training sessions for learning to occur, but also how to ensure that trainees use what they have learned on the job. That is, this chapter discusses both learning and transfer of training. Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in human capabilities that can include knowledge, skills, attitudes, behaviors, and competencies that are not the result of growth processes.1 A key part of learning is that trainees commit to memory (i.e., remember) what they have learned and recall it. Transfer of training refers to trainees effectively and continually applying what they have learned in training to their jobs.2 As the organizations in the chapter opener illustrate, trainee characteristics, the design of the training program (or what occurs during training), and the work environment influence whether trainees learn and use or apply what they have learned to their jobs. Figure 4.1 presents a model of learning and transfer of training. As the model shows, transfer of training includes both the generalization of training to the job and maintenance of learned material. page 161 Generalization refers to a trainee’s ability to apply what has been learned to on-the-job work problems and situations that are similar but not necessarily identical to those problems and situations encountered in the learning environment (i.e., the training program). Maintenance refers to the process of trainees continuing to use what they have learned over time.

FIGURE 4.1 A Model of Learning and Transfer of Training

It is important to realize that for training to be effective, both learning and transfer of training are needed. Trainees can fail or incorrectly apply training content (what was emphasized in training) to their jobs, either because the training was not conducive to learning, or the work environment does not provide them with the opportunity to use training content or fails to support its correct use, or both. Also, it is a mistake to consider transfer of training as something to be concerned about after trainingbecause it deals with the use of training content on the job. Instead, transfer of training should be considered during the design or purchase of training. If you wait until after training to consider transfer of training, it is likely too late. Trainees’ perceptions of the work environment and its support for training have likely influenced their motivation to learn and what, if anything, they have learned (recall the discussion of motivation to learn in Chapter Three, “Needs Assessment”).

This chapter coverage is based on the model shown in Figure 4.1. First, we discuss learning. We begin by identifying what is to be learned—that is, the learning outcomes. Learning outcomes should be related to what is required to perform the job successfully. As the chapter opener illustrates, this may include selling products, providing services, working with operating systems, or developing and fixing software. As a student, you are familiar with one type of learning outcome: intellectual skills. We also discuss how trainees’ learning style may influence the way they prefer to learn. The influence of other trainee characteristics—such as basic skills, cognitive ability, self-efficacy, age and generation, and interests—on motivation to learn and learning was discussed in Chapter Three.

Next, we consider training design. Training design includes consideration of how to create a learning environment that will help the trainee acquire the learning outcomes. We discuss various learning and transfer of training theories. Last, we look at how these theories are used to create a learning environment and supportive work environment designed to help the trainee learn the desired outcomes and apply them on the job.

WHAT IS LEARNING? WHAT IS LEARNED?

Understanding learning outcomes is crucial because they influence the characteristics of the training environment that are necessary for learning to occur. For example, if trainees are to master motor skills such as climbing a pole, they must have opportunities to practice climbing and receive feedback about their climbing skills. Learning outcomes are presented in Table 4.1.

TABLE 4.1 Learning Outcomes

Type of Learning Outcome	Description of Capability	Example
Verbal information	State, tell, or describe previously stored information.	State three reasons for following company safety procedures.
Intellectual skills	Apply generalizable concepts and rules to solve problems and generate novel products.	Design and code a computer program that meets customer requirements.
Motor skills	Execute a physical action with precision and timing.	Shoot a gun and consistently hit a small moving target.
Attitudes	Choose a personal course of action.	Choose to respond to all incoming mail within 24 hours.
Cognitive strategies	Manage one’s own thinking and learning processes.	Use three different strategies selectively to diagnose engine malfunctions.

Source: Based on R. Gagne and K. Medsker, The Conditions of Learning (New York: Harcourt-Brace, 1996); K. Kapp, “Matching the Right Design Strategy to the Right Content,” T+D (July 2011), pp. 48–52.

Verbal information includes names or labels, facts, and bodies of knowledge. Verbal information includes specialized knowledge that employees need in their jobs. For example, a manager must know the names of different types of equipment as well as the body of knowledge related to Total Quality Management (TQM).

Intellectual skills include concepts and rules, which are critical to solve problems, serve customers, and create products. For example, a manager must know the steps in the performance appraisal process (e.g., gather data, summarize data, or prepare for an appraisal interview with an employee) in order to conduct an employee appraisal.

Motor skills include coordination of physical movements. For example, a telephone repair person must have the coordination and dexterity required to climb ladders and telephone poles.

Attitudes are a combination of beliefs and feelings that predispose a person to behave a certain way. Attitudes include a cognitive component (beliefs), an affective component (feeling), and an intentional component (the way a person intends to behave with regard to the focus of the attitude). Important work-related attitudes include job satisfaction, commitment to the organization, and job involvement. Suppose you say that an employee has a “positive attitude” toward her work. This means the person likes her job (the affective component). She may like her job because it is challenging and provides an opportunity to meet people (the cognitive component). Because she likes her job, she intends to stay with the company and do her best at work (the intentional component). Training programs may page 163be used to develop or change attitudes because attitudes have been shown to be related to physical and mental withdrawal from work, turnover, and behaviors that affect the well-being of the company (e.g., helping new employees).

Cognitive strategies regulate the processes of learning. They relate to the learner’s decision regarding what information to attend to (i.e., pay attention to), how to remember information, and how to solve problems. For example, a physicist recalls the colors of the light spectrum through remembering the name “Roy G. Biv” (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet).

As this chapter points out, each learning outcome requires a different set of conditions for learning to occur. Before this chapter investigates the learning process in detail, it looks at the theories that help explain how people learn.

LEARNING THEORIES

Each theory about how people learn relates to different aspects of the learning process. Many of the theories also relate to trainees’ motivation to learn, which was discussed in Chapter Three. The application of these theories for instruction and program design are discussed later in this chapter and in Chapter Five, “Program Design.”

LEARNING THEORIES

Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement theory emphasizes that people are motivated to perform or avoid certain behaviors because of past outcomes that have resulted from those behaviors.3 There are several processes in reinforcement theory. Positive reinforcement is a pleasurable outcome resulting from a behavior. Negative reinforcement is the removal of an unpleasant outcome. For example, consider a machine that makes screeching and grinding noises unless the operator holds levers in a certain position. The operator will learn to hold the levers in that position to avoid the noises. The process of withdrawing positive or negative reinforcers to eliminate a behavior is known as extinction. Punishment is presenting an unpleasant outcome after a behavior, leading to a decrease in that behavior. For example, if a manager yells at employees when they are late, they may avoid the yelling by being on time (but they may also call in sick, quit, or fool the boss into not noticing when they arrive late).

From a training perspective, reinforcement theory suggests that for learners to acquire knowledge, change behavior, or modify skills, the trainer needs to identify what outcomes the learner finds most positive (and negative). Trainers then need to link these outcomes to learners’ acquiring knowledge or skills or changing behaviors. As was mentioned in Chapter Three, learners can obtain several types of benefits from participating in training programs. The benefits may include learning an easier or more interesting way to perform their job (job-related), meeting other employees who can serve as resources when problems occur (personal), or increasing opportunities to consider new positions in the company (career-related). According to reinforcement theory, trainers can withhold or provide these benefits to learners who master program content. The effectiveness of learning depends on the pattern or schedule for providing these reinforcers or benefits. Similarly, managers can provide these benefits to help ensure transfer of training.

Behavior modification is a training method that is primarily based on reinforcement theory. For example, a training program in a bakery focused on eliminating unsafe behaviors page 164such as climbing over conveyor belts (rather than walking around them) and sticking hands into equipment to dislodge jammed materials without turning off the equipment.4 Employees were shown slides depicting safe and unsafe work behaviors. After viewing the slides, employees were shown a graph of the number of times that safe behaviors were observed during past weeks. Employees were encouraged to increase the number of safe behaviors they demonstrated on the job. They were given several reasons for doing so: for their own protection, to decrease costs for the company, and to help their plant get out of last place in the safety rankings of the company’s plants. Immediately after the training, safety reminders were posted in employees’ work areas. Data about the number of safe behaviors performed by employees continued to be collected and displayed on the graph in the work area following the training. Employees’ supervisors were alsoinstructed to recognize workers whenever they saw them performing a safe work behavior. In this example, the safe-behavior data posted in the work areas and supervisors’ recognition of safe work behaviors represent positive reinforcers.

Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory emphasizes that people learn by observing other people (models) who they believe are credible and knowledgeable.5 Social learning theory also recognizes that behavior that is reinforced or rewarded tends to be repeated. The models’ behavior or skill that is rewarded is adopted by the observer. According to social learning theory, learning new skills or behaviors comes from (1) directly experiencing the consequences of using that behavior or skill, or (2) the process of observing others and seeing the consequences of their behavior.6

According to social learning theory, learning also is influenced by a person’s self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is a person’s judgment about whether he or she can successfully learn knowledge and skills. Chapter Three emphasizes self-efficacy as an important factor to consider in the person analysis phase of needs assessment. Why? Self-efficacy is one determinant of readiness to learn. A trainee with high self-efficacy will make efforts to learn in a training program and will be most likely to persist in learning even if an environment is not conducive to learning (e.g., a noisy training room). In contrast, a person with low self-efficacy will have self-doubts about mastering the content of a training program and will be more likely to withdraw psychologically and/or physically (e.g., daydream or fail to attend the program). These persons believe that they are unable to learn and that, regardless of their effort level, they will be unable to learn.

A person’s self-efficacy can be increased using several methods: verbal persuasion, logical verification, observation of others (modeling), and past accomplishments.7 Verbal persuasion means offering words of encouragement to convince others they can learn. Logical verification involves perceiving a relationship between a new task and a task already mastered. Trainers and managers can remind employees when they encounter learning difficulties that they have been successful at learning similar tasks. Modeling involves having employees who already have mastered the learning outcomes demonstrate them for trainees. As a result, employees are likely to be motivated by the confidence and success of their peers. Past accomplishments refers to allowing employees to build a history of successful accomplishments. Managers can place employees in situations where they are likely to succeed and provide training so that employees know what to do and how to do it.

Social learning theory suggests that four processes are involved in learning: attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivational processes (see Figure 4.2).

FIGURE 4.2 Processes of Social Learning Theory

Sources: Based on A. Bandura, Social Foundations of Thoughts and Actions (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1986); P. Taylor, D. Russ-Eft, and D. Chan, “A Meta-Analytic Review of Behavior Modeling Training,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 90 (2005), pp. 692–709.

page 165Attention suggests that persons cannot learn by observation unless they are aware of the important aspects of a model’s performance. Attention is influenced by characteristics of the model and the learner. Learners must be aware of the skills or behavior they are supposed to observe. The model must be clearly identified and credible. The learner must have the physical capability (sensory capability) to observe the model. Also, a learner who has successfully learned other skills or behavior by observing the model is more likely to attend to the model.

Learners must remember the behaviors or skills that they observe. This is the role of retention. Learners have to code the observed behavior and skills in memory in an organized manner so they can recall them for the appropriate situation. Behaviors or skills can be coded as visual images (symbols) or verbal statements.

Motor reproduction involves trying out the observed behaviors to see if they result in the same reinforcement that the model received. The ability to reproduce the behaviors or skills depends on the extent to which the learner can recall the skills or behavior. The learner must also have the physical capability to perform the behavior or exhibit the skill. For example, a firefighter can learn the behaviors necessary to carry a person away from a dangerous situation, but he may be unable to demonstrate the behavior because he lacks upper body strength. Note that performance of behavior is usually not perfect on the first attempt. Learners must have the opportunity to practice and receive feedback to modify their behavior to be similar to the model behavior.

Learners are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in positive outcomes. Social learning theory emphasizes that behaviors that are reinforced (a motivational process) will be repeated in the future. For example, a major source of conflict and stress for managers often relates to the performance appraisal interview. A manager may, through observing successful managers, learn behaviors that allow employees to be more participative in a performance appraisal interview (e.g., give employees the opportunity to voice their concerns). If the manager uses this behavior in the performance appraisal interview and the behavior is rewarded by employees (e.g., they make comments such as, “I really felt the feedback meeting was the best we have ever had”) or the new behavior leads to reduced conflicts with employees (negative reinforcement), the manager will be more likely to use this behavior in subsequent appraisal interviews.

As you will see in the discussion of training methods in Chapters Seven, “Traditional Training Methods,” and Eight, “Technology-Based Training Methods,” social learning theory is the primary basis for behavior modeling training and has influenced how models are used in videos, which can be part of face-to-face, online, or mobile training programs. For example, to train customer-facing employees about its new pricing plans, Verizon used videos showing the best way to talk to customers.8

Goal Theories

Goal Setting Theory

Goal setting theory assumes that behavior results from a person’s conscious goals and intentions.9 Goals influence a person’s behavior by directing energy and attention, sustaining effort over time, and motivating the person to develop strategies for goal attainment.10 Research suggests that specific, challenging goals result in better performance than vague, unchallenging goals.11 Goals have been shown to lead to high performance only if people are committed to the goal. Employees are less likely to be committed to a goal if they believe that it is too difficult.

An example of how goal setting theory influences training methods is seen in a program designed to improve pizza deliverers’ driving practices.12 The majority of pizza deliverers are young (ages 18–24) and inexperienced drivers, who are compensated based on the number of pizzas they can deliver. This creates a situation in which deliverers are rewarded for fast but unsafe driving practices—for example, not wearing a safety belt, failing to use turn signals, and not coming to complete stops at intersections. These unsafe practices have resulted in a high driving accident rate.

Prior to goal setting, pizza deliverers were observed by their managers leaving the store and then returning from deliveries. The managers observed the number of complete stops at intersections over a one-week period. In the training session, managers and trainers presented the deliverers with a series of questions for discussion, such as: In what situations should you come to a complete stop? What are the reasons for coming to a complete stop? What are the reasons for not coming to a complete stop?

After the discussion, pizza deliverers were asked to agree on the need to come to a complete stop at intersections. Following the deliverers’ agreement, the managers shared the data they collected regarding the number of complete stops at intersections they had observed the previous week. (Complete stops were made 55 percent of the time.) The trainer asked the pizza deliverers to set a goal for complete stopping over the next month. They decided on a goal of 75 percent complete stops.

After the goal setting session, managers at each store continued observing their drivers’ intersection stops. The following month in the work area, a poster showed the percentages of complete stops for every four-day period. The current percentage of total complete stops was also displayed.

Goal setting theory also is used in training program design. Goal setting theory suggests that learning can be facilitated by providing trainees with specific challenging goals and objectives. Specifically, the influence of goal setting theory can be seen in the development of training lesson plans. Lesson plans begin with specific goals, providing information regarding the expected action that the learner will demonstrate, conditions under which learning will occur, and the level of performance that will be judged acceptable. Goals can also be part of action plans or application assignments that are used to motivate trainees to transfer training.

Goal Orientation

Goal orientation refers to the goals held by a trainee in a learning situation. Goal orientation can include a learning orientation or a performance orientation. Learning orientation page 167relates to trying to increase one’s ability or competence in a task. People with a learning orientation believe that training success is defined as showing improvement and making progress; prefer trainers who are more interested in how trainees are learning than in how they are performing; and view errors and mistakes as part of the learning process. Performance orientation refers to learners who focus on task performance and how they compare to others. Persons with a performance orientation define success as high performance relative to others; value high ability more than learning; and find that errors and mistakes cause anxiety and want to avoid them.

Goal orientation is believed to affect the amount of effort that a trainee will expend in learning (motivation to learn). Learners with a high learning orientation will direct greater attention to the task and learn for the sake of learning, as opposed to learners with a performance orientation. Learners with a performance orientation will direct more attention to performing well and less effort to learning. Research has shown that trainees with a learning orientation exert greater effort to learn and use more complex learning strategies than do trainees with a performance orientation.13 There are several ways to create a learning orientation in trainees.14 These include setting goals around learning and experimenting with new ways of having trainees perform trained tasks rather than emphasizing trained-task performance; deemphasizing competition among trainees; creating a community of learning (discussed later in the chapter); and allowing trainees to make errors and to experiment with new knowledge, skills, and behaviors during training.

Need Theories

Need theories help explain the value that a person places on certain outcomes. A need is a deficiency that a person is experiencing at any point in time. A need motivates a person to behave in a manner that satisfies the deficiency. The need theories of Abraham Maslow and Clayton Alderfer focused on physiological needs, relatedness needs (the need to interact with other persons), and growth needs (self-esteem and self-actualization).15 Both Maslow and Alderfer believed that persons begin by trying to satisfy needs at the lowest level and then progress up the hierarchy as lower-level needs are satisfied. That is, if physiological needs are not met, a person’s behavior will continue to focus on satisfying these needs before relatedness or growth needs receive attention. The major difference between Alderfer’s and Maslow’s needs hierarchies is that Alderfer allows the possibility that if higher-level needs are not satisfied, employees may refocus on lower-level needs.

David McClelland’s need theory focused primarily on needs for achievement, affiliation, and power.16 According to McClelland, these needs can be learned. The need for achievement relates to a concern for attaining and maintaining self-set standards of excellence. The need for affiliation involves concern for building and maintaining relationships with other people and for being accepted by others. The need for power is a concern for obtaining responsibility, influence, and reputation.

Need theories suggest that to motivate learning, trainers should identify trainees’ needs and communicate how training program content relates to fulfilling these needs. Also, if certain basic needs of trainees (e.g., physiological and safety needs) are not met, they are unlikely to be motivated to learn. For example, consider a word processing training class for secretaries in a company that is downsizing. It is doubtful that even the best-designed training class will result in learning if employees believe that their job security is threatened (unmet need for security) by the company’s downsizing strategy. Also, it is unlikely the page 168secretaries will be motivated to learn if they believe that word processing skills emphasized in the program will not help them keep their current employment or increase their chances of finding another job inside (or even outside) the company.

Another implication of need theory relates to providing employees with a choice of training programs to attend. As Chapter Three mentioned, giving employees a choice of which training course to attend can increase their motivation to learn. This occurs because trainees are able to choose programs that best match their needs.

Expectancy Theory

Expectancy theory suggests that a person’s behavior is based on three factors: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.17 Beliefs about the link between trying to perform a behavior and actually performing well are called expectancies . Expectancy is similar to self-efficacy. In expectancy theory, a belief that performing a given behavior (e.g., attending a training program) is associated with a particular outcome (e.g., being able to better perform your job) is called instrumentality . Valence is the value that a person places on an outcome (e.g., how important it is to perform better on the job).

According to expectancy theory, various choices of behavior are evaluated according to their expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. Figure 4.3 shows how behavior is determined based on finding the mathematical product of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. People choose the behavior with the highest value.

FIGURE 4.3 Expectancy Theory of Motivation

From a training perspective, expectancy theory suggests that learning is most likely to occur when employees believe that they can learn the content of the program (expectancy). Also, learning and transfer of training are enhanced when they are linked to outcomes such as better job performance, a salary increase, or peer recognition (instrumentality), and when employees value these outcomes (valence).

Adult Learning Theory

Adult learning theory was developed out of a need for a specific theory of how adults learn. Most educational theories, as well as formal educational institutions, have been developed exclusively to educate children and youths. Pedagogy, the art and science of teaching children, has dominated educational theory. Pedagogy gives the instructor the major responsibility for making decisions about learning content, method, and evaluation. Students are generally seen as (1) being passive recipients of directions and content and (2) bringing few experiences that may serve as resources to the learning environment.18

Educational psychologists, recognizing the limitations of formal education theories, developed andragogy , the theory of adult learning. Malcolm Knowles is most frequently associated with adult learning theory. Knowles’s model is based on several assumptions:19

1. Adults have the need to know why they are learning something.

2. Adults have a need to be self-directed.

3. Adults bring more work-related experiences into the learning situation.

4. Adults enter a learning experience with a problem-centered approach to learning.

5. Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators.

Adult learning theory is especially important to consider in developing training programs because the audience for many such programs tends to be adults, most of whom have not spent a majority of their time in a formal education setting. Table 4.2 shows implications of adult learning theory for learning.

TABLE 4.2 Implications of Adult Learning Theory for Training

Design Issue	Implications
Self-concept	Mutual planning and collaboration in instruction
Experience	Use learner experience as basis for examples and applications
Readiness	Develop instruction based on the learner’s interests and competencies
Time perspective	Immediate application of content
Orientation to learning	Problem-centered instead of subject-centered

Consider how adult learning theory is incorporated into training programs.20 To help New York Life Insurance Company’s early career product consultants—employees who support sales agents by phone—improve their presentation skills so they can move from a support role to a sales role, the company’s learning and development team designed a year-long program that combines five months of classroom training with five months of practice, feedback, and coaching and includes an action learning project. The action learning project presents groups of career product consultants with an important business problem. As a group they decide on a solution and present it to the company’s senior leaders.21 Yapi ve Kredi Bank’s program to help managers improve their skills in motivating and coaching their employees includes classroom sessions in which trainers review case studies of common situations in coaching and provide students with online readings and videos. Senior managers review coaching and development techniques, and program participants are given coaching assignments to complete with their peers. The first-line manager course at B&W Pantex focuses on soft skills as well as human resource (HR) policies, discipline, and supervision using instructor-led training with video presentations and role playing. The course includes real-life scenarios based on actual situations that have occurred in its facilities. The program also includes on-the-job training in which trained and qualified subject-matter experts (SMEs) teach tasks and procedures. Brown-Forman, one of the largest companies in the global wine and spirits industry (its brands include Jack Daniel’s Tennessee Whiskey, Southern Comfort, Findlandia vodka, and Herradura tequila), created a two-and-a-half-day training program focused on helping the company’s marketing professionals build the brand. The company’s chief marketing officer visits the class to explain the page 170importance of the course’s content and why it was developed. In the course, participants work in teams to develop a brand campaign for a sample brand. This includes making presentations and completing exercises. Representatives from Brown-Forman’s creative agencies attend the program, part of which involves interacting with consumers to identify their drinking patterns and preferences. At the end of the program, participant teams present their final project to a panel of senior marketing executives who serve as judges.

Information Processing Theory

Compared to other learning theories, information processing theories give more emphasis to the internal processes that occur when training content is learned and retained. Figure 4.4 shows a model of information processing. Information processing theories propose that information or messages taken in by the learner undergo several transformations in the human brain.22 Information processing begins when a message or stimulus (which could be a sound, smell, touch, or picture) from the environment is received by receptors (i.e., ears, nose, skin, and eyes). The message is registered in the senses and stored in short-term memory, and then it is transformed or coded for storage in long-term memory. A search process occurs in memory, during which time a response to the message or stimulus is organized. The response generator organizes the learner’s response and tells the effectors (muscles) what to do. The “what to do” instruction relates to one of the five learning outcomes: verbal information, cognitive skills, motor skills, intellectual skills, or attitudes. The final link in the model is feedback from the environment. This feedback provides the learner with an evaluation of the response given. This information can come from another person or the learner’s observation of the results of his or her own action. A positive evaluation of the response provides reinforcement that the behavior is desirable and should be stored in long-term memory for use in similar situations.

FIGURE 4.4 A Model of Human Information Processing

Source: Based on R. Gagne, “Learning Processes and Instruction,” Training Research Journal, 1 (1995/96), pp. 17–28; D. Rock, “Your Brain on Learning,” Chief Learning Officer(May 2015), pp. 30–48.

Besides emphasizing the internal processes needed to capture, store, retrieve, and respond to messages, the information processing model highlights how external events influence learning. These events include:23

1. Changes in the intensity or frequency of the stimulus that affect attention.

2. Informing the learner of the objectives to establish an expectation.

3. Enhancing perceptual features of the material (stimulus), drawing the attention of the learner to certain features.

4. page 171Verbal instructions, pictures, diagrams, and maps suggesting ways to code the training content so that it can be stored in memory.

5. Meaningful learning context (examples, problems) creating cues that facilitate coding.

6. Demonstration or verbal instructions helping to organize the learner’s response, as well as facilitating the selection of the correct response.

TRANSFER OF TRAINING THEORY

Transfer of training is more likely to occur when the trainee works on tasks during training (e.g., knowledge, equipment, or processes) that are very similar, if not identical, to the work environment (near transfer). Transfer of training is more difficult when tasks during training are different from the work environment (far transfer), such as applying customer service principles to an interaction with an angry customer in front of a long line of customers at a cash register. The tasks that are used during training should relate to the training objectives.

Closed skills refer to training objectives that are linked to learning specific skills that are to be identically produced by the trainee on the job. There is only one correct way to complete a task if it requires closed skills. In contrast, open skills are linked to more general learning principles. Customer service skills are an example of open skills. There is not a single correct way to perform and the learner is given some general principles to follow. For example, a sales clerk is likely trained on general principles or processes for how to interact with an angry customer but has the freedom to choose from among those principles in an actual interaction, because the customer’s intentions and responses are not entirely predictable.24 Open skills are more difficult to train than closed skills because they require the trainee to not only acquire and recall general principles, but also to consider how they can be adapted and used to fit a wide range of circumstances, many of which cannot be practiced during training. Also, manager and peer support on the job is important for giving the trainee the opportunity to learn by seeing how experienced employees use the skills and to get feedback when the trainee has the chance to apply them. Later in this chapter, we discuss the implications of transfer of training theories for designing training. In Chapter Five, we will discuss how specific training program design features can facilitate learning and transfer of both open and closed skills.

Consider the transfer of training issues that Continental Airlines faced in preparing its pilots to fly the new 787 Dreamliner airplane.25 First, Continental flew the airplane on its U.S. routes to familiarize flight and ground crew staff with it. Continental trained approximately 24 pilots for each plane that was delivered. The 787 flight deck was similar but not identical to the 777 airplane that Continental’s pilots were currently flying. Training included use of a flight simulator of the 787 and computer-based courses. One of the most difficult tasks for pilots was becoming familiar with a display that drops down in front of them, providing important flight information. The purpose of the display is to improve visibility during difficult flying conditions. Pilots liked the display but found that it takes time to get used to it because it requires them to adjust their depth perception.

Three theories of transfer of training have implications for training design (the learning environment): the theory of identical elements, the stimulus generalization approach, and the cognitive theory of transfer.26 Table 4.3 shows each theory’s primary emphasis and the most appropriate conditions for its consideration.

TABLE 4.3 Transfer of Training Theories

Theory	Emphasis	Appropriate Conditions	Type of Transfer
Identical elements	Training environment is identical to work environment.	Training focuses on closed skills. Work environment features are predictable and stable. Example: Training to use equipment.	Near
Stimulus generalization	General principles are applicable to many different work situations.	Training focuses on open skills. Work environment is unpredictable and highly variable. Example: Training in interpersonal skills.	Far
Cognitive theory	Meaningful material and coding schemes enhance storage and recall of training content.	All types of training and environments.	Near and far

Theory of Identical Elements

The theory of identical elements proposes that transfer of training occurs when what is being learned in the training session is identical to the tasks the trainee has to perform on the job.27 Transfer will be maximized to the degree that the tasks, materials, equipment, and other characteristics of the learning environment are similar to those encountered in the work environment.

The use of identical elements theory is shown in the hostage training simulation used by the Baltimore Police Department. The Baltimore Police Department needed to teach police sergeants the skills to handle hostage-barricade situations in which lives are at stake—skills such as negotiating with a troubled husband holding his wife and/or children hostage. The first hour of a hostage situation is critical. The sergeant must organize resources quickly to achieve a successful end to the situation, with minimal or no injuries. Baltimore PD chose a training simulation because it provides a model of reality, a mock-up of a real situation without the danger. Multiple scenarios can be incorporated into the simulation, allowing the sergeants to practice the exact skills that they need when facing an actual hostage crisis.

The simulation begins by briefing the trainees on the hostage situation. Then they are directed to take charge of resolving the incident in the presence of an instructor who has personally been involved in similar real-life incidents. Each trainee supervises one difficult and one easy scenario. The simulation is designed to emphasize the importance of clear thinking and decision making in a situation in which time is critical. It is essential that the trainees take actions according to a set of priorities that place the greatest value on minimizing the risks to the hostages and isolating the suspects before communicating with them. The simulation scenarios include elements of many actual hostage incidents, such as forced entry, taking persons against their will, the presence of a weapon, and threats. page 173As trainees work in the simulation, their actions are evaluated by the instructor. The instructor can either provide feedback to the trainees in writing after they complete the simulation or correct mistakes as they happen.

The training simulation mirrors the exact circumstances of actual hostage situations encountered by police officers. Also, the checklist of activities and behaviors that the sergeants are provided in training is the exact checklist used in hostage situations that occur on the street. Evidence of generalization is provided by police sergeants who have successfully dealt with a bank-hostage situation by using the skills emphasized in the simulation. The Baltimore Police Department is also concerned with maintenance. At the conclusion of the simulation, officers may be able to demonstrate how to free hostages successfully. However, the incidence of hostage situations is fairly low compared to other tasks that police officers perform (e.g., issuing traffic citations or investigating burglaries). As a result, the police department is concerned that officers may forget what they learned in training and therefore have difficulties in hostage situations. To ensure that officers have opportunities to practice these infrequently used but important skills, the training department occasionally schedules mock hostage situations.28

Another application of the theory of identical elements is found in the use of simulators for training airline pilots. Pilots are trained in a simulator that looks exactly like the cockpit of a commercial aircraft. All aspects of the cockpit in the simulator (e.g., gauges, dials, and lights) are the same as in a real aircraft. In psychological terms, the learning environment has complete fidelity with the work environment. Fidelity refers to the extent to which the training environment is similar to the work environment. If skills in flying, taking off, landing, and dealing with emergency situations are learned in the simulator, they will be transferred to the work setting (commercial aircraft).

The identical elements approach also has been used to develop instruments that are designed to measure the similarity of jobs.29 Job similarity can be used as one measure of the extent to which training in the knowledge and skills required for one job prepares an employee to perform a different job.

The theory of identical elements has been applied to many training programs, particularly those that deal with the use of equipment or that involve specific procedures that must be learned. Identical elements theory is particularly relevant in making sure that near transfer occurs. Near transfer refers to trainees’ ability to apply learned capabilities exactly to the work situation.

Identical elements theory does not encourage transfer where the learning environment and the training environment are not necessarily identical. This situation arises particularly in interpersonal skills training. For example, a person’s behavior in a conflict situation is not easily predictable. Therefore, trainees must learn general principles of conflict resolution that they can apply to a wide variety of situations as circumstances dictate (e.g., an irate customer versus a customer who lacks product knowledge).

Stimulus Generalization Approach

The stimulus generalization approach suggests that transfer of training occurs when training emphasizes the most important features of a task or general principles that can be used to complete a task or solve a problem. It is important to identify the range of work situations in which these general principles can be applied. The stimulus generalization approach emphasizes far transfer. Far transfer refers to the trainee’s ability to apply learned capabilities page 174to the work environment, even though the work environment (equipment, problems, and tasks) is not identical to that of the training session.

The stimulus generalization approach can be seen in the design of some skill training programs, which are based on social learning theory. Recall from the discussion of social learning theory that modeling, practice, feedback, and reinforcement play key roles in learning. One step in developing effective interpersonal skill training programs is to identify key behaviors that are needed to be successful in a situation. Key behaviors refers to a set of behaviors that can be used successfully in a wide variety of situations. In a training scenario, the model demonstrates these key behaviors in a video, and trainees have opportunities to practice them. The key behaviors are believed to be applicable to a wide variety of situations. In fact, the practice sessions in this type of training require the trainee to use the behaviors in a variety of situations that are not identical.

Cognitive Theory of Transfer

The cognitive theory of transfer is based on the information processing theory of learning discussed earlier in the chapter. Recall that storage and retrieval of information are key aspects of this model of learning. According to the cognitive theory of transfer , the likelihood of transfer is increased by providing trainees with meaningful material that enhances the chances that they will link what they encounter in the work environment to the learned capability. Also important is providing the trainee with cognitive strategies for coding the learned capabilities in memory so that they are easily retrievable.

The influence of cognitive theory is seen in training design that encourages trainees, as part of the program, to consider potential applications of the training content to their jobs. Many training programs include having trainees identify a work problem or situation and discuss the potential application of training content.