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11

Worker Motivation

The people a company is able to attract to its workforce will always be its most important asset (Noe et al., 2008). Without a capable and highly moti- vated workplace, a company cannot provide goods and services, cannot respond to customer demands, and cannot make adjustments in dynamic business climates (Huang, 2008). No matter how talented workers are, however, there is the danger that they will be lulled into complacency if managers do not consistently communicate high expectations and reward excellent performance. These managerial tasks are part of the complex process of motivating the workforce, and I will discuss this topic by exam- ining various theoretical ideas that scholars have developed to explain worker motivation. At the end of the chapter, I will try to provide some integration to the various theoretical viewpoints. Motivation starts with knowledge of worker valences (Porter & Lawler,

1968; Villere & Hartman, 1990). That is, managers need to know what will move their workers from the status quo to a more ambitious set of com- pany goals. Valences consist of what workers value. Workers want an adequate salary so that they can satisfy physical needs for themselves and family members. These physical needs include food, shelter, clothing, and a means of transportation. Once these physical needs are met, people very quickly become concerned with their motives, or what they find person- ally important in life. Motives go beyond physical needs and deal with psy- chological requirements such as acceptance by others, the opportunity to pursue tasks that are seen as important, and the possibility of helping others achieve their goals.

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After managers make sure that their workers have adequate salaries such that physical needs can be satisfied, they need to address psycho- logical concerns (Maslow, 1943). Managers need to know their workers well enough so that they can help employees satisfy their motives. Employees bring a diverse set of personally important valences to the workplace. Some enjoy constant communication with others, sharing what they know, and having numerous positive interpersonal relations with coworkers. Some employees enjoy taking on tasks where they can demonstrate personal achievements (McClelland, 1985). They want to write a training manual, open up new territory for marketing the com- pany’s products, or bring in a large number of new customers. Other employees enjoy being in charge of different work groups. They enjoy organizing the diverse contributions group members can make, are good at delegating, and are skillful when giving people feedback on the progress they are making. Good managers know their employees and can assign them to jobs

where they are able to satisfy their motives. Employees who enjoy work- ing with others often find success in a company’s human resource divi- sion. Or, they may find that they enjoy positions where they are expected to provide long-term services to customers. Managers are blessed if they have employees who enjoy feelings of achievement upon the successful completion of tasks. With these employees, the manager’s job is to make sure that the tasks undertaken are consistent with overall company strat- egy. Other employees may not be able to demonstrate stellar achievements through individual efforts, but they enjoy being in charge of a large work group. In other words, the employees enjoy the feelings of power that are associated with directing the efforts of others (McClelland, 1985; Winter, 1973). Managers need to monitor the work of employees who enjoy posi- tions of power. If left unchecked, some employees will become intoxicated with power and will become abusive toward group members. This will lead to task failure and employee turnover. Managers must harness the diverse talents that employees bring to

the workplace. They must also be clear about workplace contributions that will lead to salary increases and promotions. Managers must also be aware of key distinctions that will have an effect on decisions con- cerning how best to harness the talents of employees. One important distinction concerns worker motivation and morale.

MOTIVATION AND MORALE

Recently, a manager asked me this question after I gave a presenta- tion to employees at the small business where she worked. ‘‘I served on the panel reviewing the yearly evaluations of employees in the

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organization where I serve as a vice president. One employee was judged to be highly motivated but to possess little morale. Another was said to have morale but little motivation. I think that both employ- ees make important contributions to the organization. What exactly is the difference between these two terms?’’ My answer started with the assertion that motivation and morale

refer to different types of behaviors that people bring to their organiza- tions (Weakliem & Frenkel, 2006). The distinction lies in the difference between individuals and the groups to which they belong. Motivation refers to reactions in the workplace. If people set goals and strive to achieve them, then they are motivated. The goals can reflect their individual interests. Some people have the goal of bringing in the most clients to a business. Some want to provide the best customer service to a relatively small number of clients. Other people want to keep current in their areas of expertise and so buy technical manuals and take evening courses through a university’s outreach programs. Success in meeting these goals leads to reputations such as, ‘‘This employee works hard and can be depended on to achieve carefully set goals.’’ Morale refers to people’s relation to the organization as a whole and

to coworkers. There are always factors beyond any one individual when morale is discussed, and the other factor always involves other people in the organization. People with high morale are proud to work for an organization. When they discuss themselves, they talk enthusias- tically about the place where they work. They have positive feelings about coworkers and respect the contributions that others make to the organization (Grant & Mayer, 2009). They are willing to make personal sacrifices for the good of the organization. If people are highly motivated but show little morale, they benefit

their organization through their hard work but not by their contribu- tions to the projects initiated by others. If they have high morale but low motivation, they benefit their organizations by self-sacrificing efforts. They put emphasis on their contributions to their organizations and not to their individual careers. Some people can be high in both. They are hardworking, ambitious, and want the organization’s highest- paying jobs. These same people can be cooperative in the workplace, can show respect for others, and can demonstrate pride in their organizations. The distinction is especially important today. Some people are

emphasizing employability (De Cuyper, Notelaers, & De Witte, 2009) rather than employment. They are giving attention to their own skills and are always ready to find a job given the range of contributions that they can offer to a company. They are motivated to have good careers, but feel no special attachment to any one organization. Such people are

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influenced by their personal experiences, with sudden downsizings imposed by companies, which preached but did not practice loyalty to employees. Many motivated employees will work hard for an organiza- tion but will always ‘‘have suitcases packed’’ in the form of cutting- edge skills and good networks that they offer to the job market.

THEORY X AND THEORY Y

One of the most prominent contributions to discussions about worker motivation was developed by Douglas McGregor (1960). The term he developed, Theory X and Theory Y, is frequently heard in the business world.

Dreading and Enjoying Work: Two Theories

With her degree in business, internship experience, and active partic- ipation in university clubs, Sandra Cronin felt that she was ready for a set of job interviews with various companies in the Pacific Northwest. She discussed her plans with the professor who had taught courses in management and organizational behavior. Sandra discussed various companies where she would seek interviews. Her professor com- mented, ‘‘You have an interesting collection of Theory X and Theory Y organizations. Do you remember the class discussion about the differences?’’ Theory X refers to an organization whose executives believe that peo-

ple don’t like to work. Executives believe that people work only as hard as necessary to provide food and shelter for themselves and their families. Given this belief, executives feel they must engage in constant supervision and they try to manage employees with carrots and sticks. They dangle ‘‘carrots’’ in front of people in the form of pay for piece- work, overtime pay, or vacation time. Or, they manage behavior with ‘‘sticks’’ in the form of various punishments should employees not per- form at the level expected by executives. In Theory X organizations, executives invest little in staff development efforts such as training pro- grams since employees will probably leave the company in a few years. Theory Y, as explained by McGregor (1960), refers to an organization

whose executives believe that people can enjoy work. People can find fulfillment in the workplace and can experience major contributions to general life happiness. A management policy involving only carrots and sticks is not necessary. People will work because they enjoy what they are doing. Certainly a competitive salary and set of benefits is nec- essary; however, Theory Y executives do not have to spend all their time monitoring employee behavior. Executives can put resources into

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staff development. They can be confident that their investment will pay off since employees will stay with a company where they enjoy working. Theory Y can be seen in the behavior of people who clearly don’t

have to work. Most readers know of people in their sixties and seven- ties who could retire comfortably. But the people continue to work because they enjoy it. They know that various needs will be met in the workplace: socialization with others, the sense that they are doing something important, and the feeling that they are making positive contributions to others. Winners of multimillion-dollar lotteries often continue working at their same jobs even though they could invest their money and live comfortably. The terms Theory X and Theory Y have become so well known that

people going through job interviews for managerial positions could en- counter them. To obtain information concerning how managers would deal with employees, members of an interview panel might ask about the applicants’ views concerning the two theories.

THE DESIRE FOR COMPLEXITY

Often, some Theory X workers want to become Theory Y workers, even if they are unfamiliar with these terms and instead just do not enjoy their work. They may dread getting up in the morning as the first step in the process of going to work. These people may find their work boring, repetitive, and lacking in importance. They would like to be employees who value their work and make important contributions, but they cannot find satisfaction in their current jobs. Managers can sometimes motivate these bored workers by increasing the complexity of the tasks that are assigned to them. Various factors contribute to enriched jobs that people enjoy

(Hackman & Oldman, 1980). The first is skill variety, which refers to the number of different abilities that a person brings to a job so that it can be completed successfully. Service managers at automobile dealer- ships must have social skills to work with customers, must know tech- nology to work with mechanics, and must have mathematical skills to prepare billing statements. They also have to know the basics of mar- keting since they have more dealings with the public than other spe- cialists within an automobile dealership. A second factor contributing to job enrichment is task identity

(Saavedra & Kwun, 2000), or the opportunities to complete an entire task or a clearly identifiable piece of work. The classic example of a job with low task identity is an assembly line position where a person repeats the same small chores again and again over an eight-hour workday. Computer technicians have jobs with high task identity. They

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can enter a company having problems with information technology, can diagnose problems, and can make necessary repairs and adjust- ments. They can observe the happy faces of people getting back to their computers and using them in their work. A third factor is task significance, or the impact of one’s work on

people’s lives (Hackman & Oldman, 1980). Elementary and high school teachers clearly have a major impact on the lives of their students. Nurses play a major role in all aspects of a patient’s time spent in the hospital prior to, during, and after surgery. Insurance agents contribute to people’s financial peace of mind through various policies covering their health care, home, and automobiles. Workers whose jobs involve high task significance would answer ‘‘strongly agree’’ after reading the statement, ‘‘The results of my job have a significant effect on the lives and well-being of other people.’’ The fourth and fifth factors deal with employee decision making and

knowledge of how they are doing. Enriched jobs permit workers to be autonomous and to make their own decisions about how to carry out assigned tasks. The number of supervisors needed to oversee workers should decrease as employees become more autonomous. Enriched jobs also allow workers to know what they are doing right and what they need to do to improve their performance. This feedback can come from many sources, including supervisors, customers, and coworkers. It can also come from the job itself, as when automobile mechanics see cus- tomers driving away in smoothly running cars that had to be towed into the repair shop a few hours ago. There is an important caveat if managers decide to move toward

increasing job complexity. Job enrichment only is effective with employees who have growth needs (Oldman, Hackman, & Pearce, 1976). Such employees want to improve, want to obtain raises and pro- motions through their efforts, and want to have the reputation of de- pendable, hardworking people who value their contributions to their workplaces. Increasing the complexity of jobs will not be welcome by unmotivated and clock-watching employees who come to work only to earn enough money so that they can pay their bills and pursue their hobbies.

MOTIVATORS AND HYGIENES

The distinction between people who want to be known as productive workers and people who just want a paycheck provides a good intro- duction to the question, ‘‘What do workers want?’’ The answer is not the same for everyone. Theory X people do not look forward to the start of their workdays.

They show up at their workplaces and carry out their assigned tasks

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only to earn enough money to pay their bills. Or, they try to earn enough money to find life satisfaction in other activities such as hob- bies and voluntary community service. Theory Y people enjoy their work and look forward to successful careers (McGregor, 1960). When asked questions about what they would do if they won $10 million in a lottery, many people say they would continue to work. For these peo- ple, jobs and careers are a major part of their social identities. They are satisfied with their work, and they are motivated to be good workers. Various aspects of the workplace, and intrinsic aspects of people’s

jobs, lead to satisfaction and motivation (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959). Some aspects do not lead to satisfaction, but they help avoid dissatisfaction (Sachau, 2007). Imagine a horizontal line. At one end there is the phrase ‘‘I am dissatisfied with my work.’’ In the middle, there is the phrase, ‘‘neutral,’’ or ‘‘I am neither satisfied nor dissatisfied.’’ At the other end of the scale, the phrase ‘‘I am satisfied with my work’’ appears. People make a checkmark along this line cor- responding to their feelings about their work. Some workplace issues prevent dissatisfaction. That is, they lead peo-

ple toward the neutral point on the scale that corresponds to the feel- ing that ‘‘my work is merely okay but I don’t get a whole lot of satisfaction from it.’’ These aspects include the quality of supervision, or in everyday language, how good the bosses are. Other aspects keep- ing people at the neutral point are attractive company policies, physical working conditions, relations with other people in the workplace, and job security. Since they prevent dissatisfaction, they are called hygienes. The distinction between ‘‘preventing dissatisfaction’’ and ‘‘contributing to satisfaction’’ can be puzzling. One way I think about it is to recall a television advertisement from years ago. A man was talking about a deodorant. He said something like, ‘‘Using this deodorant does not guarantee me an active social life, but it keeps me feeling and looking fresh. And when you think about it, that’s quite a lot.’’ The deodorant is like workplace hygiene. It does not guarantee positive outcomes, but it prevents a person from becoming a total social outcast. With attention to a second set of workplace issues, people can

change from neutral feelings about work to feelings of satisfaction and fulfillment. Since these aspects move people to become more satisfied and to look forward to their workdays, they are called motivators. These workplace aspects include opportunities for promotion, opportu- nities for personal growth as unique individuals, recognition, increased responsibility, and achievement. These aspects are more associated with career development over a number of years and deal with more than just a job during any ordinary day at the office. They also deal with features of people’s identities as hardworking individuals who have a lot to offer. If good workers do not find these motivators in the

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workplace, they will often seek employment in other organizations. Managers are wise to examine the list of motivators and to ensure that their companies allow workers to move from the neutral point to job satisfaction. Readers may have noticed that one very important aspect of the

workplace was not discussed in this coverage of hygienes and motiva- tors. That aspect is money. This is such an important issue in the work- place, with implications for both preventing dissatisfaction and contributing to satisfaction, that it deserves special attention. So where does money fit into the list of motivators and hygienes? In

Frederick Herzberg’s original formulation (Herzberg et al., 1959), pay prevented people from becoming dissatisfied but did not move people from the center point to actual job satisfaction. More recent research has given money a much more prominent place in studies of motiva- tion. Current arguments are that people’s feelings about their pay both prevent the negative feelings of dissatisfaction and contribute greatly to the positive feelings that accompany workplace satisfaction. In fact, if employers can give attention to only one workplace issue, assuring good compensation for the most productive workers is the most powerful step that they can take in their pursuit of organizational suc- cess (Brislin, MacNab, Worthley, Kabigting, & Zukis, 2005). Why has the role of workplace salaries changed from preventer of

dissatisfaction to a much more central role in the analysis of workplace motivation and employee growth? One reason is the world economy has changed over the last 50 years. In the past, families could support themselves with the work of one wage earner. During my childhood, for example, my father worked and my mother stayed home and raised four children until we reached our teen years. The family did not live luxuriously, but the children had access to the basic contribu- tors to youthful happiness. But now, most families need two or more wage earners to make ends meet. The lack of enough money at the end of the month contributes to stress when bills cannot be paid and when additional borrowing is necessary. With extra money, on the other hand, people can afford the pursuit of activities that add meaning to life and that offer pleasure. These pursuits can include music, athletics, spiritual activities as people become active in churches, and community service. If people have to hold down two and three jobs, as is common in many parts of the world, they have no time for these enriching activities. Another reason for past neglect of pay as a motivation is that many

researchers felt that the study of wages and salaries was crass. They asked, ‘‘Aren’t there more important motivating factors that can contribute to people’s feelings of transcendence and self-actualization?’’ Given that peo- ple can’t seek self-actualizing (Maslow, 1943) experiences unless they can

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pay their bills, current researchers in the workplace are paying more atten- tion to equitable compensation (Gagne & Forest, 2008). These researchers sometimes quote Albert Camus: ‘‘It’s a kind of spiritual snobbery that makes people think they can be happy without money.’’

PREFERENCES, EXPECTANCIES, AND COMPARISONS WITH OTHERS

The treatment of motivators and hygienes provides a good introduc- tion to a complex model of motivation that includes worker preferences for specific types of rewards, such as money, opportunities for growth, and pleasant coworkers. This model then moves into expectancies peo- ple have for their workplace, their abilities, their feelings of equity after comparing themselves with others, and subsequent feelings of satisfac- tion. These multiple ideas are summarized by the expectancy model of motivation developed by Porter and Lawler (1968). We will start with what workers want, also called their valences.

Different Workers Want Different Outcomes: Valences and Rewards. Managers have the responsibility of ensuring that their departments are contributing to company goals. As part of this com- plex task, they must make sure that workers under their supervision are motivated to work hard and effectively for the company. Motivating the workplace is multifaceted. A key step is that managers must communicate that if employees put their valences to work, then various rewards will come their way. Valences include people’s various psychological requirements. Some

people enjoy cordial interactions with many different individuals, and they will be unhappy if they find themselves working alone in an office. Some workers enjoy taking on challenging tasks and basking in the praise that accompanies goal achievement (McClelland, 1985). Some workers enjoy nurturing and helping others. Managers need to make sure that all these different workers understand that if they apply their valences to var- ious company tasks, they will be rewarded. Rewards include salary increases, travel, promotions, advanced training opportunities, and perks such as prestigious parking spaces. Managers can also communicate how punishments can be avoided. If there are three awards to be given out at the yearly company banquet, those not receiving awards may find attend- ance at the banquet to be punishing. Good managers communicate how to obtain the awards and how to avoid the indignity of never receiving pub- lic recognition for stellar efforts on behalf of the company (Eisenberg, 2007; Martin, 1999). Managers need to make sure that workers feel that there are close

links among themselves, their valences, the rewards they desire, and

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their company. Workers should be able to say to themselves, ‘‘I know that I have talents, such as working well with others or working hard on tasks that are assigned to me. I want to be able to use my talents in the workplace. If I am able to employ my talents, then I know that the managers in this company will reward me with promotions and salary increases.’’ The lack of links between valences and rewards can be seen in many

unsuccessful job candidates. Some people do not seem to have valences that can be used in the workplace. They work only because they need enough money to support themselves (McGregor, 1960). Further, they do not seem able to apply any of their talents to the successful pursuit of company goals. In addition, some do not see a link between their own behavior and any rewards that a workplace can offer (Porter & Lawler, 1968). They feel that even if they work hard, nothing good will happen to them (Seligman, 1991). Such people often do not pass a com- pany’s initial screenings for new hires. In preparing their resumes, they are unable to communicate that they have talents of use to the com- pany and that they have a good work history where their behavior has led to rewards. Job applicants are advised to use active verbs like ‘‘pro- duced, achieved, led, and organized’’ on their resumes. One reason is to make selection committee members aware that they have talents and know that hard work leads to rewards. Once managers have identified workers who are confident that

application of their valences will lead to rewards, they need to deal with worker expectancies regarding what they can do for the organiza- tion. Managers also need to help workers plan for their future in the company.

Employee and Employer Expectations. Another important step in motivating the workforce is dealing with employee expectations. If people are willing to work hard and know that they will be rewarded, then they have a desire to invest their best efforts into the company. But will these best efforts lead to success? Do people have expectations that their hard work will lead to positive outcomes in the future? If they do have such expectations, are they confident about positive out- comes in their current company, or do they feel that they will have more career success if they move to another organization (Porter & Lawler, 1968; Villere & Hartman, 1990)? Young people’s experience with basketball provides a good example of

expectations. Many children and teenagers play organized basketball. This satisfies different valences: physical exercise, achievement, and the satis- faction of working with teammates. There are various rewards such as applause from adults, admiration from same-age peers, trophies, and sometimes newspaper coverage. So with the combination of valences and

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rewards, people have a desire to perform. But what about expectations for the future? Do young basketball players expect to continue with the sport and to attain the riches and fame of professional athletes? Most people conclude that they do not expect to play on a professional basketball team and so look for other career-developing possibilities. People who gamble or who know gamblers are familiar with another

example of expectations (Shead & Hodgins, 2009). Year after year, mil- lions of people travel to Las Vegas, Reno, and Atlantic City with the expectation of going to casinos and winning money. They feel that they can beat the odds, which always favor the casino, and come home with more money than they brought. Even if they come home with less money, they put their positive expectations into planning for their next trip. When applied to worker motivation, managers must communicate

that employees have a positive future. Workers need to know that if they work hard for their present company, then they will have good careers. Workers should be clear about the future possibilities of pro- motions, salary increases, travel, and other company perks. Managers do not want to lose their best workers. If employees feel that their expectations concerning the future are pessimistic given their present employment, they will likely switch jobs. This will leave managers holding the bag. Managers will have lost good people and will have to go through the time and expense of hiring new workers. Unfortunately, positive expectancies are no guarantee of success.

People must also possess the appropriate abilities to accomplish diffi- cult and challenging tasks.

Employee Abilities. If workers have positive expectations, this means that they are confident concerning a clear link between their needs and motives and the certainty that they will be rewarded if they work hard. Further, they feel this confidence is appropriate in their present organi- zation and do not feel the need to search for greener pastures else- where. Problems arise when expectations do not meet various realities that workers may face. People must move from unrealistic fantasies to goals that can be achieved given the resources that they possess and those that can be acquired in the future. One resource is the abilities that workers possess (Meyer, Salovey, &

Caruso, 2008; Moon, 2003). People may expect to do well if they pursue their goals in a certain occupation, but they may not possess the neces- sary abilities. Coaches and teachers are often faced with the terribly dif- ficult dilemma of counseling young people whose abilities do not meet their expectations. Adults want to encourage young people, but they often have to introduce reality during discussions concerning the level of ability needed for success in various pursuits. Participation in youth

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sports is a clear example. Young athletes may have the expectations that a Division I scholarship will pay their college expenses. But coaches and teachers often must intervene and caution high school ath- letes that the competition for college scholarships is intense. For the most selective universities, students must demonstrate both athletic and academic abilities. To continue with our discussion of gamblers, their interests and

efforts provide another example of expectations and abilities (Shead & Hodgins, 2009). Millions of residents travel to various casinos with the expectations of winning a great deal of money. Some feel that they have abilities that will lead to the accomplishment of their goal. They feel that they are good blackjack players, can identity slot machines that are ready to pay off, and have a system for winning at roulette. Many times, their abilities are overwhelmed by the odds that favor the casinos. This reminds me of an old joke. Question: What do casino owners say to gamblers who feel that they have a system that will guarantee big winnings? Answer: ‘‘Welcome!’’ People can bring various abilities to the workplace. Abilities nurtured

as part of people’s formal education include verbal skills, mathematics, and a general knowledge of local, national, and world events. People who have the ability to work well with others, also known as social skills (Baron & Tang, 2009; Meyer et al., 2008), will always be in high demand. Other abilities include spatial skills, important in the work of architects and engineers. Physical abilities such as balance, ability, and stamina are important for athletes and dancers. Intrapersonal skills, including the possession of accurate self-knowledge concerning how a person is seen and judged by others, are important for anyone who participates in an organization’s marketing activities. Abrasive and self-centered people often do not possess the ability to understand their effect on others (Meyer et al., 2008). These people become unpleasant coworkers, even though they populate the ranks of interesting television reality show participants given the conflicts they generate. Abilities are not set in concrete at birth. People can develop their

abilities as part of their formal education, extracurricular activities dur- ing their school years, job experiences, and community service projects. People are well advised to nurture close relationships with teachers, counselors, and mentors who can offer advice concerning skills devel- opment. Given good relationships with these trusted advisers, people can ask, ‘‘What abilities should I continue to develop given my career goals and expectations?’’

Role Clarity. At this point in the analysis of motivated workers, man- agers are interacting with employees who are willing to work hard, are

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clear about rewards in their organization, and are taking steps to con- tinue the development of their abilities. Now managers need to make sure that employees can satisfy the role demands of their jobs (Dierdorff, Rubin, & Morgeson, 2009). Roles is a term that refers to behaviors associated with a title that people give to themselves and others (Brislin, 2008). There are many titles that can be applied to peo- ple: leader, parent, boss, teacher, mentor, computer user, volunteer, coach, teammate, church member, and so forth. There are behaviors associated with all these titles. If people are successful with their titles such as leader, boss, or computer user, this means that they can per- form a collection of appropriate behaviors, also known as role require- ments. For example, good leaders listen carefully to employees and communicate a clear vision of a better future if workers accept the organization’s goals (Yukl, 2010). Good mentors share sensitive and candid information about the organization with younger employees and suggest hands-on experiences that will assist the employees in their pursuit of successful careers (Allen, Finkelstein, & Poteet, 2009). Good computer users solve tasks efficiently and offer assistance to coworkers who are not as knowledgeable. Managers need to assist workers to meet the role requirements of

their jobs (Porter & Lawler, 1968). They can start by making lists of the behaviors that effective workers should be able to perform. Some of these behaviors will demand sophisticated technology, others will involve a great deal of technical information, and still others demand interpersonal skills. For example, many of today’s workplaces demand computer literacy. Managers need to provide up-to-date hardware, software, and training. Salespeople need to have cell phones so that current and potential customers can easily contact them. Human resource specialists need time to read about current legal changes and case law so that they can keep abreast of an organization’s responsibil- ities in areas such as affirmative action, sexual harassment, and grounds for employee termination (Noe et al., 2008). Many analyses of role requirements will demand that managers invest monetary resour- ces. These investments can include purchases of equipment such as computers, or the contracting of training programs to increase employ- ees’ knowledge and skills necessary for successful job performance.

Workplace Equity. Managers want to hire employees who believe in the value of an honest day’s work. Productive employees believe that their efforts will lead to rewards, and that this link exists in the organi- zations where they currently work. They possess the necessary abilities to do their jobs well, and they are willing to constantly improve their skills given the demands of technological innovations and changing consumer preferences. Good employees also have the tools necessary

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to do their jobs well. Tools can include computers and cell phones, and they can also include advanced knowledge available through manage- ment-funded training programs. Clearly, managers are blessed if they have employees who have all of these desirable qualities. To continue their task of motivating these employees, managers now have to be concerned with workplace equity. Equity refers to a balance between the resources employees give to an or-

ganization and the benefits they receive (Adams, 1965; Greenberg, 1990; 1997). Employees invest their knowledge, skills, time, energy, and other personal resources into their organization. They then receive benefits in the form of salaries, stock options, overtime pay, promotions, status- bringing titles, and perks such as corner offices and parking privileges. Employees calculate the resources they invest, and then try to develop an estimate of the benefits they should receive. They can do this by making comparisons with others in the community who have similar jobs. People argue to themselves that if they are auditors in an accounting firm and have brought in a certain number of clients, then they should be paid the same as other auditors with similar job accomplishments. Sports fans are very familiar with these considerations of equity.

Every year, there is media coverage of professional athletes who had very good years. They had contracts that called for an average salary at the beginning of the season, but they gained more yards, caught more passes, scored more touchdowns, or made more tackles than many others players with better contracts. So what do they do? They ask to be treated more equitably. They request that their contracts be renegoti- ated or, if they are free agents, seek higher salaries on the open market. One of the most interesting aspects of the equity calculation process

is that people compare themselves with alternatives that are consistent with lifestyles that they find reasonable (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959). If auditors prefer living in a medium-sized city in the Midwest, they do not make comparisons with colleagues in New York City or San Francisco. They make comparisons with auditors who live in cities of about the same size. Many people in mid-size communities are familiar with this comparison. In assessing the perceived equity of their sal- aries, they don’t compare themselves with people holding down simi- lar jobs in big cities such as New York or London. Even though they know that big city jobs may pay more, they don’t want to live in one of them! They want to live in a smaller community, and so they com- pare themselves with others with similar ambitions. If hardworking employees feel that the benefits they receive from

the company are equitable, then they experience a sense of job satisfaction. As a result, they stay with their companies longer and can engage in organization-enhancing behaviors such as mentoring younger employees and joining professional associations where they can obtain cutting-edge

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skills (Adams, 1965; Allen et al., 2009). But the complex task of motivating workers is not yet complete. Employees always want more from their organizations, and managers need to know this fact.

Wanting More. At this point in the analysis of motivation, employees are working hard for their organizations. They will then examine whether or not they are being treated equitably. They will examine the rewards they receive, especially salaries, and will compare themselves with others who hold down similar jobs. If they feel the rewards they receive are comparable, they will feel equitably treated. If they feel inadequately rewarded, they will experience dissatisfaction and may leave their organizations. If workers feel equitably treated, is the analysis of motivation com-

plete? No, and the reason goes back to the early part of this discussion. Workers have various valences, and all must be satisfied. Further, even if they did not have a certain valence when they started working for a company, they might develop it over time. For example, people might take a job because they feel that it will satisfy their need to achieve and to receive recognition for their accomplishments. They may feel that they can satisfy this valence in their current organization and they may feel equitably treated. But they may find themselves becoming inter- ested in supervising the work of others. Managing other people is quite different from the valences of achievement and recognition. Workers with this new valence will then examine whether or not their current job leads to positive outcomes and equity. If it does not, they will expe- rience dissatisfaction. Does this mean that workers will never be entirely satisfied? The answer is yes. If people become satisfied with certain aspects of their lives, they will develop other needs that they want to fulfill (Porter & Lawler, 1968; Robinson, 2001). This is human nature, and it means that managers must always be attentive to the changing and increasing demands of their best workers.

READING SOCIAL SITUATIONS AS PART OF WORKER MOTIVATION

In analyzing worker motivation, managers must realize that people are different. They want different outcomes from their work, they have a variety of expectations, they have different abilities, and they have different feelings about equitable treatment. Managers can improve their own efforts to motivate workers if they keep in mind one of the themes discussed in several of this book’s chapters: People react to the social sit- uations in which they find themselves. Social situations refer to influences on people’s behavior that they ex-

perience in their day-to-day movements in their homes, workplaces,

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and community activities (Mischel, 2004; Zimbardo & Leippe, 1991; Zimbardo, 2007). Different elements in a social situation can have an influence on an individual’s behavior, and these elements include other people. In a workplace with cubicles rather than offices, loud neighbors who talk with friends on their cell phones can be a major distraction. They contribute to quite a different social situation than considerate workplace neighbors who carefully monitor their voice levels. There are several conceptualizations of behavior that give advice to

managers and supervisors based on situational influences. The model developed by Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard (1988) is based on all possible answers to two questions. Supervisors ask, ‘‘Do my employees have the ability to do the task that I want them to under- take?’’ And they ask, ‘‘Do my employees understand the importance of the task and are they motivated to putting out their best efforts?’’ The first question refers to employee ability and the second to their motiva- tion and commitment. Managers have to read the situations in which workers find themselves and give themselves answers to the two ques- tions. At times, employees can help by giving direct answers to the questions, but often they cannot and managers have to formulate answers with a minimum of verbal input from their employees. If the answers to both questions are ‘‘no,’’ then supervisors should

engage in a leadership style that is both directive and supportive. This situation often arises with new hires. Supervisors need to oversee the training and mentoring of employees so that they acquire necessary skills. In addition, they need to support and to motivate the employees so that they will work hard, for the benefit of the company, after they acquire the necessary skills. If employees have the necessary skills but lack commitment to the

task that the supervisor wants completed, one-on-one coaching sessions are often effective (Allen et al., 2009). This situation often occurs with long-term employees who have lost some of their enthusiasm for their work. During the coaching sessions, supervisors can communicate their feelings about the importance of the task and their confidence that the employees can be successful if they put in the necessary time and effort. If employees do not have the necessary skills but are highly moti-

vated and committed, supervisors need to oversee programs that permit skill development (Martin, 1999). These can include on-the-job training, the encouragement of mentoring relationships, and off-site training where tuition is paid by the company. A key element is that employees are motivated to work hard. They need to be told what to do so that can combine their newly acquired job skills with their posi- tive motivation.

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If the answers to both questions are yes, indicating that employees are both skilled and committed, then supervisors can delegate (Hersey & Blanchard, 1988). They can tell the employees what outcomes are desired, for instance, specific production goals (Locke & Latham, 1984) or the development of a program for maintaining customer loyalty. Then, supervisors can let the employees develop their own plans for achieving the goals. With this type of employee, supervisors can then turn their attention to workplace issues demanding more of their own hands-on effort. Using this model, supervisors adjust their behaviors and act differ-

ently toward their employees. In my experience, employees accept this differential treatment as long as supervisors communicate the reasons for their behavior (Bays, 2007; Brislin, 2008). Further, supervisors can explain that ‘‘as employees grow with the organization and demon- strate both competence and commitment, more work will be delegated. The successful completion of delegated tasks will lead to promotions.’’ My argument is that managers must learn to read the situations that

their employees face and then intervene in different ways depending on the situation cues that they identify. Managers must resist the more com- mon tendency to observe behaviors and to make conclusions that down- play situational influences (Miller & Ross, 1975; Zimbardo & Leippe, 1991; Brislin, 2008). Most often, individuals observe the behavior of others and make judgments about their personalities. People who don’t talk to others at social gatherings are introverted. People who tell others what to do in the workplace are power hungry. People who don’t contribute to charita- ble campaigns at work are cheap. But often, people’s behavior is influ- enced by situational forces that are invisible to observers. Thinking about situational factors is time-consuming and difficult, but it leads to more accurate assessments of why people behave as they do (Blass, 2004; Zimbardo, 2007). Let’s look at each of the three examples of situational influence.

People who don’t talk to others at parties may not know anyone in attendance. If they were at social gatherings where they knew lots of attendees, they might be very talkative and animated. People who tell others what to do may be concerned about an impending deadline that, if not met, may mean lost business for a company. Individuals who do not contribute to charitable campaigns may have recently incurred fi- nancial obligations such as medical bills for an aging parent. Even though they have altruistic personalities and always try to help others, they may be so cash-strapped that they cannot contribute for several years. Why are situational factors so rarely taken into account when we

think about the behavior of other people? One reason is that we often do not know the situational pressures faced by others (Brislin, 2008;

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Miller & Ross, 1975). And even if we wanted to know, questions posed to others about these factors may violate privacy norms. In a work- place, for instance, some people are willing to talk about their financial obligations to parents and some people are not. In contrast to their lack of knowledge about others, people know the situational pressures that they face. In their own lives, people know who is likely to be at the social gathering, what the deadline is for a proposal, and how much they can contribute to charities. Another reason for inattention to situational forces is that people’s

socialization often places emphasis on context-free concepts such as the honesty, integrity, consistency of self, and personal responsibility. This is captured in Shakespeare’s Hamlet when Polonius gives fatherly advice just before his son, Laertes, is to travel abroad: ‘‘This above all, to thine own self be true.’’ Polonius did not tell his son to take into account situational factors when giving his rather vague and unhelpful advice about being true to oneself. Perhaps directors who take on the task of staging Hamlet recognize this unhelpfulness. Often, Polonius is presented as a windbag giving fatuous musings to a son who is clearly eager to escape a boring monologue. Individuals can take advantage of the fact that they know their own

situational pressures when they are tempted to make judgments about the behavior of others. They can make their observations and then ask, ‘‘In what sorts of situations would I act that way? What would make me be quiet at a party, act in a bossy manner, or come across as tight with my money?’’ Answers to such questions help individuals develop empathy (Miller & Rose, 2009), and this is an important contributor to their success in workplaces that attract the talents of people who have had very different life experiences.

SOME SUMMARY POINTS: WORKER MOTIVATION

A great deal of material has been covered in this chapter. Key points are summarized in Figure 11.1. The point of view presented in the fig- ure is that of the manager who is responsible for the performance of motivated and productive employees. Beginning at the upper-left corner of the figure (1), managers need to

know what employees want from their work (Porter & Lawyer, 1968). Do they use want money (Theory X), or do they want their work to be part of positive self-identities (Theory Y, McGregor, 1960)? Managers should know the factors that protect employees from disliking their jobs (hygienes), as well as factors that contribute to feelings that people like their jobs (motivators, Herzberg et al., 1959). With this knowledge, the next part of the figure (2) asks whether or not

worker preferences are aligned with company goals. Managers should

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know the motivational profiles of their employees and devise methods so that these profiles are linked to company goals. For example, employees who value creativity and innovation can be assigned tasks that could lead to new markets, products, or services for a company. Employees who

Figure 11.1 A Summary of Steps in Analyzing Worker Motivation.

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value positive relations with others (often called the affiliation motive) can be asked to mentor new hires and to introduce the newcomers to col- leagues in various departments within the organization (Allen et al., 2009). Once managers become well acquainted with their employees, they

are able to answer other questions (3). They should know what employees expect from their work. Do they want long-term employ- ment, or do they plan to be with the company for no more than two or three years (De Cuyper et al., 2009)? Do they want to become active in professional organizations associated with the company? Have they la- beled themselves as future executives and do they see opportunities to achieve this goal? Employees need tools, broadly defined, to do their jobs (4). Tools can

include items that can be touched, such as hammers, computers, and cell phones. But they can also include less physically clear career neces- sities such as introductions to influential networks (Brislin, 1991) and mentoring advice concerning intangible issues such as information con- cerning ‘‘the way things really work around here.’’ In several organiza- tions that I know, new hires with executive ambitions are expected to do voluntary work in the community that will reflect well on their or- ganization. This expectation might not be written down in company policies, and so supervisors should be sure to explain the importance of voluntary work to their employees. The next step in the analysis of motivation (5) is to assess whether or

not workers feel equitably treated (Greenberg, 1990; 1997). This means that managers have to realize that workers compare themselves to peers. If peers with similar job qualifications, workplace contributions, and productivity are receiving certain wage-benefit packages, then workers want to be compensated equitably compared to these peers. The comparison group may not be all workers in all cities. If people from a medium-sized Midwestern city value their lifestyles there, then they will not compare themselves with age peers working in New York City or Los Angeles. Their comparison group will be workers from similar communities as the ones where they live. At this point, workers have gone through steps 1 through 5 dealing

with their preferences, alignment of their talents and expectations with their company and its goals, tools for success, and feelings of equity. Now, they decide if they are satisfied or not (step 6). Satisfied workers are likely to stay with the company rather than leave, contributing to company expenses if they are to be replaced. Satisfied workers are of- ten good organizational citizens who make contributions above and beyond the tasks listed in their job descriptions (Farh et al., 2008). Now, managers must add in what might be called advanced knowledge

(step 7). They need to realize the importance of situational factors and must move away from the quick conclusion that worker traits cause all

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observed behaviors (Zimbardo, 2007). A tardy employee may not be lazy. There may be a sick child who needs care. Bewildered employees may not be uncaring. They may not have had sufficient experience with the task at hand to complete it successfully. Reading this situa- tional cue, managers can intervene with coaching or referral to a train- ing program. Another piece of knowledge managers must have is the realization

that workers will never be completely satisfied (Porter & Lawler, 1968; Robinson, 2001). If one aspect of their motivational profiles is satisfied, then they will want to pursue another (step 8). This means that they will start the motivational analysis again at step 1. If they are receiving satisfactory pay, they will give attention to perks such as parking and vacation time. If they feel that their creative needs are being met, they will seek to satisfy their affiliative needs or their desires for regular promotions. This never-ending quest for more is sometimes called the revolution of rising expectations (Robinson, 2001). Once people acquire some desired aspects that follow from their ambitions, they want more. They know the positive feeling that result from goal attainment, they see the possibility of more desirable outcomes coming their way, and they shift their attention to those additional outcomes.

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