Week 1 - Assignment: Assess Personnel Management Approaches in Public Administration and Week 2 - Assignment: Generate Best Practices for Recruitment and Selection

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Antecedents and Correlates of Public Service Motivation

Sanjay K. Pandey and Edmund C. Stazyk

Systematic research, especially empirical research, on public service motiva- tion is of recent vintage and grows out of a recognition that the public sector motivational terrain differs from the private sector (Perry & Porter, 1982; Perry & Rainey, 1988). Early work recognized that these sector-based differ- ences were related to both organizational and individual circumstances (Perry & Porter, 1982). Put another way, individual proclivities to derive fulfillment and satisfaction from public sector work were expected to vary on the basis of formal and informal aspects of the work environment as well as individual attributes. This belief is the product of a rich tradition in public administra- tion scholarship that has long recognized the presence of an ethic grounded uniquely in public service, which has been expected to lead to the pursuit of government careers and also predispose individuals to derive satisfaction from public sector work (Horton, this volume; Mosher, 1982; Perry & Wise, 1990; Rainey, 1982). It is only in the last 20 years or so that this tradition has given rise to empirical research on public service motivation.

This chapter reviews antecedents and correlates of public service motiva- tion. In presenting this review, however, we shy away from a ‘comprehensive cataloging’ approach. We believe that an alternate approach—identifying dis- cernible patterns of explanations—is more useful. In taking this approach, we have a comparatively firm basis for our a priori beliefs about the causal ordering of antecedents. With respect to the concepts we discuss as correlates, it is not possible to mount definitive evidence and arguments on the nature and direction of causal relationship on the basis of extant research. Our review is based on approximately 50 empirical studies starting with Rainey (1982). It is important to note empirical research on the public service motivation concept has been both reinvigorated and transformed since Perry’s reformu- lation of the concept as made up of four component dimensions, includ- ing attraction to policy making, compassion, civic duty/public interest, and

Perry, J. L., & Hondeghem, A. (Eds.). (2008). Motivation in public management : The call of public service. Oxford University Press. Created from ncent-ebooks on 2022-02-01 15:35:25.

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self-sacrifice (Perry, 1996, 1997, 2000; Perry & Wise, 1990). This is reflected in the increased use of public service motivation measurement scales proposed by Perry (1996); about 15 of the studies reviewed used some variant of mea- sure(s) derived from Perry (1996).

We begin by discussing three categories of explanations as antecedents of public service motivation, namely, socio-demographic factors, social institu- tions, and organizational factors. While the first category is largely atheoreti- cal, the latter two categories of explanations are rooted in institutional theory (March & Olsen, 1989; Perry, 2000). As correlates, we discuss reward pref- erences, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. Other correlates discussed in the literature (e.g. performance, organizational and interpersonal citizenship behavior, goal commitment, and mission valence) are addressed in other chapters. After sequentially reviewing the antecedents and correlates, we offer some concluding thoughts.

SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS AS ANTECEDENTS

Socio-demographic characteristics are commonly included in public service motivation studies as control variables in multivariate models (e.g. Alonso & Lewis, 2001; Brewer, 2003; Gabris & Simo, 1995; Houston, 2000, 2006; Kim, 2005; Naff & Crum, 1999). Although limited in number, recent studies have examined the effects of socio-demographic factors as antecedents in a more systematic manner (Bright, 2005; Camilleri, 2007; DeHart-Davis et al., 2006; Perry, 1997). Some of the more robust socio-demographic antecedents include age, education, and gender. On balance, age has a modest positive association with public service motivation. A higher level of education has a positive association with public service motivation. Women consistently score higher on the compassion dimension of public service motivation. For most other socio-demographic factors, however, it is possible to find instances of no relationship, a positive relationship, or a negative relationship with public service motivation. These inconsistencies may be reflective of methodological shortcomings (Wright, this volume). Nonetheless, on balance, the evidence suggests socio-demographic characteristics have some bearing on public ser- vice motivation.

Despite evidence on the positive effect of age on public service motivation (e.g. Houston, 2000; Perry, 1997), little explanation has been offered. This is consistent with the usage of age primarily as a control variable in multivariate models. Steijn (2006) suggests older employees, by virtue of hierarchical posi- tion and policy/organizational knowledge, are better placed to influence policy

Perry, J. L., & Hondeghem, A. (Eds.). (2008). Motivation in public management : The call of public service. Oxford University Press. Created from ncent-ebooks on 2022-02-01 15:35:25.

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decisions. This, however, is not an argument for age causing increased public service motivation. Studies on altruism in elderly and generativity support the finding on positive association between age and public service motivation. According to Midlarsky and Hannah (1989), despite good reasons to expect the relationship between age and altruism to be curvilinear with middle-aged individuals being the most altruistic, the relationship between altruism and age is a linear one with the elderly being more generous. Generativity studies try to understand the role individuals play in shaping the future generation. These studies make the case that with increasing age and attendant life expe- riences (such as raising children) individuals become more concerned about making lasting positive contributions to society (McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1992; Ryff & Heincke, 1983). This insight of generativity studies is supported in part by Camilleri (2007) who found that individuals with children have higher public service motivation.

If there is one consistent result across most studies on the effect of a socio-demographic attribute, it is that education has a positive association with public service motivation (e.g. Bright, 2005; Moynihan & Pandey, 2007; Naff & Crum, 1999; Perry, 1997; Steijn, 2006). These studies used heteroge- neous samples and, therefore, this finding has good external validity. Bright attributes this finding to the ‘professionalizing’ effect of education. Perry (1997) employed education as a control variable, but in a later study (Perry, 2000) recognized the key socializing role education plays in shaping individual beliefs. Boyte and Kari (1999) offer a similar perspective when they suggest that educational institutions play an integral role in teaching ‘practical citi- zenship’. Indeed, in their historical and institutional perspective, the higher education system is seen as a key component of civil society that informs the relationship between individual and the community and can, therefore, be expected to inculcate public service motivation.

The relationship between different dimensions of public service motivation and gender is mixed (Bright, 2005; Camilleri, 2007; DeHart-Davis et al., 2006; Perry, 1997), except for the compassion dimension. Almost all studies thus far suggest that women show higher levels of compassion. Bright (2005) suggests caring and nurturing—associated with differential gender socialization— makes women more likely to have higher levels of public service motivation. DeHart-Davis et al. (2006) offer a more nuanced perspective on the effect of gender on public service motivation. DeHart-Davis et al. (2006) argue women are likely to display more compassion and men are likely to have higher levels of attraction to policy making and express greater commitment to public interest. The basic argument advanced by DeHart-Davis and colleagues, draw- ing upon feminist theory, is that traditionally public and private spheres have been separate. Taken together, historical relegation of women to the private

Perry, J. L., & Hondeghem, A. (Eds.). (2008). Motivation in public management : The call of public service. Oxford University Press. Created from ncent-ebooks on 2022-02-01 15:35:25.

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sphere, and the prevalence of exclusive ‘male’ interaction patterns in the public sphere, is expected to produce higher compassion among women and lower attraction to policy making and commitment to public interest. While the finding on compassion is in line with expectations and other studies (e.g. Bright, 2005; Camilleri, 2007; Vandenabeele, 2007), the finding on attraction to policy making with women showing higher levels ran counter to expec- tations and findings by Perry (1997) and Camilleri (2007). DeHart-Davis et al. (2006) draw upon the nature of the organizations sampled (redistributive agencies with limited room for policy making) and ‘gender balance’ (agencies with significant presence of women) empowering women to behave more like men to explain positive relationship between female gender and attraction to policy making in these agencies.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS AS ANTECEDENTS

Among the most commonly asserted conjectures about public employees in the literature is that they have a high level of public service ethic. There is a two-part underlying assertion regarding the role of social institutions: (1) Even before individuals have had the opportunity to be exposed to socializa- tion in a public organization, social institutions have inculcated varying levels of public service motivation; and (2) those with higher levels of public service motivation have chosen careers in public service. Evidence from a number of studies is consistent with this assertion (e.g. Brewer, 2003; Houston, 2000, 2006; Wittmer, 1991).

The important question then becomes which social institutions are respon- sible for, and how do they inculcate, public service motivation? Perry (1997) identifies a number of social institutions that can shape the development of public service motivation, namely the family, religion, and the profession. In the family context, he hypothesizes that parental relations and parental modeling can play a role in inculcating public service motivation. Religious activity, because of its sustained and deliberate emphasis on the other, is also expected to lead to public service motivation. Professional socialization, a product of the bargain the profession and society agree upon, is expected to foster a service ethic.

In the 1997 study, Perry found that parental modeling, as expected, has a positive impact on public service motivation. The findings on religious involvement are somewhat more complex. Perry found that church involve- ment had a negative effect on public service motivation. However, respondents who scored higher on a ‘closeness to god’ measure had higher public service

Perry, J. L., & Hondeghem, A. (Eds.). (2008). Motivation in public management : The call of public service. Oxford University Press. Created from ncent-ebooks on 2022-02-01 15:35:25.

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motivation. This suggests religious activity can foster universal and inclusive propensities as well as parochial and insular tendencies. Perry explains the counter-intuitive finding by suggesting that the church involvement measure is reflective of parochial religious commitments and therefore may stand in opposition to universal civic commitments embodied in the public service motivation concept. Perry et al. (in press), in the later study, which focused on volunteerism, found that both parental socialization and religious activity had a positive effect on public service motivation. The primary difference between these two studies was the nature of the sample. While the Perry (1997) study used a broad-based convenience sample, the Perry et al. (in press) research draws upon a sample of volunteers. Moreover, these volunteers were recognized for their civic service by having won either the Daily Point of Light Awards or the President’s Community Volunteer Awards. Therefore, for the volunteers—a group that is more civic-service oriented—the universal and inclusive aspect of religious activity perhaps reinforces public service motivation. Indeed, Houston and Cartwright (2007) have found individuals involved in public service occupations tend to report being more spiritual than others.

The last social institution Perry (1997) discusses is the profession. Most studies report a positive relationship between professional identification and public service motivation (e.g. DeHart-Davis et al., 2006; Moynihan & Pandey, 2007). The two studies by Pandey and colleagues use the same database, but employ differing model specifications and two different measures of profes- sionalism. Whereas the DeHart-Davis and colleagues study uses a measure of professionalism that includes indicators of both membership and active engagement with the profession, the Moynihan and Pandey study relies on membership in a professional group as an indicator of professionalism. In both studies, a higher level of professionalism is associated with higher public service motivation.

Professions historically have struck a bargain with society in which they espouse and uphold a code of ethics that puts public interest ahead of personal interest. In return, the profession is accorded autonomy and legitimacy in dealing with specific matters under its purview. The classic example of such a bargain is with the profession of medicine (Friedson, 1970; Starr, 1982); however, increasingly this bargain has frayed for medicine as well as for other professions (Perry, 2007; Sullivan, 2004). Nonetheless, professional associa- tions and activities continue to be important socializing forces reminding members of a profession about their obligations to the public. Two of the more notable American organizations promoting professionalism in public admin- istration, American Society for Public Administration and the International City/County Management Association, have ethical codes that emphasize

Perry, J. L., & Hondeghem, A. (Eds.). (2008). Motivation in public management : The call of public service. Oxford University Press. Created from ncent-ebooks on 2022-02-01 15:35:25.

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promotion of the public interest (Perry, 2000). It is worth noting, however, that these organizations cover a small proportion of public servants and the mere presence of a code of ethics within a professional association cannot be expected to translate into higher levels of public service motivation. Instead, professional associations must build or shape their socializing institutions such that members of the profession actively identify with both the association and the ethical code. Indeed, Frankford (1997) makes the case that institutions of professional education and training shape the ‘normative constitution’ of professionalism. It may, therefore, be necessary to redesign these institutions as well as to sustain connection between educational institutions and working professionals (Perry, 2007).

ORGANIZATIONAL ANTECEDENTS

The importance of organizations in fostering public service motivation has not received much attention. Organizations, however, can play an important role in fostering and sustaining public service motivation, a fact recognized by Perry (1997) when he called for more research on this theme. Moynihan and Pandey (2007) take up Perry’s invitation to assess organizational antecedents of public service motivation. Moynihan and Pandey propose a model that takes into account a number of key aspects of work environment to develop a model of organizational antecedents of public service motivation. They iden- tify organizational culture, bureaucratic red tape, the presence of employee- friendly reforms, hierarchical levels, and organizational tenure as key organi- zational antecedents. All of these factors, with the exception of culture, have a relationship with public service motivation. Given that the study did not use all dimensions of public service motivation, they urge caution in treating the culture finding as definitive.

Such caution is worthwhile especially in light of other studies that show culture as having a positive influence on different work-related constructs. For example, Kaufman’s (1967) classic study of forest rangers illustrated how close-knit cultures foster and reinforce a sense of shared commitment among employees. These arguments are mirrored in DiIulio’s (1994) study on employees working for the Bureau of Prisons as ‘principled agents’. Using different methods, Ellickson (2002) and Steijn (2004), also provide evi- dence for positive effect of esprit de corps and organizational climate on job satisfaction—a key work-related construct. It is also possible that organiza- tional culture’s effect on public service motivation is not a direct one but perhaps one of a moderator or mediator variable.

Perry, J. L., & Hondeghem, A. (Eds.). (2008). Motivation in public management : The call of public service. Oxford University Press. Created from ncent-ebooks on 2022-02-01 15:35:25.

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Antecedents and Correlates of Public Service Motivation 107

As expected, bureaucratic red tape has a negative effect on public service motivation and a reform orientation has a positive effect. This result is con- sistent with emerging evidence about the negative impact of bureaucratic red tape on a range of work-related constructs such as job satisfaction, job involve- ment, organizational commitment, and role ambiguity (Pandey & Wright, 2006; Pandey et al., 2007). Bureaucratic red tape, as Pandey and Moynihan (2006) point out, represents a triumph of means over ends. Fulfillment of public service aspect of the work can be a valued end, and therefore, this finding points to a key negative antecedent of public service motivation in public organizations. While Moynihan and Pandey (2007) posit bureaucratic red tape as an antecedent of public service motivation, it is worth remember- ing this is a case in which a bi-directional causal relationship is quite likely. Indeed, Scott and Pandey (2005) argue that those with high public service motivation may have greater ability to cope with bureaucratic red tape and keep working towards public service goals.

Somewhat surprisingly, Moynihan and Pandey (2007) find that organiza- tional tenure has a negative association with public service motivation even after controlling for age. This is a difficult finding to interpret because the explanation is likely a product of long-term interplay between organizational- and individual-level factors (Wright, this volume). One possible explanation is the frustrated service ethic suggested initially by Buchanan (1975). Scott and Pandey build on Buchanan’s argument to suggest that large-scale formal orga- nizations can obscure the link between efforts and values outcomes (2005, p. 161). Thus, even though individuals may join a public organization with high idealism, the lack of opportunities to experience valued outcomes firsthand can lead to a damping down of public service motivation.

Moynihan and Pandey (2007, p. 821), in considering a similar finding on work engagement, suggest that organizations should consider ways to ‘reconnect long-term members to the organization’. Wright (2004, 2007) has a useful proposal in this regard. Between organizational and public service goals on the one hand and public service motivation on the other hand, stands the day-to-day experience of the job, which can be expected to have a bearing on different types of motivation. Over prolonged periods of time, even challenging aspects of work can become routine and the ability to see connections between a job well done and fulfillment of a public service goal may be challenged. One possible way to address the resultant ennui then is to find means for effectively communicating the importance of the job and its benefits for broader public purposes. Using a series of carefully designed experiments, Grant demonstrates that this is possible. In his exper- iments, individual employees were made aware of the positive impact of their day-to-day work in the lives of potential beneficiaries (Grant, in press;

Perry, J. L., & Hondeghem, A. (Eds.). (2008). Motivation in public management : The call of public service. Oxford University Press. Created from ncent-ebooks on 2022-02-01 15:35:25.

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Grant et al., 2007). This resulted in greater effort, superior performance, and increased persistence.

Other recent work, building upon Perry (1997) and Moynihan and Pandey (2007), has affirmed the value of organizational antecedents for better under- standing public service motivation (Camilleri, 2007). Paarlberg, Perry, and Hondeghem (this volume) provide clear and specific guidelines on how orga- nizations can capitalize on the potential value of public service motivation and make these connections come alive in different organizational activities.

REWARD PREFERENCES

Individual reward preferences are, perhaps, the most commonly examined correlate in the public service motivation literature. The argument here is simple—public service motivation leads individuals to value monetary rewards less than the opportunity to serve others or the society (Houston, 2000; Perry & Wise, 1990). This inclination to serve others and society, public service motives by another name, is expected to result in self-selection of such individuals in public organizations (Crewson, 1997; Norris, 2003). Although the evidence supports differential valuation of non-monetary rewards, it is less clear on the value public employees place on monetary rewards.

Rainey (1982) conducted one of the earliest empirical studies on reward preferences. His study was motivated in part by a ‘search of the service ethic’ (p. 288). Rainey compared differences in reward preferences across employees in public and private organizations. Based on surveys of middle managers in four state and four private organizations, he found evidence in support of a unique public service ethic. However, there was limited variation in the valuation of monetary incentives across sectors. In a study of employees of local authorities in the United Kingdom, Pratchett and Wingfield find that ‘allegiance to the public sector is strongest amongst the highest paid cate- gories and diminishes as income decreases’ (Pratchett and Wingfield, 1996, pp. 645–6). Those individuals placed in the lowest salary category have the least loyalty to the public sector, and exhibit little or no sector preference. This diminishment, in the authors’ opinion, does not reflect sector preferences, but rather indifference among employment choices.

Crewson (1997) sought to build directly upon the work of Rainey by answering two questions concerning reward preferences. He sought to deter- mine whether there were sector-based differences in terms of employee pref- erences, and also if these differences remained constant over time. Using data from three national surveys and multiple operationalizations of reward preferences, Crewson found that public sector employees had a distinct set

Perry, J. L., & Hondeghem, A. (Eds.). (2008). Motivation in public management : The call of public service. Oxford University Press. Created from ncent-ebooks on 2022-02-01 15:35:25.

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Antecedents and Correlates of Public Service Motivation 109

of motives. This led him to argue private sector incentive measures cannot and should not be adapted wholesale in the public sector. Instead, the public sector must structure an incentive system that takes public service motivation into account.

Writing from the public economics literature, François (2000) demon- strates that public organizations are better equipped to benefit from public service motivation than the private sector. Delfgaauw and Dur (2006) make similar arguments. These findings have been mirrored, at some level, by Houston (2000). Houston applied Crewson’s (1997) measure of public service motivation to conduct a pooled multivariate analysis of 1991, 1993, and 1994 General Social Survey data in an effort, once again, to examine sector differ- ences. He found public employees placed more value on intrinsic rewards such as doing important work. On the other hand, private sector employees were more inclined to value extrinsic rewards such as income.

Alonso and Lewis (2001) examined reward preferences for 35,000 fed- eral, white-collar employees who participated in the 1991 Survey of Federal Employees and the 1996 Merit Principles Survey. Surprisingly, the authors found little evidence for the effect of public service motivation—particularly on the relationship between incentive systems and performance ratings. How- ever, by the authors’ own admission, their measures of public service moti- vation are flawed, which may account for the discrepant findings. On the other hand, Norris (2003) examined data from the 1997 International Social Survey Programme to explore the continued relevance of a public service ethic across a wide range of countries. The study explored the relationship between motivational values and work experiences (as antecedents), and the manner in which these translate into higher job satisfaction and work motivation in public sector employees. Although there were variations across countries, the findings demonstrated the importance of extrinsic reward preferences among these employees. Norris finds these preferences reinforce motivational values and act as a precursor to higher levels of job satisfaction and work motiva- tion. Similarly, Wright (2004) argues both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are important within organizations. However, organizations may be able to rely on intrinsic rewards to offset limited extrinsic rewards.

For all intents and purposes, the results of these studies, although mixed, point to the notion that monetary incentives cannot inherently be considered a substantial systemic or individual motivator for public sector employees. In fact, several contrary findings exist, suggesting that the opposite is true. Given these findings, two conclusions should be drawn. First, it suggests, intuitively, monetary incentives correlate with the public service motivation concept only insofar as those incentives are appropriately linked to employee performance. Second, the literature also indicates nonmonetary, intrinsic rewards may be as important, if not more, than pecuniary motivators.

Perry, J. L., & Hondeghem, A. (Eds.). (2008). Motivation in public management : The call of public service. Oxford University Press. Created from ncent-ebooks on 2022-02-01 15:35:25.

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ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT

Organizational action is often tied to the creation of an organizational climate that fosters and sustains an individual’s public service motivation. Research along this vein maintains organizational commitment is an important cor- relate of public service motivation. This approach, at least in terms of pub- lic service motivation, is an outgrowth of Perry and Wise’s (1990) original categorization of motives and dimensions, as well as a substantial body of literature on organizational commitment from the field of organizational behavior (e.g. Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001). Both of these concepts—public service motivation and organizational commitment—are widely viewed as having normative, affective, and rational dimensions.

The first empirical study exploring organizational commitment as a cor- relate is Crewson (1997). He argues that ‘preference for service over eco- nomic benefits’ should lead to greater commitment to the organization, and, using multiple data sets (General Social Surveys, 1989, 1973–93; the 1979 Federal Employee Attitude Survey; and the 1997 Survey of Electrical Engineers) demonstrates public service motivation is consistently and pos- itively correlated with organizational commitment. He argues this has per- formance, recruitment, and retention implications that require additional exploration.

Camilleri’s (2006) structural equation model on the relationship between certain antecedents, organizational commitment, and public service moti- vation within the Maltese Public Service further highlights the association between the two concepts. His study examines both affective and normative forms of organizational commitment. The most significant findings in his model are those on the relationship between organizational commitment and public service motivation. He finds public service motivation ‘is rein- forced and strengthened’ by organizational commitment. Moreover, affective commitment appears to be somewhat more important than normative com- mitment. This leads Camilleri to conclude organizational commitment is a dominant predictor of public service motivation.

Examining affective and continuance commitment, and their association to public service motivation, Cerase and Farinella (2006) come to similar conclusions. They find both correlate with public service motivation. Con- tinuance commitment typically refers to an individual’s intention to remain with an organization, and, as the authors argue, suggests in this case that public service motivation can be linked to practical and instrumental reasons for not wanting to leave an organization. However, the findings for affective commitment as a correlate are much higher, and are significant across each dimension of public service motivation.

Perry, J. L., & Hondeghem, A. (Eds.). (2008). Motivation in public management : The call of public service. Oxford University Press. Created from ncent-ebooks on 2022-02-01 15:35:25.

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Antecedents and Correlates of Public Service Motivation 111

Finally, Castaing (2006), while surveying three groups of French civil ser- vants, finds evidence of each dimension of organizational commitment to correlate with the public service motivation construct. Of these, affective com- mitment is the most important. This is followed by normative and then con- tinuance commitment. However, the authors also find ‘it is difficult for public managers to strongly influence affective and normative commitment to the organization by managing the psychological contract of civil servants’ (p. 96). Castaing suggests public service motivation is an antecedent to organizational commitment. This specification conflicts with Camilleri’s (2006) argument. However, it is arguable that organizational commitment—particularly when considered in light of job design and similar factors—can be conceived of as both an antecedent and consequence of public service motivation. Perhaps one way of resolving such conflicts is to elaborate causal models linking public service motivation and organizational commitment, as Vandenabeele (2007) does by including person–organization fit as a mediating variable. Given the evidence from these studies, it seems apparent that an individual’s emotional attachment to the organization is of particular importance to any effort to foster and sustain public service motivation.

JOB SATISFACTION

As with reward preferences, the lineage of studies on job satisfaction as a correlate of public service motivation goes back to Rainey (1982). Although he makes a brief mention of it, Rainey finds that public managers’ response on the measures within his study suggested public service employment may serve as a unique source of satisfaction for public sector employees. Again, Perry and Wise (1990) note the significance of this finding and call for additional studies on job satisfaction as a correlate of public service motivation.

The first major study on job satisfaction as a correlate is Brewer and Selden’s (1998) study of whistle-blowers in the federal civil service. Brewer and Selden (1998) relied on data from the U.S. Merit Principles Survey conducted in 1992. Relying on four measures of job satisfaction, Brewer and Selden find that whistle-blowers report, among other things, higher levels of job satisfaction. The findings lead the authors to conclude whistle-blowers often act in accor- dance with a theory of public service motivation, and appear to be specifically motivated by a concern for public interest. Naff and Crum (1999) provide additional support for the notion that job satisfaction serves as a correlate with public service motivation. Using data collected on nearly 10,000 federal employees from the 1996 Merit Principles Survey, which included a subset of

Perry, J. L., & Hondeghem, A. (Eds.). (2008). Motivation in public management : The call of public service. Oxford University Press. Created from ncent-ebooks on 2022-02-01 15:35:25.

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six measures from Perry’s (1996) original public service motivation scales, the authors found a significant relationship between job satisfaction and public service motivation.

Norris (2003, p. 85) takes a somewhat different approach, and examines job satisfaction as a function of value priorities and reward experiences. She compares these along several dimensions, and finds ‘all employees desire better financial rewards and conditions of work, yet there is no reason to believe, based on these results, that public sector workers are less satisfied with their positions’. In fact, she further notes public employees are particularly satisfied with their jobs when their work helps individuals and/or contributes to society at large. Comparing means, she also found, despite one’s sector choice, job satisfaction was greater among senior officials and managers than blue-collar workers. This leads her to conclude public sector employees are at least as satisfied with public employment as are their counterparts in the private sector.

In a study of Korean public employees, Kim (2005) finds a significant correlation between public service motivation and job satisfaction. Moreover, Kim further finds both public service motivation and job satisfaction increase organizational performance. Similarly, Steijn (2006), relying on data from two surveys conducted by the Dutch Ministry of the Interior, finds a significant relationship between public service motivation and job satisfaction. Finally, Cerase and Farinella (2006), in a study of employees within the Italian Rev- enue Agency, find a positive correlation between public service motivation and job satisfaction. They argue that this points to the ‘distinctive prerogatives of “civil service”’.

On the basis of these findings, job satisfaction appears primarily to be a function of an individual’s unique wants and expectations. More importantly, these wants and expectations can be linked, at times, to a desire to help individuals and to contribute to society through public sector employment. Indeed, the vast majority of studies indicate job satisfaction is positively corre- lated with public service motivation (Cerase & Farinella, 2006; Kim, 2005; Naff & Crum, 1999; Norris, 2003; Steijn, 2006). This finding is certainly important insofar as individual attitudes concerning job satisfaction can be affected by the organization and the organization stands to gain or lose as a result.

CONCLUSION

Our review of antecedents and correlates of public service motivation suggests it is a dynamic concept contingent on a variety of nuances and factors, some rooted in individuals and others in institutions, which we have only begun to

Perry, J. L., & Hondeghem, A. (Eds.). (2008). Motivation in public management : The call of public service. Oxford University Press. Created from ncent-ebooks on 2022-02-01 15:35:25.

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explore. Although this research has yet to elaborate upon and uncover causal pathways for antecedents and correlates of public service motivation, it does make two key points. First, that it is possible to understand how public service motivation develops in an individual, and, second, that public service motiva- tion makes a positive difference to organizationally valuable dispositions and behaviors. We briefly present promising prospects in studying antecedents and correlates of pubic service motivation.

With respect to antecedents, there are two key questions. First, how can we improve our understanding of the processes by which antecedents influence public service motivation, and, second, how can we make the best use of extant knowledge? Perhaps a good starting point for improving understanding of antecedents is drawing upon institutional theory because the most well- developed explanations for antecedents of public service motivation, even for socio-demographic characteristics, invoke a causal logic that relies on institutional explanations (Perry & Vandenabeele, this volume; Vandenabeele, 2007). Among the antecedents discussed, two of the most prominent are the profession and the organization. A key limitation of making the best use of professional institutions is that much of the public service workforce does not belong to professional organizations. Given the value of professional asso- ciations, public organizations may consider supporting professionalization efforts. The salience of organizational influences on public service motivation suggests that organizations can play an active role in reinforcing and sustain- ing public service motivation.

The correlates discussed in this chapter and other chapters (Brewer, this volume; Steen, this volume) highlight the value of public service motiva- tion. For example, the literature on reward preferences has established public service motivation leads to distinctive reward preferences. The important question then becomes how this knowledge can be used to better design work structures and incentive systems. Part of the answer to this question depends upon our ability to understand the causality underlying these rela- tionships in greater detail. Some emerging research is beginning to propose and account for the complexity of underlying causation linking public service motivation and its correlates (e.g. Vandenabeele, 2007; Wright & Pandey, 2007).

It is also necessary to devote greater attention to the distinct dimensions of public service motivation proposed by Perry (1996) as we explore these causal pathways. Despite increasing use of Perry’s public service motivation dimensions, there is often a simplistic tendency to equate distinctive reward preferences with public service motivation. Paying greater attention to these dimensions can be useful. Little is known about the differential value of the four public service motivation dimensions. For instance, do street-level bureaucrats value one dimension, such as commitment to public interest, more

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frequently than upper level management, who may find greater motivation from attraction to policy making.

Greater attention to the distinct dimensions proposed by Perry (1996) will also enable scholars to link insights from personality psychology with public service motivation scholarship (A. M. Grant, personal communica- tion, 14 July 2007). A key issue in personality psychology is how personality attributes influence work-related constructs and the workplace. Were we to accept Wright and Pandey’s (2005) contention about public service motiva- tion being a key work-related construct, it will be useful to see the manner in which personality attributes get expressed as public service motivation in the workplace. Is the civic duty/public interest dimension influenced by conscientiousness? Does the agreeableness personality dimension determine the compassion dimension of public service motivation?

Finally, there is a need to employ different methodologies, perhaps multi- method designs combining qualitative methods with longitudinal designs, to better understand the temporal dimension of public service motivation. Such studies can help us understand the relative malleability of public service moti- vation and how quickly and in what ways institutional influences can shape it.

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