Strategic Visioning With Stakeholders

Article

Beyond the status quo – setting the agenda for effective change: The role of leader within an international school environment

Allan R Morrison

Abstract In today’s competitive and rapidly evolving educational environment, the ability to implement appropriate and effective change is of critical importance to an international school’s ongoing success. This study examines leadership characteristics and styles that support the development and forward momentum of a change agenda within the context of an international school envi- ronment. Results from a mixed methods research design found that the leadership characteristics most frequently linked to effective change included: (i) being visionary; (ii) being committed to school/staff; and (iii) creating a collegial/supportive work environment. The paper analyzes these and other results through the lenses of: (i) setting directions; (ii) developing people; and (iii) developing the organization. Findings specific to the international school situation are also presented. Finally, suggestions for developing a framework for an international school ‘change management’ paradigm are presented.

Keywords leadership characteristics, change management, educational leadership, international schools

Introduction

In the international school market, an ability to implement appropriate and effective change is of

critical importance to a school’s ongoing success in today’s competitive and rapidly evolving

educational environment. In general, research done on schools has shown that a key component

in the success of school improvement initiatives is the effectiveness of its leadership (Glover and

Tomlinson, 2012; Hargreaves, 2010; Stoll and Fink, 1996). Without effective leadership, a

school’s forward momentum stalls and defaults to the status quo.

The issue, then, becomes one of defining what role a leader plays in promoting effective change.

However, ‘despite the proliferation of numerous theories, models, and multistep approaches,

leaders continue to lack a clear understanding of change, its antecedents, effective processes, or

Corresponding author:

Allan R Morrison, Delia School of Canada, Tai Fung Avenue, Taikoo Shing, Hong Kong.

Email: [email protected]

Educational Management Administration & Leadership 2018, Vol. 46(3) 511–529 ª The Author(s) 2017 Reprints and permission: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/1741143216682500 journals.sagepub.com/home/ema

the ability to successfully engage organizational members in change initiatives’ (Gilley et al.,

2009: 38).

If the concept of leadership is examined more holistically, it is apparent that there are actually two

potentially competing components within a leader’s role that can have a direct impact on the style of

leadership an individual employs. First, from the macro-perspective, there is the ‘structural dimension’,

which focuses on the management apparatus including, for example, decision-making protocols and

policies/procedures. Then, at the micro-level, we have a more ‘human dimension’, which considers the

form of the interactions between a leader and his or her staff. In many ways, this highlights a manager

versus leader dichotomy. This potential struggle between management and leadership reflects the fact

that ‘[m]anagement’s mandate is to minimize risk and to keep the current system operating, [while

leader-driven] change, by definition, requires creating a new system’ (Kotter, 1995: 60). More recently,

Kotter has argued that ‘management is about coping with complexity’ while ‘leadership is about coping

with change’ (Kotter, 2013: 6). A new system, by definition, implies uncertainty and increased potential

risk. If leadership is about change, and change is equated with instability, which management tries to

minimize, then there is an inherent conflict between the concepts of leadership and management (Mor-

rison, 2013). As such, educational leaders are presented with a dilemma – if the process of change ‘comes

on too strong, the culture will rebel . . . [conversely] if the leader is overly respectful of the existing

culture, he or she will become absorbed into the status quo’ (Fullan, 2011: 62).

Therein lies the paradox. And yet, modern-day educational leadership development continues to

train leaders (in contrast to managers) who are then transplanted into very hierarchical structures

and expected, in many cases, to manage rather than lead. The structural constraints leaders

encounter within their organizations can hinder their ability to transform the system and reinvi-

gorate it for further growth (Morrison, 2013).

I would argue that educational institutions, full of creative minds, both teacher and student,

should be centers of exploration for new ideas to challenge the status quo and yet, ‘schools have

become fundamentally conservative institutions which have historically resisted change and

sought to preserve continuity with their past experiences’ (Stoll and Fink, 1996: 5). I would further

argue that school improvement must be an ongoing, evolutionary process, sensitive to new issues

and societal changes, in order to not only challenge the status quo and move society forward, but

also to stimulate continuous improvements in student outcomes.

A key question is, therefore, ‘How does a leader go beyond the status quo and set the agenda for

effective change?’ Specifically, the questions guiding this study include: (i) what are the leadership

characteristics that support the development and forward momentum of a change agenda within

international schools? and (ii) is there a single leadership style that lends itself to most successfully

effecting change in an international school setting?

The answers to these questions will then be used to form a framework to illustrate how leaders,

specifically leaders within an international school environment, can drive the change process forward

in an effective manner, thereby minimizing the impact of an organization’s tendency toward stasis.

Significance of study

In recent years, the study of the role of leadership in bringing about change has been a strong focus

within academe. While Fullan (2010: 76) notes that ‘there has been more written about leadership

in the literature on organizations than any other topic [in recent years], and there are no signs that it

is abating’, the ‘empirical evidence linking any leader’s internal state to their use of effective

leadership practice . . . although growing, is not yet extensive’ (Leithwood et al., 2006a: 8).

512 Educational Management Administration & Leadership 46(3)

Research has suggested ‘a relationship between change process actions and outcomes,

hence the need to review associated leader skills that underlie their behaviors and actions’

(Gilley et al., 2009: 40). As a result, the ‘potential value of future research on headteacher

traits’ is evident (Leithwood et al., 2006b: 14). The current study was designed to help

identify specific leadership characteristics and styles that support the development and for-

ward momentum of a change agenda.

An additional significance of this study is the international perspective it provides. For the past

decade and a half, it has been recognized that very little research on leadership within the inter-

national school setting has been conducted (Blandford and Shaw, 2001; Lee et al., 2012). Hallinger

and Leithwood ‘warn that the field of educational administration runs the danger of being parochial

and insular and would benefit from a cross-cultural international approach, not only to find best

practices, but more importantly, to gain new perspectives’ (in Slater, 2011: 221). Yet, around the

globe, international school leaders are working in cultural and socio-political environments foreign

to that of their home countries. This cross-cultural dimension would be expected to have an impact

on how a leader makes decisions and interacts with staff, students and stakeholders and will also be

considered in this study.

This study, therefore, aims to enhance the existing body of academic literature regarding how

educational leaders institute effective change by examining individual characteristics and leader-

ship styles within the realm of international schools. The hope is that this will contribute to the

‘knowledge of change and its related skill set [which] will enable leaders at all levels to more

effectively design change initiative[s]; enhance their change talents, behaviors, and competence;

and ultimately lead more successful change efforts’ (Gilley, et al., 2009: 44).

Methods

To examine the connection between leadership and effective change within the international

school environment, a mixed methods approach was utilized. This approach was employed in

order to allow movement from an understanding of the breadth of the subject (via quantitatively

analyzed surveys) to a greater depth of the subject (via qualitatively analyzed interviews).

To quantitatively assess leaders’ perceptions regarding characteristics that lead to, and support,

effective change, an online cross-sectional questionnaire was developed (see Appendix 1). This

method permitted a large number of international school leaders to be sampled. It is important to

note that the survey was designed to explore perceptions of change rather than measureable out-

comes. While data on actual outcomes would be an interesting supplement to this research, it

would require, inter alia, information from a leader’s staff as well as other important stakeholders

in order to corroborate the leaders’ perceptions of themselves and associated outcomes and this is

beyond the scope of the current study.

The questionnaire focused on: (i) demographic data; (ii) perceptions of leadership characteristics

that support effective change; (iii) factors that are perceived to impact, both positively and nega-

tively, the change process; and finally (iv) perceived methods of overcoming structural (or systemic)

constraints that can function as gatekeepers to the change process. The draft questionnaire was pilot

tested with colleagues from within the field of international educational leadership to ensure that the

intent of each of the questions was clear and that respondents could choose appropriate responses. A

number of minor changes to wording and question order were made as a result.

Participants were selected using probability sampling based on a systematic sampling approach. To

do this, a single list of accredited international schools was compiled from two accrediting

Morrison: Beyond the status quo – setting the agenda for effective change 513

organizations: (i) the Council of International Schools; and (ii) the Western Association of Schools and

Colleges. The final list contained 544 international schools sorted alphabetically by country and then

by school name. Based on a 95% confidence level, a sample size of 365 schools was selected for

participation. Using a sampling protocol suggested by Cohen and coworkers (2011), it was calculated

that each 1.5 schools should be selected. This was rounded to every second school. The leader of each

selected school was contacted by email. The study was outlined, their anonymity confirmed and a link

to an electronic survey tool was included should they consent to participate. A link to opt out of the

survey and any future correspondence was also included in the email. Data from this survey were

analyzed using descriptive statistics and were reported in terms of relative ranking and proportions.

The responses to the open-ended questions were summarized and analyzed thematically.

Based on the results of the quantitative portion of this study, a semi-structured interview was

designed to ‘explore in-depth experiences of research participants, and the meanings they attribute

to these experiences’ (Adams, 2010: 18). The topics addressed in the interviews paralleled those of

the online surveys. However, the questions were more open ended and additional details were

requested. The interviews were conducted either face to face or via video-conferencing. The

interview tool provided a general framework for the interview but allowed the conversation to

flow in a more fluid manner toward an understanding of the change process according to the

interviewee’s worldview, in order to add depth based on experiential insights. Another advantage

of using semi-structured interviews with experts in the field in conjunction with a larger number of

questionnaires conducted with a broader sample is that it allowed for ‘cross-checking against other

data collected from different sources’ (Scott and Usher, 2011: 120).

As this second component of the study was to explicate change through personal understanding,

it required interviewing individuals with extensive and effective (i.e. successful) experiences with

change. In contrast to the sampling procedure used for the online surveys, the selection process

used for the interviews was not random. Instead, five industry-acknowledged expert leaders with

track records of excellence and accomplishment within the international school community were

identified. The operational definition of ‘expert leader’ was that of someone meeting at least one of

the following criteria: (i) international recognition from an accredited organization for outstanding

leadership; (ii) widely read and quoted peer-reviewed academic publications; (iii) regular keynote

speaker/invited presenter at international conferences; and/or (iv) the current head of a well-

established and highly respected international school.

Since the 1990s, there have been numerous research studies dedicated to examining the con-

nection between leadership and organizational success. Leithwood and Riehl’s (2003) extensive

work in this area classified leadership characteristics into three categories: (i) setting directions; (ii)

developing people; and (iii) developing the organization. The data collection tools used in this

study utilized these categories in conjunction with a list of characteristics adapted from the Leader

Attributes Inventory (see Moss et al., 1994). These categories and attributes will also be used as a

framework for the results and discussion section of this paper.

Results and discussion

Response rate and demographic data

An invitation to participate in the online survey was sent to a random sample of 365 international

school leaders working around the world. A total of 76 individuals completed the online survey

translating to a 21% response rate. While the response rate was lower than anticipated, each of

514 Educational Management Administration & Leadership 46(3)

these 76 surveys was fully filled out, with many respondents adding insightful comments that

provided important additional details.

In terms of demographic data, 72% of the respondents were male with 71% being over the age

of 45. Almost 39% had received their teacher training in the United States with the United

Kingdom in second place at 28%. The vast majority of respondents (81.9%) had been in the

teaching field for more than 15 years while 56.2% had been school leaders for more than 11 years.

The latter fell to 48% when asked about leadership experience within the international school

environment. When asked about current position within the school, 62.3% responded that they

were in the position of head of school while 36.2 percent were currently principals (the remaining

1.5% were in the role of vice-principal or the equivalent). It is unclear whether these sample

demographics reflect those of the population of international school leaders as a whole since this

information is not currently available. However, based on experience and discussions with other

international school leaders, these proportions seem to be within the realm of what might be

considered typical.

The five individuals selected for participation in the interview component of the study all agreed

to participate. They were all men over the age of 45 and currently working as heads of school in

four different Asian countries. The interviews ranged in length from 30 to 59 minutes and were

conducted either in person or via video-conferencing. Recordings of the interviews were then

transcribed using a transcription service.

Setting directions

Part of being a great leader is the ability to set directions that are meaningful and doable. To do this,

a leader must first have a clear vision. As Harvard Business School professor JP Kotter (2005: 6)

stated: ‘the best leaders balance short-term results with long-term vision’. Having, and sharing, a

vision means that the individual (or group) has a clear understanding of where they want to be and

can develop an operational plan for how to get there. As such, the ability to create and share a

meaningful and practical ‘[v]ision is increasingly regarded as an important component of leader-

ship’ (Bush and Glover, 2003: 5).

In terms of setting school direction, online survey results indicate that being a visionary is

perceived to be the most important characteristic of an effective international school leader (n ¼ 54). This was followed by being committed (n ¼ 31) and then by being diplomatic (n ¼ 24).

During the face-to-face interviews, the necessity of setting a direction was mentioned by all five

respondents. However, they did not agree on the level of importance of having an actual ‘vision’.

In general, the interviewees agreed that an international school’s vision should not be unilat-

erally determined (i.e. top down), but rather that it should be developed into a shared vision with

input from various stakeholders. At the same time, it was acknowledged that the leader needs to be

the one driving the process. For example, Respondent C contended that:

good leadership is visionary in the sense that it is always pushing people to be better, pushing people for

change’s sake, for growth’s sake; the idea being that their organizations are organic and, by virtue of

being organic, they need to grow and thrive. My job is to nurture that, to cajole that, to stimulate that

growth in whatever way I can.

Respondent B agreed, stating that leaders need a ‘vision to be able to project to where this

institution could be in ten years’ time’ and argued that vision must be articulated ‘in grand terms,

Morrison: Beyond the status quo – setting the agenda for effective change 515

[to] get everyone excited . . . articulate it in terms of hardwiring, so [it translates into] strategic plan-

ning’. In other words, vision on its own is not enough – leaders need to work to ensure that action arises

from the vision. The vision should not remain an elusive entity separate from day-to-day practice.

However, vision was not seen as a vital prerequisite to success among all of the expert leaders

interviewed. For example, Respondent A shared some information: ‘I personally really struggle to

describe where it is we’re going and what we’re going to be doing. I think part of it is you’re never

really quite sure what it’s going to be like when you get there.’ Furthermore, while Respondent A

believes that ‘when you talk about leadership you’re essentially talking about someone who is able

to move people in a certain direction’ this leader also believes that the idea of vision is fundamen-

tally flawed, stating that ‘I don’t believe organizations can have a vision. What I prefer is the word

narrative.’ When clarifying this statement, Respondent A noted that:

if we come in with a vision, and the way humans are, we’re predators, so we just look forward, right?

We can’t look back, we can’t look sideways, we can’t look down, we can just look forward – we’re

missing so much of the picture, right? There’s so much that has gone before us that we’re building

upon, so we can’t just look ahead, we’ve got to acknowledge that we’re grounded in the present, and the

present is a result of the past.

In essence, Respondent A is saying that, while vision is restricted to the future, a narrative

represents both the present and the past in the context of developing a future direction. This is

significant because the school culture and history is deeply embedded in the reality a leader

inherits. However, I would argue that, at times, disregarding an unhealthy past can allow a leader

to disengage from the shackles of past practices and implement a shift in thinking that will help

cultivate the necessary foundation required for school improvement.

In addition to having a vision, another strategy noted by interview respondents for setting

directions was ‘disturbing the status quo’. The leaders noted that, at times, it is imperative to

shake up the current situation. They noted that, at their own schools, this has been done vis-à-vis

dissemination of academic articles, watching TedTalks and sharing various resources with staff as

a means of getting them to reflect on current practice and to consider possible future changes to

school direction. Respondent C says that the goal is to ‘shake people out of their comfort zone of

thinking and getting them to think about some things in a provocative way’. This is akin to a

prelude to Kotter’s (1995: 60) suggestion ‘to make the status quo seem more dangerous than

launching into the unknown’ and shows an admirable openness, a willingness to take risks and

a belief in staff members’ abilities to have good ideas.

Developing people

Perhaps even more important to ultimate organizational success than setting direction is leaders’

ability to develop people – in other words, their skills with the ‘human dimension’ (see Morrison,

2013). Unfortunately, while a definitive list of leadership characteristics that are consistently

correlated with positive change within organizations does not exist, research-based lists of personal

characteristics that, over time, space and context, support the development of an effective leader do

exist. Interestingly, many of these characteristics relate to a (potential) leader’s interpersonal skills.

For example, a number of studies have found that honesty, integrity, trust and approachability are

fundamental to the making of an effective leader (Gill, 2003; Harris and Lambert, 2003; Stoll and

Fink, 1996).

516 Educational Management Administration & Leadership 46(3)

In the online survey component of the current study, the top three characteristics effective

leaders were perceived as having in terms of developing people were: (i) ethics/integrity (n ¼ 22); (ii) good communication (n ¼ 20); and (iii) approachability (n ¼ 12). Not surprisingly, when

the total number of mentions in any of the top three choices was considered, being a ‘good

communicator’ was found to be the most important characteristic of an effective leader in terms

of developing people (n ¼ 51).

Additional characteristics highlighted vis-à-vis the interview component of the study included:

adaptability, an ability to cope with ambiguity, creativity, empathy, flexibility, good judgment,

optimism, perseverance, resilience and, finally, a sense of humor to keep everything in perspective.

These characteristics were deemed important not only if someone wanted to be successful in

developing people, but also for a leader to be able to gain a sense of personal satisfaction from

the job. The fact that perseverance and resilience were highlighted frequently by the interviewees

is a reflection of the fact that international school leaders are working in a field that is, in many

ways, resistant to change. Interestingly, one respondent noted that the characteristics of an effec-

tive leader are, in many ways, the same as an effective teacher, stating that:

trust and autonomy, creativity and humor, a responsive climate, a sense of being valued, a climate of

self-improvement, clarity of purpose and goals, consistency, emphasis on personal success and encour-

agement and genuine praise (Respondent D)

. . . are essential regardless of what your role is and where you are working.

In recognition of the fact that leaders work with a wide variety of people in various capacities,

Respondent B noted that, ‘you have to have the personal attributes of ability to engage with a range

of personalities and stakeholders, an ability to demonstrate empathy, to be able to position oneself

in a person-centered way’. Similarly, Respondent A noted:

I think it’s all about people, that leadership, there’s just no way of separating leadership from people

and personal relationships, and interactions with people, and so that tends to be a lot of my focus, and

then everything else sort of flows from there, and the conversations that are generated from those

interactions.

Both of these comments highlight the importance of building strong relationships because these,

then, contribute to strong teams. In recognition of the primacy of building a strong, healthy team

whose members are there to support each other, interviewees noted that it is important for leaders

to allow for, and support, risk-taking as a means of overcoming the status quo and fostering growth

and positive change. In fact, for ongoing organizational success, one respondent argued that

leaders must ‘create an environment where those natural properties in people [are] going to be

allowed to thrive’ (Respondent A).

However, such an environment does not manifest itself on its own. Rather, it must be actively

nurtured with leaders establishing a working environment based on trust and a sense of support if

movement forward is to be successful. As Respondent D said, ‘you can move change forward

because people understand it and they trust you’ but ‘unless you’ve got trust, it’s not going to

happen’. Respondent E agreed, stating that, ‘trust is huge . . . and it’s one [characteristic] that I will

tell the new guy that’s coming in . . . he’s got to work hard on gaining the trust of a handful of the

founding members, and a handful of the board’. More emphatically, Respondent A said, ‘as a

school leader, if people can’t trust your character, my goodness, you’re done!’

Morrison: Beyond the status quo – setting the agenda for effective change 517

As mentioned earlier, integrity/ethics was identified in the current survey as the most important

leadership characteristic for the development of people. Integrity is fundamental for the develop-

ment of the trust needed to effectively develop people who, in turn, are fundamental to the ultimate

success of an organization. As Respondent B stressed, ‘you have to show you have integrity, and if

you lose that integrity, you’ve lost your power base’.

In addition to integrity/ethics, the ability to communicate and being approachable made up the

top three characteristics of effective leaders in terms of developing people. These three charac-

teristics are fundamental to building and maintaining staff relationships as well as to creating a

sense of trust with an ethical standing dedicated to fairness and equity. These characteristics are

also vital to a leader’s perceived competency, which is, in turn, connected to their: (i) vision, as a

leader who knows how to get where they are going; and (ii) to the staff’s sense of trust, in the sense

that they have faith that their leader knows what he/she is doing and is committed not only to the

organization’s success but also to the wellbeing of each of them.

A leadership characteristic deemed important to the development of people by the interviewees,

yet often portrayed in the literature as a negative trait, was charisma (see Bush and Glover, 2003;

Fullan, 2001, 2002; Hargreaves et al., 2003). This character trait was mentioned in terms of

developing the relationships between the various stakeholders. As Respondent B noted:

charisma comes in many different models and types. Charisma isn’t being able to stand up in front of a

load of people and tell jokes and make them laugh, but charisma is a leadership attribute that all

successful school leaders have to have, because people have to look at this person in that position, and

want to buy into what they’re offering.

Ultimately, developing people comes down to an ability to make connections at a very basic

level by being trustworthy, having a personality type that is inclusive and by being approachable

not only for the sharing of innovative ideas but also for the discussion of more difficult issues.

These characteristics all serve to differentiate great leaders from those who are simply occupying

the position.

Developing the organization

Through setting direction and developing people, one can argue that the ultimate goal of the leader of

an international school is to develop the organization by fostering its growth and positive evolution in

order to see positive results in terms of enhanced student success. In fact, ‘the overwhelming body of

opinion over the last 30 or so years is that the prime task of leaders is to bring about change in order to

maintain and enhance organizational success’ (Burnes and By, 2012: 239).

In addition to the attributes listed in the previous two sections, other studies identified ‘intel-

ligence, scholarship, dependability in exercising responsibility, activity and social participation,

and higher socioeconomic status’ (Sternberg, 2005: 192) in addition to ‘supervisory ability, intel-

ligence, the need for achievement, decisiveness, self-assurance, and initiative’ (Gilley et al., 2009:

40–41) as being significant characteristics of effective leaders. Interestingly, at the same time, in a

‘paradoxical blend of personal humility and professional will’, Fullan wrote that great leaders can

be ‘self-effacing, quiet, reserved, even shy . . . ’ based on Jim Collins’ (2001) research of Fortune

500 companies (see Collins, 2001; Fullan, 2003: 8).

When considering the development of the organization, the top three characteristics required for

success as identified by the online survey of international school leaders were being: (i) a team

518 Educational Management Administration & Leadership 46(3)

builder (n ¼ 54); followed (with a significant margin) by (ii) a motivator (n ¼ 28); and finally,

achievement oriented (n ¼ 26).

When asked about the top three tasks of effective school leaders, these (according to total

number of top three mentions by survey respondents) were: (i) development of an appropriate

vision (n ¼ 36); (ii) ability to motivate others (n ¼ 32); and iii) student success (n ¼ 31). The

most commonly mentioned single top choice was student success (n ¼ 23), which is encoura-

ging, since much of the driving force behind change should be focused on the need for

improvements in student outcomes in addition to overall school improvement (Harris and

Lambert, 2003).

Given that much of the research argues that leadership style has a direct impact on school and

student success, it is important to recognize that the resounding majority of leaders (94%) com-

pleting the online survey felt the same way. One survey respondent noted that, ‘leadership style

affects everything from the motivational levels of the staff to decisions by prospective families

about enrolling their child, to the overall sense of community among all the stakeholders’. Further-

more, ‘leadership style sets the tone for the school and that tone can promote or impede pace and

direction of school improvement’.

When it comes to selecting the leadership style most likely to lead to school success, 48.5% (n¼ 33) of survey respondents selected democratic; however, 41.2% (n ¼ 28) selected ‘other’. This is

significant as it suggests that it is sometimes challenging to compartmentalize leadership style into

a single classification. Rather than being content to select a single defined leadership style,

numerous survey respondents chose to expand upon their selection in the comments section by

defining their approach as situational/relational or a combination of democratic/authoritarian

depending on context. This blurring or merging of leadership styles has also been identified in

other research (see Blandford and Shaw, 2001).

It is undeniable that the job of an international school leader is multidimensional and requires a

context-based approach to decision-making. As one survey respondent summarized it: ‘No good

leader has only one style. There are times when I am authoritarian, times when I am laissez-faire

and times when I am democratic.’ More emphatically, one respondent noted that while the dem-

ocratic style is popular in the literature and mass media, it does not always support the implemen-

tation of change. In fact, this respondent argued that:

though many teachers, parents and staff believe the school should be run democratically, the leader

must use an authoritative style to move forward. Decisions often times require input from the stake-

holders, but the leader of an international school needs to stay focused on the mission and what’s best

for the institution. With a diverse population, a democratic style invites factions to grow, politicking to

overwhelm agendas and animosity to poison the school climate.

This perspective was supported by the interview responses. Each leader interviewed was cog-

nizant of the various types of leadership styles; however, they were unwilling to be compartmen-

talized into a specific classification. While, in general, self-descriptors included authoritarian,

transformational, pragmatic and situational, the reality was that, in all cases, these leaders see

themselves as operating within a very contextual environment and decision-making style was

contingent upon the conditions of this fluid environment.

For example, Respondent B stated: ‘I’m a pragmatic leader’ while another stated: ‘my leader-

ship style is very much hands off. I’m a great believer in appointing people into a particular job and

providing them with the resources to be able to do the job’ (Respondent D). Respondent C

Morrison: Beyond the status quo – setting the agenda for effective change 519

indicated that ‘leadership is adaptable to various situations, so I don’t think there’s one way to lead,

like it depends on the context in which you’re leading’. Furthermore,

‘I would love to tell you that my leadership style is an inclusive model . . . my preference is to be

inclusive of consensus making when I can; [however], there are times when I’m very draconian’

(Respondent C).

Similarly, another interviewee discussed their diverse working environment and, as such,

felt that ‘leaders serve as situational leaders in a school where there’s so many different levels

of support or need, and it’s based differently for almost everybody’ (Respondent E). However,

while not identifying a specific leadership style, the most important connection between

leadership style and its impact on the organization made by an interviewee was in the

statement: ‘my leadership style is one that I want to make sure that this environment is

absolutely conducive to excellent teaching and top-quality learning’ (Respondent E). This

respondent’s connection of leadership style with school improvement and student performance

is key. It is imperative that leaders consistently remember why they are leaders within the

international school system.

Another key point raised by most interview respondents was that in order to build the right team

for success, it is first necessary to get the structures in place and find the best people. Many of the

respondents then used either a sports analogy or Collins’ much-cited bus analogy (2001). As Fullan

(2003: 9) points out, it is not ‘people [who] are your most important asset . . . [but rather] the right

people’ (emphasis in original). From the leadership perspective, there was also acknowledgment

that leaders must be comfortable with their personal strengths and limitations and ensure they hire

talented staff to complement them in supporting the vision of the school.

An issue that was raised by interview respondents in terms of ongoing organizational develop-

ment was the need for staff to know that there is progress being made and that the leadership is at

the helm and on course. For example, Respondent A noted that, ‘one of the things that motivates

people the most is a sense of progress . . . people have to have a sense the organization’s moving

forward or their work is progressing’. As a result, leaders need to make ‘sure we reinforce a sense

of progress as an organization; that we’re going in directions that we’re excited about collectively,

that we believe in, that is inspiring’ (Respondent A). Thus, ‘the idea of progress, I think, is one of

the most important things that we have to put into the culture, that we’re constantly moving

forward’ (Respondent A).

One strategy that leaders can use to show progress and enhance motivation is to focus on early

successes, termed ‘low-hanging fruit’ by Respondent B, meaning ‘stuff you can just easily pick,

and show improvement. So, think smart, think politically, in the bigger picture it might not be the

best thing to do, but it gets some quick, easy, visible wins.’ Similarly, Respondent D stated that,

‘creating short-term wins and showing people that, actually, they’re achieving what you’ve set out

to do and that they can see the success’ is a critically important role of the leader.

In order to secure the support of staff, and ‘get everyone on the bus’, it is important that

‘people feel a part of a project or part of a solution’ (Respondent E). Creating a safe and

inclusive environment for all (to take risks) is paramount. Staff must all have some oppor-

tunity to have input into the strategic planning of the organization. Significantly, Respondent

A stated that:

if you get the process right, people don’t care about the outcome. If the process seems fair, and there

was input, and it was a process that led people to believe that you’re making intelligent decisions –

then, guess what – people are going to be supportive of the outcome, almost whatever it is.

520 Educational Management Administration & Leadership 46(3)

This inclusivity also requires listening to those with opposing viewpoints. For example,

Respondent C stated that, ‘one of the ways to create creativity and innovation is by getting people

involved, to allow divergent thinking . . . [to] create a climate, if you will, that engenders divergent

thinking . . . [this] is crucial if you want to change’.

The desire to make important changes that lead to improvements in outcomes is a powerful

driving force for individuals entering into leadership positions. In fact, it is ‘perhaps one of the

greatest motivating factors in people’s passion for taking the lead of an organization’ (Morrison,

2013: 418). However, ironically, several interview respondents referred to their limited roles in

terms of leadership direction – a finding that was also corroborated by the survey results. In fact,

Respondent A stated that:

one of the reasons for moving into leadership is you feel like you can have a positive impact on things,

but at a very granular level. I think most people would be very surprised to realize how little impact a

head can have, you know, what actually happens in a classroom, the head has very, very little influence,

because your leadership is diffused as it moves further down.

At the same time, ‘while vision is very important, the reality is that you also have to manage the

day-to-day affairs of the school or the vision will never be implemented’ (survey respondent). This

day-to-day management can occupy a great deal of time and, if a leader does not make time for

‘leading’, it can contribute to organizational stagnation.

Finally, it is important to realize that an individual leader’s role in developing the organization

may have a very limited time frame and, in fact, as Respondent A said:

the piece most often missing in a look at educational change is whether it outlasted those who made the

change. Within a few years of a supposed institutional change, the number of initiatives that exist only

on the résumé of the one who implemented the change is rather depressing. Schools change the same

way cargo ships turn, very slowly. Any change is a cultural change and must be tended to long after it

appears finished.

The international school perspective

Both the survey and interview responses recognized the unique situations that international school

leaders face in comparison to their national counterparts. As expatriate employees, issues identi-

fied revolve around the socio-political nature of working in foreign countries under foreign laws. In

addition, tensions due to cultural differences that can arise between school leaders and board

members/owners were mentioned.

International school leaders, based in countries with different cultures, languages, and/or meth-

ods of doing business than those of their home countries, are highly reliant on local staff and must

be able to adapt quickly yet be resilient when faced with various challenges they may have no

previous context for. Connected to the socio-political and cultural nuances of working in a ‘dif-

ferent land’ are the challenges internal to any organization. Whether the international school is

managed by a board (not for profit) or privately owned (for profit), a leader is always traversing

unseen challenges driven by politics, culture and individual egos. These issues result in a very

challenging environment for many school leaders (Blandford and Shaw, 2001).

One interview respondent made an analogy between international school leaders and profes-

sional sports managers in terms of short-lived careers (Respondent B). In fact, the short-lived

Morrison: Beyond the status quo – setting the agenda for effective change 521

tenure of many international school leaders has been documented in the literature for at least the

past one and a half decades (Blandford and Shaw, 2001; Hayden, 2006; Hayden and Thompson,

2008; Lee et al., 2012). The interviewee noted that there is no practical way to escape the political

crises and bureaucratic challenges that arise from working in an educational institution in a foreign

country. By way of comparison, as Respondent B said, state systems, such as those found in

Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States:

operate within frameworks, and have safety nets, unions, good governance, professional institutions,

government specifications . . . there are defined parameters. In these international schools that we all

work in, and some of us thrive in (some of us don’t), those rules don’t apply.

Implications for practice: Summary and recommendations

The purpose of this study was to explore the breadth and depth of international school leaders’

perceptions regarding the leadership characteristics and style that are most conducive to promoting

effective change in order to move their schools beyond the status quo. The quantitative data

obtained through online surveys were supported, and ultimately enhanced, by the qualitative data

derived through face-to-face interviews.

In terms of those leadership characteristics perceived by international school leaders to support

a change agenda, the top three traits identified were: the importance of being able to create a vision;

a commitment to school and staff; and an ability to create an environment that is collegial and

supportive. Other key characteristics that were identified include being approachable, a good

communicator and, above all, having a strong ethical disposition. Finally, adaptability, an ability

to cope with ambiguity, creativity, empathy, flexibility, good judgment, humility, optimism,

perseverance, resilience and, finally, a sense of humor to keep everything in perspective, were

mentioned as being important characteristics of effective leaders.

Being able to effectively develop the human resource aspect of an organization was identified as

a very strong component for successful change management. This entails hiring the right people,

getting them in the right position, building those important relationships, and building and main-

taining clear lines of communication as a means of increasing the efficacy of change. Connected to

this is the need to develop and maintain trust between all stakeholders. As noted, it is the devel-

opment of a positive and supportive relationship that enables leaders to overcome many of the

obstacles found within an organization. While an ethical reputation is vital, so is constantly being a

role model for professional behaviors that indicate support of change.

In terms of leadership style, there was a significant recognition of its importance in connection

with both school improvement and student success. The leadership styles perceived by interna-

tional school leaders in the current study to be most conducive to effective leadership were

weighted equally between ‘democratic’ and ‘mixed, based on situation/context’. Terms like situa-

tional leader or context-based leadership style were referred to as a reflection of the complex

realities of running a large and transparent organization such as an international school.

In terms of the change process itself, a leader must also be able to identify priorities, strategize

and lead the organization through its evolution. Change is not a linear process. Rather, managing

change is messy and, at times, it may seem like one is simply muddling through (cf. Lindblom,

1959). However, a leader must demonstrate by example that he/she is comfortable and positive in

this type of environment since it will normalize (and promote an overall culture of acceptance of)

the realities of a fluid and dynamic organization undergoing change.

522 Educational Management Administration & Leadership 46(3)

International school leaders identified many strategies they have used while implementing

change including: (i) ensuring opportunities for feedback from staff; (ii) building relationships

and trust; (iii) learning the school culture; and, at times, iv) creating a sense of urgency. However, a

key strategy, which was mentioned repeatedly, was learning the school culture. This is significant,

because if the leader understands the school culture, then he/she can carefully cultivate it so that it

grows in the desired direction. Ensuring that the school culture supports a forward movement in

terms of planning for continuous school improvement reflects the philosophy of kaizen (i.e.

continuous improvement) and is critical to effective change.

In summary, based on the findings of this study, the key components of a framework for an

international school’s leadership ‘change management’ paradigm would consist of the following

elements:

� setting school priorities based on a clearly articulated, shared vision and commitment to a

healthy school culture and continuous quality improvement aimed at ongoing improvements

in student success;

� building a team that is founded on trust and continuous promotion of collegial relationships;

� establishing an approachable administration that works from a strong ethical foundation and

which supports appropriate risk-taking;

� utilizing a contextual decision-making process that is fair and equitable to all;

� developing a school culture that supports a kaizen (continuous improvement) philosophy

and which takes concrete action for bringing change initiatives to fruition, then shares

successes widely and early; and finally,

� hiring leaders who believe in, and have skills related to the ‘human dimension’ – a knowl-

edge of how to interact with colleagues and other staff in order to build the foundations for

continued organizational success.

Ultimately, by beginning with a framework that includes these key variables, and by encoura-

ging leaders to develop appropriate characteristics and leadership styles, schools can construct

their own change management paradigm which will support their leaders in going beyond the

status quo and leading their schools to ever greater improvements and to continuously enhanced

levels of student success.

Conclusion

When it comes to the examination of continuous improvement within an organization, ‘in the end

all roads lead to leadership’ (MacBeath, 2006: 162). This is where planning the success and growth

of an international school must begin and end because, given the fact that the research supports the

fundamental role of leaders within a school system, it is imperative to understand the personal

characteristics and skills, under varying contexts, which support the development and forward

momentum of a change agenda. In addition, as a leader moves forward, it is critical to understand

what methods he or she can employ to overcome inherent structural constraints that can function as

gatekeepers to the change process (Morrison, 2013). These things will support a leader in his or her

efforts to lead rather than to simply manage.

This study has highlighted leadership styles and characteristics which are believed by interna-

tional school leaders to facilitate the change process in an international school environment and

eventually lead to successful outcomes. Ultimately, it has provided direction regarding how an

Morrison: Beyond the status quo – setting the agenda for effective change 523

international school leader can set the agenda for effective change and, thereby, go beyond the

status quo.

In the end, it is my hope that the findings from this study will inform educational leaders in

their attempts to become more adept at implementing change while, at the same time, provide

them with some background material which they can use to reflect on their own personal

characteristics and style of leadership. Given that we know a ‘lack of change management

skills or understanding of change implementation techniques [and] the inability to alter one’s

management style’ (Gilley et al., 2009: 40) will have a significant impact on a leader’s ability

to implement the changes necessary for improvement, having the internal drive to meld

theory, research and practice is fundamentally important for every international school leader.

This is not a simple academic exercise since ‘leadership has very significant effects on the

quality of the school organization and on pupil learning’ (Leithwood et al., 2006a: 14). Thus,

it is incumbent upon all educational leaders to ensure that they strive for this ideal in order to

achieve the ultimate goal of an enhanced society when the students of today become the

adults of tomorrow.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or

publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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Author biography

Allan R Morrison is Deputy Principal (Secondary) at Delia School of Canada, Hong Kong. He

holds a Master of Arts degree in political science from McGill University (Canada), a Bachelor of

Education degree from the University of Toronto (Canada) and an MBA with a focus on educa-

tional leadership from Keele University (UK). He has over 15 years of experience with cross-

cultural teaching and international education.

Appendix 1: Survey

Dear Colleague,

Thank you for taking the time to complete this short survey. It will take approximately 10–15

minutes. I am conducting research with regard to how leaders within international school environ-

ments implement effective change. This survey is structured around your experience and insights

in relation to the following three points:

i) specific leadership characteristics that support the development and forward momentum of

a change agenda;

ii) factors that impact, both positively and negatively, the change process; and finally,

iii) methods of overcoming ‘structural constraints’ which function as gatekeepers to the

change process.

Please note that this survey is both confidential and anonymous. While your thoughts would be

valuable in understanding these questions, you are under no obligation to respond to any question

you would rather not answer and you are free to exit the survey at any time. I sincerely appreciate

your support of this research.

Morrison: Beyond the status quo – setting the agenda for effective change 525

Demographics

The information on this page will be used to generate a general description of the survey respondents.

1. What is your gender?

c Female

c Male

c I’d prefer not to answer

2. What is your age?

c 25 to 34

c 35 to 44

c 45 to 54

c 55 to 64

c 65þ c I’d prefer not to answer

3. In which country did you receive your teacher training? _______________________

4. How many years have you been a licensed teacher?

c <5

c 5–10

c 11–15

c >15

5. Your current position is . . . c Head of school or equivalent

c Principal or equivalent

c Vice-principal or equivalent

6. How many years have you been a school leader?

c <5

c 5–10

c 11–15

c 15

7. How many years have you been an ‘International’ school leader?

c <5

c 5–10

c 11–15

c 15

Leadership characteristics

The purpose of these questions is to obtain a general idea of the leadership characteristics which

international school leaders believe are important in implementing effective change.

8. What would you identify as the three most important characteristics of an effective leader

within the following subgroup?

(Please select three characteristics and rank them from 1 to 3 with 1 ¼ most important)

526 Educational Management Administration & Leadership 46(3)

Setting direction

Committed

Decisive

Dependable

Diplomatic

Energetic

Enthusiastic Developing people Flexible Adaptable

Intelligent Approachable

Risk-taker Charismatic

Visionary Confident

Other (please specify) Empathetic Developing the organization Ethical/Integrity Accountable

Even disposition Achievement oriented

Good communicator Organized

Respectful Future focused

Tolerant Insightful

Other (please specify) Motivator

Persistent

Problem solver

Team builder

Responsible

Other (please specify)

9. What are the ‘top’ three tasks of an effective international school leader?

(Please select three tasks and rank them from 1 to 3 with 1 ¼ most important)

c Ability to motivate others

c Carrying out board-designated tasks

c Delegation of tasks

c Developing supportive networks

c Development of an appropriate vision

c Ensuring policies and procedures are understood and followed

c Ensuring school enrollment is maintained or increased

c Implementing change

c Keeping the school ‘current’

c Maintaining or enhancing school reputation

c Spearheading school improvement initiatives

c Student success

c Teacher hiring

c Teacher training

c Other (please specify)

Factors which impact change

The following questions identify factors you believe impact, both positively and negatively, the

change process.

Morrison: Beyond the status quo – setting the agenda for effective change 527

10. What percent of your time would you say that you manage (in contrast to leading)?

c <10% c 11–25% c 26–40% c 41–55% c 56–70% c 71–85% c 86–100%

Comment – Why do you feel this is so?

11. Do you believe leadership style impacts the efficacy of school improvement?

c Yes

c No

c Sometimes

c I don’t know

Comment

12. If you answered ‘yes’ or ‘sometimes’ to question 11, which leadership style do you

believe is most suited to promoting school success? (If you answered ‘no’ or ‘I don’t

know’, please skip this question.)

c Authoritarian

c Laissez-faire

c Democratic

c I don’t know

c Other (please specify and/or comment on what this style of leadership means to you)

13. Which three aspects of your job have posed the greatest challenges for you as an inter-

national school leader? (Please select three general areas and rank them from 1 to 3 with 1

¼ most challenging)

c Human resourcing

c Staff issues

c Parents

c Students

c Policies and procedures

c Governance

c Host country

c Organizational politics

c Other (please specify and/or comment (e.g. not applicable))

528 Educational Management Administration & Leadership 46(3)

14. Were there specific strategies you found effective in addressing the challenges noted in

question 13?

15. What is the best way for a leader to introduce a significant change to current practice/

policy in an international school?

16. Should a new leader follow the same protocol or do you think they should approach the

implementation of changes differently?

Overcoming structural constraints

This final section explores methods of overcoming structural (or systemic) constraints which can

function as gatekeepers to the change process.

17. Have any of the following been barrier(s) to implementing effective change?

c Governance structures

c Personnel

c ‘Office politics’

c School culture

c Other (please specify or comment)

18. What strategies do you find effective in addressing these barriers/structural constraints to

change?

19. At the end of the day, how much influence/control do you feel you have in driving/guiding

the change process at your school?

c <10% c 11–25% c 26–40% c 41–55% c 56–70% c 71–85% c 86–100%

Comment (e.g. Are you satisfied with this? Did you have to work your way up to this? Etc. . . . )

20. Do you have any final comments, suggestions or insights to share regarding the role of an

international school educational leader in implementing change?

Morrison: Beyond the status quo – setting the agenda for effective change 529

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