history essay

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In t er r a cia l

In t m a cy

Th e Regu la t ion of Ra ce

Rom a n ce

Ra ch el F . Mor a n

Th e U n iver sit y of Ch ica go P r ess

Ch ica go ^ r Lon don

l6 CH AP TE R ON E

Con clu sion

Willia m s's m em oir r em in ds u s of t h e power of r a ce a n d in t im a cy. Look - in g ba ck on h is ea r ly yea r s a s a boy n a viga t in g u n ea sily bet ween bla ck a n d wh it e wor lds, h e r ea lizes t h a t a ll of h is la t er pr ofession a l su ccess ca n n ot sh ield h im fr om t h e im pa ct of h is r a cia l h er it a ge a n d fa m ily t ies:

I wa s for t u n a t e t o be a ble t o a ch ieve m y goa l of becom in g a la wyer ,

a n d la t er m y dr ea m of bein g a la w pr ofessor . I h a ve h eld posit ion s t h a t

even in m y wildest fa n t a sie5 du r in g t h e n igh t s a t 6oilh Ra ilr oa d St r eet I

cou ld n ot en vision for m yself. Yet wh en I st a n d m fr on t of st u den t s, m y

m in d oft en wa n der s ba ck t o t h e pa in a n d r eject ion of t h e Mu n cie yea r s.

Alm ost a s if it wer e yest er da y, I vividly r eca ll wa t ch in g Da d bein g bea t en

by t h e police, a n d t h e da y we wer e ch a sed fr om t h e "wh it e" wa it in g r oom

in Lou isville. I n ever felt m or e im pot en t a n d power less t o con t r ol m y life

t h a n I did in t h ose da ys. Wh en I t h in k of t h ose t im es, I r em em ber wh a t

Da d u sed t o sa y:

Son , on e da y t h is will a ll pa le in t o in sign ifica n ce/

H e wa s wr on g. .Mu n cie h a s n ever pa led in t o In sign ifica n ce. It h a s lived

in side m e for ever .

Th e t im e is lon g over du e t o r ecogn ize t h e sin gu la r im por t a n ce of in t er - r a cia l in t im a cy. It h a s n ot pa led in t o m sign ifica n ce, n or sh ou ld it . In t er - r a cia l in t im a cy is fa r m or e t h a n a n in ciden t a l con sequ en ce of r a cia l

equ a lit y or a pa r t icu la r pr oof of per son a l a u t on om y. As t h is book will sh ow, t h ose wh o ch oose love a cr oss t h e color lin e ch a llen ge t h e con ven -

t lon a l wisdom t h a t r a cia l equ a lit y ca n be a ch ieved in t h e a bsen ce of a r ich n et wor k of in t er r a cia l r ela t ion sh ips a n d t h a t love is t r u ly fr ee wh en

it is ca bin ed by per va sive segr ega t ion .

TWO

An t im iscegen a t ion La ws

a n d t h e E n for cem en t of

Ra cia l Bou n da r ies

N Y H ISTORY OF a n t lm iscegcn a t ion la ws m u st begin wit h t h e r egu la t ion of bla ck —wh it e in t im a cy, bu t it m u st n ot en d t h er e. La ws ba r r in g sex a -n d. m a r r ia ge bet ween bla ck s a n d wh it es h a d t h e lon gest h is- t or y a n d t h e widest a pplica t ion in t h e U n it ed St a t es. As on e h ist or ia n of in t er m a r r ia ge h a s poin t ed ou t , h owever , a n t im iscegen a t ion la ws wer e

en a ct ed fir st —a n d a ba n don ed la st —in t h e Sou t h , bu t it wa s in t h e West , n ot t h e Sou t h , t h a t t h e la ws beca m e m ost ela bor a t e, In t h e la t e

n in et een t h cen t u r y, west er n legisla t or s bu ilt a la byr in t h ln e syst em ofle-

ga l pr oh ibit ion s on m a r r ia ges bet ween wh it es a n d Ch in ese, J a pa n ese, F ilipin os, H a wa h a n s, H in du s, a n d N a t ive Am er ica n s, a s well a s on m a r r ia ges bet ween wh it es a n d bla ck s." At on e t im e or a n ot h er , t h lr r y-

eigh t st a t es a dopt ed la ws r egu la t in g in t er r a cia l sex a n d m a r r ia ge. All of t h ese la ws ba n n ed bk ck -wh it e r ela t ion sh ips, bu t fou r t een st a t es a lso pr oh ibit ed Asla n -wh it e m a r r ia ges a n d a n ot h er seven ba r r ed N a t ive Am er ica n -wh it e u n ion s. N o st a t e ever officia lly ba n n ed La t in o-wh it e in t er m a r r ia ge, t h ou gh , pr esu m a bly beca u se t r ea t y pr ot ect ion s for m a lly a ccor ded for m er Spa n ish a n d Mexica n cit izen s t h e st a t u s of wh it e per -

son s.

An t im iscegen a t ion la ws h a ve pla yed a n in t egr a l r ole in defin in g r a cia l iden t it y a n d en for cin g r a cia l h ier a r ch y. To u n der st a n d t h e dist in ct ive wa ys in wh ich a n t im iscegen a t ion st a t u t es wer e u sed t o est a blish n or m s a bou t r a ce, it is essen t ia l t o focu s on t h e t wo gr ou ps t h a t su ffer ed t h e m ost on er ou s lega l bu r den s: bla ck s a n d Asia n s. F or bla ck s, t h e la ws id-en - t ified t h em a s dim in ish ed per son s m a r k ed wit h t h e t a in t of sla ver y a n d in fer ior it y, even a ft er t h ey wer e n om in a lly fr ee. Alt h ou gh t h e st a t u t es I?

i8 CH AP TE R TWO

for m a lly lim it ed t h e fr eedom of bla ck s a n d wh it es a lik e, t h e r est r ict ion s clea r ly fu n ct ion ed t o block bla ck a ccess t o t h e pr ivileges of a ssocia t in g wit h wh it es. F or Asia n s, a n dm iscegen a t ion la ws con fir m ed t h eir st a t u s a s u n a ssim ila ble for eign er s. Alr ea dy m a r k ed- a s r a cia lly dist in ct a n d u n fit for cit izen sh ip by feder a l im m igr a t ion la ws, st a t e con st r a in t s on in t er - m a r r ia ge pr even t ed- Asia n m a le im m igr a n t s fr om in t egr a t in g in t o com -

m u n it ies by t h wa r t in g t h eir sexu a lit y, h in der in g t h em fr om developin g t ies t o t h e U n it ed- St a t es t h r ou gh m a r r ia ge, a n d det er r in g t h em fr om h a vin g ch ildr en wh o wou ld be Am er ica n cit izen s by bir t h . F or bot h bla ck s a n d Asia n s, segr ega t ion in sex, m a r r ia ge, a n d fa m ily wa s a h a ll- m a r k of in t en se r a cia liza t ion a n d en t r en ch ed in equ a lit y.

Th e Bla ck E xper ien ce: Dr a win g t h e Color Lin e a n d Keepin g It in P la ce

Th e r egu la t ion of sex a n d. m a r r ia ge pla yed a sin gu la r ly im por t a n t r ole in dr a win g t h e color lin e bet ween wh it es a n d bla ck s. An r im iscegen a t ion la ws in t h e Sou t h la id- a cr it ica l fou n da t ion for secu r in g t h e fu ll per - son h ood of wh it es a n d en t r en ch in g t h e dim in ish ed st a t u s of bla ck s. Wh en ever r a cia l a m bigu it y t h r ea t en ed t h e est a blish ed socia l or der , st a -t u -

t or y r est r ict ion s on in t er r a cia l sex a n d m a r r ia ge wer e im posed t o k eep t h e color lin e fir m ly in pla ce. Du r in g t h e colon ia l er a ., Sou t h er n st a t es fa ced specia l ch a llen ges in dr a win g r a cia l bou n da r ies a n d est a blish in g sexu a l n or m s. In N ew E n gla n d, set t ler s wer e m ost ly fa r m er s a n d a r t isa n s

wh o a r r ived wit h fa m ilies, set t led in t own s, a n d h a d st r on g r eligiou s t r a dit ion s. In t h ese h om ogen eou s com m u n it ies, sa m e-r a ce fa m ilies wer e

t h e n or m a n d sex ou t side of m a r r ia ge wa s r ela t ively r a r e. By con t r a st ,

in t h e Ch esa pea k e wor ld of Vir gin ia a n d Ma r yla n d, set t ler s ca m e fr om a wide r a n ge ofba ck gr ou n d-s. Ma n y a r r ived a lon e a s in ct en t u r ed ser va n t s,

wh o h a d con t r a ct ed t o wor k u n t il t h ey pa id for t h eir pa ssa ge t o Am er ica . N o sen se of com m u n it y ba sed on sh a r ed or igin s, t own sh ips, or r eligiou s beliefs bou n d t h e n ewcom er s t oget h er . Men ou t n u m ber ed- wom en by

fou r t o on e. In a ddit ion , t h e sca r cit y ofm a m a gea ble wom en wa s exa cer -

ba t ed beca u se in den t u r ed fem a le ser va n t s cou ld n ot m a r r y u n t il t h ey com plet ed, t h eir t er m s of ser vice. U n der t h ese cir cu m st a n ces, r a t es of

ext r a m a r it a l sex a n d ou t -of-wedlock pr egn a n cy soa r ed- despit e la ws pu n -

Ish in g for n ica .don , a du lt er y a n d r a pe.5 Wh en sla ver y bega n t o r epla ce m den m r ed ser vit u de a s t h e pr im a r y

sou r ce of la bor in t h e u pper Sou t h du r in g t h e la st deca des of t h e seven -

AN TIMISGE GE N ATION LAWS AN D RACIAL BO'U N DARIE S

t een t h cen t u r y, wh it e m den t u r ed ser va n t s oft en wor k ed in close pr oxim

it y t o bla ck sla ves. In som e in st a n ces, cowor k er s beca m e sexu a l in t im a t e;

a n d in t er r a cia l sex a n d m a r r ia ge bega n t o blu r t h e color lin e. An d- m iscegen a t ion la ws beca m e a wa y t o dr a w a r igid bou n da r y bet ween sla ve a n d fr ee, bla ck a n d wh it e. Ma r yla n d en a ct ed- t h e fir st a n u m iscegen a t ion st a t u t e in 1661, a n d Vir gin ia followed su it on e yea r la t er . E ven befor e t h a t , Vir gin ia a u t h or it ies in t h e 16305 a n d 16405 h a d wh ipped a n d pu b- licly h u m ilia t ed t h ose wh o pa r t icipa t ed in in t er r a cia l sexu a l lia ison s.

By pu n ish in g in t er r a cia l sex sever ely, a u t h or it ies in Ma r yla n d a n d Vir - gin ia sen t a clea r m essa ge t h a t wh it es wer e n ot t o a dopt t h e sexu a l pr a c-

t ices of sla ves. Sla ves t ypica lly did n ot en joy a ccess t o t h e for m a l in st it u - t ion of m a r r ia ge, a lt h ou gh t h ey did con du ct t h eir own sla ve m a r r ia ge r it u a ls. Som e sla ves pr a ct iced polyga m y or polygyn y, a n d m a n y did n ot con dem n pr em a r it a l in t er cou r se. Wit h ou t socia l st igm a , a wom a n m igh t h a ve sex a n d even bea r ch ildr en by a m a n befor e h a vin g been r ecogn ized by ot h er sla ves a s "m a r r ied" t o h im . Legisla t ion pr oh ibit in g in t er r a cia l

in t im a cy clea r ly con dem n ed t h ese a lt er n a t ive sexu a l a n d m a r it a l pr a ct ices a s h ea t h en a n d u n fit for r igh t -m in ded, wh it e Ch r ist ia n s.

In t h e ea r ly set t lem en t yea r s, in t er r a cia l m a r r ia ge h a d been t oler a t ed, pr esu m a bly beca u se of t h e u n cer t a in r a cia l st a t u s of bla ck s a n d t h e sh or t - a ge of wom en . As t h e in st it u t ion of sla ver y wa s con solida t ed In t h e la t e seven t een t h cen t u r y, m a r r ia ges a cr oss t h e color lin e beca m e a n om a -

lou s a n d da n ger ou s except ion s t o t h e em er gin g r a cia l h ier a r ch y. In t er -

r a cia l u n ion s en a bled bla ck wom en t o con t r ol a ccess t o t h eir sexu a l-

it y t h r ou gh m a r r ia ge, a n d it en a bled bla ck m en t o occu py a su per ior posit ion t o wh it e wom en in a . pa t r ia r ch a l in st it u t ion t h a t t r ea t ed t h e h u s- ba n d- a s m a st er . Ma r r ia ges a cr oss t h e color lin e cou ld give bla ck s a n d t h eir m ixed-r a ce offspr in g a ccess t o wh it e econ om ic pr ivileges by a ffor d- in g t h em t h e pr oper t y pr ot ect ion s t h a t m a r r ia ge a n d in h er it a n ce la ws offer ed..9 Bla ck —wh it e m a r r ia ges t lir ea t en ed t h e pr esu m pt ion t h a t bla ck s wer e su bh u m a n sla ves in ca pa ble of exer cisin g a u t h or it y, dem on st r a -t -

in g m or a l r espon sibilit y, a n d ca pit a lizin g on econ om ic oppor t u n it y. If 'wh it es cou ld sh a r e t h eir em ot ion a l lives a n d econ om ic for t u n es wit h bla ck s,..h ow cou ld bla ck s be a n yt h in g less t h a n fu ll per son s?

Th e Ch esa pea k e colon ies en a ct ed st a t u t es t o en su r e t h a t , r a t h er t h a n

ben efit bla ck s, in t er r a -cia l m a r r ia ges wou ld sim ply degr a de Wh it es. U n - der Vir gin ia 's 1691 la w, a wh it e spou se wa s t o be ba n ish ed fr om t h e colon y wit h in t h r ee m on t h s of a n in t er r a cia l wed-din g. In 170$, Vir gin ia a u t h or ized ja il sen t en ces of six m on t h s for wh it es m a r r ied t o bla ck s or m u la t t oes. In Ma r yla n d, "fr eebor n e E n glish wom en " wh o m a r r ied

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20

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CH AP TE R TWO

"N egr o sla ves" wer e r equ ir ed t o ser ve t h eir h u sba n ds m a st er s du r in g t h eir h u sba n ds' lifet im es. Th ese la ws st r ipped wh it es of r a cia l pr ivileges ba sed on t h eir in t im a cy wit h bla ck s.

Despit e t h ese h a r sh sa n ct ion s, som e wh it es pa id t h e pr ice t o m a r r y a cr oss t h e color lin e. In Ma r yla n d in 1681, N ell Bu t ler , k n own a s Ir ish N ell," fell in love wit h a sla ve k n own a s N egr o Ch a r les." Wh en N ell, a n in den t u r ed ser va n t , in for m ed Lor d Ba lt im or e, h er m a st er , of t h e pla n n ed m a r r ia ge, h e wa r n ed h er t h a t sh e a n d a ll h er descen da n t s wou ld live a s sla ves. U n swa yed a n d defia n t , N ell r eplied t h a t sh e wou ld r a t h er m a n r y Ch a r les t h a n Lor d Ba lt im or e h im self. Sh e did m a r r y^ Ch a r les a n d spen t t h e r est of h er life wor k in g for h is m a st er s, pr oba bly a s a n in den t u r ed ser va n t . H a d sh e n ot m a r r ied Ch a r les, h er con t r a ct of ser vit u de wit h Lor d Ba lt im or e wou ld h a ve en ded in fou r or five yea r s. N ell r epor t edly died "m u ch br ok en a n d a n old wom a n ." St ill, Lor d Ba lt im or e wa s wr on g a bou t N ell's offspr in g. In t h e eigh t een t h cen t u r y, a Ma r yla n d cou r t h eld t h a t n eit h er N ell n or h er descen da n t s cou ld be sla ves. Su bsequ en t ly, m a s- t er s com pla in ed of r u n a wa y m u la t t o sla ves wh o cla im ed t o be descen -

da n t s of t h e fa m ou s N ell Bu t ler ."u

As t h e st or y of Ir ish . N ell su ggest s, t h e pr oblem ofm u la t t o offspr in g wa s a ser iou s on e in a - sla ve econ om y pr edica t ed on a clea r cu t bou n da r y

bet ween wh it es a n d bla ck s. Despit e la ws pu n ish in g in t er r a cia l sex, on e- fift h of ch ildr en bor n ou t of wedlock a t t h e en d of t h e seven t een t h cen - t u r y wer e m u la t t oes. Wh et h er sla ve or fr ee, t h ese m u la t t oes com plt --~--^

ca t ed t h e en for cem en t of sla ver y a n d com pr om ised it s cla im s t o m or a l ,''

a u t h or it y. Mu la t t o sla ves wh o cou ld pa ss a s wh it e wer e con sider ed pa r dc- /

u la r ly r isk y pr oper t y beca u se t h ey cou ld ea sily r u n a wa y a n d esca pe d.ex.e.y n on . In 1835 in Vir gin ia , wh it es r efu sed t o bid on on e m a le sla ve beca u se h e wa s "t oo wh it e" a n d m igh t t oo ea sily esca pe fr om sla ver y a n d pa ss h im self a s a fr ee m a n ." La t er on , ligh t -sk in n ed m u la t t o sla ves wer e u sed

t o ca ll in t o qu est ion t h e ver y pr opr iet y of sla ver y. A fa vor it e t h em e of a bolidon ist lit er a t u r e wa s t h e wh it e sla ve," wh o r em in ded wh it e a u di-

en ces t h a t t h ey t oo m igh t be h eld- in bon da ge. Wit h widespr ea d in t er r a cia l sex t h a t t h r ea t en ed t h e color lin e, t h e

Vir gin ia legisla t u r e h a d t o defin e a n d u lt im a t ely con fin e t h e r eleva n ce of t h e m u la t t o. A 1705 la w cla ssified a m u la t t o a s "t h e ch ild of a n In dia n a n d t h e ch ild, gr a n dch ild, or gr ea t gr a n dch ild of a n egr o." Du r in g t h e Revolu t ion a r y er a , h igh r a t es of em a n cipa t ion cou pled wit h Vir gin ia 's 'on e-fou r t h bla ck " r u le a llowed som e fr ee m ixed-r a ce in dividu a ls t o

cla im t h e pr ivileges of wh it es, a lt h ou gh t h ey obviou sly h a d som e Afr ica n

AN TIMISCE GE N ATION LAWS AN D RACIAL BOU N DARIE S 21

a n cest r y. Officia ls con clu ded t h a t "[m ju la t t oes m u st be m a de bla ck , a n d t h e u n fr eedom of bla ck s m u st be defin ed a n d m a de u n iver sa l." 5 To t h is en d, t h e u pper Sou t h a dopt ed a on e-dr op r u le, wh ich defin ed a s bla ck a n y per son wit h t r a cea ble Afr ica n a n cest r y.

Th e a dopt ion of a r u le of h ypodescen t k ept bla ck s fr om t r a n sm it t in g specia l pr ivileges t o t h e n ext gen er a t ion t h r ou gh in t er r a cia l sex or m a r - r ia ge. Th is r a cia l t a x on offspr in g pr eclu ded t h em fr om ga in in g officia l r ecogn it ion of t h eir wh it e a n cest r y. By er a sin g t h eir wh it e h er it a ge, t h e r a cia l cla ssifica t ion sch em e con ver t ed m u la -t t oes in t o bla ck s by a t ype of pa r t h en o gen esis: It wa s a lm ost a s t h ou gh t h e ch ild h a d been gen er a t ed- by a sin gle pa r en t wit h ou t in t er cou r se a cr oss t h e color lin e. As sla ver y h a r den ed t h e lin es bet ween wh it es a n d bla ck s, t h e r a cia l t a x on m u la t t oes in cr ea sed. Th eir cu r t a iled pr ivileges clea r ly iden t ified t h em a s n on wh it e, a n d- even t h e ligh t est m u la t t oes wer e den ied t h e pr ivileges of wh it en ess.

Th e im per a t ive of con solida t in g r a cia l bou n da r ies wa s so gr ea t t h a t Ch esa pea k e a u t h or it ies wer e willin g co u n do t h e lega l t r a dit ion ofpa t er - fa m ilia s. A lon g-st a n din g E n glish r u le m a n da t ed t h a t a ch ild's st a t u s follow t h a t of t h e fa t h er . Given t h e in it ia l sca r cit y of wh it e wom en in

t h e Ch esa pea k e, m ost in t er r a cia l sex pr oba bly t ook pla ce bet ween wh it e m en a n d bla ck wom en . As a r esu lt , t h e m a jor it y of m u la t t o offspr in g wer e fr ee u n der t h e E n glish a ppr oa ch . In 1662, Vir gin ia depa r t ed fr om t r a dit ion by m a k in g a ch ild's st a t u s follow t h a t of t h e m ot h er . U n der t h is m a t r ilin ea l a ppr oa ch , ch ildr en lik e Ir ish N ell's wou ld be fr ee, bu t m ost m u la t t oes wou ld be sla ves. E ven m u la t t oes bor n t o wh it e m ot h er s

en joyed on ly t en u ou s liber t ies. U n der a 1691 Vir gin ia la w, t h ey cou ld st ill be sold a s ser va n t s u n t il t h e a ge of t h ir t y. Mu la t t oes cou ld n ot h old pu blic office, a n d by 1723, fr ee m u la t t oes wer e st r ipped, of m a n y of t h e pr ivileges—in clu din g vot in g a n d t h e u n r est r ict ed r igh t t o bea r a r m s— t h a t wh it e cit izen s en joyed. Vir gin ia a u t h or it ies a lso wer e con cer n ed t h a t d-ot in g wh it e fa t h er s m igh t su bver t la ws t h a t m a de t h eir m u la t t o offspr in g sla ves by em a n cipa t in g t h em . To discou r a ge m a n u m ission of m u la t t o offspr in g, m a st er s h a d t o sen d t h eir fr eedm en ou t of t h e colon y, a n d a u t h or it ies wer e en cou r a ged t o elim in a t e r ovin g ba n ds of "n egr oes,

m u la t t oes, a n d. ot h er sla ves [per h a ps In dia n s]." In 1723, Vir gin ia m a de pr iva t e em a n cipa t ion even m or e difficu lt .19 Rest r ict in g t h e liber t y ofr a - cia lly a m bigu ou s m u la t t oes wa s essen t ia l t o en su r in g t h eir defin it ion a s n on wh it e.

Despit e for m a l, lega l r est r ict ion s, a n in flu en t ia l a n d power fu l wh it e fa t h er som et im es cou ld r ely on h is pr ivileged posit ion t o win loca l—

CH AP TE R TWO

a lbeit fr a gile a n d in for m a l—a ccept a n ce of a m ixed-r a ce ch ild. In 1805 in Ca m pbell Cou n t y, Vir gin ia , Rober t Wr igh t , t h e m u la t t o son of a wea lt h y wh it e la n down ln g fa t h er a n d bla ck sla ve m ot h er , in h er it ed h is fa t h er 's est a t e a n d beca m e a well-t o-do pla n t er . Rober t 's fa t h er , a lifelon g

ba ch elor , wa s est r a n ged fr om h is wh it e br ot h er s a n d sist er s a n d det er - m in ed t o pa ss on h is su bst a n t ia l h oldin gs t o h is beloved on ly son . Wit h h is fa t h er 's su ppor t a n d- gu ida n ce, Rober t lea r n ed t o m a n a ge t h e la n d a n d ga in ed en t r y in t o t h e u pper m ost ech elon s of Ca m pbell Cou n t y's wh it e societ y. On e yea r a ft er in h er it in g h is fa t h er 's pr oper t y, Rober t m a r - r ied a wh it e wom a n . Alt h ou gh t h e cou n t y cler k a n d m in ist er n ever r e- cor ded t h e m a r r ia ge beca u se of it s illega lit y, Rober t a n d h is wife lived

open ly a s a m a r r ied cou ple a n d h a d a ch ild t oget h er wit h ou t bein g ost r a - cized by t h eir wh it e n eigh bor s.

Rober t 's t r ou bles bega n wh en h is wife r a n a wa y wit h a wh it e m a n . In pet it ion in g Vir gin ia legisla t or s for divor ce so ch a t h e cou ld m a r r y a n ot h er wh it e wom a n , Rober t sou gh t for m a l a ccept a n ce of h is wh it e pr ivilege, bu t t h e jer r y-bu ilt , in for m a l st a t u s of h is fa t h er 's m a k in g cou ld. n ot su r vive lega l scr u t in y. In h is pet it ion , Rober t em ph a sized t h a t h e, h is wife, a n d h er lover wer e a ll fr ee. H e a r gu ed t h a t despit e t h e ba n on in t er r a cia l m a r r ia ge, t h e u n ion wa s "t o a ll In t en t s a n d pu r poses va lid a n d bin din g bet ween t h e pa r t ies" beca u se t h ey h a d obt a in ed a m a r r ia ge 11- cen se a n d been m a r r ied by a cler gym a n . E ven if t h e m in ist er h a d de- st r a yed t h e m a r r ia ge cer t ifica t e, t h e m a r r ia ge clea r ly h a d been r ecogn ized a s va lid for a ppr oxim a t ely a deca de in t h e Ca m pbell Cou n t y com m u n it y. Wh it e cit izen s in t h e com m u n it y wr ot e in su ppor t of Rober t 's pet it ion , n ot in g h is pr opr iet y, k in dn ess t o h is wife, a n d r epu t a t ion a s "a n h on est , u pr igh t , a n d good cit izen ."

Despit e Rober t 's st a t u s in Ca m pbell Cou n t y, t h e st a t e of Vir gin ia cou ld n ot per m it it s officia l ba n on in t er r a cia l m a r r ia ge t o be su bver t ed. Th e Vir gin ia H ou se of Delega t es decisively r eject ed Rober t 's divor ce pet it ion , m a k in g clea r t h a t "Rober t Wr igh t cou ld be m a r r ied t o a wh it e wom a n in h is com m u n it y, [bu t ] h e cou ld n ot be m a r r ied t o h er in la w."21 Wit h t h e illu sion of h is wh it en ess dest r oyed, Rober t lost st a n din g in Ca m pbell Cou n t y. On t a x r olls, h is design a t ion wa s ch a n ged fr om Wh it e t o M, for m u la t t o. Wh en h e per sist ed- in livin g wit h t h e wh it e

wom a n h e h a d h oped t o wed, m a n y of h is n eigh bor s con dem n ed h is pu blic a du lt er y. H u m ilia t ed a n d ost r a cized, Rober t died a t t h e a ge of

38, t wo yea r s a ft er t h e H ou se of Delega t es st r ipped a wa y t h e pr et en se of h is wh it en ess.

AN TIMISCE GE N ATION LAWS AN D RACIAL BOU N DARIE S

Rober t Wr igh t s st or y Is r em a r k a ble pr im a r ily beca u se it dem on st r a t es t h e pr ivileges t h a t wh it e fa t h er s cou ld con fer on m u la t t o offspr in g even in t h e fa ce of a n t im iscegen a t ion la ws. Rober t s fa t h er dem on st r a t ed h is power a s a wh it e la n down er in t h e com m u n it y by su bver t in g t h e lega l r est r ict ion s on h is m u la t t o son 's a bilit y t o m a n a ge a wh it e m a n 's est a t e,

m in gle wit h t h e wh it e elit e, a n d m a r r y a wh it e wom a n . Yet even som e-

on e a s in flu en t ia l a s Rober t 's fa t h er cou ld n ot cr ea t e a foolpr oof esca pe fr om r est r ict ion s on per son h ood a n d iden t it y t h a t wer e essen t ia l t o t h e pr eser va t ion of r a cia l in equ a lit y. On ce Rober t 's wife left h im for a wh it e lover , t h e m u la t t o's m a n lin ess a n d h is en t it lem en t t o t h e pr ivileges of wh it en ess wer e ca lled in t o qu est ion . Rober t wa s n o lon ger fr ee t o m a r r y

t h e wom a n of h is ch oice, a n d- h is n eigh bor s cea sed t o t h in k of h im a s m or a lly deser vin g or r a cia lly wh it e. Rober t 's despoiled iden t it y a s m u - la t t o wa s m a r k ed by in cu r sion s on h is a u t on om y t o a ssocia t e wit h wh it es a s h e plea sed.

In ot h er in st a n ces, t h ou gh , in for m a l r ecogn it ion of m u la t t o ch ildr en r ein for ced r a cia l h ier a r ch y a n d su bver t ed sexu a l m or es t h a t con dem n ed.

in cest a n d a du lt er y. F or exa m ple, in a n t ebellu m Lou don Cou n t y, Vlr -

gin ia , a qu a dr oon sla ve wom a n n a m ed Ar y lived wit h h er wh it e pa t er n a l u n cle. Th er e sh e beca m e t h e con cu bin e of h er you n g m a st er , wh o a lso

wa s h er cou sin . F a r fr om ch a llen gin g r a cia l pr ivilege, Ar y's cir cu m st a n ces

r ein for ced it : Sh e a voided a ssocia t in g t oo closely wit h bla ck s, per h a ps r em em ber in g h er m a st er s a dm on it ion n ot t o get in volved wit h color ed m en " beca u se t h ey "wer en 't good en ou gh " for h er . N or did t h e slt u a -

t ion t r igger ou t r a ge a t h er sexu a l exploit a t ion : Ar y In sist ed t h a t sh e wa s h er fa t h er 's fa vor it e ch ild, a n d sh e pr ou dly descr ibed h er elit e wh it e h er i-

t a ge a n d h er you n g m a st er s a t t en t ion s t o h er . Th e pr ice ofAr ys sen se of su per ior it y t o bla ck s wa s a com plet e depen den cy on wh it e m a le r ela .- t ives for va lida t ion of h er r a cia l a n d sexu a l wor t h . Beca u se of t h eir r a cia l pr ivilege, t h ese m en cou ld defin e Ar y s iden t it y wh olly in r ela t ion t o t h eir sexu a l n eeds, r ega r dless of t h eir r ela t ion sh ip t o h er a s fa t h er , u n cle, or cou sin .

In gen er a l, in t er r a cia l r ela t ion sh ips wer e t oler a t ed on ly in sofa r a s t h ey left n or m s of r a cia l a n d sexu a l pr ivilege in t a ct . By depr eca t in g wh it e wom en wh o coh a bk ed. or h a d in t er cou r se wit h bla ck s, t h e a ffa ir s cou ld be dism issed a s in decen t a n d depr a ved. Accor din g t o h ist or ia n Ma r t h a H odes, loca l com m u n it ies r egu la r ly t u r n ed a blin d eye t o bla ck or m u - la t t o m en a n d poor wh it e wom en wh o lived t oget h er a s m a n a n d wife, so lon g a s t h ey r em a in ed on t h e ou t sk ir t s of wh it e societ y. Th ese lon g-

23

24 CH AP TE R TWO

t er m lia ison s a s well a s br ief sexu a l en cou n t er s cou ld be expla in ed by ch a r a ct er izin g t h e wom en a s low-cla ss a n d llcen t iou s. F or in st a n ce, in

N or t h Ca r olin a in 182^ , P olly La n e, a wh it e m den t u r ed ser r a n t , a ccu sed J im , a sla ve, of r a pe. Alt h ou gh J im plea ded in n ocen t , h e wa s con vict ed a n d sen t en ced t o dea t h . As J im a wa it ed execu t ion , wh it e n eigh bor s n ot ed. t h a t P olly a ppea r ed t o be pr egn a n t , a n d t h ey beca m e su spiciou s of h er cla im of r a pe. F ou r doct or s su bm it t ed a st a t em en t t h a t "wit h ou t a n

excit a t ion of lu st , or t h e en joym en t of plea su r e in t h e ven er ea l a ct , n o

con cept ion ca n pr oba bly t a k e pla ce." Wh en P olly ga ve bir t h t o a ch ild decla r ed t o be of "m ixed blood," J im wa s even t u a lly pa r don ed "in pa r t by in vok in g t h e wh it e wom a n 's ba d r epu t a t ion , t h er eby dem on st r a t in g t h a t a poor a n d t r a n sgr essin g wh it e wom a n cou ld be wor t h less t o elit e wh it es t h a n t h e pr ofit a ble la bor of a sla ve."27

Wh er e t h e pr essu r e t o con solida t e r a cia l a n d- sexu a l n or m s wa s less

in t en se, sex a cr oss t h e color lin e wa s com m on pla ce despit e it s r a cia lly

a m bigu ou s con sequ en ces. Wh it e m en en joyed r ea dy a n d open a ccess t o

bla ck a n d m u la t t o wom en a s a m a r k of t h eir u n t r a m m eled fr eedom a n d

pr ivilege. In t h e lower Sou t h , for exa m ple, fr ee m u la t t oes wer e r a r e a n d posed lit t le t h r ea t t o t h e syst em of sla ver y. Th e issu e of in t er r a cia l sex wa s open ly deba t ed in n ewspa per s in Sou t h Ca r olin a m t h e 17305, a n d- on e a n on ym ou s poet won der ed: Kiss m e bla ck or wh it e, wh y n eed it t r ou ble you ?" Th is la issez-fa ir e a t t it u de t owa r d- sex a cr oss t h e color lin e

a llowed wea lt h y wh it e pla n t er s r egu la r ly t o in du lge t h eir a ppet it e for bla ck a n d m u la t t o wom en . In N ew Or lea n s a n d Ch a r lest on , t h er e wa s

a pr ofit a ble fa n cy t r a de" in m u la t t o wom en , wh o br ou gh t t wice t h e pr ice of a pr im e field h a n d. F r ee m u k t t o wom en wen t t o qu a dr oon ba lls in N ew Or lea n s t o m eet wea lt h y wh it e m en . U n der a syst em of con cu -bin a ge k n own a s "pla ca ge," t h e m en cou ld m a k e for m a l a r r a n ge-

m en t s t o su ppor t t h e wom en for a few yea r s or for life in exch a n ge for sexu a l ser vices. Wit h ou t fea r of socia l r epr isa l, pla n t a t ion own er s set

u p specia l r esiden ces for bla ck a n d m u la t t o m ist r esses, a n d som e sla ve own er s even wen t so fa r a s t o br in g con cu bin es in t o t h eir own h om es,

wh er e t h eir wh it e wives h a d t o en du r e t h e h u m ilia t ion in silen ce.30 At a t im e wh en t h e N ew E n gla n d colon ies a n d u pper Sou t h fr own ed on ext r a m a r it a l sexu a lit y, pla n t er s in t h e lower Sou t h open ly flou t ed t h e n or m of fidelit y in m a r r ia ge. Toler a n ce of con cu bin a ge com m odlfied bla ck a n d m u la t t o wom en , bu t it a lso da m a ged t h e st a t u s of wh it e wom en . On e n or t h er n visit or t o t h e Sou t h in 1809 r em a r k ed t h a t t h e du ll, fr igid in sipidit y, a n d r eser r e" of sou t h er n wom en wa s on e of t h e

m ost in sidiou s cost s of sla ver y.31

T AN TIMISCE GE N ATION LAWS AN D RACIAL BOU N DARIE STh e lower Sou t h 's t oler a n ce for in t er r a cia l r ela t ion sh ips wa s lin k ed t o a n u n willin gn ess t o a dopt h a r d a n d fa st lega l defin it ion s of bla ck n ess. As J u dge Willia m H a r per wr ot e in 183$:

We ca n n ot sa y wh a t a dm ixt u r e ofn egr o blood will m a k e a color ed per son .

Th e con dit ion of t h e in dividu a l is n ot t o be det er m in ed solely by dist in ct a n d visible m ixt u r e of n egr o blood, bu t by r epu t a t ion , by h is r ecept ion

in t o societ y, a n d h is h a vin g com m on ly exer cised t h e pr ivileges of a wh it e

m a n . . . . [I]t m a y be well a n d pr oper , t h a t a m a n of wor t h , h on est y,

in du st r y, a n d r espect a bilit y, sh ou ld h a ve t h e r a n k of a wh it e m a n , wh ile

a va ga bon d of t h e sa m e degr ee of blood sh ou ld be con fin ed t o t h e in fer ior

ca st e.3

A flexible cla ssifica t ion sch em e per m it t ed m u la t t oes t o ea r n t h e pr ivileges of wh it en ess t h r ou gh per son a l a ccom plish m en t s a n d socia l con n ect ion s.

Th is r ewa r d syst em en h a n ced t h e m u la t t oes' va lu e t o wh it es a s r a cia l m edia t or s: Mu la t t oes wou ld n ot iden t ify t oo closely wit h bla ck s, for fea r of jeopa r dizin g t h e ben efit s a ssocia t ed- wit h t h eir Wh it e h er it a ge. Toler - a n ce for m u la t t oes wa s so gr ea t in som e pa r t s of t h e lower Sou t h t h a t

t h ey wer e a ble t o est a blish t h em selves a s a sepa r a t e elit e. In Lou isia n a , m u la t t oes a m a ssed la r ge est a t es a n d sla ves t o wor k t h eir pr oper t ies, edu -

ca t ed t h eir ch ildr en a br oa d, a n d developed t h eir own elega n t , cu lt u r a l t r a dit ion s. La beled "Cr eoles," t h ese h igh ly su ccessfu l m u la t t oes k ept t h eir socia l dist a n ce fr om bot h wh it es a n d bla ck s by a dopt in g a n or m

of en doga m y, or in -m a m a ge.

By t h e 18505, t h e in du st r ia l r evolu t ion h a d t r a n sfor m ed t h e t ext ile in du st r y, a n d t h e dem a n d, for cot t on h a d gr own dr a m a t ica lly. Sou t h er n pla n t er s n eeded a gr owin g n u m ber of sla ves, a n d t h e pr opor t ion ofm u - la t t oes in bon da ge in cr ea .sed. As t h e sla ve popu la t ion beca m e ligh t er , t h e fr ee m u -la t t o popu la t ion seem ed in cr ea sin gly a n om a lou s a n d da n ger -

ou s. Gr a n d ju r ies wer e con ven ed t o iden t ify t h e h a za r ds a ssocia t ed wit h fr ee m u la t t oes. As on e ju r y con clu ded, "We sh ou ld h a ve bu t t wo cla sses,

t h e Ma st er a n d t h e sla ve, a n d n o in t er m edia t e cla ss ca n be ot h er t h a n

im m en sely m isch ievou s t o ou r pecu lia r in st it u t ion ."3 Wh en t h e lower

Sou t h fou n d it n ecessa r y t o r igidit y r a cia l bou n da r ies, it followed t h e lea d set in t h e u pper Sou t h . St a t es pu n ish ed in t er r a cia l sexu a l con t a ct s, en cou r a ged, fr ee people of color (of wh om 7^ per cen t wer e m u la t t o) t o lea ve t h e ju r isdict ion , a n d a dopt ed a on e-dr op r u le t h a t den ied t h e r ele- va n ce of m ixed-r a ce or igin s a lt oget h er . Viglla n t es r ein for ced t h ese lega l ch a n ges by pu n ish in g t h ose wh o h a d in t er r a cia l sex a n d by t h r ea t en in g fr ee people of color wit h violen ce.

25

26 CH AP TE R TWO

Alt h ou gh t h e on e-dr op r u le h a d been con solida t ed in t h e Sou t h befor e t h e Civil Wa r , t h e wa r a n d it s a ft er m a t h t h r ea t en ed t o u n do r a cia l bou n da r ies. N ot h in g wa s bet t er ca lcu la t ed t h a n t h e pr ospect of in t er - r a cia l sex a n d m a r r ia ge t o st ir u p fea r s t h a t t h e color lin e wa s cr u m blin g com plet ely. F or t h is r ea son , wh en ca llin g for em a n cipa t ion , or t h odox a bolit ion ist s sh u n n ed t h e issu e of sex a n d m a r r ia ge a cr oss r a cia l bou n d- a r ies. In deed, wh en fr eet h in k er F r a n cis Wr igh t est a blish ed a n in t er r a cia l

com m u n it y a n d ca lled for a m a lga m a t ion of t h e r a ces, sh e wa s pr om pt ly du bbed t h e pr iest ess of Beelzebu b" a n d dr opped by m a in st r ea m a boli- t ion ist s wh o fea r ed h er r a dica lism wou ld h u r t t h e m ovem en t .3 Sim ila r ly, a ft er t h e wa r , m ost Recon st r u ct ion effor t s focu sed on "polit ica l" equ a lit y,

su ch a s t h e r igh t t o vot e, sit on ju r ies, a n d h old office. Repu blica n r e- for m er s deflect ed con cer n s t h a t polit ica l equ a lit y wou ld lea d t o "socia l"

equ a lit y, a s t ypified by r a ce-m ixin g in in t egr a t ed com m u n it ies. Wh en sou t h er n Dem ocr a t s coin ed t h e t er m m iscegen a t ion t o r idicu le t h e qu est for r a cia l equ a lit y du r in g Recon st r u ct ion , Repu blica n s ch ided t h eir op- pon en t s for im plyin g t h a t cr oss-r a cia l sexu a l lia ison s wer e even t em pt -

in g.37 Th e dist in ct ion bet ween polit ica l a n d socia l equ a lit y m a de clea r t h a t t h e r a ces wou ld r em a in sepa r a t e a n d dist in ct . Bla ck s wou ld be for - m a lly r eh a bilit a t ed a s fu ll per son s befor e t h e la w, bu t t h ey wou ld r em a in su bor din a t e in in for m a l a n d- in t im a t e sph er es of life.

Alt h ou gh a few sou t h er n st a t es did elim in a t e a n u m iscegen a t ion la ws a ft er t h e Civil Wa r , bla ck -wh it e in t er m a r r ia ge dr opped sh a r ply. Th e declin e is pa r t icu la r ly st r ik in g beca u se of t h e st r on g in cen t ives for wh it e wom en t o cr oss t h e color lin e. Th e r a n k s of wh it e m a les h a d been ded- m a t ed by t h e bloody con flict , a n d bla ck m en en joyed- n ewfou n d st a t u s a n d fr eedom of m ovem en t . Yet on ly in pla ces wit h a pa r t icu la r ly liber a l view of r a ce r ela t ion s lik e N ew Or lea n s did som e wh it e wom en becom e

in volved wit h bla ck m en .38 P r esu m a bly, t h e h a r sh pr essu r es of pu blic opin ion pr even t ed wh it e wom en a n d bla ck m en fr om cr ossin g t h e color lin e. Ma n y wh it e sou t h er n er s bla m ed t h eir defea t on t h e cor r u pt in g in - flu en ce ofm iscegen a t ion :

It does seem st r a n ge t h a t so lovely a clim a t e, a n d cou n t r y, wit h a people

in ever y wa y su per ior t o t h e Ya n k ees, sh ou ld be over r u n a n d dest r oyed

by t h em . Bu t I believe t h a t God h a s or der ed it a ll, a n d I a m fir m ly of t h e opin ion . . . t h a t it is t h e J u dgem en t of t h e Alm igh t y beca u se t h e

h u m a n a n d br u t e blood h a ve m in gled t o t h e degr ee it h a s in t h e sla ve

st a t es. Wa s it n ot so in t h e F r en ch a n d Br it ish Isla n ds a n d see wh a t h a s

becom e of t h em .

AN TIMISCE GE N ATION LAVS AN D RACIAL BOU N DARIE S 2/

To pr even t fu r t h er t r a n sgr ession s, self-a ppoin t ed vigila n t e gr ou ps de-

liver ed swift a n d t er r ible pu n ish m en t t o bla ck m en su spect ed of con - sor t in g wit h wh it e wom en . Th e Ku Klu x Kla n for m ed a t a bou t t h is t im e, a n d it som et im es lyn ch ed fr eedm en pr om in en t in Recon st r u ct ion

polit ics u n der t h e gu ise of r et r ibu t ion for t h e m ist r ea t m en t of wh it e wom en .40 Th r ou gh t h is cla n dest in e a t t a ck on in t er r a cia l r ela t ion s, wh it es wer e a ble t o sen d a clea r m essa ge t h a t polit ica l equ a lit y wou ld n ot dis- m a n t le t h e color lin e. Rest r ict ion s on sex, m a r r ia ge, a n d fa m ily wou ld con t in u e t o be a cor n er st on e in defin in g r a cia l difF er en ce.

Alt h ou gh bla ck m en su spect ed of h a vin g sex wit h wh it e wom en cou ld be lyn ch ed,41 bla ck wom en wer e u n a ble t o fen d ofF t h e a dva n ces of wh it e m en . Ir on ica lly, on ce sla ver y en ded, bla ck a n d m u la t t o wom en fou n d

it m or e difficu lt t h a n du r in g t h e a n t ebellu m per iod t o lim it t h eir sexu a l a va ila bilit y t o on ly on e wh it e m a le. As a r esu lt , t h e n u m ber of m u la t t o offspr in g in cr ea sed a ft er em a n cipa t ion . Recon st r u ct ion legisla t or s did t r y t o pr ot ect bla ck a n d m u la t t o wom en fr om sexu a l exploit a t ion . E ffor t s t o ou t la w con cu bin a ge fa iled-, bu t som e st a t es a dopt ed ba st a r dy st a t u t es

t h a t en a bled bla ck a n d m u la t t o wom en t o file pa t er n it y su it s so t h a t wh it e m en wou ld be for ced t o su ppor t t h eir illegit im a t e m u la t t o ch il- dr en . Th ese ba st a r dy st a t u t es even t u a lly wer e r epea led.

E ven t h ou gh in t er r a cia l m a r r ia ges wer e exceedin gly r a r e du r in g Re- con st r u ct ion , wh it e sou t h er n m a les pr om pt ly r ein st a t ed a n t im iscegen a -

t ion la ws wh en t h ey r ega in ed con t r ol of st a t e legisla t u r es in t h e post - Recon st r u ct ion er a . Wit h t h e on e-dr op r u le of r a cia l cla ssifica t ion in pla ce,43 t h e color lin e cou ld on ce a ga in be officia lly con solida t ed by r egu - la t in g sex a n d m a r r ia ge. U n der t h is r egim e, a n t im iscegen a r "- 1""T" '""

ca m e cr it ica l t o con ser vin g t h e in t egr it y a n d pu r it y of t h e Wit h ou t t h ese pr oh ibit ion s, bla ck s cou ld ga in a ccess t o v a n d pr ivilege t h r ou gh m a r r ia ge. Aft er a ll, in bla ck —wh it e m diiid^ a , Lii*.

on e-dr op r u le dict a t ed- t h a t t h e h eir s t o wh it e for t u n es wou ld be bla ck . In t er r a cia l sexu a lit y ou t side of m a r r ia ge beca m e a m ea n s ofest a blish -

in g r a cia l power a n d dom in a t ion . Wh it e m en cou ld en joy t h e sexu a l fa vor s of bla ck wom en wit h im pu n it y, bu t bla ck m en wou ld pa y wit h t h eir lives for sexu a l con t a ct wit h wh it e wom en . Wh en wh it e m en im -

pr egn a t ed. bla ck wom en , t h e offspr in g wer e illegit im a t e a n d- gen er a lly cou ld n ot even seek su ppor t fr om t h eir fa t h er s. Th e ch ildr en of t h ese bla ck -wh k e r ela t ion sh ips t h r ea t en ed n eit h er wh it e iden t it y n or pr ivi- lege. By con t r a st , if bla ck m en h a d a du lt er ou s r ela t ion s wit h m a r r ied. wh it e wom en , a n y r esu lt in g ofi~spr in .g t h r ea t en ed t h e r a cia l in t egr it y of

28 CH AP TE R TWO

wh it e m en 's fa m ilies. Aft er Recon st r u ct ion , t h en , a n t im iscegen a don la ws

r ea ffir m ed a n t ebellu m defin it ion s of r a cia l iden t it y a n d r ea sser t ed t h e su per ior it y of wh it es a s m a r it a l pa r t n er s. Wh it e m en expr essed t h eir sex- u a l dom in a n ce by policin g a ccess t o wh it e wom en a n d en joyin g t h e fa - vor s of bla ck wom en wit h ou t obliga t ion s of m a r r ia ge or su ppor t .

Th e Ch in ese a n d J a pa n ese E xper ien ce: Ra cia l U n a ssim ila bilit y a n d Sexu a l Su bor din a t ion

Alt h ou gh a n t im iscegen a t ion la ws wer e u sed t o dr a w r a cia l bou n da r ies bet ween wh it es a n d bla ck s du r in g t h e colon ia l er a a n d ea r ly yea r s of n a t ion h ood, t h e color lin e wa s well-est a blish ed by t h e t im e Ch in ese a n d J a pa n ese bega n t o im m igr a r e t o t h e U n it ed St a t es in su bst a n t ia l n u m ber s du r in g t h e m id- t o la t e i8oos. Defin it ion s of bla ck n ess evolved t h r ou gh st a t e legisla t ion , bu t for Asia n s, feder a l im m igr a t ion la w m a de t h eir st a t u s a s n on wh lt e wh olly u n a m bigu ou s. Mu ch of t h e r a cia llza t lon of Asia n s t ook pla ce a s su ccessive wa ves of im m igr a n t s wer e la beled n on wh it e,

u n a ssim ila ble, a n d u n fit for cit izen sh ip. Th e Ch in ese wer e t h e fir st t o a r r ive, com in g in su bst a n t ia l n u m ber s a ft er 1848 wh en gold wa s discov- er ed in Ca lifor n ia . E a r ly on , t h e U .S. gover n m en t m a de pla in t h a t t h e Ch in ese wer e n ot wh it e. U n der a 1790 n a t u r a liza t ion la w, on ly "fr ee

wh it e per son s" wer e eligible for cit izen sh ip. Wh en Ch a n Yon g a pplied for cit izen sh ip in 18^ 4, a feder a l dist r ict cou r t den ied h is a pplica t ion

beca u se h e did n ot qu a lify a s wh it e, a lt h ou gh n ewspa per a ccou n t s a t t h e t im e st a t ed t h a t h e wa s ligh t er -sk in n ed t h a n m ost Ch in ese.

Aft er t h e Civil Wa r , r a ce r ela t ion s in Am er ica wer e con t est ed. Con -

gr ess a m en ded t h e n a t u r a liza t ion la w t o per m it a lien s of Afr ica n n a dv- it y a n d per son s of Afr ica n descen t " t o pet it ion for cit izen sh ip. Wh en t h e n a t u r a liza t ion la w wa s codified in 1875, t h e r efer en ce t o "fr ee wh it e per son wa s dr opped, lea vin g open t h e possibilit y t h a t t h e Ch in ese cou ld. n a t u r a lize. Ch in ese im m igr a n t s qu ick ly ca pit a lized on t h e st a t u t or y u n - cer t a in t y by filin g pet it ion s for n a t u r a liza t ion In Sa n F r a n cisco. Sh or t ly t h er ea ft er , a feder a l cou r t m a de clea r t h a t a s n on wh it es, Ch in ese im m i-

gr a n t s con t in u ed t o be in eligible for cit izen sh ip. 9

A few yea r s la t er , t h e feder a l gover n m en t wen t even fu r t h er in defin in g t h e Ch in ese a s u n desir a ble n on wh it e a lien s. In 1882, by a n over wh elm in g m a r gin , Con gr ess pa ssed t h e Ch in ese E xclu sion Act , t h e fir st st a t u t e t o ba n a gr ou p fr om im m igr a t in g t o t h e U n it ed- St a t es ba sed solely on r a ce or et h n icit y. Th e Act pr oh ibit ed a n y Ch in ese la bor er or m in er fr om

AN TIMISCE GE N ATION LAWS AN D RACIAL BOU N DARIE S 2<)

en t er in g t h e U n it ed St a t es, a n d it ba r r ed a n y st a t e or feder a l cou r t fr om n a t u r a lizin g a n y Ch in ese. Aft er pa ssa ge of t h e Act , t h e Ch in ese popu la - t ion in t h e U n it ed St a t es declin ed pr ecipit ou sly. P er iodica lly r en ewed a n d st r en gt h en ed by Con gr ess,52 t h e la w r em a in ed in for ce u n t il 1952 wh en t h e McCa r r a n -Wa k er Act n u llified r a cia l r est r ict ion s a n d su bst i- t u t ed a qu ot a syst em for im m igr a t ion ba sed on n a t ion a l or igin .

Th e J a pa n ese bega n t o a r r ive in t h e U n it ed St a t es a bou t t wen t y yea r s a ft er t h e Ch in ese. Most J a pa n ese em igr a t ed t o H a wa ii t o wor k in t h e su ga r in du st r y, a n d t h eir n u m ber s wer e sm a ll beca u se of r est r ict ive J a pa - n ese em igr a t ion policies. Aft er 1890, t wo im por t a n t ch a n ges in J a pa n ese im m igr a t ion occu r r ed. F ir st , t h e n u m ber of Im m igr a n t s in cr ea sed su b-

st a n t ia lly so t h a t by 1910, t h e J a pa n ese ou t n u m ber ed t h e Ch in ese; a n d secon d, J a pa n ese im m igr a n t s bega n t o a r r ive in t h e west er n con t in en t a l

U n it ed St a t es, pa r t icu la r ly Ca lifor n ia , t o r epla ce t h e dwin dlin g n u m ber s of Ch in ese la bor er s a n d t o esca pe low wa ges a n d poor wor k in g con dl- t ion s in H a wa ii.5 H a vin g obser ved t h e m ist r ea t m en t of t h e Ch in ese,

t h e J a pa n ese st r u ggled t o a void occu pyin g t h e sa m e pla ce in t h e r a cia l h ier a r ch y by dist in gu ish in g t h em selves fr om t h e Ch in ese u n der feder a l

n a t u r a liza t ion policy. Alt h ou gh t h e 1790 la w per m it t ed on ly wh it es t o becom e cit izen s, t h e Ch in ese E xclu sion Act of 1882 wit h h eld t h e pr ivilege of n a t u r a liza t ion on ly fr om t h e Ch in ese. Sever a l h u n dr ed J a pa n ese su c-

cessfu lly pet it ion ed for cit izen sh ip in lower feder a l cou r t s on t h e gr ou n d t h a t t h ey wer e n ot cover ed by legisla t ion t a r get in g t h e Ch in ese. Th e feder a l gover n m en t soon m oved t o cla r ify t h e st a t u s of t h e J a pa n ese a s n on wh lt e. In 190$, t h e U .S. a t t or n ey gen er a l in for m ed P r esiden t Th eo-

dor e Roosevelt t h a t t h e J a pa n ese wer e a n d a lwa ys h a d been in eligible for n a t u r a liza t ion ba sed on t h eir r a ce. On e yea r la t er , t h e a t t or n ey gen er a l

issu ed a for m a l opin ion t o t h a t effect .57 Despit e t h is set ba ck , t h e J a pa n ese con t in u ed t o t r y t o win fa vor a ble

t r ea t m en t u n der im m igr a t ion la ws by h igh ligh t in g t h eir ca pa cit y t o a s- sim ila t e t o a n Am er ica n wa y of life. In a . 1922 ca se, Ta k a o Oza wa a sk ed

t h a t h is pet it ion for n a t u r a liza t ion be gr a n t ed beca u se t h e wor d fr ee wa s m or e im por t a n t t h a n t h e wor d wh it e in det er m in in g eligibilit y of fr ee wh it e per son s" for cit izen sh ip. Oza wa in sist ed t h a t even t h ou gh h e wa s n on wh lt e, h e sh ou ld be a llowed t o n a t u r a lize beca u se h e cou ld su c- cessfu lly sh ou lder t h e r espon sibilit ies of dem ocr a t ic fr eedom .58 Despit e Oza wa 's pr oofs of good m or a l ch a r a ct er a n d in dividu a l a ccom plish m en t , t h e U .S. Su pr em e Cou r t den ied. h is eligibilit y for cit izen sh ip. Accor din g t o t h e Cou r t , Oza wa -'s st a t u s a s n on wh k e ba r r ed h im fr om n a t u r a liza t ion ,

r ega r dless of h is a bilit y co con for m t o a n Am er ica n wa y of life. Ra ce

30 CH AP TE R TWO

wa s a ca t egor ica l st igm a , on e t h a t did n ot per m it in dividu a ls t o esca pe t h r ou gh a ccu lt u r a t ion a n d a ch ievem en t .

Th e feder a l gover n m en t 's t r ea t m en t of im m igr a n t s fr om In dia ce-

m er it ed t h e r a cia liza r ion of Asia n s. U n lik e t h e Ch in ese a n d J a pa n ese, Asia n In dia n s wer e t r ea t ed a s Ca u ca sla n u n der t h e pr eva ilin g scien t ific t a xon om y. E ven so, t h e U .S. a t t or n ey gen er a l r efu sed t o fin d t h a t Asia n

In dia n s qu a lified a s "fr ee wh it e per son s," bu t sever a l feder a l dist r ict cou r t s r ea ch ed a dlfF er en t con clu sion . To r em edy t h e con fu sion , t h e

U .S. Su pr em e Cou r t m a de clea r in it s 1923 decision in U n it ed St a t es v. Th in d 3 t h a t Asia n In dia n s wer e in eligible for cit izen sh ip beca u se t h ey wer e n on wh it e. Accor din g t o Th in d, Con gr ess u sed t h e t er m wh it e r a t h er t h a n Ca u ca sia n beca u se it wa s r elyin g on popu la r , n ot scien t ific, con cep-

t ion s of r a ce. As t h e Cou r t expla in ed: "It m a y be t r u e t h a t t h e blon d Sca n din a via n a n d t h e br own H in du h a ve a com m on a n cest or in t h e dim

r ea ch es of a n t iqu it y, bu t t h e a ver a ge m a n k n ows per fect ly well t h a t t h er e a r e u n m ist a lca ble a n d pr ofou n d differ en ces bet ween t h em t oda y. . . ."64

J u st a s per son a l a ccom plish m en t s cou ld n ot sa ve t h e J a pa n ese, scien ce

cou ld n ot sa ve t h e Asia n In dia n fr om r a cia liza t ion . All Asia n s—wh et h er

Ch in ese, J a pa n ese, or Asia n In dia n —h a d been defin it ively ca t egor ized a s n on wh it e. An y cla im s of r a cia l a m bigu it y wer e decisively la id t o r est by Con gr ess, t h e a t t or n ey gen er a l, a n d t h e Su pr em e Cou r t .

By la belin g Asia n im m igr a n t s u n a ssim lla ble a n d u n fit for cit izen sh ip, t h e feder a l gover n m en t m a d-e t h em ea sy t a r get s for r a cia l discr im in a t ion in t h e west er n st a t es wh er e t h ey set t led. Ba n s on in t er m a r r ia ge wer e on e

of a n u m ber of st a t e r est r ict ion s on Asia n im m igr a n t s' liber t ies, a ll of wh ich wer e design ed t o m a r k t h em a s in fer ior a n d u n desir a ble. Wit h t h e color lin e clea r ly dr a wn by feder a l im m igr a t ion la ws, t h e st a t u t es r ein for ced t h e t em por a r y st a t u s of Asia n sojou r n er s, wh o ca m e t o t h e

U n it ed St a t es t o wor k a n d t h en r et u r n t o t h eir h om e cou n t r ies. An t i-

m iscegen a t ion la ws m a r k ed t h e n ewcom er s' m a r gin a l a n d su bor din a t e

st a t u s, pr even t ed t h em fr om developin g per m a n en t t ies t o Am er ica t h r ou gh m a r r ia ge a n d fa m ily, a n d sever ely r est r ict ed sexu a l opt ion s for Asia n m en in ba ch elor com m u n it ies.

Th e r a cia lized im a ger y t h a t in for m ed- feder a l im m igr a t ion policy dom in a t ed deba t es a bou t t h e per son h ood of Asia n s. P opu la r a ccou n t s a n a logized t h e Ch in ese t o bla ck s beca u se of t h eir willin gn ess t o wor k in con dit ion s a k in t o sla ver y, t h eir in ca pa cit y t o h a n dle fr eedom , a n d t h eir dist in ct ive ph ysica l a ppea r a n ce. 5 On e polit icia n com pa r ed t h e Ch in ese t o N a t ive Am er ica n s a n d r ecom m en ded t h eir r em ova l t o r eser va t ion s.

Th ese r a cia l im a ges in t u r n wer e lin k ed- t o a degr a ded sexu a lit y. On e

r AN TIMISCE GE N ATION LAWS AN D RACIAL BOU N DARIE S ^ 1Ca lifor n ia m a ga zin e con fir m ed t h e depr a vit y of Ch in ese wom en by n ot - in g t h a t t h eir ph ysica l a ppea r a n ce wa s "bu t a sligh t r em ova l fr om t h e Afr ica n r a ce."67 As ea r ly a s 1854, t h e N ew Yor k Tr ibu n e ch a r a ct er ized t h e Ch in ese a s "lu st fu l a n d sen su a l in t h eir disposit ion s; ever y fem a le is a pr ost it u t e of t h e ba sest or der ."68 Ot h er jou r n a ls cla im ed t h a t deba u ch ed

Ch in ese m a les wen t t o Su n da y sch ool on ly t o r a va ge wh it e fem a le t ea ch - er s. Rea der s wer e wa r n ed t h a t Ch in ese m en cou ld n ot be left a lon e wit h

ch ildr en , especia lly lit t le gir ls. Sexu a l a n xiet ies a bou t t h e Ch in ese wer e exa cer ba t ed by r eligiou s differ en ces, a s Ch r ist ia n m ission a r ies sou gh t t o pr oselyt ize a people ch a r a ct er ized a s ba se a n d lech er ou s pa ga n s.

Ca lifor n ia 's la ws wer e pa r t icu la r ly im por t a n t beca u se so m a n y Asia n

im m igr a n t s r esided t h er e. Du r in g t h e con ven t ion t o dr a ft t h e 1879 Ca li- for n la con st it u t ion , t h e ch a ir m a n of t h e Com m it t ee on t h e Ch in ese wa r n ed: "Wer e t h e Ch in ese t o a m a lga m a t e a t a ll wit h ou r people, it wou ld- be t h e lowest , m ost vile a n d degr a ded of ou r r a ce, a n d t h e r esu lt

of t h a t a m a lga m a t ion wou ld be a h ybr id of t h e m ost despica ble, a m on - gr el of t h e m ost det est a ble t h a t h a s ever a fflict ed t h e ea r t h ."7 To a ddr ess t h ese con cer n s, t h e delega t es pr oposed a n 1878 con st it u t ion a l a m en d-

m en t t o r est r ict in t er m a r r ia ge of Ch in ese a n d wh it es: Th e In t er m a .r r ia ge of wh it e per son s wit h Ch in ese, n egr oes, m u la t t oes, or per son s of m ixed

blood, descen ded fr om a Ch in a m a n or n egr o fr om t h e t h ir d gen er a t ion , in clu sive, or t h eir livin g t oget h er a s m a n a n d wife in t h is St a t e, is h er eby pr oh ibit ed. Th e Legisla t u r e sh a ll en for ce t h is sect ion by a ppr opr ia t e leg- isla t ion ."71 Th e Ca lifor n ia elect or a t e r a t ified t h e pr ovision t h e followin g

yea r , a n d t h e Ca lifor n ia legisla t u r e qu ick ly m oved t o en a ct a n t im iscege- n a t ion st a t u t es. Th e Ca lifor n ia Civil Code wa s a m en ded in 1880 t o pr o- h ibit t h e issu a n ce of m a r r ia ge licen ses a u t h or izin g t h e u n ion of "a wh it e per son wit h a n egr o, m u la t t o, or Mon golla n ."

Alt h ou gh levels of in t er r a cia l sex a n d m a r r ia ge a m on g wh it es a n d- Ch i- n ese wer e qu it e low, t h e Ca lifor n ia legisla t u r e cr im in a lized Ch in ese— wh it e in t er m a r r ia ge in i90i.73 Th a t sa m e yea r , t h e legisla t ion wa s h eld u n con st it u t ion a l ba sed on a pr ocedu r a l defect .7 Ca lifor n ia did n ot r e- en a ct t h e st a t u t e u n t il 190^ , pr im a r ily in r espon se t o in t en sified con cer n s a bou t a m a lga m a t ion wit h a . n ew gr ou p of Asia n im m igr a n t s, t h e J a pa -

75 As wit h t h e Ch in ese, Am er ica n s fea r ed wh a t t h ey pr esu m ed t on ese.' be J a pa n ese im m igr a n t s' a lien r a cia l iden t it y a n d u n br idled sexu a l 1m -

pu lses. Wh en t h e J a pa n ese gover n m en t su ccessfu lly lobbied for It s n a - don a ls t o be exem pt ed fr om la ws t h a t . segr ega t ed t h e Ch in ese, polit ica l lea der s wa r n ed of t h e da n ger s of wh it e gir ls "sit t in g side by side in t h e sch ool r oom s wit h m a t u r ed J a ps, wit h t h eir ba se m in ds, t h eir la sciviou s

32 CH AP TE R TWO

t h ou gh t s, m u lt iplied by t h eir r a ce a n d st r en gt h en ed by t h eir m ode of life."76 Ca lifor n ia 's 1905 a n t im iscegen a t ion la w r eflect ed fea r s of bot h r a cia l differ en ce a n d sexu a l devia n ce. Th e st a t u t e a ddr essed- eu gen lc con -

cer n s t h a t Asia n im m igr a n t s wer e a t h r ea t t o t h e "self-pr eser r a r ion of [t h e

wh it e] r a ce"77 a s well a s a n xiet ies a bou t t h e la wless sexu a lit y of J a pa n ese im m igr a n t s.

E ven wit h st a t e a n t im iscegen a r ion la ws in pla ce, con cer n s a bou t Asia n

in t er m a r r ia ge per sist ed. In 1907, Con gr ess h a d pa ssed a n E xpa t r ia t ion Act ,79 wh ich st r ipped Am er ica n wom en of t h eir cit izen sh ip if t h ey m a r - r ied for eign n a t ion a ls. In 1922, in r espon se t o pr ot est s fr om wom en 's

gr ou ps. Con gr ess pa ssed- t h e Ca ble Act . In gen er a l, t h e Act did a wa y wit h t h e pr a ct ice of t r ea t in g a wom a n 's n a t ion a lit y a s der iva t ive of h er h u sba n d's, t h er eby a ssu r in g a wife t h e fr eedom t o ch oose h er own a lle- gla n ce. In t h e a r ea of r a ce, t h ou gh , wom en wh o cr ossed t h e color lin e

t o m a r r y Asia n im m igr a n t s r em a in ed disem power ed. Th e Ca ble Act con - t in u ed t o st r ip Am er ica n wom en of t h eir cit izen sh ip if t h ey m a r r ied a lien s in eligible t o n a t u r a lize. Th e m a r it a l a u t on om y of wh it e wom en wa s sa cr ificed t o pr eser ve r a cia l dist in ct ion s.

Mor eover , t h e Ca ble Act m a de it m or e difficu lt t h a n befor e fofAm er i-

ca n m en , u su a lly n a .r ive-bor n Ch in ese, t o br in g t h eir wives fr om Ch in a .

Beca u se a wom a n s n a t ion a l^ wa s n ow in depen den t of h er h u sba n d's,

t h e U .S. Su pr em e Cou r t in t er pr et ed t h e Act a s ba r r in g Ch in ese wom en fr om en t er in g t h e cou n t r y ba sed on m a r r ia ge t o a n Am er ica n cit izen .

P r eviou sly, t h e wom en h a d been a ble t o com e t o t h e U n it ed St a t es bu t n ot n a t u r a lize. Th ese pr ovision s r em a in ed in effect for t en yea r s.80 U n -

a ble t o br in g wives fr om Ch in a a n d ba r r ed by a n t im iscegen a t ion la ws fr om m a r r yin g wh it e wom en , even Am er ica n -bor n Ch in ese h a d lim it ed m a r it a l opt ion s. Cit izen sh ip by bir t h did n ot spa r e t h em fr om t h e a dver se con sequ en ces of r a cia l differ en ce.

Rest r ict ive im m igr a t ion policies a n d st a t e ba n s on in t er m a r r ia ge h a d pa r t icu la r ly h a r sh con sequ en ces for t h e Ch in ese, wh o wer e den ied a ccess t o wives of a n y r a ce. F eder a l policy t r ea t ed t h e Ch in ese a s sojou r n er s- t em por a r y m a le wor k er s wh o wou ld even t u a lly r et u r n t o t h eir h om e-

la n ds a ft er fu lfillin g t h eir la bor con t r a ct s. P oor , u n a ble t o spea k E n glish , a n d u n fa m ilia r wit h Am er ica n cu st om s, Ch in ese im m igr a n t s wer e 111- equ ipped t o ch a llen ge t h eir isola t ion . Ma n y of t h em cou ld n ot even a ffor d t h eir wives' a ddidon a l pa ssa ge. Th ese obst a cles wer e com pou n ded by cu lt u r a l t r a dit ion , wh ich dict a t ed t h a t Ch in ese wom en join t h eir h u s- ba n ds' ext en ded fa m ilies. Th is pr a ct ice cem en t ed t h e fa m ily's expect a -

AN TIMISCE GE N ATION LAWS AN D RACIAL BOU N DARIE S }3

t ion t h a t t h e m en wou ld r et u r n som eda y a n d sen d r em it t a n ces in t h e

m ea n t im e.'

Given t h is com bin a t ion of feder a l policy, lim it ed r esou r ces, a n d cu l- r u r a l t r a dit ion s, t h e n u m ber of Ch in ese wom en com in g t o t h e U n it ed St a t es du r in g t h e 18005 wa s m in u scu le. In 1852, of 11,794 Ch in ese, on ly 7 wer e fem a le. By 1870, Ch in ese m en ou t n u m ber ed Ch in ese wom en

in t h e U n it ed St a t es by 14 t o I. Th ese sever e im ba la n ces in t u r n led t o im a ges of sexu a l depr iva t ion a n d degr a da t ion . Men livin g wit h ou t wom en in ba ch elor com m u n it ies seem ed devia n t a n d da n ger ou s. Th e

few Ch in ese wom en in t h e U n it ed St a t es wer e vu ln er a ble t o sexu a l ex-

ploit a t ion , wh ich r ein for ced t h e im a ge of sojou r n er s a s pr eda t or y a n d deba u ch ed. Accor din g t o t h e 1870 cen su s, 61 per cen t of Ch in ese wom en wer e "pr ost it u t es," wh ile on ly 21 per cen t wer e "h ou sek eeper s.' Ch in ese

wom en r egu la r ly wor k ed in t h e sex t r a de a ft er h a vin g been lu r ed t o t h e U n it ed St a t es wit h pr om ises of m a r r ia ge, a bdu ct ed, or sold in t o in den - t u r ed ser vit u de by n eedy fa m ilies.

An dm iscegen a t ion la ws a r gu a bly pla yed a m or e sign ifica n t r ole in sen din g m essa ges of r a cia l in fer ior it y t h a n in t h wa r t in g in t er r a cia l r ela - t ion sh ips. An xiet ies a bou t lu st fu l Ch in ese ba ch elor s h a r m in g wh it e wom en a ppea r t o h a ve been la r gely u n fou n ded. Alt h ou gh in t er r a cia l sex bet ween bla ck s a n d wh it es r em a in ed r ela t ively com m on pla ce even u n der a n t im iscegen a t ion la ws, Ch in ese m en wer e u n lik ely t o cr oss t h e color

lin e t o coh a bit a n d pr ocr ea t e wit h wh it e wom en . Du r in g t h e ea r ly de- ca des of Ch in ese m igr a t ion , on ly t h e m ost a fflu en t a n d power fu l Ch in ese m igh t da r e t o t a k e a wh it e wife or m ist r ess. Th e lin gu ist ic a n d cu lt u r a l isola t ion of t h e Ch in ese, t h eir segr ega t ion in im m igr a n t en cla ves, a n d t h eir vu ln er a bilit y t o depor t a t ion —a ll of t h ese fa ct or s u n dou bt edly m a de a ffa ir s wit h wh it e wom en a n u n lik ely pr ospect , a n d- Ch in ese m en fr equ en t ly r em a in ed ch ildless ba ch elor s. In deed, even a s la t e a s t h e 19205 a n d 19305, m a n y Ch in ese m en ch ose t o r em a in sin gle r a t h er t h a n in t er -

m a r r y. Accor din g t o Los An geles Cou n t y m a r r ia ge r ecor ds for 1924- 1933, of t h e Ch in ese wh o m a r r ied, on ly 23.7 per cen t h a d a n on -Ch in ese spou se. Given t h a t t h er e wer e n in e Ch in ese m en for ever y t wo Ch in ese wom en a t t h e t im e, t h e m a jor it y of Ch in ese m en m u st h a ve r em a in ed a lon e.84 Alt h ou gh t h er e is lit t le eviden ce t h a t t h e Ch in ese pu r su ed wh it e wom en for sex a n d m a r r ia ge, west er n st a t es con t in u ed t o t h r ea t en t h e

im m igr a n t s wit h cr im in a l pr osecu t ion u n der a n t im lscegen a cion la ws. F a r fr om a llevia t in g t h e pr oblem s of ba ch elor com m u n it ies. Con gr ess

con sist en t ly en a ct ed im m igr a t ion policies t h a t wor sen ed t h e gen der im -

34 CH AP TE R TWO

ba la n ces. In 1875, t h e P a ge La w ba r r ed Ch in ese pr ost it u t es fr om en t er in g t h e cou n t r y. Tou gh , in t er r oga t ion t ech n iqu es wer e u sed t o en for ce t h e

ba n . In fa ct , t h e la w wa s so in t im ida t in g t h a t t h e n u m ber of Ch in ese wom en com in g t o t h e U n it ed St a t es dr opped by 68 per cen t bet ween 1876 a n d 1882." Sh or t ly a ft er t h e Ch in ese E xclu sion Act wa s pa ssed, a feder a l cou r t in 1844 h eld t h a t Ch in ese wom en a ssu m ed t h e st a t u s of t h eir la bor er h u sba n ds a n d wer e ba r r ed fr om en t r y. On ly t h e wives of la wfu lly dom iciled m er ch a n t s cou ld en t er t h e U n it ed St a t es.86 Im m lgr a -

t ion la ws wer e so efF ecdve in det er r in g fa m ily cr ea t ion t h a t , m 1890, on ly 8.7 per cen t of t h e Ch in ese in t h e U n it ed St a t es wer e n a t ive bor n .87 Rest r ict ive im m igr a t ion policies cou pled wit h a n dm iscegen a t lon la ws con fir m ed t h e sojou r n er 's st a t u s a s a deh u m a n ized a n d degr a ded la bor er : P er m it t ed n eit h er t o pr ocr ea t e n or t o in t er m a r r y, t h e Ch in ese im m i-

gr a n t wa s t old, in effect , t o r e-em igr a t e, die ou t —wh it e Am er ica wou ld

n ot be t ou ch ed by h is pr esen ce."88

Th e on ly r elief t h a t t h e Ch in ese h a d fr om h a r sh im m igr a t ion policies ca m e wit h t h e 1906 Sa n F r a n cisco ea r t h qu a k e. Beca u se officia l r ecor ds h a d been dest r oyed, Ch in ese m en cla im ed t o be n a t ive-bor n cit izen s wh o cou ld br in g t h eir wives fr om Ch in a t o t h e U n it ed St a t es. Bet ween 1907 a n d 1924, t en t h ou sa n d Ch in ese wom en en t er ed t h e cou n t r y. By con -

t r a st , befor e 1900, on ly sligh t ly m or e t h a n for t y-five h u n dr ed Ch in ese wom en lived in Am er ica .89 Th is looph ole wa s closed in 1924 wh en Con - gr ess r est r ict ed en t r y of Ch in ese wom en t o st u den t s a n d wives ofcler gy- m en , pr ofessor s, a n d gover n m en t officia ls.90 On e yea r la t er , t h e U .S.

Su pr em e Cou r t u ph eld t h e la w, even t h ou gh it ba r r ed n a r ive-bor n Ch l- n ese fr om br in gin g t h eir spou ses t o Am er ica .91 Th e Ch in ese t h em selves felt t h e bit t er st in g of t h e feder a l gover n m en t 's effor t s t o r est r ict fem a le

im m igr a t ion : We wer e begin n in g t o r epopu la t e a lit t le n ow so t h ey pa ssed t h is la w t o m a k e u s die ou t a lt oget h er ."92

In con t r a st t o t h e Ch in ese, J a pa n ese im m igr a n t s wer e a ble t o bu ild sa m e-r a ce fa m ilies in t h e U n it ed St a t es. Alt h ou gh t h e J a pa n ese a lso a r - r ived a s dek a segin in , or "m en wh o go ou t t o wor k ," t h ey soon wer e con -

ver t ed t o t eiju , or "per m a n en t r esiden t s a br oa d."93 Ar r ivin g in Ca lifor n ia in t h e m idst of a n t i-Ch in ese h yst er ia , t h e J a pa n ese qu ick ly con clu ded t h a t sojou r n er st a t u s wou ld su bor din a t e a n d h u m ilia t e t h em . Wit h t h e su ppor t of t h e J a pa n ese gover n m en t , t h e n ewcom er s em ba r k ed on a

st r a t egy of set t lem en t t o en su r e econ om ic in depen den ce, socia l st a n din g,

a n d self-r espect .94 In t egr a l t o t h is st r a t egy wa s t h e im m igr a t ion ofja pa - n ese wom en , wh o cou ld h elp t o bu ild st a ble, self-su fficien t fa m ilies a n d

AN TIMISCE GE N ATION LAWS AN D RACIAL BOU N DARIE S ^

com m u n it ies. Wh en t h e U n it ed St a t es m oved t o r est r ict im m igr a n t la bor fr om J a pa n , a 1908 "Gen t lem a n 's Agr eem en t per m it t ed J a pa n ese r esl-

den t s t o br in g m em ber s of t h eir im m edia t e fa m ily t o t h e U n it ed St a t es.95 Th e a gr eem en t pr ot ect ed t h e J a pa n ese fr om t h e h a r dsh ips of ba ch e- lor com m u n it ies. In 1905—8, i6 per cen t of J a pa n ese im m igr a n t s wer e

wom en , bu t by 1909—14, t h e pr opor t ion exceeded $o per cen t .9 Th e on -

goin g a r r iva l of J a pa n ese wom en r a pidly r ect ified gen der im ba la n ces in t h e im m igr a n t com m u n it y. In 1900, t h er e wer e a lm ost five J a pa n ese m en

for ever y J a pa n ese wom a n . By 1910, t h e r a t io h a d- dr opped t o 3.^ t o i,

a n d by 1920, it wa s on ly 1.6 t o i. Mor eover , n ea r ly ever y a du lt J a pa n ese

fem a le wa s m a r r ied..97

Despit e t h ese im por t a n t differ en ces bet ween t h e Ch in ese a n d J a pa -

n ese im m igr a n t exper ien ces, bot h gr ou ps t r igger ed a n xiet ies a bou t r a ce- m ixin g. F ea r s a ssocia t ed wit h ba ch elor com m u n it ies per sist ed for t h e

Ch in ese, bu t t h e fea r s su r r ou n din g t h e J a pa n ese a r gu a bly sh ou ld h a ve dissipa t ed by t h e 19205. Th e J a pa n ese h a d bu ilt pr osper ou s fa m ilies a n d com m u n it ies in t h e U n it ed St a t es. Ca r efu lly scr een ed by t h e J a pa n ese

gover n m en t , Im m igr a n t s a r r ived wit h h igh er r a t es of lit er a cy a n d m or e m a t er ia l r esou r ces t h a n t h eir cou n t er pa r t s fr om E u r ope. A n u m ber of

J a pa n ese beca m e en t r epr en eu r s, r u n n in g su ccessfu l fa r m s a n d sm a ll bu sl-

n esses. In a ddit ion t o t h eir econ om ic a ccom plish m en t s, J a pa n ese im m i-

gr a n t s wer e a ble t o for ge st a ble, sa m e-r a ce fa m ilies du e t o t h e st ea dy in flu x of wom en fr om t h eir h om e cou n t r y.

Beca u se t h e J a pa n ese r epr esen t ed t h e a n om a ly of n on wh it es wit h m a t er ia l r esou r ces, h owever , t h eir self-con t a in ed com m u n it ies spa r k ed

con flict in g a n xiet ies a bou t t h eir sexu a l a n d- m a r it a l pr oclivides a m on g wh it es. Som e wh it es con clu ded t h a t t h e J a pa n ese set t lem en t s wer e pr oof of t h e im m igr a n t s' u n a ssim ila bilit y a n d ch a u vin ism . As on e wit n ess fr om Ca lifor n ia t est ified befor e t h e Sen a t e Com m it t ee on Im m igr a t ion In

1924:

[W]it h gr ea t pr ide of r a ce, t h ey h a ve n o idea of a ssim ila t in g In t h e sen se

of a m a lga m a t ion . Th ey do n ot com e t o t h is cou n t r y wit h a n y desir e or

in t en t t o lose t h eir r a cia l or n a t ion a l iden t it y. Th ey com e h er e specifica lly

a n d pr ofessedly for t h e pu r pose of colon izin g a n d est a blish in g h er e per m a -

n en t ly t h e pr ou d Ya m a t o r a ce. Th ey n ever cea se t o be J a pa n ese. Th ey

h a ve a s lit t le desir e t o in t er m a r r y a s h a ve t h e wh it es, a n d t h er e ca n be

n o pr oper a m a lga m a t ion , you will a gr ee, wit h ou t in t er m a r r ia ge. In

H a wa ii, wh er e t h er e is ever y in cen t ive for m t er m a r r ia ge, t h e J a pa n ese

h a ve pr eser ved pr a ct ica l r a cia l pu r it y. . . ."

^ 6 CH AP TE R TWO

At t h e sa m e t im e, t h e J a pa n ese im m igr a n t s' a bilit y t o est a blish fa r m s a n d bu sin esses r a ised fea r s t h a t t h ey wou ld t r y t o con ver t t h eir econ om ic su ccess in t o sexu a l a n d m a r it a l pr ivilege. On e fa r m er wor r ied t h a t pr op- er t y a n d wea lt h wou ld lea d J a pa n ese m en t o covet wh it e wives wit h disa st r ou s con sequ en ces:

N ea r m y h om e is a n eigh t y-a cr e t r a ct of a s fin e la n d a s t h er e is in Ca lifor -

n ia . On t h a t t r a ct lives a J a pa n ese. Wit h t h a t J a pa n ese lives a wh it e

wom a n . In t h a t wom a n 's a r m s is a ba by. Wh a t is t h a t ba by? It isn t J a pa -

n ese. It Isn t wh it e. 111 t ell you wh a t t h a t ba by is. It is a ger m of t h e

m igh t iest pr oblem t h a t ever fa ced t h is st a t e; a pr oblem t h a t will m a k e

t h e bla ck pr oblem of t h e Sou t h look wh it e.' °

Con cer n s a bou t t h e J a pa n ese im m igr a n t s sexu a lit y wer e m a gn ified by t h eir in t egr a t ion in t o wh it e sch ools a n d com m u n it ies. An r i-J a pa n ese pr opa ga n da wa r n ed t h a t t h e J a pa n ese wer e "ca st in g fu r t ive gla n ces a t ou r you n g wom en . Th ey wou ld lik e t o m a r r y t h em .

Despit e widespr ea d fea r s t h a t pr osper ou s J a pa n ese m en wou ld pr ey on wh it e wom en , t h e r a t e of ou t m a r r ia ge a m on g fir st -gen er a don J a pa -

n ese, or Issei, wa s qu it e low. Los An geles Cou n t y m a r r ia ge r ecor ds be-

t ween 1924 a n d 1933 in dica t e t h a t of Issei wom en wh o m a r r ied., on ly 1.7 per cen t wed- n on -J a pa n ese m en ; of t h e Issei m en wh o m a r r ied, fewer

t h a n 3 per cen t h a d n on -J a pa n ese br ides. Th is wa s t h e lowest r a t e of

ou t m a r r ia ge for a n y r a cia l gr ou p in t h e a r ea . By com pa r ison , of bla ck s wh o m a r r ied, 11.3 per cen t h a d n on bla ck spou ses, a n d of Ch in ese wh o m a r r ied, 23.7 per cen t wed n on -Ch in ese. N or is t h er e a n y eviden ce

t h a t t h e J a pa n ese r egu la r ly eva ded a n t im iscegen a t ion la ws t h r ou gh ext r a - m a r it a l a ffa ir s wit h wh it es t h a t pr odu ced illegit im a t e offspr in g.

Th e self-su fficien cy a n d su ccess of J a pa n ese com m u n it ies pr esen t ed a sin gu la r ch a llen ge in In t er pr et in g t h e sign ifica n ce of a n r im iscegen a t ion la ws. Alt h ou gh ba n s on in t er m a r r ia ge cou ld be in t er pr et ed a s a n u n - equ ivoca l m a r k of r a cia l su bor din a t ion for bla ck s a n d Ch in ese, t h e sa m e wa s n ot t r u e for t h e J a pa n ese. By bu ildin g pr osper ou s, a u t on om ou s com -

m u n k ies, J a pa n ese im m igr a n t s a ppea r ed t o be exer cisin g t h e fr eedom t o for ge a sepa r a t e bu t equ a l societ y in t h e sh a dow of r a cia l r est r ict ion s. Con fr on t ed wit h a n on wh it e popu la t ion t h a t defied ea sy ca t egor iza t ion a s in fer ior or depen den t , wh it es cou ld n o lon ger a ssu m e t h a t low in t er -

m a r r ia ge r a t es a u t om a t ica lly sign a lled a dim in ish ed st a t u s. To pr eser ve a . sen se of wh it e su per ior it y, t h e la ck ofja pa n ese-wh it e r ela t ion sh ips h a d. t o be a t t r ibu t ed eit h er t o J a pa n ese ch a u .vin ism or t o t h wa r t ed sexu a lit y.

AN TIMISCE GE N ATION LAWS AN D RACIAL BOU N DARIE S

Th e F ilipin o E xper ien ce: N ot Com plia n ce bu t Defia n ce

Alt h ou gh t h e Ch in ese a n d J a pa n ese gen er a lly a bided by r est r ict ion s on m t er m a m a ge, on e gr ou p of Asia n im m igr a n t s r efu sed- t o a ccept r a ce-

ba sed lim it s on t h eir sexu a l a n d m a r it a l a u t on om y. U n lik e ot h er Asia n im m igr a n t s, F ilipin os a r r ived in t h e U n it ed St a t es st eeped in t h e Am er i- ca n dem ocr a t ic t r a dit ion . Con vin ced of t h eir en t it lem en t t o fu ll per - son h ood, F ilipin os fou gh t vigor ou sly for t h e fr eedom t o da t e a n d m a r r y a s t h ey sa w fit .

F ilipin os a r r ived on t h e West Coa st , pa r t icu la r ly Ca lifor n ia , in t h e 1920s a n d 19305. Lik e t h e Ch in ese, m ost F ilipin o im m igr a n t s wer e m a le: In 1930, t h er e wer e 40,904 F ilipin o m en bu t on ly 1,640 wom en . By 1940, of t h e F ilipin os in t h e U n it ed. St a t es, t h er e wer e st ill seven m en for ever y wom a n . Th ey, t oo, for m ed ba ch elor com m u n it ies a n d

spa r k ed fea r s of m iscegen a t ion . P opu la r a ccou n t s por t r a yed t h e F ilipi- n os a s la sciviou s da n dies wit h a t a st e for wh it e wom en . On e a n t i-F iIipm o spok esm a n descr ibed- t h e im m igr a n t s a s "lit t le br own m en a t t ir ed lik e 'Solom on in a ll h is glor y,' st r u t t in g lik e pea cock s a n d en dea vor in g t o a t t r a ct t h e eyes of you n g Am er ica n a n d Mexica n gir ls."' Th e pr esiden t of t h e Im m igr a t ion St u dy Com m ission wa r n ed ofr a ce-m m gU n g bet ween ;F ilipin o coolie fa t h er s a n d low-gr a de wh it e m ot h er s, wh ose n u m er ou s

offspr in g cou ld becom e "a ser iou s bu r den ." Sexu a l a n xiet ies r ea ch ed su ch a pit ch t h a t r a ce r iot s br ok e ou t in 1930 wh en wh it e m en beca m e a n gr y a t F ilipin o m en wh o wer e socia lizin g wit h wh it e wom en .

F ilipin os r ea ct ed defia n t ly t o effor t s t o con t r ol t h eir sexu a lit y. U n iqu e a m on g Asia n Im m igr a n t s, F ilipin os a r r ived n ot fr om a for eign cou n t r y bu t fr om a n Am er ica n t er r it or y. As a r esu lt , t h ey h a d been edu ca t ed in Am er ica n sch ools, spok e E n glish , a n d wer e fa m ilia r wit h Am er ica n h is-

t or y a n d civics. Th ey felt t h a t t h eir discr im in a t or y t r ea t m en t bet r a yed t h e id-ea ls t a u gh t in t h eir cla ssr oom s: In sch ool in t h e Isla n ds we lea r n fr om t h e Decla r a t ion of In depen den ce t h a t a ll m en a r e cr ea t ed equ a l. Bu t wh en we get over h er e we fin d people t r ea t in g u s a s if we wer e in fer ior ." F ilipin os con fou n ded t h eir cr it ics by r evelin g in t h eir depic- n on a s sexu a lly power fu l a n d t h r ea t en in g. In 1936, a Sa n F r a n cisco m u -

n icipa l cou r t ju dge wr ot e in Tim e m a ga zin e t h a t F lllpin os h a ve t old m e blu n t ly a n d boa st fu lly t h a t t h ey pr a ct ice t h e a r t of love wit h m or e per fect ion t h a n wh it e boys." Th e P h llippin e Residen t Com m ission er r espon ded dr yly: "[T]h e J u dge a dm it s t h a t F ilipin os a r e gr ea t lover s."

An ot h er F illpin o wr ot e t o Tim e t h a t We, F ilipin os, h owever poor , a r e

37

38 CH AP TE R TWO

t a u gh t fr om t h e cr a dle u p t o r espect a n d love ou r wom en . . . . If t o

r espect a n d love wom en folk s is sa va ger y, t h en m a k e t h e m ost of it . J u dge.

We plea d gu ilt y."112

F ilipin os in Ca lifor n ia st r on gly r esist ed t h e a pplica t ion ofa n dm isce- gen a t ion la ws. Most of Ca lifor n ia 's F ilipin o popu la t ion r esided in Los An geles Cou n t y. Ca lifor n ia for ba de m a r r ia ges bet ween wh it es a n d Mon - golia n s, bu t t h e Los An geles Cit y Cou n cil a n n ou n ced in 1921 t h a t F ilipi- n os wer e exem pt beca u se t h ey wer e n ot Mon golia n . E igh t yea r s la t er ,

t h e Ca lifor n ia a t t or n ey gen er a l issu ed a con t r a r y opin ion , con clu din g t h a t t h e t er m Mon goiia n in clu ded F iU pm os a s well a s Ch in ese a n d J a pa - n ese.113 N ever t h eless, cou n t y cler k s in Los An geles con t in u ed t o issu e

m a r r ia ge licen ses t o F ilipin o -wh it e cou ples.114 In 1930, a la wsu it wa s

filed t o for ce t h e cler k s t o cea se issu in g licen ses t o F ilipin os wh o wer e m a r r yin g wh it es. Wh en a su per ior cou r t ju dge h eld t h a t t h e Ca lifor n ia a t t or n ey gen er a l s opin ion wa s bin din g,115 t h e F ilipm o com m u n it y r e- a ct ed wit h ou t r a ge.116

F ilipin o lea der s pr om pt ly spea r h ea ded effor t s t o figh t t h e decision . By 1931, fou r ca ses wer e pen din g in Los An geles su per ior cou r t s on t h e lega lit y of F ilipin o-wh it e m a r r ia ges.117 Rever sin g it self a ft er on ly on e yea r , t h e su per ior cou r t h eld t h a t t h e t er m Mon golia n did n ot in clu de F ilipin os. Th e Ca lifor n ia cou r t of a ppea ls a gr eed, a ffir m in g t h e lower cou r t decision by a 3-3 vot e. Accor din g t o t h e cou r t of a ppea ls, t h e Ca lifor n ia legisla t u r e h a d n ot in t en ded t o cover F llipin os u n der t h e a n t i- m iscegen a don la w beca u se a n t h r opologist s t ypica lly cla ssified F illpin os a s Ma la ys," n ot "Mon golla n s," a n d t h e legisla t u r e pr esu m a bly h a d a dopt ed t h is u sa ge. Mor eover , t h e or igin a l legisla t ive deba t e wa s focu sed on Ch in ese, n ot F ilipin os. Th e cou r t a dded t h a t t h e legisla t u r e cou ld a lwa ys a m en d t h e st a t u t e if it wa n t ed t o ba r m a r r ia ges bet ween F llipin os a n d wh it es.118 Th e Ca lifor n ia legisla t u r e did n ot t a k e lon g t o a ct on t h is su ggest ion . N in e da ys befor e t h e cou r t 's decision , a st a t e sen a t or

in t r odu ced a bill t h a t wou ld a m en d t h e a n dm iscegen a t ion st a t u t e t o pr eclu de F llipin o-wh n e m a r r ia ges. Wit h in a few m on t h s, Ca llfor n m h a d a dopt ed a n ew la w t o cover "n egr oes, Mon golia n s, m em ber s of t h e Ma la y

r a ce, or m u k t t oes."119 Th e 1933 pr ovision r em a in ed in effect u n t il t h e

Ca lifor n ia Su pr em e Cou r t decla r ed it u n con st it u t ion a l fift een yea r s la t er .120

F a ced wit h t h e ba n on in t er m a r r ia ge, F ilipin os did n ot con cede defea t . In st ea d, t h ey eva ded Ca lifor n ia 's a n t im iscegen a t ion la w by lea vin g t h e st a t e t o m a r r y. E ffor t s t o close t h is looph ole m et wit h lim it ed su ccess. In 1936, a Ca lifor n ia cou r t of a ppea ls r u led t h a t a F ilipin o-wh k e m a r -

AN TIMISCE GE N ATION LAWS AN D RACIAL BOU N DARIE S

r ia ge t h a t t ook pla ce in N ew Mexico wa s va lid in Ca lifor n ia . In t h a t ca se, a wh it e wom a n sou gh t t o a n n u l h er m a r r ia ge on t h e gr ou n d t h a t

h er F illpin o h u sba n d h a d fa lsely r epr esen t ed h im self t o be "of Spa n ish Ca st ilia n descen t ." Sh e t est ified t h a t sh e wou ld n ot h a ve m a r r ied h im h a d sh e k n own h e wa s F illpm o beca u se t h e m a r r ia ge wa s illega l in Ca li-

for m a . Th e ju dge h eld t h a t m a r r ia ges bet ween wh it es a n d F ilipin os wer e lega l in N ew Mexico, so "t h e et h n ologica l st a t u s of t h e pa r t ies wa s n ot a gr ou n d of a n n u lm en t ."121 In 1938, t h e Ca lifor n ia legisla t u r e pa ssed a r esolu t ion ca llin g on U t a h t o pr even t wh it es a n d F ilipin os fr om goin g t h er e t o eva de t h e ba n on m iscegen a t ion . U t a h obliged by ou t la win g wh it e-F ilipin o m a r r ia ges t h a t sa m e yea r . St ill dissa t isfied-, a Ca lifor n ia legisla t or in t r odu ced, a bill t o void in t er r a cia l m a r r ia ges t h a t t ook pla ce ou t side t h e st a t e if t h ey wou ld be illega l in Ca lifor n ia . Th e bill died in

com m it t ee.'

In a ddit ion t o cir cu m ven t in g t h e la w by goin g ou t of st a t e, F illpin os m a r r ied Mexica n , Ch in ese, J a pa n ese, a n d E sk im o wom en . In fa ct , m ost

m ixed cou ples In Los An geles wer e F llipin o-Mexica n . Th er e wer e som e cu lt u r a l a ffin it ies bet ween F illpin o im m igr a n t s a n d Mlexica n wom en be-

ca u se Spa in h a d a t on e t im e colon ized t h e P h .ilippin es. Con sequ en t ly, m a n y F ilipin os spok e Spa n ish a n d wer e devou t Ca t h olics. Alt h ou gh Mexica n -or igin wom en wer e for m a lly cla ssified. a s wh it e u n der Ca llfor - n ia la w, r egist r a r s seldom st ood in t h e wa y of a m a r r ia ge bet ween a Mexi- ca n wom a n , pa r t icu la r ly on e wh o wa s da r k sk in n ed, a n d a F ilipin o m a n .123 Th e pr eva len ce of in t er m a r r ia ge a m on g F ilipin os wa s so gr ea t

t h a t by 1946, over h a lf of t h e im m igr a n t s' ch ildr en wer e bfr a cia l. F a r fr om a ccept in g t h eir r elega t ion t o ba ch elor com m u n it ies, F ilipin o im m i- gr a n t s dr ew on t h eir fa m ilia r it y wit h Am er ica n la w a n d cu lt u r e t o ch a l- len ge t h e ba n on in t er m a r r ia ge. U n lik e t h e J a pa n ese wh o r elied on sepa - r a t e set t lem en t s, F ilipin os in vok ed t h eir r igh t s t o fr eedom a n d equ a lit y befor e t h e la w. Wh en F illpin o dem a n ds for r ecogn it ion of t h eir fu ll per - son h ood fa iled, t h ey a sser t ed t h eir a u t on om y by u sin g looph oles t o cir - cu m ven t r a cia l r est r ict ion s.

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Con clu sion

Alt h ou gh a n t im iscegen a t ion la ws wer e iden t ica l in for m , t h ey ser ved dif- fer en t fu n ct ion s a t differ en t t im es a n d for differ en t gr ou ps. In t h e colo- n ia l er a a n d du r in g t h e ea r ly yea r s of n a don h ood, ba n s on in t er m a r r ia ge wer e cr it ica l t o dr a win g t h e color lin e bet ween in den t u r ed wh it e ser va n t s

40 CH AP TE R TWO T a n d bla ck s. On ce t h e color lin e wa s in pla ce, t h e st a t u t es beca m e a wa y

t o en for ce r a cia l h ier a r ch y by ba r r in g bla ck s fr om a ssim ila t in g t h r ou gh m a r r ia ge t o wh it es. In t er r a cia l sex con t in u ed t o occu r on a widespr ea d-

ba sis, bu t it did n ot t h r ea t en wh it e iden t it y a n d pr ivilege beca u se t h e on e-dr op r u le cla ssified a n y illegit im a t e ofF spr in g a s bla ck . N or did t h e ext r a m a r ir a l lia ison s jeopa r dize wh it e su per ior it y sin ce wh it e m en cou ld h a ve t h eir wa y wit h bla ck wom en , bu t bla ck m en fa ced sever e sa n ct ion s for h a vin g sex wit h wh it e wom en .

Asia n Im m igr a n t s wer e su bject t o h a r sh r est r ict ion s on in t er m a r r ia ge, a lt h ou gh t h eir r a cia l iden t it ies a lr ea dy wer e clea r fr om feder a l im m igr a - t ion la w. Th e u se of a n t im iscegen a t ion la ws t o su bor din a t e t h e Ch in ese wa s in som e wa ys h a r sh er t h a n t h eir u se t o su bor din a t e bla ck s. Bla ck s cou ld for m sa m e-r a ce fa m ilies, bu t Ch in ese m en oft en r em a in ed sin gle a n d ch ildless for life beca u se of t h e sh or t a ge of Ch in ese wom en . Al- t h ou gh for ced t o live in ba ch elor com m u n it ies, Ch in ese m en did n ot cr oss t h e color lin e t o pr ocr ea t e. Lin gu -lst lca lly, cu lt u r a lly, a n d econ om i-

ca lly isola t ed, Ch in ese m en wer e ill-equ ipped t o pu r su e ext r a m a r it a l lia i- son s wit h wh it e wom en . Th eir em a scu la don r ein for ced t h eir power - lessn ess, even a s t h ey wer e por t r a yed a s sexu a lly degr a ded a n d la sciviou s.

Th e pen a lt ies for wh it es wh o beca m e in volved wit h t h e Ch in ese a lso wer e in cer t a in r espect s m or e sever e t h a n for t h ose wh o beca m e in volved

wit h bla ck s. Alt h ou gh , a wh it e spou se In a bla ck -wh k e m a r r ia ge r e- m a in ed wh it e, Am er ica n wom en wh o wed Ch in ese im m igr a n t s wer e

st r ipped of t h eir n a t ion a lit y, t h er eby t a k in g on som e of t h eir spou ses' u n a ssim ila ble, a lien qu a lit ies.

E n for cin g r a cia l su bor din a t ion wa s pa r t icu la r ly cr it ica l wh er e t h e pr osper ou s J a pa n ese wer e con cer n ed. Th e a bilit y of J a pa n ese im m igr a n t s t o bu ild st a ble, su ccessfu l bu sin esses, fa m ilies, a n d com m u n it ies t h r ea t -

en ed a sen se of wh it e su per ior it y. In r espon se, n a t ivist s in sist ed t h a t t h e J a pa n ese cou ld n ot a ssim ila t e t h r ou gh n a t u r a liza t ion or in t er m a r r ia ge, wh a t ever t h eir per son a l a ccom plish m en t s. At t h e sa m e t im e, t h ou gh ,

n a u vist s fea r ed t h a t J a pa n ese r a cia l pr ide m a de t h em spu r n a ssim ila t ion t o a wh it e wa y of life. Wh ile in t er m a .r r ia .ge r em a in ed a da u n t in g pr ospect , t h e possibilit y t h a t t h e J a pa n ese m igh t ch oose t o r em a in a sepa r a t e people a lso t h r ea t en ed-wh it e su per ior it y. J u st wh en pr oof of r a cia l su bor din a t ion wa s m ost u r gen t ly n eeded, a n t im iscegen a t ion la ws cou ld n o lon ger ofF er u n a m bigu ou s eviden ce of wh it e d-esir a -bilit y a n d u n a t t a m a billt y.

Alt h ou gh t h e Ch in ese a n d J a pa n ese gen er a lly com plied wit h a n t i- m iscegen a t ion la ws, F ilipin o im m igr a n t s defied t h e st a t u t es. Ra t h er t h a n sim ply eva de t h e r est r ict ion s t h r ou gh illicit lia ison s, F ilipin os dem a n ded

AN TIMISCE GE N ATION LAWS AN D RACIAL BOU N DARIE S

t h e r igh t t o cr oss t h e color lin e t o da t e a n d m a r r y wom en of t h eir ch oice. E xplicit ly lin k in g t h eir m a scu lin it y t o r om a n t ic a n d m a r it a l fr ee- dom , F ilipin os wer e u n willin g t o for go in t im a cy a s t h e pr ice of a dm ission t o t h e Am er ica n wor k for ce. Th ou gh econ om ica lly m a r gin a l, F ilipin os wer e n ot h a m per ed by t h e lin gu ist ic a n d cu lt u r a l isola t ion t h a t doom ed t h e Ch in ese t o per en n ia l ba ch elor h ood. Oft en a ble t o com m u n ica t e in E n glish a n d a wa r e of Am er ica n polit ica l id-ea ls, F ilipin os h a d a well- developed sen se of dem ocr a t ic en t it lem en t a n d a ct ed on it . Th eir col-

lect ive, con fr on t a t ion a l a ppr oa ch t o r est r ict ion s on sexu a l a n d m a r it a l fr eedom is u n iqu e in t h e a n n a ls of a n t im iscegen a t ion la w.

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