Assignment 2/ World Civilization

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They were (and some few remain even today) nomadic peoples. Their ancestral home is on the Eurasian Steppes, East of Korea on the edges of the Gobi Desert and north of the boundaries of the old Chinese empire and the Great Wall. By and large the Mongols were prairie people, reliant mostly on their large animal herds for sustenance. They had no permanent structures but rather dwelt in large circular tents known as Yurts that could be collapsed and easily transported. The Mongols clans constantly moved in the search for grazing lands for their herds. As the clans grew larger they became strictly organized and structured along military lines led by commanders chosen for their skills. This organization would later be refined and honed by Chinggis (Genghis) Khan the first great Khan of the Mongols.

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This recent image showing the yurts and herd of a modern Mongol herding family would look equally familiar to a Mongol from the 13th century. The tools and amenities on the inside of the Yurt are likely to be quite modern, and the family is just as likely to be using modern transport as horses, but that image of yurt and herd are all but timeless.

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Among those brought into the Mongol Federation are many tribes that we would consider Turkic – Hence when we speak of Mongol Horde we must include those as well

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The Mongols would begin their expansion southward across the Great Wall of China against the weakest of the Northern kingdoms the Western Xia Dynasty. Then, in 1215 Chinggis would take the capital city of the Jing dynasty, Yanjing or modern day Beijing. Yet, upon taking it and getting what he desired from the Jing he would return to Mongolia. The same patters would be repeated after decisive conquests in central Asia where the Mongols expanded all the way into Persia and deep into Eastern Europe as far as Kiev. For all intents and purposes it seems that Chinggis initially went on the march not to acquire an empire but to settle disputes over trade, the Mongols lifeblood without which their survival was threatened. The Mongols generated the income to purchase the items they did not produce, such as grain and certain manufactured goods, by moving goods and trading. Hence the crucial importance of trade to them.

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The massive distances the Mongol armies travelled are quite mind boggling. Later Mongol armies would travel even further than the red arrows indicate here. The travelled to Baghdad (which you can see on the map) and beyond (all the way to what today would be Israel and the Palestinian Territories.) This was all made possible by the sturdy Mongol pony (the steppes pony.)

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The Mongolian Horse (Steppes Pony) was a sturdy and capable animal. According to historic accounts soldiers in the Mongol army would travel with a string of three to four horses. The rider would change horses often, so as to allow the horse that was just ridden to rest, and by thus alternating he could keep riding for a longer period. This allowed Mongol armies to cover extended distances rapidly (possibly up to a hundred miles a day. I am not sufficiently versed in this literature to attest to the reliability of this number, but if true, that is remarkable for a premodern army.) The horses were also good foragers, so while in open plains, the Mongol armies did not have to carry vast quantities of feed for their horses, they found their own food. The Mongol warrior’s equipment was also designed to be light weigh and efficient to minimize the burden placed on the horse. Mares were prized as they could also provide the soldier with milk, hence providing sustenance on the go.

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We can start seeing the Mongols as Empire builders with Chinggis’ son and his grandsons. In the time of his son (Ogedei Khan) the Mongul empire actually saw its most rapid sustained expansion. Ogedei’s forces took all of NW China, and Korea fell to them in the 1230’s.

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Succession in the Mongol world was a messy affair. Leadership of the clan or tribe was not smooth. Close email relatives such as sons and brothers were traditionally chosen but this was done through a council meeting of the clans known as the kurultai. The individual who succeeded was the one who could garner the most support as rapidly as possible and convince or defeat those who had their own ambitions (including brother, uncles, cousins and what have you.) It took Mongke until 1251 to assemble enough support to be firm in his position as khan. Mongke sent one of his younger brothers, Kublai to continue conquest in the east and eventually to rule over China, Tibet and Parts of India. Mongke was however a grand visionary and upon learning of the weakness of the Islamic Empires to the west, he commanded yet another brother Hulagu to conquer pretty much all of west Asia, Iran, Syria, Iraq, Egypt, Armenia and Byzantium. In 1258 Hulagu took Baghdad, the capital city of the much weakened Abbasid Caliphs. It was reduced almost to absolute ruin and its inhabitants slaughtered en mass. The last Caliph and his family were rolled up in a carpets and trampled to death under the feet of the Mongol horses. After Iraq was reduced Hulagu marched on Syria with equal ruthlessness. Hulagu himself was forced to return to Mongolia at this point as Mongke Khan’s death had caused a serious succession crises within the Mongol Empire. However a large Mongol force continued its march moving into Egypt. In the end, it was the Muslim Mamluks, soldier slaves that had gradually gained control of Egypt, who finally stemmed the Mongol advances in the region in 1260. Much to the relief of not only the Muslims of the region but the Crusader Kingdom’s as well.

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Upon the death of Mongke the Mongol world is once again caught in the grips of a succession crisis. It takes Kubali two years to emerge victorious and have enough support to be acclaimed Great Khan. Hulagu does not return in time to pose a serious challenge to Kublai. Upon hearing of his brother’s success he decides to establish a khanate (kingdom) for himself in Persia. His khanate does not last long as he is drawn into conflict with other Mongol forces commanded by relatives, who finally defeat and kill him in 1265. ironically, those relatives had converted to Islam and raised Muslim troops locally claiming the avenging of the last Abbasid Caliph, he who was killed by Hulagu, as one of their aims in fighting Hulagu. Kublai would focus his energies on establishing and solidifying Mongol rule in China. After completing the conquest of China Kubilai would establish the Yuan Dynasty that would reign over China until 1368 from its capital city of Dadu or Khanbaliq (part of present day Beijing).

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