Literature Review Paper

IMPORTANT NOTE: You need 24 sources for the Module 5 assignment. The example only has 9. I am showing you this example to help you with the formatting and how you could organize your paper. But the number of sources need to be 24 sources.

Jane Doe

School Culture: Charismatic and Instructional Leadership

Grand Canyon University: RES-861

June 20, 2019

School Culture: Charismatic and Instructional Leadership

Introduction

School culture is an important issue in the context of education. The leadership is vital and key in ensuring that school culture is positive for all stakeholders. The principal is accountable to build healthy relationships with staff and students, parents, other administrators which will help in the success of positive school culture. According to Gulcan (2010) principals who are instructional leaders will contribute to positive school culture. Gulcan (2010) suggest that principals or other effective leaders should be proficient in five areas: 1) Identify and communicating the vision and mission of the school, 2) administering education to key personnel, 3) continuous staff training and development, 4) monitoring and assessing the teaching process, and 5) creating and maintain a positive school environment.

The thesis of this literature review will complete a synthesis on six articles describing two themes: 1) instructional leadership and 2) charismatic leadership. This paper will also look at pertinent information regarding each of the six articles: 1) research questions, 2) sample, 3) methodology, 4) gaps, and 5) findings.

Instructional Leadership

Instructional leadership is a vital responsibility of administrators specifically, the lead principal. This first half of the literature review will discuss and outline key aspects that pertain to instructional leadership from several contexts. One context will be cross cultural. Several studies that were reviewed and synthesized were from South Africa and Turkey. Another aspect that will be discussed an outline is the success of students depending if there is a positive school climate that complements an instructional leader. A final area for consideration is that healthy relationships must be established with all stakeholders if a positive school climate will exist.

School culture.

Sahin (2011) examined closely at intructional leadership and school culture to determine whether instructional leaders determines the culture of a school. There are four specific questions that pertain to this article (Sahin 2011, p. 1922).

1. How do teachers perceive the instructional leadership and school culture

2. Do demographic descriptors influence teachers’ perceptions of the instructional leadership and the school culture?

3. Is there a relationship between the instructional leadership and the school culture, and

4. Does instructional leadership explain school culture?

This study specifically examines Curriculum Laboratory Schools (CLS) in Turkey. The research was conducted between the academic years 2005-2006. The sample was selected using a stratified sampling design of student achievement and social-economic level. This research instrument was applied to 157 teachers (six schools) in Izmir Turkey (Sahin 2011, p. 1922). The method that was utilized for this study was a quantitative investigation using survey instruments. This study also involves demographic descriptors and items on instructional leadership and school culture (Sahin 2011, p. 1922).

There is one important gap that needs further research. Sahin (2011) determined that principals feedback on the process of instruction is limited in comparison to the other factors (socio-economic, unity of vision and mission, principal is responsible for maintain a positive school culture, and other aspects of instructional leadership). Finally, several findings are necessary to identify. First, Educators who teach in CLS contexts tend to perceive their institution as positive. Second, regardless of educators tenure and age are not effective determinants on their views related to principal’s instructional leadership and school culture. Finally, principals who give positive feedback to educators and who are positive supervisors plays a positive role on educators. These are all indicators of effective schools methodology.

African schools.

Hoadley, Christi and Ward (2009) looked first hand on the management of curriculum and instruction in South African secondary schools. Even though this is a cross-cultural study, it is imperative to understand that this context can work in any school setting. For article # two there are no specific questions that are discussed rather Hoadley et. el. (2009) seek to discover specific themes from established literature on leadership; specifically, leadership on teaching and learning. This authors review literature from five basic forms of literature: 1) pedagogical expertise, 2) distributed leadership, 3) linkages between management and instruction, 4) context, and 5) organizational features (Hoadley et. el. 2009, p. 376).

The sample consisted of 200 secondary school from two provinces of Eastern and Western Cape in South Africa. From the 200 surveys 195 were returned (96-Western and 92-Eastern Cape) and from these 195 surveys a total 142 were finalized. The reason for the missing seven consisted of five principals was not available to complete the survey form and the remaining two because there was a lack of head of department who were available to fill out the forms. The sampling was deliberate in researching both urban and rural school systems. Another key issue of sampling was to look at the financial stability of student’s parents.

The methodology was based on six components in a typology of leadership. Based on these six items, each of these items was developed into 29 constructs and a set of indicators which formed the basis of questionnaires for administration in schools. In each school, the questionnaire was distributed to the principal, a senior manager and a teacher. This was done to remove bias and give a larger perspective by utilizing different staff and therefore giving a different perspective.

There are several gaps of research based on this study. First of all, there are limited resources in South Africa and this is a major issue in the educational system and there is limited research but the what the research does conclude is that effective management is more important not the sufficiency of resources. A second area of concern is that certain variables do not necessarily define positive or negative leadership. It is important to note that there were several positive outcomes based on this research. First, administrators must use their time wisely to build healthy relationships with all stakeholders. Second, it was determined that finances did not cause schools to succeed or fail but rather if the principals was an instructional leader or a lack thereof. Third, without the proper curriculum, students’ chances of learning and achievement are greatly diminished, and lastly, parent involvement assisted in ensuring that students were learning over parents that were not involved.

Student absentees.

This last researcher is important to read because its findings can help schools to have positive school culture with the added blessing of reducing student absentees and suspensions. There are three specific questions that Ohlson (2009) poses:

1. Is there a relationship between the characteristics of teacher quality and student attendance and suspension rates?

2. Is there a relationship between school culture factors, as measured by the School Culture Survey, and characteristics of teacher quality?

3. Is there a relationship between school culture factors, as measured by the School Culture Survey, and student attendance and suspension rates?

The research is based upon data gathered during the start of the 2007 school year and includes twenty-three public elementary schools in the state of Florida. Data sources include both student absences and suspension during the 2006-2007 school years reported by the Florida Department of Education’s Florida School Indicators Report. Specifically, student absence data reflected the percentage of a school’s population that was absent 21 or more days (Ohlson 2009, p. 104-105).

Sample schools were selected based upon their participation in a statewide school improvement program directed by the Lastinger Center for Learning at the University of Florida. Teachers voluntarily completed the school culture survey at schools in various districts throughout the state including Collier, Miami-Dade, Pinellas, and Duval. The survey, administered in person by an individual external too the daily operation of the school, had an 85% response rate. The nature of the data positioned the school as the unit of analysis (Ohlson 2009, p. 105).

Several major findings are necessary to discuss. When educators and principals embrace a common mission and vision for education and instruction, it decreases the likelihood of students being away from the learning environment. Another key finding it would behoove principals to use their energy on establishing and maintaining collaborative relationships in lewd of spending all day dealing with administration issues. A third finding is that when the principal is inside the classroom children typically are on their best behavior which reduces discipline and allows ample instructional time from the education. Finally, research has shown that the more experience that educators possess the more likely that students will stay in schoo

Connections of researchers.

Instructional leadership breaks barriers and cultures and is instrumental in having and maintaing a positive school culture. The above three articles gives empirical data that schools that have instructional leaders will see positive results and reduce negative results which can bring a negative school culture. There are multiple implications from the above studies. As mentioned above positive school cultures can happen in any context whether in America or in other parts of the world. Two of the three articles were based on research on different continents. The research also showed that having a positive school culture can happen in elementary or high school, urban or rural. What matters is what type of leader is heading the program.

Instructional leaders are leaders who cast visions and communicates mission to stakeholders (Ohlson 2009, p. 108; Gulcan 2010, p. 627; Sahin 2011, p. 1924). Instructional leaders are leaders who invest time inside the classroom (Ohlson 2009, p. 109; Hoadley et. el. 2009, p. 381). Instructional leaders build healthy relationships with parents (Hoadley et. el. 2009, p. 384). When it came to educators who had instructional leaders as administrators teachers age and tenure did not have effective determinants on their views related to principals’ instructional leadership and school culture (Sahin 2011) whereas, in Ohlson (2009) study having a high turnover rate did show historically low student achievement which developed into having a negative school culture (p. 110).

Charismatic Leadership

Instructional leaders operate under other theories of leadership. Principals who practice charismatic theory of leadership are more effective to produce a positive school culture. Principals who are charismatic according to research will have a healthy followership (Cicero and Pierro, 2012; Hayibor et. el. 2011; Babcock-Roberson and Strickland 2010) and will produce positive results within the classroom. Charismatic leadership is tightly associated with transformational leadership based on the data that shows that charismatic and transformational leaders transform the values and priorities of followers and motivate them to perform greater than their expectations (Yukl, 2010).

Leadership behaviors.

Kwak examined how charismatic leadership behaviors would interact with follower empowerment level in predicting followers’ attributed leader charisma and subsequent follower voice (Kwak 2012, p. 56). There are three hypothesis in article one.

H1: Leader charisma would mediate the effects of leader charismatic behaviors on follower voice. Leader charismatic behaviors would increase leader charisma; leader charisma would increase follower voice.

H2: As follower empowerment level increases, the positive relationship between leader charismatic behaviors and leader charisma would be weakened.

H3: Leader charisma would mediate the interactive effects of leader charismatic behaviors and follower empowerment level on follower voice.

This study was conducted in an electronics company located in South Korea. There were 343 leaders and followers in a dyadic work relationship. A researcher and a member of the HR department personally handed each follower a large envelope that included two survey tests—one for the follower and one for the leader. After the surveys were filled out, either the leader or follower sealed up the two surveys and mail it back to the researchers. It was determined from the received surveys that only 321 surveys were used for the follower survey and 290 were used for the leader survey.

There are clearly gaps in the research recognized by the author (Kwak 2012); such as; the context of the individuals who volunteered to complete the survey. South Korean culture has a high respect for authority which could cause some bias in the data. Another gap was the lack of demographic data. This study did not collect personal demographics of the individuals who completed the survey which could lead to different results. It is important that this research be conducted in different cultures and contexts to determine if there are additional gaps based on the location and lack of demographics.

It was determined based on the research leader charisma was found to mediate between leader charismatic behaviors and follower voice. It was also determined that follower empowerment level was found to significantly moderate the charismatic leadership processes such tat as follower were more empowered, leaders’ charismatic behaviors were less able to facilitate followers to perceive leader charisma (Kwak 2012, p. 65).

Leadership styles.

Babcock-Roberson and Strickland (2010) researched the relationship between charismatic leadership with organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB). Babcock-Roberson and Strickland (2010) purpose in writing this article is to replicate recent work that links charismatic leadership to OCB and to extend the knowledge base by exploring potential mediating mechanism of work engagement (p. 314). Babcock-Roberson and Strickland (2010) purposes four hypothesis:

H1: Charismatic leadership will be positively related to employee’s work engagement.

H2: Work engagement will be positively related to OCBs.

H3: Charismatic leadership will be positively related to OCBs.

H4: Work engagement will mediate the relation between charismatic leadership and OCBs.

Participants were undergraduate students enrolled in a psychology course who had worked in their current employment for at least six months. There were a total of 91 participants who participated in the survey. Charismatic leadership was measured by using items from Avolio et. el. (1999) Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). An 18 item 7-point Likert-type scale was used to measure answers. Work engagement was measured using the vigor, dedication, and absorption subscales of the Work Engagement Scale. OCB was measured using the Organizational Citizenship Behavior Scale. Participants prior to taking the survey had to register to attend a research session through a Website. The participants were given a consent form upon entering the laboratory. Each participant was given a packet with the same questionnaires; they were filled out, and then returned to the experimenter who inserted the surveys into a manila envelope to ensure confidentiality.

One area of concern is the lack of participants. There were not a lot of individuals to choose from with a diverse background. Because the participants were in an undergraduate class many of the participants were young (median age being 22) and it could be that this is their first job and they want to make their employer look good? Another gap in the literature is that there was only one observer (experimenter) and this experimenter could be biased without knowing it. It is always better to have several people making observations to gain a better understanding of the data.

It was determined by the data the above hypothesis were true. This is evidenced by charismatic leadership which was significantly positively related to work engagement (Babcock-Roberson and Strickland 2010, p. 322). Work engagement as it was determined was a used as a mediator role within the relationship of charismatic leadership and OCB.

Charismatic leadership.

Hayibor, Agle, Sears, Sonnenfeld, and Ward (2011) thesis is to fill part of the void in the charisma literature concerning the relationship between charismatic leadership and values congruence, while also complementing previous investigations of the charisma-value congruence relationship and addressing ongoing general interest in developing values-based leadership (p. 238). The authors pose two hypotheses (p. 242-243):

H1: Actual value congruence between top management team members and their CEO is positively associated with attributions of charisma to the CEO by those managers.

H2: Perceived value congruence between top management team members and their CEO is positively related to attributions of charisma to the CEO by those managers.

There are two specific studies that relate to the two hypothesis. Research was conducted using two studies that draw on different samples of CEOs and their respective top management teams. In the first study the relationship between perceived value congruence and charismatic leadership by using a direct measure of subordinate perceptions of value congruence, whereas the second study actual and perceived value congruence are assessed different dimensions of organizational values (Hayibor et. el. 2011, p. 243).

Study one was a simple study to test Hypothesis 2 using 250 CEOs compromising 8% women and 92% men who had an average tenure of 6.6 years. These CEOs agreed to allow their top management team (n=1925) to complete the survey. The survey asked top management team members to fill out a questionnaire as to assess their CEOs charismatic leadership, perceptions of the degree of congruence between their values and those of their CEO. Study two utilized a different set of CEOs and their top managers to conduct a different survey. For study two, 79 CEOs of large companies and non-profit organizations were used in this study. Out of the 173 questionnaires that were mailed only 106 were completed and mailed back. The questionnaire that was filled out by top management team members relating to their CEOs consisted of a multidimensional measure which reported team member’s values, perceptions of their CEOs values, and their perceptions of congruence between their values and those of their CEO.

One gap of interest should be the measure of values in general. Different people have different levels of values. What one CEO deems moral another CEO might find amoral. I think that there should be more discussion on the leader-follower role of Leader Member Exchange (LMX) theory of leadership. There might be some bias from the top management team because they might feel that their job is in jeopardy even thought the people stayed anonymous.

The research determined that both hypotheses proved to be true. Research revealed that perceived value congruence was significantly and positively associated with top manager attributions of CEO charismatic leadership. Study two also revealed based on research that the three variables: reputation, social performance and financial were used to predict charismatic leadership perceptions.

Leadership connections.

Charismatic leadership is important in an organization for several reasons. Charismatic leaders are leaders who cast a clear mission and vision (Kwak 2012, p. 57; Babcock-Roberson and Strickland 2010, p. 314), motivates change (Babcock-Roberson and Strickland 2010, p. 314), taking personal risks (Kwak 2012, p. 57), and have positive character which influences followers change to accomplish the mission (Hayibor et. el. 2011, p. 239).

There are different aspects of charismatic leaders that will influence followers to either get behind their leader, CEO, or school administrator. As have been shown in the above articles, values place a high role of followers getting behind their leaders, leaders who allow their followers to speak and contribute for the success of the team, and specific organizational citizenship behaviors all contribute to a charismatic leader. This research has also shown that charismatic leadership is not one sided and often complements other aspects of leadership theories. In the study of value congruence it was discovered that a person values or what a leader values plays a critical role in all theories of charismatic leadership (House as quoted by Hayibor et. el. 2011, p. 240). In the study of OCB employee performance strives to be effective to work together with the charismatic leader (Babcock-Roberson and Strickland 2010, p. 314).

Conclusion

In conclusion, this literature review has studied six pieces of research on two different subjects. The first three researchers discussed instructional leadership while the last three articles discussed charismatic leadership. This paper has specifically identified key attributes of instructional and charismatic leaders and how having these specific leaders in the settings of school or business can create a positive culture for the institution. Each article was outlined according to research questions, sample, methodology, gaps and findings along with a synthesis of the three specific articles that pertained to the two main themes of this study.

It is important to note that these six pieces of research barely touched the surface on the topics discussed in this paper. There are literally hundreds of articles that could have been used in this paper but these specific articles were chosen because more than half of the articles were cross-cultural in context, can all related within the context of a classroom, and they are great models for administrators to study and understand in order that they can have and maintain an effective school.

References

You need 24 sources below.

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leadership, work engagement, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Journal Of

Psychology, 144(3), 313-326. Retrieved from http://ehis.ebscohost.com.library.gcu.edu

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Cicero, L., & Pierro, A. (2007). Charismatic leadership and organizational outcomes: The

mediating role of employees' work-group identification. International Journal Of

Psychology, 42(5), 297-306. doi:10.1080/00207590701248495

Gulcan, M. (2010). Research on instructional leadership competencies of school principals.

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Hayibor, S., Agle, B., Sears, G., Sonnenfeld, J., & Ward, A. (2011). Value congruence and

charismatic leadership in CEO-Top manager relationships: An empirical

investigation. Journal Of Business Ethics, 102(2), 237-254. doi:10.1007/s10551-011-

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Hoadley, U., Christie, P., & Ward, C. L. (2009). Managing to learn: Instructional leadership in

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Kwak, W. (2012). Charismatic leadership influence on empowered and less empowered

followers' voice: A mediated moderation model. Journal Of Leadership,

Accountability & Ethics, 9(1), 56-70. Retrieved from http://ehis.ebscohost.com.library.

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Ohlson, M. (2009). Examining instructional leadership: A study of school culture and teacher

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Sahin, S. (2011). The Relationship between Instructional Leadership Style and School Culture

(Izmir Case). Educational Sciences: Theory And Practice, 11(4), 1920-1927. Retrieved

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Yukl, G. A. (2010). Leadership in organizations. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall.

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