MODULE 5

Module5DataDriven-650.pdf

NEW DIRECTIONS FOR STUDENT SERVICES, no. 132, Winter 2010 © Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) • DOI: 10.1002/ss.374

Adopting the practice of systematically and strategically gathering data to inform the development and implementation of a strategic plan will ensure its achievement. This chapter presents a combination of techniques for student affairs professionals to conduct data-driven planning.

Data-Driven Planning: Using Assessment in Strategic Planning

Marilee J. Bresciani

Data-driven planning or evidence-based decision making represents noth- ing new in its concept. For years, business leaders have claimed they have implemented planning informed by data that have been strategically and systematically gathered (Banta, Jones, and Black, 2009; Bresciani, 2006; Maki, 2004; Schuh and Associates, 2009; Suskie, 2009; Upcraft and Schuh, 1996). Therefore, it is safe to assume that the concepts that are included in data-driven planning have been around for years. Within higher education and student affairs, there may be less evidence of the actual practice of sys- tematically and strategically gathering data to inform planning.

Data-driven planning is often referred to in higher education as out- comes-based program review. The Western Association of Schools and Col- leges (WASC) defi nes outcomes-based program review as a cyclical process for evaluating and continuously strengthening the quality and currency of programs. The evaluation is conducted through a combination of self-eval- uation and peer evaluation by reviewers external to the program or depart- ment and, usually, external to the organization (Jenefsky and others, 2009). The results of this process inform strategic planning.

For purposes of this chapter, data-driven planning is defi ned as a sys- tematic process that gathers programmatic outcomes-based assessment data (for example, data derived from outcomes-based program review) and merges those data with trend, forecast, and capacity data, as well as institu- tional goals and vision. The results of this process are then used to plan resources, policies, and program design to achieve or refi ne the intended

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institutional vision and goals. For student affairs professionals, this means that strategic planning cannot be done in isolation of university data, such as an understanding of market demand for majors, the pool of prospective students, and the institutional learning outcomes and core values. Informed by these data, student affairs professionals must align each por- tion of their divisional strategic planning with the overall values of the university.

For the profession of student affairs, this means that results derived from outcomes-based assessment processes inform action planning and budgeting. This also means that as the student affairs division staff mem- bers gather more data on how well they are meeting institutional priorities, they can also use the same process to demonstrate achievement of their own divisional priorities and goals. Departments within the division can use this process to demonstrate how they are meeting division priorities as well. This chapter provides an overview of the components of and steps to establishing such a process.

Steps for Data-Driven Planning in Student Affairs

When organizations embark on strategic planning, key steps must be put into place. Data-driven planning does not replace those steps; rather, it is intended to contribute to the refi nement of those steps by purposefully integrating planning, assessment, and budgeting processes. For example, when an organization decides through strategic planning that it will become the fi rst-choice regional provider of quality education for fi rst-gen- eration students, it begins to design goals that will help it realize that vision. The strategic plan represents the ideal of what the institutional lead- ership desires to achieve.

Once the strategic plan is put into place, indicators of success are artic- ulated, and programs are often asked to illustrate how they are achieving the goals and indicators represented by the strategic plan (Drucker, 2000; Fullan and Scott, 2009; McClellan, 2009). The challenge here is that key steps, discussed in this chapter, are occasionally left out in implementation. And the result is that organizational members may become frustrated that the organization’s vision or strategic plan is not being fully realized. In order to address this initial challenge, it may become important for institu- tional and divisional leadership to follow some basic steps for data-driven planning. The intent of sharing these suggested steps is to provide institu- tional and divisional leadership with a framework to consider as they adapt each step, cognizant of their own institutional culture. In many cases, insti- tutions and student affairs divisions already have many of these pieces of data-driven planning in place; they have just not yet pulled them together into a systematic, integrated process.

In order to aid readers with determining how they can pull their pro- cesses together to formulate data-driven planning, the proposed steps that

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follow are intended to be used as guidelines as opposed to procedures that must be followed in the exact order indicated. The steps are not designed as a linear process. You may fi nd, if you follow the steps in numerical order, that when you get to, say, step 4, you may need to go back and refi ne steps 2 and 3 because you realized that you were collecting data that will not really inform your strategic plan. Or you may choose to engage in step 1 and then step 4 in that order to fi gure out how to best approach steps 2 and 3. Thus, the steps are to be used as guidelines in any order that makes sense for your division or institution. As usual, institutional and divisional lead- ers will need to adapt these steps in accordance with their own culture, dynamics, and resources in order to improve their data-driven planning processes (Banta and others, 2009; Bresciani, 2006; Maki, 2004; Schuh and Associates, 2009; Suskie, 2009).

Step One: Establish a Strategic Plan. Many chapters in this book discuss the importance of having a strategic plan and illustrate various ways to accomplish it. The important piece of information to note here is that there must be an institutionally and divisionally agreed-on strategic plan from which to work (Bresciani, Gardner, and Hickmott, 2009; Bresciani, 2006; Schuh and Associates, 2009). Many professionals become frustrated when there is no agreed-on direction for their organization, and thus, the following steps become even more challenging to implement (Drucker, 2000; Fullan and Scott, 2009; McClellan, 2009). In an institution that is not engaged in strategic planning and therefore lacks institutional values and goals with which to align, this process then starts at the division level.

Step Two: Gather Forecast and Trend Data Sometimes the best strategic plans and the most inspiring visions and goals can go unrealized because the planning to create those strategic goals has been done without considering what the forecast or trend data are illustrating. Forecast and trend data simply attempt to calculate or predict some future event or condition. A detailed study or analysis usually informs this type of conversation (Schuh and Associates, 2009).

The types of data used in forecasting and determining trends are typi- cally institutionally reported. They are often collected and stored by agen- cies outside the institution—for example, extracts from the College Board data sets or other types of national data sets, such as those gleaned from the Common Data Set, the National Clearinghouse, or the Integrated Post Sec- ondary Education Data System. Trend data can also be gleaned from admis- sions applications, the National Survey of Student Engagement, the Community College Survey of Student Engagement, the Cooperative Insti- tutional Research Program, the College Student Experiences Questionnaire, or Your First College Year surveys. Years of gathering these types of data can illustrate certain trends that can be used in informing whether your strategic initiatives are feasible. (An example is provided later in this section.)

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These types of data are often collected or stored at the institutional level. The institutional research offi ce is a good place to start when looking to access and use data that will help in forecasting and identifying trends. If the institutional research offi ce is too busy to assist right away, and it often is, consider contacting the Association for Institutional Research, which has a wealth of resources to assist institutional administrators with this type of institutional data gathering.

In gathering and using data for forecasting or determining trends, the idea is not to become consumed by data but rather to use the data to deter- mine if your strategic goals can be achieved. Perhaps your university vision is to become the fi rst-choice regional provider of quality education for fi rst- generation students. Using this example, your strategic plan has informed a design to implement interventions that will aid fi rst-generation students in their success, but your current plan has no goals to change its outreach processes and plans. In accessing admissions applications data and College Board data, you may discover that the number of fi rst-generation students applying and being accepted by your institution is declining. This would indicate that your vision and your corresponding strategic plan would not be realized unless you also have some initiatives to change outreach to and recruitment of fi rst-generation students.

Before adjusting your strategic plan to focus on a change in outreach and recruitment, you access data from the College Board to identify how many regional students are graduating from high school, taking college placement tests, and being identifi ed as fi rst generation. If you see that the number is high, you can then determine that efforts to develop outreach and recruitment plans may be worthwhile. However, if you discover that the fi rst-generation students graduating from high school are low in num- bers and appear to have been decreasing, you may want to reexamine your institutional vision altogether. Institutional and student affairs divisional leadership could also choose to design different types of interventions that work collaboratively with local high schools to increase the number of col- lege-bound fi rst-generation students.

Step Three: Conduct a Capacity Review. Trend data as well as additional types of data, such as fi nancial records, fi nancial forecasting, and capital assets, can also be useful in determining the institution’s capacity to meet the strategic plan. Borrowing from the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (2008), a capacity review determines whether an institution has the resources to fulfi ll its strategic mission. In other words, can the institution function “with clear purposes, high levels of institutional integrity, fi scal stability, and organizational structures and processes to fulfi ll its purposes?” (p. 30).

Identifying meaningful data that indicate whether an institution or division has key institutional resources, structures, and processes in place to fulfi ll its institutional or divisional mission and strategic plan is impor- tant in determining whether changes need to be made in strategic

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priorities. Consultation with the institutional research offi ce may enable you to identify, access, and use the most appropriate data to inform your planning.

In order to understand how to use these types of data, we return to our example. Consider that your trend data forecast an increase in fi rst- generation graduates intending to take college entrance exams from your regional high schools, so you know you will have plenty of students apply- ing to your college. However, the data from the College Board also indicate that these students will need more fi nancial aid in order to attend college in the future. Your forecast data show steadily increasing tuition, and your capacity study reveals less available institutional and state grant aid. How do you factor this very real scenario into your strategic planning? What other types of data may you need to collect to make an informed decision?

The idea behind conducting short but informative capacity reviews is that if you are able to identify immediate limitations in the ability to pro- vide the resources needed for realizing the strategic plan, then you may be able to immediately adjust your strategic plan to better refl ect your capac- ity. Or you may choose to adjust the strategic plan to build capacity. The building of capacity to achieve the strategic plan may well become a large portion of that plan.

Step Four: Articulate Indicators of Success. Leaders who are operationalizing their strategic plans may clearly articulate the goals derived from the plan, yet not have clearly identified the indicators of success that directly relate to the goals derived from the strategic plan. Rather than just selecting indicators of success that are easy to measure, consider starting by spending time describing what a successful strategic plan looks like when it is implemented (Banta and others, 2009; Bresciani and others, 2009; Bresciani, 2006; Maki, 2004; Schuh and Associates, 2009; Suskie, 2009).

Indicators of success “are quantifi able measurements, agreed to before- hand, that refl ect the critical success factors of an organization. They help an organization defi ne and measure progress toward organizational goals” (Reh, 2009, paras. 1, 2). Such indicators are typically gathered and dissemi- nated at the institutional level, but what types of data should an institution collect in order to be able to provide such indicators of success?

Returning to our example, what would it look like when your institu- tion is the fi rst-choice regional provider of quality education for fi rst-gen- eration students? The initial inclination of planners is to jump to performance indicators that articulate expectations for numbers of admits, persistence, graduation, and career placement rates. These indicators are easy to measure and certainly would make sense to report in relationship to achievement of this vision. But what else do we know about first- generation learners? Would we also want to be able to determine how well the environment welcomes fi rst-generation learners and their families and

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guardians? How integrated are the services and interventions designed to support these learners (Kuh and Associates, 2005)?

The idea of this step is to indicate purposefully which indicators will be institutionally identifi ed to determine success of the strategic plan (for example, persistence rates, placement rates) and which will be gleaned from more specifi c programmatic outcomes-based assessment results (for example, evidence of the effectiveness of various and specifi c student sup- port programs).

Step Five: Prioritize Action Plans to Meet the Strategic Goals. Assuming that your organizational strategic plan has articulated goals or objectives, consider prioritizing them if possible. (Chapter One details steps for goal setting and action planning.) This will assist with prioritizing the action plans that operationalize the strategic plan, which in turn helps prioritize the resources that will enable the strategic plan to come to fruition. When institutional leadership prioritizes the strategic plan goals, faculty and staff are more likely to feel empowered in prioritizing their investment of their own time in their action plans in order to meet the strategic plan (Banta and others, 2009; Bresciani and others, 2009; Bresciani, 2006; Jenefsky and others, 2009; Schuh and Associates, 2009; Suskie, 2009).

In order to prioritize decisions that align with organizational goals, values, and strategic initiatives, criteria must be considered that will assist in the alignment of proposed action plans to the organizational goals, val- ues, and strategic initiatives. Although this chapter cannot anticipate the types of criteria that may best represent various organizational structures, the following questions, adapted from Fred McFarlane (personal commu- nication, February, 12, 2007), former department chair of administration, rehabilitation, and postsecondary education at San Diego State University, may assist institutions in formulating their own criteria:

• How well does the proposed action plan fi t with our organizational goals, values, and strategic initiatives?

• Within that fi t, how will the action plan benefi t current students (for example, residential students, commuters, fi rst generation)?

• How will the proposed action plan affect future students (for example, recruitment, new student populations, and their progression from undergraduate to graduate degrees)?

• How will the proposed action plan increase the impact of the department in relationship to the goals and sustaining objectives of the department and the division?

• How will we know whether the proposed action plan will be effective in increasing the impact of the department on the students?

• Does the proposed plan meet the criteria in that it is consistent with our values and beliefs (for example, access, equity, and student success), fi nancially viable (for example, does it cover the costs, and

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can it be leveraged for continued development; note that one-shot efforts take a great deal of time and often diffuse resources and energy), consistent with our professional development, and consistent with our passion and commitment to student learning and development?

Posing such questions begins to develop criteria for prioritizing cur- rent outcomes as well as the great ideas for improvements that result from engaging in outcome-based assessment (see step 7).

S t e p S i x : A l i g n D i v i s i o n R e s o u rc e s w i t h I n s t i t u t i o n a l Priorities. This step may appear a bit similar to previous steps, but nevertheless it is important to consider. The prioritization of the division resources toward strategic initiatives infl uences the availability of resources to improve more refi ned levels of action plans. And the decisions to refi ne the actions plans are informed by results of outcomes-based assessment (see step 7). If your institution is bound by a governance structure that gives you very little room to allocate resources in accordance with your strategic plan, then this step will be very quick for the institution to complete, because you are constrained by an inability to prioritize the resources on your own. If the institutional governance allows more fl exibility in the allocation of resources, then the idea is to make available certain resources for the improvement and refi nement of strategic priorities that can be allocated based on the results of outcomes-based assessment or on the proposals of innovative action plans to improve strategic indicators and initiatives.

Step Seven: Implement Outcomes-Based Assessment Program Review. Implementing outcomes-based assessment plans for the action plans to achieve the strategic plan will help in gathering meaningful data about how well you are achieving your strategic plan. If assessment is done well, the results will yield specifi c information on what needs to be improved in order to refi ne the strategic indicators articulated in step 4 (Banta and others, 2009; Bresciani, 2006; Bresciani and others, 2009; Jenefsky and others, 2009; Maki, 2004; Schuh and Associates, 2009; Suskie, 2009).

The following sections set out typical components of an assessment plan and report.

Program Name. The program name helps indicate the scope of the assessment project. Are you planning on assessing a series of workshops within the leadership development center, or on evaluating the entire lead- ership development center? Often it is diffi cult to determine the scope of an assessment plan (Schuh and Associates, 2009). When in doubt, organize the plan around programs that have autonomous outcomes (Bresciani and others, 2004; Bresciani and others, 2009).

Program Mission or Purpose. List the program mission or purpose statement. It may also be helpful to provide a one- or two-sentence

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explanation of how this program mission or purpose aligns with the depart- ment, college, division, or university’s mission within which it is organized. Setting this out will help explain how the program aligns with institutional values and priorities.

Program Goals. Goals are broad, general statements of what the pro- gram wants students to be able to do and to know or what the program will do to ensure what students will be able to do and to know. Goals are not directly measurable. Rather, they are evaluated directly or indirectly by measuring specifi c outcomes derived from the goals (Bresciani and others, 2004; Bresciani and others, 2009). The further alignment of each goal to department, college or division, or university goals or strategic initiatives generated from the strategic plan assists with the communication of priori- ties and allows programs to show how they are operating within stated priorities. In addition, the alignment of each goal with professional accredi- tation standards, if applicable, allows you to determine how this program intends to meet higher-level organization goals and strategic planning initiatives.

Outcomes. Outcomes are more detailed and specifi c statements derived from the goals. They specifi cally are about what you want the end result of your efforts to be. In other words, what do you expect the student to know and do as a result of, for example, a one-hour workshop, one-hour indi- vidual meeting, Web site instructions, or series of workshops? Outcomes do not describe what you are going to do to the student, but rather how you want the student to demonstrate what he or she knows or can do (Bresciani and others, 2004; Bresciani and others, 2009).

In addition, you want to be able to align each outcome with a program goal. This alignment allows you to link your outcomes to department, col- lege or division, or university goals and strategic initiatives, as well as pro- fessional accreditation standards. Such alignment allows you to determine how this program intends to meet higher-level organization goals and stra- tegic planning initiatives.

Planning for Delivery of Outcomes. This is where action planning comes into the process. Here is where you describe or simply draw a dia- gram that explains how you plan for the student to learn what you expect the student to learn in order for the outcome to be met. Do you plan for the students to learn what you expect them to in a workshop, one-on-one con- sultation, or a Web site? Simply indicate all the ways in which you provide students the opportunity to achieve the learning outcome. Identifying where outcomes are being taught or delivered also provides reviewers with opportunities to identify where that outcome may be evaluated.

Evaluation Methods and Tools. Often the evaluation method or tool section of the assessment plan can be intimidating to practitioners. This section is not intended to include detailed research methodology. It is intended to simply describe the tools and methods (for example, observa- tion with a criteria checklist, survey with specifi c questions identifi ed,

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essay with a rubric, role-playing with a criteria checklist) you will use to evaluate the outcomes of participants in specifi c programs. In this section, you identify the sample or population you will be evaluating, identify an evaluation method or tool for each outcome, and include the criteria that will be used with the tool to determine whether the outcome has been met—for example:

• If the tool to measure an outcome is a survey, which questions in the survey are measuring the outcome?

• If the tool is a test, which questions measure the outcome? • If the tool is an observation, what are the criteria that you apply to

the observation in order to identify whether the outcome has been met?

Add limitations of the evaluation method or tool if necessary. Limita- tions are reminders to you and the reviewer that while the evaluation pro- cess may not have gone extremely well, you recognize the limitations and have documented them to be considered in decision making or for improvements to be made the next time. In addition, select other institu- tional, system or national data (for example, enrollment numbers, faculty- to-student ratios, retention rates, graduation rates, utilization statistics, satisfaction ratings, National Survey of Student Engagement scores) that will be used to help you interpret how and whether the outcome has been met.

Implementation of Assessment Process. This is the planning section for the implementation of the assessment process. Not everything has to be evaluated every year. You can simply evaluate two or three outcomes each year, which will create a multiyear assessment plan, of which the fi nal year of the assessment plan feeds into the comprehensive program review pro- cess. Identify who is responsible for doing each step in the evaluation pro- cess. Outline the time line for implementation, including the years in which each outcome will be evaluated (so as not to indicate that everything must be evaluated every year). Also include which year you will be review- ing all prior outcomes data results (for example, comprehensive program review year) for a holistic program review discussion.

In addition, identify other programs that are assisting with the evalua- tion and when they are assisting. Include time lines for external reviewers (including professional accreditation reviews, if applicable) and for com- munication across departments or colleges. Identify who will be participat- ing in interpreting the data and making recommendations, along with a time line for implementing the decisions and recommendations. Finally, be sure to outline how lines of communication will fl ow. Who will see the results, when will they see the results, and who will be involved in deter- mining whether the results are acceptable?

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Results. Summarize the results for each outcome as well as the process to verify, validate, or authenticate the results. This may include how results were discussed with students, alumni, other program faculty and adminis- trators, or external reviewers. Link the results generated from the out- comes-based assessment results to any other program, college, or institu- tional performance indicators.

Refl ection, Interpretation, Decisions, and Recommendations. This section summarizes the decisions and recommendations made for each outcome and illustrates how you determined if the results were satisfactory. It therefore requires describing the process used to inform how the level of acceptable performance was determined and why it was determined as such.

Illustrate how decisions and recommendations may be contributing to the improvement of higher-level goals and strategic initiatives. Identify the groups that participate in the refl ection, interpretation, and discussion of the evidence that led to the recommendations and decisions. It may then be helpful to summarize the suggestions for improving the assessment pro- cess, tools, criteria, and outcomes. Finally, be sure to identify when each outcome will be evaluated again (if the outcome is to be retained and who is responsible).

Documentation of Higher-Level Feedback. This section is designed to document how results are used and how the results are disseminated throughout the institution. The intent is to document conversations and collaborations that are being implemented in order to systematically and institutionally improve student learning and development. Include the routing of the recommendations or decisions (for example, who needs to see the recommendations or be involved in the decision making) if resources, policy changes, or other information was required outside the scope of the program. For example, if you are the program coordinator and the decisions you and your students recommend require the approval of the department director, then you need to indicate that the approval of the decision must fl ow through the departmental director.

Appendixes. Include any appendixes that may help illustrate the man- ner in which you evaluate your program. For example, you may want to include the curriculum alignment or outcome and delivery map or the tools and criteria to evaluate each outcome. You may also choose to include any external review of the plan, results, or decisions and what was con- cluded from that external review. Include any budget plans and resource reallocation or allocation documents as well (Bresciani, 2010).

Step Eight: Allocate and Reallocate Resources to Help Realize the Goals. Jenefsky and others (2009) discuss in detail how outcomes-based program review provides an effective way for institutional leadership to use systematically collected data to inform specifi c decisions for improving strategic plan initiatives. Thus, the fi ndings and recommendations from step 7 can be used as evidence to inform decision-making processes at

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various levels in the institution (for example, from the program level through the university level).

In order to frame this discussion, remember that some suggestions to improve strategic initiatives can occur with very little resource reallocation (for example, resequencing process steps, refi nements in the criteria for student evaluation, or reorganization of workshop material). Other fi nd- ings may point to a need for a larger reallocation of resources, ranging from staff development for assessment to hiring more staff or faculty members to fi ll unmet needs.

Step Nine: Make It All Systematic. The fi nal step in this process is to make the entire data-driven planning process systematic. This requires institutional leadership to schedule periodic holistic reviews of their processes in order to ensure that they are working together to inform data- driven planning. There are several things to consider when creating a systematic, sustainable, and data-driven planning process. The fi rst is to build collaborations across departments, colleges and divisions, and hierarchical structures so that information can fl ow in an environment of trust. Second, review position descriptions and personnel review processes to ensure that faculty and staff are constantly reminded of the importance of engaging in data-driven planning, given professional development opportunities to learn how to do this well, and rewarded for using data to inform decisions. Third, maintain the integrity of the data by being forthright with how data will be used for planning purposes, resource reallocations, and professional development opportunities. Fourth, consistently use data and provide systematic processes for communicating how the data are used for informing decisions and planning. This will motivate faculty and staff engagement in the process. Finally, identify strategies to keep morale high when someone’s program is not selected as an institutional priority.

Conclusion

Ensuring these steps are followed will more than likely lead your institu- tion to establishing an effective data-driven planning process. The gather- ing and analysis of data also has the potential to strengthen the implementation of a well-documented plan. The ongoing cycle of evalua- tion and assessment will ensure the plan’s effectiveness.

References

Banta, T., Jones, E., & Black, K. Designing Effective Assessment: Principles and Profi les of Good Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2009.

Bresciani, M. J. Outcomes-Based Academic and Co-Curricular Program Review: A Compila- tion of Institutional Good Practices. Sterling, Va.: Stylus Publishing, 2006.

Bresciani, M. J. “Assessment and Evaluation.” In J. Schuh, S. Jones, and S. Harper (eds.), Student Services: A Handbook for the Profession. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2010.

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Bresciani, M. J., Gardner, M. M., and Hickmott, J. Demonstrating Student Success in Stu- dent Affairs. Sterling, Va.: Stylus Publishing, 2009.

Bresciani, M. J., Zelna, C. L., & Anderson, J. A. Assessing Student Learning and Develop- ment: A Handbook for Practitioners. Washington, D.C.: National Association of Stu- dent Personnel Administrators, 2004.

Drucker, P. “Managing Knowledge Means Managing Oneself.” Leader to Leader, 2000, 16, 8–10.

Fullan, M., and Scott, G. Turnaround Leadership for Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2009.

Jenefsky, C., and others. WASC Resource Guide for Outcomes-Based Program Review. Oak- land, Calif.: Western Association of Schools and Colleges, 2009.

Kuh, G. D., and Associates. Student Success in College: Creating Conditions That Matter. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2005.

Maki, P. L. Assessing for Learning: Building a Sustainable Commitment Across the Institu- tion. Sterling, Va.: Stylus Publishing, 2004.

McClellan, E. “Promoting Outcomes Assessment in Political Science Departments: The Role of Strategic Planning.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the APSA Teaching and Learning Conference Online, Baltimore, 2009. Retrieved May 26, 2009, from http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p11617_index.html.

Reh, F. J. ”Key Performance Indicators: How an Organization Defi nes and Measures Progress Toward Its Goals.” 2009. Retrieved July 24, 2009, from http://management .about.com/cs/generalmanagement/a/keyperfi ndic.htm.

Schuh, J. H., and Associates. Assessment Methods for Student Affairs. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2009.

Suskie, L. Assessing Student Learning: A Common Sense Guide. (2nd ed.) San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2009.

Upcraft, M. L., and Schuh. J. H. Assessment in Student Affairs: A Guide for Practitioners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996.

Western Association of Schools and Colleges. “Handbook of Accreditation.” 2008. Retrieved July 24, 2009, from http://www.wascsenior.org/findit/files/forms/ Handbook_of_Accreditation_2008_with_hyperlinks.pdf.

MARILEE J. BRESCIANI is a professor of postsecondary education and codirector of the Center for Educational Leadership, Innovation, and Policy at San Diego State University.

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