MODULE 5
Timesaver4real
Module5Chapter2.docxChapter 2
PAPER ELEMENTS AND FORMAT Consistency in the order, structure, and format of paper elements allows readers to focus on a paper’s content rather than its presentation. Following APA Style guidelines to achieve consistency in the presentation of paper elements is essential to crafting an effective scholarly work. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the elements of a paper, including how to structure, format, and organize them. These guidelines apply broadly to any APA Style paper and may be especially useful to students or researchers who are not familiar with APA Style. For researchers preparing manuscripts for publication, more in-depth guidelines on journal article reporting standards (JARS) for quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research are discussed in Chapter 3. Students can find guidance on dissertations and theses in Sections 1.10 and 12.1. Sample APA Style papers are included at the end of this chapter; additional sample papers are available on the APA Style website (https://apastyle.apa.org). Required Elements 2.1 Professional Paper Required Elements Paper elements appear in various combinations depending on the nature of the work. Manuscripts submitted for publication (see Sections 1.1–1.9) should always include a title page (see Section 2.3), which contains the paper title (see Section 2.4), author names and affiliations (see Sections 2.5–2.6), and author note (see Section 2.7); page headers with a running head and page numbers (see Sections 2.8 and 2.18); an abstract (see Section 2.9); text (see Section 2.11); and a reference list (see Section 2.12). Papers may also include keywords (see Section 2.10), footnotes (see Section 2.13), tables (see Chapter 7), figures (see Chapter 7), appendices (see Section 2.14), and/or supplemental materials (see Section 2.15). Authors seeking publication should refer to the journal’s instructions for authors or manuscript submission guidelines for any requirements that are different from or in addition to those specified by APA Style. 2.2 Student Paper Required Elements Student papers (e.g., narrative essays, reaction or response papers, literature review papers; see Section 1.10) usually include, at minimum, a title page (see Sections 2.3–2.6), page numbers (see Section 2.18), text (see Section 2.11), and a reference list (see Section 2.12). They may also have tables (see Chapter 7), figures (see Chapter 7), and/or appendices (see Section 2.14). Student papers do not typically include a running head, an author note, or an abstract, unless specifically requested by the instructor or institution. Student papers have a student-specific version of the title page (see Section 2.3). Paper Elements 2.3 Title Page A title page is required for all APA Style papers. There are both professional and student versions of the title page. Professional Title Page. The professional title page (see Figure 2.1) includes the following elements: title of the paper (see Section 2.4), name of each author of the paper (the byline; see Section 1.22 for determining the order of authorship and Section 2.5 for formatting the byline), affiliation for each author (see Section 2.6), author note (see Section 2.7), running head (also included on all pages; see Section 2.8), and page number (also included on all pages; see Section 2.18). Figure 2.1 Sample Professional Title Page Full Description. See the section indicated for each element for formatting instructions. Student Title Page. Students should follow the guidelines of their instructor or institution when determining which title page format is most appropriate to use. If not instructed otherwise, students should include the following elements on the title page (see Figure 2.2): title of the paper (see Section 2.4); name of each author of the paper (the byline; see Section 1.22 for determining the order of authorship and Section 2.5 for formatting the byline); affiliation for each author, typically the university attended (including the name of any department or division; see Section 2.6); course number and name for which the paper is being submitted (use the format shown on institutional materials; e.g., PSY204, PSYC 4301, NURS 303); instructor name (check with the instructor for the preferred form; e.g., Dr. Hülya F. Akış; Professor Levin; Kwame Osei, PhD; Mariam Sherzai, RN); assignment due date, written in the month, date, and year format used in your country (usually November 4, 2020, or 4 November 2020; we recommend spelling out the month, although 2020-11-04 is the format in countries that use the international standard date); and page number (also included on all pages; see Section 2.18). Figure 2.2 Sample Student Title Page Full Description. See the sections for the title, byline, affiliation, and page numbers for formatting instructions for these elements. Place the course number and name, instructor name, and assignment due date on separate lines, centered and in that order, below the affiliation (see Section 2.21 for more on line spacing). 2.4 Title The title should summarize the main idea of the paper simply and, if possible, in a way that is engaging for readers. For research papers, it should be a concise statement of the main topic of the research and should identify the variables or theoretical issues under investigation and the relationship between them. Although there is no prescribed limit for title length in APA Style, authors are encouraged to keep their titles focused and succinct. Research has shown an association between simple, concise titles and higher numbers of article downloads and citations (Hallock & Dillner, 2016; Jamali & Nikzad, 2011). Include essential terms in the title to enhance readers’ ability to find your work during a search and to aid abstracting and indexing in databases if the work is published. Avoid words that serve no purpose; they increase the title length and can mislead indexers. For example, the words “method” and “results” do not normally appear in a title, nor should such phrases as “a study of” or “an experimental investigation of.” Occasionally terms such as “research synthesis,” “meta-analysis,” or “fMRI study” convey important information for potential readers and are included in the title. Avoid using abbreviations in a title; spelling out all terms helps ensure accurate, complete indexing of the article and allows readers to more readily comprehend its meaning. When an animal name—for example, “Rat”—is in the title, also include the scientific name in italics and parentheses—(Rattus norvegicus). See Table 2.1 for examples of effective versus ineffective paper titles. Table 2.1 Effective and Ineffective Paper Titles Effective title Ineffective title Rationale Effect of Depression on the Decision to Join a Clinical Trial A Study of the Effect of Depression on the Decision to Join a Clinical Trial More direct: Unnecessary words have been cut. Why and When Hierarchy Impacts Team Effectiveness: A Meta-Analytic Integration Hierarchy and Team Effectiveness More precise: The relationship between variables has been clarified; the type of research (meta-analysis) has been specified. Closing Your Eyes to Follow Your Heart: Avoiding Information to Protect a Strong Intuitive Preference Closing Your Eyes to Follow Your Heart More informative: A creative title has been balanced with a substantive subtitle. Format. The paper title should be in title case (see Section 6.17), bold, centered, and positioned in the upper half of the title page (e.g., three or four lines down from the top margin of the page). Move the title up to accommodate a longer author note if necessary. If the title is longer than one line, the main title and the subtitle can be separated on double-spaced lines if desired. Note that the paper title also appears at the top of the first page of text (see Sections 2.11 and 2.28). 2.5 Author Name (Byline) Every paper includes the name of the author or authors—the byline. The preferred form of an author’s name is first name, middle initial(s), and last name; this form reduces the likelihood of mistaken identity (e.g., that authors with the same first and last names are the same person). To assist researchers and librarians, use the same form of your name for publication throughout your career when possible; for example, do not use a middle initial on one paper and omit the initial on a different paper. Determining whether, for example, Marisol G. Rodríguez is the same person as M. G. Rodríguez can be difficult, particularly when citations span years and institutional affiliations change. If you change your name during your career, present your new name in a consistent form as well. Omit all professional titles (e.g., Dr., Professor) and academic degrees or licenses (e.g., PhD, EdD, MD, MA, RN, MSW, LCSW) from the byline. Format. Write the byline on the title page after the paper title. Include one blank double-spaced line between the paper title and the byline. Follow these guidelines for byline formatting: If the paper has one author, write the author name centered and in standard (i.e., nonbold, nonitalic) font. If the paper has multiple authors, order the names of the authors according to their contributions. Write all names on the same line (flowing onto additional lines if needed), centered, and in standard font. For two authors, separate the names with the word “and”; for three or more authors, separate the names with commas and include “and” before the final author’s name. For names with suffixes, separate the suffix from the rest of the name with a space, not a comma (e.g., Roland J. Thorpe Jr.). See Table 2.2 for examples of how to set up author bylines and affiliations. Table 2.2 Examples of Author Bylines and Affiliations Variation Example One author, one affiliation Maggie C. Leonard Department of Psychology, George Mason University One author, two affiliations Andrew K. Jones-Willoughby School of Psychology, University of Sydney Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, American University One author, no institutional affiliation Isabel de Vries Rochester, New York, United States Two authors, shared affiliation Mackenzie J. Clement and Talia R. Cummings College of Nursing, Michigan State University Two authors, different affiliations Wilhelm T. Weber1 and Latasha P. Jackson2 1 Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany 2 College of Education, University of Georgia Three or more authors, shared affiliation Madina Wahab, DeAndre L. Washington Jr., and Julian H. Lee School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley Three or more authors, different affiliations Savannah C. St. John1, Fen-Lei Chang2, 3, and Carlos O. Vásquez III1 1 Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey, United States 2 MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, Cambridge, England 3 Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge 2.6 Author Affiliation The affiliation identifies where the author(s) worked (or studied, in the case of student authors) when the work was conducted, which is usually a university or other institution. Include a dual affiliation only if two institutions contributed substantial support to the study. Include no more than two affiliations per author. If the affiliation has changed since the work was completed, give the current affiliation in the author note (see Section 2.7). Abide by these guidelines when presenting affiliations: Academic affiliations (e.g., universities, teaching hospitals affiliated with a university) should include the name of any department or division and the name of the institution, separated by a comma. It is not necessary to include the location of the institution unless the location is part of the institution’s name. Nonacademic institutional affiliations (e.g., hospitals not affiliated with a university, independent laboratories, other organizations) should include the name of any department or division, the name of the institution, and the location of the institution, separated by commas. Authors who are in private practice or who have no institutional affiliation should include their location. When providing a location (as for nonacademic institutions and private practices), give the city; state, province, or territory as applicable; and country. Spell out state, province, and territory names rather than abbreviating them. Format. The format of the affiliation depends on the number of authors and whether different authors have different affiliations, as follows. Begin the affiliation(s) on a new line after the byline. Place different affiliations on their own lines. Do not add blank lines between affiliations or between the byline and the first affiliation. See Table 2.2 for examples of how to set up author bylines and affiliations. All Authors Share One Affiliation. If the paper has one author with one affiliation, or if all authors of a multiauthored paper share one affiliation, include the affiliation centered and in standard font on its own line, beginning one line below the byline. Do not include a superscript numeral. All Authors Share Two Affiliations. If the paper has one author with two affiliations, or if all authors of a multiauthored paper share the same two affiliations, include each affiliation centered and in standard font on its own line, beginning one line below the byline. Do not include superscript numerals. Multiple Authors With Different Affiliations. If the paper has two or more authors with different affiliations (even if only the department is different within the same university), use superscript Arabic numerals to connect author names to the appropriate affiliation(s). List authors’ affiliations in the order the authors appear in the byline; for example, for a paper with two authors who have different affiliations, list the affiliation of the first author first, followed by the affiliation of the second author, with each affiliation centered and in standard font on its own line, beginning one line below the byline. Place a superscript numeral 1 after the first author’s surname, without a space between the name and the numeral (when a paper has three or more authors and thus commas appear after author names, put the numeral after the surname and before the comma). Then put a corresponding superscript numeral 1 before the corresponding affiliation (with a space between the numeral and the start of the affiliation). Repeat this process for the second author using the numeral 2 (and so on when a paper has more authors). If some, but not all, authors share an affiliation, list the affiliation once and reuse the superscript numeral in the byline. Identify authors with two affiliations in the byline by separating the appropriate superscript numerals with a superscript comma and space. If the paper has only one author, or if there are multiple authors but all authors share the same one or two affiliations, then superscript numerals are not used. Group Authors. For group authors (e.g., task forces, working groups, organizations), superscript numerals are not usually used because the group is essentially its own affiliation. 2.7 Author Note An author note provides additional information about authors, study registration, data sharing, disclaimers or statements regarding conflicts of interest, and help or funding that supported the research. It also provides a point of contact for interested readers. Student papers do not typically include an author note. Arrange the author note into separate paragraphs; if a paragraph is not applicable to your manuscript, omit it from the author note. Also, the following requirements apply for manuscripts submitted to APA journals; other publishers may have different requirements (e.g., some journals require authors to provide disclosures and acknowledgments on a separate page at the end of the manuscript rather than in the author note). First Paragraph: ORCID iDs. Authors may include their ORCID identification number (iD), if they have one (see the ORCID website at https://orcid.org/ for more information). ORCID iDs help authors who have changed names or who share the same name ensure publications are correctly attributed to them. Provide the author’s name, the ORCID iD symbol, and the full URL for the ORCID iD, listing each author on a separate, indented line. The iD symbol should be included in the link, per ORCID’s recommendation. Josiah S. Carberry https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1825-0097 Sofia Maria Hernandez Garcia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5727-2427 Include only the names of authors who have ORCID iDs. If no authors have ORCID iDs, omit this paragraph. Second Paragraph: Changes of Affiliation. Identify any changes in author affiliation subsequent to the time of the study. Use the following wording: “[Author’s name] is now at [affiliation].” This paragraph may also be used to acknowledge the death of an author. Third Paragraph: Disclosures and Acknowledgments. If the disclosures and acknowledgments are short, combine them into one paragraph; if they are long, separate them into multiple paragraphs. Study Registration. If the study was registered, provide the registry name and document entry number in the author note. Clinical trials and meta-analyses are often registered. For example, write “This study was registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (Identifier NCT998877).” For more information on study registration information as it pertains to JARS, see Section 3.9. Open Practices and Data Sharing. If the study data and/or materials are to be shared openly as part of the publication of the article (see also Section 1.14), acknowledge this in the author note. Cite the data set in the author note, and include the reference for the data set in the reference list (see Section 10.9). Disclosure of Related Reports and Conflicts of Interest. If the article is based on data used in a previously published report (e.g., a longitudinal study), doctoral dissertation, or conference presentation, disclose this information, and include an in-text citation. For example, write “This article is based on data published in Pulaski (2017)” or “This article is based on the dissertation completed by Graham (2018)” and include an entry for Pulaski (2017) or Graham (2018) in the reference list. Also acknowledge the publication of related reports (e.g., reports on the same data). In addition, indicate in this paragraph whether any author has a possible or perceived conflict of interest (e.g., ownership of stock in a company that manufactures a drug used in the study); if not, state that no conflict of interest exists. If your employer or granting organization requires a disclaimer stating, for example, that the research reported does not reflect the views of that organization, include such a statement in this paragraph and follow the format or wording prescribed by that organization. Acknowledgments of Financial Support and Other Assistance. Complete and accurate funding information for your article should be included in the author note. Report the names of all funding organizations; all grant, fellowship, or award numbers and/or names; the names of the funding recipients; and the names of principal investigators (if any) for the funded research. Do not precede grant numbers by “No.” or “#” (e.g., write “We received funding from Grant A-123 from the National Science Foundation” or “National Science Foundation Grant A-123 funded this work,” not “Grant No. A-123” or “Grant #A-123”). Next, acknowledge colleagues who assisted in conducting the study or critiquing the manuscript but who are not authors of the work. Study participants may be acknowledged for exceptional contributions if desired. Then provide any thanks for personal assistance, such as in manuscript preparation or copyediting. End this paragraph by explaining any special agreements concerning authorship, such as if authors contributed equally to the study. Do not acknowledge the people routinely involved in the review and acceptance of manuscripts in this paragraph, such as peer reviewers, editors, associate editors, and consulting editors of the journal to which you are submitting the manuscript. If you would like to acknowledge a specific idea raised by a reviewer or journal editor, do so in a footnote in the text where the idea is discussed. Fourth Paragraph: Contact Information. The corresponding author answers queries regarding the work after it is published and ensures that any data are retained for the appropriate amount of time. Any author can serve as the corresponding author. Provide the full name and complete mailing address for the corresponding author, with the name and address separated by a comma and a period after the address. Then provide the corresponding author’s email address, with no period after it. Use the following format: Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to [author’s name], [complete mailing address]. Email: [email protected] Format. Place the author note in the bottom half of the title page, below the title, byline, and affiliation. Leave at least one blank line between the affiliation and the author note label. Center the label “Author Note” (in bold). Indent each paragraph of the author note and align paragraphs to the left. Although the paragraphs of the author note are labeled in this section to help explain them, do not label the paragraphs of the author note in your paper. See Figure 2.3 for a sample author note. Figure 2.3 Sample Author Note Full Description. 2.8 Running Head The running head is an abbreviated version of the paper title that appears at the top of every page to identify it for readers, especially readers of a print copy of the published article. Running heads are required only for manuscripts being submitted for publication. Running heads are not required for student papers unless the instructor or institution requests them; thus, the header for a student paper includes only the page number. Authors should supply the running head rather than leave this task to the publisher because authors are best able to select the most important words for an abbreviated title. The running head does not have to consist of the same words in the same order as the title; rather, the idea of the title should be conveyed in a shortened form. For example, an article titled “Restless Nights: Sleep Latency Increases and Sleep Quality Decreases With Caffeine Intake” can have a running head of “CAFFEINE-INDUCED REDUCTIONS IN SLEEP EFFICIENCY.” The running head should contain a maximum of 50 characters, counting letters, punctuation, and spaces between words as characters. If the title is already 50 characters or fewer, the full title can be used as the running head. Avoid using abbreviations in the running head; however, the ampersand symbol (&) may be used rather than “and” if desired. Format. Write the running head in the page header, flush left, in all-capital letters, across from the right-aligned page number. Use the same running head on every page, including the title page; do not include the label “Running head” to identify the running head on any page (see the sample papers at the end of this chapter). 2.9 Abstract An abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the paper. Authors writing for publication should follow the reporting standards for abstracts presented in Section 3.3. Most scholarly journals require an abstract. For any journal-specific instructions, consult the instructions for authors or the webpage of the journal to which you plan to submit your article. For example, some journals publish a public significance statement, which summarizes the significance of the study for a general audience, along with the abstract. An abstract is not usually required for student papers unless requested by the instructor or institution. Format. Abstracts typically are limited to no more than 250 words. If you are submitting a work for publication, check the journal’s instructions for authors for abstract length and formatting requirements, which may be different from those of APA journals. Place the abstract on its own page after the title page (i.e., page 2). Write the section label “Abstract” in bold title case, centered at the top of the page, and place the abstract below the label. Abstracts may appear in paragraph or structured format. Abstracts in paragraph format are written as a single paragraph without indentation of the first line. Structured abstracts are also written as a single paragraph without indentation, and labels are inserted to identify various sections (e.g., Objective, Method, Results, Conclusions); use the labels and formatting prescribed by the journal to which you are submitting your manuscript (e.g., APA journals use bold italic for the labels). 2.10 Keywords Keywords are words, phrases, or acronyms that describe the most important aspects of your paper. They are used for indexing in databases and help readers find your work during a search. For manuscripts being submitted to APA journals, provide three to five keywords describing the content. Keywords are not required for student papers unless requested by the instructor or institution. Format. Write the label “Keywords:” (in italic) one line below the abstract, indented 0.5 in. like a regular paragraph, followed by the keywords in lowercase (but capitalize proper nouns; see Section 6.14), separated by commas. The keywords can be listed in any order. Do not use a period or other punctuation after the last keyword (see the sample professional paper at the end of this chapter). If the keywords run onto a second line, the second line is not indented. 2.11 Text (Body) The text, or body of the paper, contains the authors’ main contribution to the literature. Both professional and student authors should follow the content and formatting guidelines described in this chapter and the citation principles described in Chapters 8 and 9; researchers preparing manuscripts for publication should also review the reporting standards for quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods research, as appropriate, described in Chapter 3. For guidance on the contents of various types of papers, see Sections 1.1 to 1.10. The text can be organized in many ways, and the organization generally depends on the paper type (see also Sections 1.1–1.10). Most papers include an introduction that addresses the importance of the work, contextualizes the work within the existing literature, and states the aims of the work. Beyond the introduction, the paper should include paragraphs or sections explaining the main premises of the paper. There are many possible formats for the rest of the text; for example, a quantitative research paper typically includes sections called “Method,” “Results,” and “Discussion,” whereas a qualitative research paper may include a section called “Findings” instead of “Results,” or it may have different section headings altogether, depending on the nature of the inquiry. A brief student paper (e.g., a response paper) may not have section headings or may have sections with headings different from those described in this manual. See Section 2.26 for more on organization. Format. The text should start on a new page after the title page and abstract (if the paper includes an abstract). On the first line of the first page of the text, write the title of the paper in title case, bold, and centered. The text should be left-aligned, double-spaced paragraphs, with the first line of each paragraph indented by one tab key (0.5 in.; see Sections 2.23–2.24). Use headings as needed and appropriate within the text to separate sections and to reflect the organizational structure of the content (see Sections 2.26–2.27). Do not start a new page or add extra line breaks when a new heading occurs; each section of the text should follow the next without a break. 2.12 Reference List The reference list provides a reliable way for readers to locate the works authors cite to acknowledge previous scholarship. References are used to document and substantiate statements made about the literature, just as data in the paper are used to support interpretations and conclusions. The references cited in the paper do not need to be exhaustive but should be sufficient to support the need for your research and to enable readers to place it in the context of previous research and theorizing. For detailed guidance on citing sources in the text and preparing the reference list, consult Chapters 8 and 9, respectively. Format. Start the reference list on a new page after the text and before any tables, figures, and/or appendices. Label the reference list “References,” capitalized, in bold, and centered. Double-space all reference list entries (including between and within references). Use a hanging indent for all references, meaning that the first line of each reference is flush left and subsequent lines are indented by 0.5 in. Use the paragraph-formatting function of your word-processing program to automatically apply the hanging indent. For the order of works in the reference list, see Sections 9.44 to 9.49. 2.13 Footnotes A footnote is a brief note that provides additional content or copyright attribution. Any type of paper may include footnotes. Content Footnotes. Content footnotes supplement or enhance substantive information in the text; they should not include complicated, irrelevant, or nonessential information. Because they can be distracting to readers, content footnotes should be included only if they strengthen the discussion. A content footnote should convey just one idea; if you find yourself creating paragraphs or displaying equations as you are writing a footnote, then the main text or an appendix would likely be a more suitable place to present the information. Another alternative is to indicate in a short footnote that supplemental material is available online (see Section 2.15). In most cases, authors integrate an idea into an article best by presenting important information in the text, not in a footnote. Copyright Attribution. When authors reproduce lengthy quotations and/or test or scale items in the text, a copyright attribution is usually required and should be presented in a footnote. A reproduced table or figure also requires a copyright attribution, but this attribution appears in the table or figure note. Further directions on seeking permission to reproduce material and appropriate wording for the copyright attribution appear in Sections 12.14 to 12.18. Footnote Callout Numbering and Format. Number all footnotes consecutively in the order in which their callouts appear in the text with superscript Arabic numerals. Footnote callouts should be superscripted, like this,1 following any punctuation mark except a dash. A footnote callout that appears with a dash—like this2—always precedes the dash. (The callout falls inside a closing parenthesis if it applies only to matter within the parentheses, like this.3) Do not put a space before the footnote callout in text. Do not place footnote callouts in headings. To refer to a footnote again after it has been called out, identify it in the text by the footnote number (e.g., write “see Footnote 3”); do not repeat the footnote callout or the whole footnote. Place each footnote at the bottom of the page on which it is discussed using the footnote function of your word-processing program (see the sample professional paper at the end of this chapter for examples). Footnotes may alternatively be placed in consecutive order on a separate page after the references; in this case, put the section label “Footnotes” in bold, centered at the top of the page; then write the footnotes themselves as double-spaced indented paragraphs that begin with a superscript footnote number, and put a space between the footnote number and the text that follows. Be sure that the number of the footnote callout corresponds with the number that appears with the footnoted text. 2.14 Appendices Sometimes authors wish to include material that supplements the paper’s content but that would be distracting or inappropriate in the text of the paper. Such material can often be included in an appendix, which is included in the print and electronic versions of the article, or in supplemental materials (see Section 2.15), which are available in an online-only supplemental archive that the publisher maintains. Include an appendix only if it helps readers understand, evaluate, or replicate the study or theoretical argument being made. Be sure that all relevant ethical standards have been followed for materials placed in the appendices, including copyright attribution, accurate representation of data, and protection of human participants (e.g., as the standards apply to images or videos of identifiable people; see Sections 1.18 and 12.17). In general, an appendix is appropriate for materials that are relatively brief and easily presented in print format. Some examples of material suitable for an appendix are (a) lists of stimulus materials (e.g., those used in psycholinguistic research); (b) instructions to participants; (c) tests, scales, or inventories developed for the study being reported; (d) detailed descriptions of complex equipment; (e) detailed demographic descriptions of subpopulations in the study; and (f) other detailed or complex reporting items described in Chapter 3. Student papers may include appendices. Format. Begin each appendix on a separate page after any references, footnotes, tables, and figures. Give each appendix a label and a title. If a paper has one appendix, label it “Appendix”; if a paper has more than one appendix, label each appendix with a capital letter (e.g., “Appendix A,” “Appendix B”) in the order in which it is mentioned in the text. Each appendix should be mentioned (called out) at least once in the text by its label (e.g., “see Appendix A”). The appendix title should describe its contents. Place the appendix label and title in bold and centered on separate lines at the top of the page on which the appendix begins. Use title case (see Section 6.17) for the appendix label and title. The appendix may consist of text, tables, figures, or a combination of these. A text appendix may contain headings and displayed equations. If an appendix contains text, write the paragraphs as regular indented paragraphs the same as in the body of the paper. If a text appendix contains tables, figures, footnotes, and/or displayed equations, give each one a number preceded by the letter of the appendix in which it appears (e.g., Table A1 is the first table within Appendix A or of a sole appendix that is not labeled with a letter; Equation B1 is the first equation within Appendix B; Figure C2 is the second figure of Appendix C). In a sole text appendix, which is not labeled with a letter, precede all table, figure, footnote, and equation numbers with the letter “A” to distinguish them from those of the main text. All tables and figures within a text appendix must be mentioned in the appendix and numbered in order of mention. The tables and figures within a text appendix should be embedded within the text, as described in Section 7.6. If an appendix consists of a table only or a figure only, then the appendix label takes the place of the table or figure number, and the appendix title takes the place of the table or figure title. Thus, if Appendix B is a table-only appendix, the table is referred to as Appendix B rather than as Table B1. Likewise, if Appendix C is a figure-only appendix, the figure is referred to as Appendix C rather than as Figure C1. If multiple tables and/or figures (but no text) are combined into one appendix, label and title the appendix and also number and title the tables and/or figures within the appendix (e.g., Tables D1 and D2 are two tables in Appendix D). 2.15 Supplemental Materials Supplemental materials to a journal article are published online only. These materials enrich readers’ experience and understanding of the content of the article. Online-only publication tends to be appropriate for materials that are more useful when available as downloadable files and for materials that are not easily presented in print. Student papers do not typically include supplemental materials. Some examples of content provided as supplemental materials are video clips, audio clips, or animations lengthy computer code details of mathematical or computational models oversized tables detailed intervention protocols expanded methodology descriptions color figures or other images (see Section 7.26) printable templates and worksheets data files (e.g., generated using SPSS or other software) Supplemental materials should include enough information to make their content interpretable when accompanied by the published text. Also keep in mind accessibility guidelines as they pertain to online or interactive materials to ensure that your files are not only openable but also accessible to all readers.1 Complete data sets should be made available, as appropriate, in online repositories or archives (see Section 10.9 for the reference format) or in supplemental materials. See Sections 1.14 and 1.15 for more on data retention and sharing. Because this content may be useful to the field, APA and many other publishers make it possible to provide supplemental materials to a wide audience by posting them online and placing a link with the published article. These files (like appendices) then become part of the primary journal record and cannot be augmented, altered, or deleted. As such, materials for inclusion in supplemental materials should be submitted in formats that are widely accessible. We recommend checking with the journal publisher for preferred file types and any limitations. Less widely used file formats, including TeX, LaTeX, any client- or server-side scripting (e.g., Java, CGI), executable files, and software applications, might be acceptable but of less use to readers who do not have access to specialized programs. Because of the risk of downloading embedded viruses or malware, many uncommon file types or executable files may be blocked by firewalls and antivirus protection programs, system administrators, or users. Therefore, we do not recommend using such file types unless they are critical to understanding or using your material (e.g., syntax from a methodological paper such as an SPSS macro might be saved with an SPS extension so that it can be used directly by other researchers). Briefly describe any supplemental materials in the text or a footnote to the text as appropriate (see Section 2.13). Most journals make supplemental materials subject to peer review and require that they be submitted with the initial manuscript. Once accepted, the supplemental materials are typically posted with no editing, formatting, or typesetting. For APA journals, a link to the supplemental materials appears in the published article and leads readers to a landing page that includes a bibliographic citation, a link to the published article, and a context statement and link for each supplemental file (see an example of a landing page at https://on.apa.org/2CmDGd6). Other journals may include links in the article that directly open the supplemental files. See Chapter 3 for more details on the role of supplemental materials in JARS. See the APA website (https://on.apa.org/2Qo7OhX) for additional information about supplemental materials. Format 2.16 Importance of Format Use the guidelines in this section to format all APA Style papers. The physical appearance of a paper can enhance or detract from it. A well-prepared paper encourages editors and reviewers, as well as instructors in the case of student work, to view authors’ work as professional. In contrast, mechanical flaws can lead reviewers or instructors to misinterpret content or question the authors’ expertise or attention to detail, and students may receive a lower grade because of formatting errors. For manuscripts being submitted for publication, publishers will use your word-processing file to produce the typeset version of your article, so it is important that you properly format your article. 2.17 Order of Pages Arrange the pages of the paper in the following order: title page (page 1) abstract (start on a new page after the title page) text (start on a new page after the abstract, or after the title page if the paper does not have an abstract) references (start on a new page after the end of the text) footnotes (start on a new page after the references) tables (start each on a new page after the footnotes) figures (start each on a new page after the tables) appendices (start each on a new page after the tables and/or figures) APA Style provides options for the display of footnotes, tables, and figures. Footnotes may appear either in the footer of the page where they are first mentioned (see Section 2.13) or on a separate page after the references. Tables and figures may be embedded within the text after they have been mentioned, or each table and figure can be displayed on a separate page after the footnotes (or after the references if there is no footnotes page; see Section 7.6). 2.18 Page Header All papers should contain the page number, flush right, in the header of every page. Use the automatic page-numbering function of your word-processing pro-gram to insert page numbers in the top right corner; do not type page numbers manually. The title page is page number 1. Manuscripts being submitted for publication should contain the running head (see Section 2.8) in the page header in addition to the page number. When both elements appear, the running head should be flush left and the page number should be flush right. Student papers need only the page number in the page header, unless the instructor or institution also requires a running head. 2.19 Font APA Style papers should be written in a font that is accessible to all users. Historically, sans serif fonts have been preferred for online works and serif fonts for print works; however, modern screen resolutions can typically accommodate either type of font, and people who use assistive technologies can adjust font settings to their preferences. Thus, a variety of font choices are permitted in APA Style; also check with your publisher, instructor, or institution for any requirements regarding font. Use the same font throughout the text of the paper. Options include a sans serif font such as 11-point Calibri, 11-point Arial, or 10-point Lucida Sans Unicode or a serif font such as 12-point Times New Roman, 11-point Georgia, or normal (10-point) Computer Modern (the latter is the default font for LaTeX). We recommend these fonts because they are legible and widely available and because they include special characters such as math symbols and Greek letters. An APA Style paper may contain other fonts or font sizes under the following circumstances: Within figure images, use a sans serif font with a type size between 8 and 14 points. When presenting computer code, use a monospace font, such as 10-point Lucida Console or 10-point Courier New. When presenting a footnote in a page footer, the default footnote settings of your word-processing program are acceptable (e.g., 10-point font with single line spacing). Because different fonts take up different amounts of space on the page, we recommend using word count rather than page count to gauge paper length (see Section 2.25). See the APA Style website (https://apastyle.apa.org) for further discussion of font and accessible typography. 2.20 Special Characters Special characters are accented letters and other diacritical marks, Greek letters, math signs, and symbols. Type special characters using the special character functions of your word-processing program or a plug-in such as MathType. Characters that are not available should be presented as images. For more information on Greek letters and mathematical symbols, see Sections 6.44 and 6.45. 2.21 Line Spacing Double-space the entire paper, including the title page, abstract, text, headings, block quotations, reference list, table and figure notes, and appendices, with the following exceptions: title page: Elements of the title page are double-spaced, and an additional double-spaced blank line appears between the title and byline. At least one double-spaced blank line also appears between the final affiliation and any author note (see Figure 2.1). table body and figure image: The table body (cells) and words within the image part of a figure may be single-spaced, one-and-a-half-spaced, or double-spaced, depending on what format creates the most effective presentation of the data. If text appears on the same page as a table or figure, insert a double-spaced blank line between the text and the table or figure (for more information on placement of tables and figures, see Section 7.6). footnotes: Footnotes that appear at the bottom of the page on which they are called out should be single-spaced and formatted with the default settings of your word-processing program. Footnotes that appear on their own page after the references should be formatted like regular paragraphs of text—that is, indented and double-spaced. displayed equations: It is permissible to apply triple- or quadruple-spacing in special circumstances, such as before and after a displayed equation. It is not necessary to add blank lines before or after headings, even if a heading falls at the end of a page. Do not add extra spacing between paragraphs. 2.22 Margins Use 1-in. (2.54-cm) margins on all sides (top, bottom, left, and right) of the page. This is the default page margin in most word-processing programs. Dissertations and theses may have different requirements if they are to be bound (e.g., 1.5-in. left margins). 2.23 Paragraph Alignment Align the text to the left and leave the right margin uneven (“ragged”). Do not use full justification, which adjusts the spacing between words to make all lines the same length (flush with the margins). Do not manually divide words at the end of a line, and do not use the hyphenation function to break words at the ends of lines. Do not manually insert line breaks into long DOIs or URLs; however, breaks in DOIs or URLs applied automatically by a word-processing program are permissible. 2.24 Paragraph Indentation Indent the first line of every paragraph 0.5 in. For consistency, use the tab key or the automatic paragraph-formatting function of your word-processing program. The default settings in most word-processing programs are acceptable. The remaining lines of the paragraph should be left-aligned. Exceptions to these paragraph indentation requirements are as follows: For professional papers, the title (in bold), byline, and affiliations on the title page should be centered (see Figure 2.1). For student papers, the title (in bold), byline, affiliations, course number and name, instructor, and assignment date should be centered (see Figure 2.2). Section labels should be centered (and bold; see Section 2.28). The first line of the abstract should be flush left (not indented; see Section 2.9). The entirety of a block quotation should be indented from the left margin 0.5 in. If the block quotation spans more than one paragraph, the first line of the second and any subsequent paragraphs of the block quotation should be indented another 0.5 in., such that those first lines are indented a total of 1 in. (see Section 8.27). Level 1 headings should be centered (and in bold), and Level 2 and 3 headings should be left-aligned (and in bold or bold italic, respectively; see Section 2.27). Table and figure numbers (Sections 7.10 and 7.24, respectively), titles (Sections 7.11 and 7.25), and notes (Sections 7.14 and 7.28) should be flush left. Reference list entries should have a hanging indent of 0.5 in. (see Section 2.12). Appendix labels and titles should be centered (and bold; see Section 2.14). 2.25 Paper Length Journals differ in the average length of articles they publish; consult the journal’s instructions for authors to determine the appropriate length for the type of article you are submitting. The length for student papers is determined by the assignment guidelines. If a paper exceeds the target length, shorten it by stating points clearly and directly, confining discussion to the specific problem under investigation, deleting or combining data displays, eliminating repetition across sections, and writing in the active voice. For guidance on improving sentence and paragraph length, see Section 4.6. A professional paper that is still too long may need to be divided into two or more papers, each with a more specific focus (however, see Section 1.16 on piecemeal publication). Paper length targets may be specified by either page count or word count; we recommend word count because different fonts are slightly different sizes and may produce variations in the number of pages. In general, to determine the page count, count every page, including the title page and reference list. Likewise, to determine word count, count every word from beginning to end, including all in-text citations, reference entries, tables, figures (other than words in a figure image, which may not be captured by word count), and appendices. The default settings of the word-count function of your word-processing program are acceptable for determining the word count. Do not count text in the page header (i.e., running head and/or page numbers) or manually add any words within figure images to the word count (these words are generally not included in the automatic word count in programs such as Microsoft Word, Academic Writer, or Google Docs). If the journal to which you are submitting has different specifications for determining the page count or word count, follow the instructions of the journal. Organization 2.26 Principles of Organization In scholarly writing, sound organizational structure is the key to clear, precise, and logical communication. Before beginning to write, consider the best paper length and structure for your findings. Ordering your thoughts logically at both sentence and paragraph levels will also strengthen the impact of your writing. Headings in a document identify the topic or purpose of the content within each section. Headings help readers become familiar with how a paper’s content is organized, allowing them to easily find the information they seek. Headings should be succinct yet long enough to describe the content; see the sample papers at the end of this chapter for examples of effective headings. Concise headings help readers anticipate key points and track the development of your argument. Headings that are well formatted and clearly worded aid both visual and nonvisual readers of all abilities. Headings must be clearly distinguishable from the text. For a deeper discussion of how to effectively create and use headings (and related text) for all users (including those using assistive technologies), visit the APA Style website (https://apastyle.apa.org). There are five possible levels of heading in APA Style (see Section 2.27), and all topics of equal importance should have the same level of heading. For example, in a multiexperiment paper, the headings for the Method and Results sections for Experiment 1 should be the same level as the headings for the Method and Results sections for Experiment 2, with parallel wording. In a single-experiment paper, the Method, Results, and Discussion sections should all have the same heading level. Avoid having only one subsection heading within a section, just like in an outline; use at least two subsection headings within a section, or use none (e.g., in an outline, a section numbered with a Roman numeral would be divided into either a minimum of A and B subsections or no subsections; an A subsection could not stand alone). 2.27 Heading Levels APA Style headings have five possible levels: Level 1 headings are used for top-level or main sections, Level 2 headings are subsections of Level 1, and so on. Regardless of the number of levels of subheading within a section, the heading structure for all sections follows the same top-down progression. Each section starts with the highest level of heading, even if one section has fewer levels of subheading than another section. For example, in a paper with Level 1 Method, Results, and Discussion headings, the Method and Results sections may each have two levels of subheading (Levels 2 and 3), and the Discussion section may have only one level of subheading (Level 2). Thus, there would be three levels of heading for the paper overall. Headings in the Introduction. Because the first paragraphs of a paper are understood to be introductory, the heading “Introduction” is not needed. Do not begin a paper with an “Introduction” heading; the paper title at the top of the first page of text acts as a de facto Level 1 heading (see Figure 2.4). For subsections within the introduction, use Level 2 headings for the first level of subsection, Level 3 for subsections of any Level 2 headings, and so on. After the introduction (regardless of whether it includes headings), use a Level 1 heading for the next main section of the paper (e.g., Method). Figure 2.4 Use of Headings in a Sample Introduction Full Description. Number of Headings in a Paper. The number of levels of heading needed for a paper depends on its length and complexity; three is average. If only one level of heading is needed, use Level 1; if two levels are needed, use Levels 1 and 2; if three levels are needed, use Levels 1, 2, and 3; and so forth. Use only the number of headings necessary to differentiate distinct sections in your paper; short student papers may not require any headings. Do not label headings with numbers or letters.2 Format. Table 2.3 shows how to format each level of heading, Figure 2.4 demonstrates the use of headings in the introduction, and Figure 2.5 lists all the headings used in a sample paper in correct format. The sample papers at the end of this chapter also show the use of headings in context. Table 2.3 Format for the Five Levels of Heading in APA Style Level Format 1 Centered, Bold, Title Case Heading Text begins as a new paragraph. 2 Flush Left, Bold, Title Case Heading Text begins as a new paragraph. 3 Flush Left, Bold Italic, Title Case Heading Text begins as a new paragraph. 4 Indented, Bold, Title Case Heading, Ending With a Period. Text begins on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph. 5 Indented, Bold Italic, Title Case Heading, Ending With a Period. Text begins on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph. Note. In title case, most words are capitalized (see Section 6.17). Figure 2.5 Format of Headings in a Sample Paper Full Description. 2.28 Section Labels Section labels include “Author Note,” “Abstract,” the paper title at the top of the first page of text, “References,” “Footnotes,” and “Appendix A” (and other appendix labels). Place section labels on a separate line at the top of the page on which the section begins, in bold and centered. Sample Papers Sample Professional Paper Sample Professional Paper (continued) Sample Professional Paper (continued) Sample Professional Paper (continued) Sample Professional Paper (continued) Sample Professional Paper (continued) Sample Professional Paper (continued) Sample Professional Paper (continued) Sample Professional Paper (continued) Sample Professional Paper (continued) Sample Professional Paper (continued)
